typically do not have direct involvement. " that is partly because some states, including new york, have not yet approved collaborative practice agreements between physicians and pharmacists. in the buffalo study, for example, physicians were required to review pharmacists ' recommendations and approve all interventions first. completion of the review process and approval occurred in only half of the cases, potentially limiting the overall benefit to the patient. " we know there ' s a long - term clinical and economic benefit to pharmacists working directly with patients and we think that can continue to grow, " says scott v. monte, pharmd, ub clinical assistant professor of pharmacy practice and director of diabetes and cardiovascular research, cpl associates, llc, in buffalo. " pharmacists can help achieve better outcomes if given the chance. " the study was conducted through medsense, part of the pharmacotherapy research initiative, a collaborative effort between lifetime health medical group and ub, to study how pharmacists impact patient care. medsense is one of many program sites that are part of the ub pharmacotherapy research initiative in the school of pharmacy and pharmaceutical sciences, which was established to study how pharmacy medication management can improve the health of patients while cutting costs through patient - centered pharmacotherapy. in addition to slazak and monte, other co - authors on the paper include nicole paolini albanese, pharmd, ub clinical assistant professor ; martin adelman, phd, chief information officer at cpl associates, llc ; gauri rao, a student in the ub school of pharmacy and pharmaceutical sciences, and joseph a. paladino, pharmd, ub professor of pharmacy and director of outcomes research at cpl associates, llc. the program is jointly funded by lifetime health medical group and the ub school of pharmacy and pharmaceutical sciences. the university at buffalo is a premier research - intensive public university, a flagship institution in the state university of new york system and its largest and most comprehensive campus. ub ' s more than 28, 000 students pursue their academic interests through more than 300 undergraduate, graduate and professional degree programs. founded in 1846, the university at buffalo is a member of the association of american universities.


microsoft windows 8 and windows server 2012, the latest operating system and windows makeover, were released in fall 2012. for programmers, many new apis were included in the features added. several of the new features focus on the venerable sockets interface, the basic network paradigm first introduced in berkeley software distribution ( bsd ) unix in the early 1980s. sockets still form the basis for networking on all of the major platforms including windows, mac os, linux, ios, and android. you might want to consider these new windows socket apis for your next project when writing new apps or refactoring older applications for windows. new windows 8 features for sockets programming are found at both ends of the network spectrum : - window runtime ( winrt ) sockets : used for low - level networking in windows store apps. - high - performance sockets : used in writing network servers for desktop apps that need low network latency and the highest performance. - websockets : the other new networking apis are socket - related, at least in name ; these are extensions to the http protocols for the creation of a special web socket that is fully bidirectional once the connection is established, either endpoint can initiate or send packets. herein i provide a brief introduction to these new networking socket features available on windows 8 and windows server 2012. the focus will be more on winrt sockets, since these will appeal to a larger set of developers. sockets and windows the original berkeley socket implementation developed in 1983 was very simple, based on the design of unix file i / o. a network socket became a special type of file handle. bsd networking functions were basic : socket ( open or create ), connect ( for tcp ), close. several types of sockets were supported including tcp ( stream ), udp ( datagram ), and later unix domain sockets. for tcp servers and applications receiving udp packets, the listen functions would bind to a network address and listen for incoming packets. for use with udp, there were the recvfrom functions. a few other functions were provided for getting and setting socket options, getting a host by name or address ; and there were the poll functions to check on the state of a socket. with the adoption of windows sockets ( winsock ) in 1993, microsoft added support for sockets to windows. the initial winsock 1. 1 api was relatively modest with calls similar to bsd unix plus a number of windows - specific extension functions. over time, the winsock api has grown larger and


in 1993, microsoft added support for sockets to windows. the initial winsock 1. 1 api was relatively modest with calls similar to bsd unix plus a number of windows - specific extension functions. over time, the winsock api has grown larger and larger. the current reference documentation for windows sockets for desktop apps lists more than 140 functions and 80 structures along with several hundred ioctls and socket options. this doesn ' t include functions used by the winsock service provider interface ( spi ). the existing winsock api has become very large, complex, and challenging for new users. the new socket apis introduced with windows 8 / windows server 2012 provide much simpler, stripped - down apis for sockets programming closer to the spirit of the original bsd sockets. windows 8 : two for the money windows 8 and windows server 2012 introduce a new graphical user interface ( gui ) that represents a major redesign of the windows user experience. the changes are targeted primarily for touch - enabled devices, with tiles used to represent apps and new system navigation features ( charms, settings, etc. ). on traditional intel / amd x86 / x64 hardware, windows 8 can be thought of as an operating system for two different types of apps : - windows store apps : new apps that run on windows 8 only. these apps are limited to using the winrt apis and a few other apis ( some classes from the. net framework along with a few desktop functions ) that are exposed for use by windows store apps. - windows desktop apps : traditional windows apps that provide developers access to all of the windows apis except the winrt apis ( unless the winrt class has a special dualapipartitionattribute ). these represent the traditional applications that ran on windows 7 and older versions of the os. if you use new windows 8 desktop apis, then the app will only be able to run on windows 8 and windows server 2012 or later versions. on arm - based hardware ( in the original microsoft surface tablet, for example ), windows 8 has been stripped down so only windows store apps can be installed and used. windows 8 apps using winrt are installed by purchasing and downloading them from the microsoft app store ( many apps are free ). windows and app upgrades are also downloaded and installed from the microsoft store. sideloading apps on these winrt - based devices is mostly restricted, except when visual studio 2012 is installed. sideloading allows developers to test apps they write before submitting them for publication on the windows app store


downloaded and installed from the microsoft store. sideloading apps on these winrt - based devices is mostly restricted, except when visual studio 2012 is installed. sideloading allows developers to test apps they write before submitting them for publication on the windows app store. ( note : the windows app store is not the microsoft. com online store that sells versions of windows, office, other microsoft software, and some hardware. there is also a separate windows phone app store for purchasing and downloading apps for windows phones. ) windows runtime and sockets the winrt apis used by windows store apps provide a set of managed apis that are designed for several different languages and presentation schemes : - c # / vb. net with xaml : designed for existing c # / vb. net developers and others using managed code ( java developers ). - c + + with xaml : designed for core c + + desktop and com developers as well as others using similar languages ( objective - c developers ). developers are free to choose whatever language and presentation they prefer. in fact, the same app can be written in any of these languages. microsoft provides downloadable samples for windows store apps, many of which are implemented in multiple languages for illustration. for example, the downloadable streamsocket sample and the datagramsocket sample are implemented in all three language combinations.


drunk drivers kill. they kill themselves, but more often than not, they kill innocent people, sometimes family, friends, other drivers and their passengers, pedestrians and two - wheeled riders as well. the death toll across canada each year is slightly more than 1, 000 persons killed by drinking drivers. this is a terrible tragedy, but a significant reduction from the much higher numbers recorded in the preceding decades. groups such as madd ( mothers against drunk driving ) have had an enormous impact on both the public - and private - sector attitudes toward impaired driving. employers, licensed establishments, clubs, neighbours, friends and even family have a duty to make accommodations to prevent the incidence of impaired driving. governments have increased penalties and administrative prohibitions to deter drunk driving in most every jurisdiction in our country. insurance companies, schools, and many other groups have targeted programs to reduce the occurrence of drunk driving. individuals planning a social event now must, by law, make arrangements to get people home safely. but though there have been some reductions in drinking driver crash rates, the problem persists. enforcement and punishment are tools used to combat the carnage on our roads caused by drunk drivers. ninety per cent of the people convicted of driving while intoxicated in the u. s. are repeat offenders. ten per cent of the population who consume alcohol in the u. s. consume 50 per cent of the alcohol. the same stats likely apply to canada. it is time to target repeat offenders with the strength of purpose demonstrated by madd. when society deems certain bad behaviour to be socially unacceptable, bad behaviour is usually discontinued. a good example of this socially undesirable behaviour, which came to an abrupt end, is the use of the spittoon. today, no one i know would look for a spittoon to use while at the dinner table - - not because there is a law which forbids the use of a spittoon, but rather since the use of the spittoon has long since become socially unacceptable. socially, there have been gains made in the last few decades to make drinking and driving unacceptable. almost everyone understands the problem and wants to be part of the solution. one social circumstance that i witnessed a few years ago had a profound effect on four families. four fathers had agreed to take turns taking their hockey - playing offspring, all of elementary school age, to practice very early each saturday morning. all went well until one of the parents was convicted of impaired driving and given a three - month licence suspension. the convicted driver offered to make


turns taking their hockey - playing offspring, all of elementary school age, to practice very early each saturday morning. all went well until one of the parents was convicted of impaired driving and given a three - month licence suspension. the convicted driver offered to make up for his absence once the suspension was finished. the offer was declined - - the other parents no longer trusted their friend to drive their kids. the social stigma of an impaired driving conviction had a lasting effect on the relationship of the four men and their families. many convicted drivers do not abstain from drinking and driving because of the law. they change their behaviour because of social pressure. bad behaviour can go the way of the spittoon. peer pressure is an extremely powerful weapon against drinking drivers. it is the kind of pressure we should all be willing to exert in order to end the senseless slaughter on our roads. steve wallace is a longtime teacher and owner of the wallace driving scool in victoria. there i am, in my garage, standing face to fascia with the 2011 porsche carrera gts. i ' m gazing intently into its sultry bi - xenon headlights. it keenly... oh come on, santa. surprise the big boy with a big toy this christmas. how about a porsche boxster? fun to drive takes on new meaning when you slide behind... porsche used last week ' s opening of the los angeles auto show to take the wraps off its second - generation boxster roadster and its coupe sibling, the...


there is another reason for men to quit smoking — it can increase risk of death due to prostate cancer by 61 %. in a study made at the harvard university, data showed that men who smoke up their chances of dying of prostate cancer and recurrence of prostate cancer. in a feature from the voice of america, researcher stacy kenfield said “ we looked at the amounts that current smokers were smoking, and we did see an increase in prostate cancer mortality if you smoked more cigarettes. ” every year, there are 900, 000 prostate cancer cases all over the world, and about a quarter of this figure eventually die of the disease. the study also relates prostate cancer and former smokers. those who quit for at least ten years before they were diagnosed to have the illness were performing as people who never smoked did. kenfield suggests the probable reasons why smokers are more likely to die of this type of cancer. she says the cancer - causing chemicals in cigarettes are to blame as well as hormones that are disrupted by smoking. “ studies have found an association between current smoking and increased testosterone, which is known to stimulate prostate cancer growth. and other studies have shown that nicotine induces angiogenesis, or the formation of new blood vessels. ” it was also observed that smokers have a more dangerous form of prostate cancer than those who do not smoke. tags : prostate cancer, smoking cancer, smoking prostate cancer, smoking risks


technological development in teaching and learning 23 feb 2012 10 : 49 the second day of the ngl conference opened with a presentation by charles crook, professor at the university of nottingham, and docent in information and communications technology. professor charles crook, university of nottingham. he spoke about how the latest technology creates new situations, which in turn lead to new experiences in terms of student learning. the interpersonal dynamic in teaching and learning has changed. in his presentations, charles crook talked about his work examining what actually happens with learning when people use technology and learn alongside others instead of individually. he makes comparisons with earlier ideas within pedagogy, referring to piaget and vygotsky. " there exists an undeniable tension between teaching and learning and technology, " he states. charles crook mentions two symptoms of e - learning at institutes of education. one is the many students per teacher and the other is a changed pedagogy. what does it mean to be educated? he has looked at quality in communication and interaction between students in their work. he has also examined the significance of place and students ' study environment. the presentation provided an interesting insight into the research that requires a position alongside the technological developments within the world of teaching. it is important to establish in what ways social situations create new grounds for teaching and learning. translation based on the original text by annette skogsjo. photo by annette skogsjo. ngl pa hogskolan dalarna next generation learning conference


the winter months have been highly variable in terms of precipitation and temperature. one week would bring a winter thaw ; the next, a cold spell. minimum daily temperatures were - 45 c or lower in northern ontario. meanwhile, southern ontario had maximum temperatures above 15 c, and new record highs were set january 11 - 13, and again on january 29 and 30. winter precipitation can be summed up as below - average snowpack conditions coupled with above - average rainfall events. large rainfall totals were observed across southwest and central areas. in fact, for a number of locations throughout south central ontario, this was the second - wettest january on record. snowfall amounts for locations in the typical snowbelts off georgian bay were well below average in january and below average in february. habitat conditions are rated as fair in south central and southwest areas due to poor frost seal and moderate snowpack conditions. northern ontario has variable snowpack conditions but wetland levels appear to be good. inland wetlands are still covered in ice and snow, while some great lakes coastal zones have a combination of shallow ice cover or open water. of greatest concern, water levels are very low throughout the great lakes. levels on lakes huron and michigan are the lowest they ’ ve been since record keeping began in 1918. the lakes are about 1 meter below their long - term average, which is drying out emergent coastal wetlands and revealing extended mudflats. lakes superior, erie and ontario are not as low but are still well below average for this time of year. the chief cause of these water level declines is a combination of reduced precipitation throughout their watersheds, as well as increased evaporation due to higher ambient temperatures over the last two decades. the short - term result could be poor migratory habitat for waterfowl using the great lakes for resting and feeding during their migration northward. continue reading > > due to relatively poor ice development throughout the nearshore areas of the great lakes, more waterfowl than normal overwintered in the area.


unprecedented sea - level rise over 20th century pins down future of rising oceans sea - level rises from global warming remain one of the big unknowns in the jostling crowd of climate threats. we know that warming water expands - and so coastal communities will be threatened, as the sea swells in response to rising temperatures. but what about the melting of the land - based ice - sheets of greenland and antarctica? and the disappearing mountain glaciers of the rockies and the andes? how will a warming world spill these frozen waters into the sea, and so back onto our low - lying cities? those questions are something that climate scientists try to model, but which they still find difficult to predict. one way to help knock down that uncertainty is to turn to past records of sea - level fluctuations, to see if they can point to the future. tie these records tightly enough to detailed temperature records, and scientists may get a better grasp on what their models should be showing. that ' s what a research team, including penn state ' s michael mann, have done - looking to north carolina ' s salt marshes for a fresh insight into the sea - level conundrum. the results are published online in today ' s proceedings of the national academy of sciences. the international team of scientists turned to north carolina, in part because this area of the world has been geologically quiet for many millennium. previous sea - level reconstructions are in those parts of the world still on the move - due to tectonic shifts, or where the land is rebounding from the burden of the last ice age. that makes deciphering which sea - level changes are down to temperature fluctuations more difficult. but the marshes off of the us east coast have had a much simpler history - so taking account of the slow resettling of the earth ' s foundations is much easier here. in order to work out the level of the sea over the last two - thousand years, the team looked at thick slices of muddy sediment in the sheltered waters of the pamlico sound. these contain foramnifera, microscopic fossils which can tell scientists the depth of the overlying waters. they were dated accurately using a combination of radiocarbon and pollen sequences. the results tallied well with other reconstructions, and with local and global tidal gauge records. ' the temperature and sea level reconstructions were determined independently from each other, and yet each shows what we would expect based on the other, " said mann. " higher temperatures correspond with higher rates of sea level change and vice versa. " the story


' the temperature and sea level reconstructions were determined independently from each other, and yet each shows what we would expect based on the other, " said mann. " higher temperatures correspond with higher rates of sea level change and vice versa. " the story of sea level changes fitted a reasonably well - known narrative - and emphasized the suddenness of the most recent changes ascribed to man ' s tinkering with the climate. from 100 years bc until 950 ad, sea levels held fairly constant, but with the regional warming of the northern hemisphere, known as the medieval warming period, sea levels rose by 2 inches per century. that rise halted with the onset of the ' little ice age ' when sea - levels fell slightly. but once the industrialization of the 19th century was well underway, the tide turned firmly back to rising sea levels - and dramatically so. over the last century, sea - levels rose at the equivalent of 8 - inches per century - a rate unprecedented in the 2000 year - old record. the paper concludes ".. in north carolina the mean rate of rise was 2. 1 mm / y in response to 20th century warming. this historical rate of rise was greater than any other persistent, century - scale trend during the past 2, 100 years, ' the researchers report. that can be seen as an ominous pointer to the future for low - lying communities. top image credit : © wollwerth imagery


| the salmon - challis national forest covers over 4. 3 million acres in east - central idaho. included within the boundaries of the forest is 1. 3 million acres of the frank church - - river of no return wilderness area, the largest wilderness area in the continental united states. rugged and remote, this country offers adventure, solitude and breathtaking scenery. panoramic vistas highlight travel atop the continental divide ; northwest - southeast trending mountain ranges culminate in the jagged heights of mount borah, idaho ' s tallest peak. the sagebrush slopes of the forest are covered with a colorful display of wildflowers in the spring. for over 8, 000 years, ancestors of the shoshone - bannock people have lived in this region. white settlement began shortly after the lewis and clark expedition traveled through the territory in 1805. initially, fur trappers then miners worked this area. the development of salmon, challis, and their surrounding communities followed and by the 1880 ' s were flourishing. traces of the past can be found throughout the salmon - challis national forest. most roads within the salmon - challis national forest branch off main highways and turn to gravel or dirt surfaces, with many being suitable for sedans, while others require 4 - wheel drive vehicles. recommended travel precautions are to have a full tank of gas and a good spare tire. three popular road tours : the custer motorway loop, the lewis and clark backcountry byway, and the salmon river road, take visitors through the salmon river mountains, to the crest of the continental divide, and along the scenic salmon river. visitors will discover historic mining towns and share their history of mining life. steps can be traced back to the 1805 expedition that changed the west. there is abundant wildlife in the salmon - challis national forest. species include rocky mountain sheep, mountain goat, bald eagles, and river otter, among other wildlife who call the forest home. known as the " white water capital of the world, " the salmon and middle fork rivers offer adventures to provide a lifetime of memories. permit applications for the wild section of the main salmon river and for the middle fork river are available at the north fork and middle fork range districts. nearly 3, 292 miles of trails transverse the salmon - challis national forest, almost half of which are located in the wilderness. hiking season is generally between april and october, with elevations above 7, 500 feet usually clear of snow by july 4. trails range from moderate to difficult. many non - wilderness trails are designated for


, almost half of which are located in the wilderness. hiking season is generally between april and october, with elevations above 7, 500 feet usually clear of snow by july 4. trails range from moderate to difficult. many non - wilderness trails are designated for motorized use. hunting opportunities for deer, elk, bighorn sheep, moose, mountain goat, black bear, and mountain lion exist on much of the salmon - challis national forest. opportunities for hunting chukar, grouse, and goose are also available. most streams and lakes on the salmon - challis national forest are home to trout. steelhead average 4 - 6 pounds, with and occasional one weighing in at 15 - 20 pounds. mackay reservoir, situated on neighboring bureau of land management land, offers good angling for kokanee salmon. winter anglers may try their skills at jimmy smith and williams lake, a 30 - minute drive from salmon. there are a wide variety of opportunities for beginners to advanced downhill skiers and snow boarders within the salmon - challis national forest. williams creek summit offers 22 miles of moderate to difficult cross - country ski trails. copper mountain allows visitors to practice their backcountry ski skills. gentler, groomed trails at chief joseph pass on the idaho - montana border provide fun for the whole family. local snowmobile clubs maintain a number of groomed routes on the ridge road to the stanley - landmark snowmobile trail system. there are over 40 campgrounds within the salmon - challis national forest, ranging from primitive to developed. most campgrounds have at least one wheelchair accessible campsite. | | facilities : salmon - challis national forest provides over 40 campgrounds. most of the campgrounds have restrooms. | best time to visit : salmon - challis national forest is open year round for a variety of recreational opportunities. hiking season is generally between april and october, with elevations above 7, 500 feet usually clear of snow by july 4. cross - country skiing and snowmobiling is available during the winter months. fees : parking, camping, and / or entrance fees may be charged at some of the recreation sites within salmon - challis national forest. accessibility : most campgrounds have at least one wheelchair accessible campsite. williams lake provides wheelchair accessible spots for both fishing and picnicking. rules : recommended travel precautions are to have a full tank of gas and a good spare tire. check the local fishing, hunting, and fire regulations. do not leave campfires unattended. fireworks and explosives are prohibited in the forests


critical analysis of eve merriam ' s onomatopoeia critical analysis of eve merriam ' s “ onomatopoeia ” “ onomatopoeia ” by eve merriam allows the reader to enter a world of reality by expressing sounds with the use of vivid words along with graphic imagery. the poem makes the reader envision an old, leaky faucet, dripping droplets of water. it continues to drip one after another, smacking the bottom of a metal sink. suddenly, after anxiously waiting, the water begins to pour out in full force and flows freely. “ onomatopoeia ” contains several different themes. first, “ a healthy dose of reality is needed for fun ” ( ruby 136 ). absurdity is a very important concept in this poem. it helps brighten up the reading instead of it being dull. the poem is absurd because it goes into full detail to just describe a leaky faucet. for example, it is like writing five pages of instructions for someone just to teach them how to throw a ball. but nevertheless, it is fun without being boring or confusing at all. another theme in this poem is language and meaning. poets often use words that extend beyond their apparent meaning in order to connect to people through as many words as possible. poetry can become challenging for the poet and the reader when they realize that a word can have more than one connotation. these connotations came about because various cultures use the word differently throughout the years. to a poet with acute hearing, every word sounds like something it represents ( ruby 135 ). the sounds and the words we use are “ intrinsically related ” to what they are trying to say ( 135 ). this poem lacks structure and is not very complex at all. but it is still an extremely powerful and interesting poem. as the reader looks at the poem, “ the words drip one by one down the page, occasionally becoming a sputter of smattering drops ” ( ruby 136 ). there is no real rhyme scheme either but many of the words do rhyme such as utter, sputter, and splutter. out of the twenty - nine words in this poem, twenty - four of them are related by one or more rhyming elements. merriam uses many literary devices also. the main device she uses...


we consider a simple pure substance under hydrostatic conditions described by the following fundamental equation : where the extensive variables u, v and n are the internal energy, the volume, and the number of particles respectively, and the intensive variables t, p and are the temperature, the pressure and the chemical potential respectively. equation ( ) corresponds to the choice of the variables u, v and n as independent variables of the entropy s ( u, v, n ). these variables are precisely those which are fixed and determine the macrostate of the members of the microcanonical ensemble and consequently s is the relevant potential in this statistical ensemble. it is useful to define the following quantities :, and so that eq. ( ) can then be written in the dimensionless form : in general, for other thermodynamic systems with degrees of freedom, one will have : where are extensive variables, and the corresponding entropic conjugate variables. massieu - planck functions are entropic thermodynamic potentials defined as legendre transformations of the entropy. in the case of a pure substance, the following ( dimensionless ) potentials can be formally defined : the function was first introduced by massieu, and it is called massieu ' s potential. the function was introduced by planck and is called planck ' s. potential. given the extensivity of, and using euler ' s theorem for homogeneous functions, it is easy to see that. therefore the legendre transformation of all variables redefines the entropy, substituting eq. ( ) into the differentials of the potentials defined above one gets : from eq. ( ) one obtains : the above equations allow a re - derivation of all the standard thermodynamic equations in terms of, and. for instance, maxwell relations can be deduced, by imposing that the equations ( ) - ( ) are exact differentials ( equality of crossed derivatives ). moreover, eq. ( ) is the gibbs - duhem equation which states that the complete set of intensive variables of the system are not all independent. on the other hand, the extremal condition of leads us to deduce that, and are homogeneous at equilibrium.


with solar and wind energies maturing as recognized alternative - power sources, there are other alternatives providing clean power on scales both large and small. these power generators are distinctive in how they create electricity and are a growing business for electrical contractors ( ecs ) that take note of them. biomass is the most commercially established “ other ” alternative energy. popularly used to create biofuels, such energy sources are being used for on - site power cogeneration or distributed generation. biofuel is sustainable, offering carbon - neutral emissions output. a nonfossil - fuel source, its most popular “ feedstocks, ” as they are called, include wood waste, agricultural residues ( straw, manure, grasses ) and municipal solid waste. when used to create energy, feedstocks become the fuel for biopower. biofuel is certainly not a new idea. wood was north america ’ s primary heating source until coal. by the 1950s, electricity and natural gas displaced wood heat. the energy crisis of the 1970s brought new attention, research and new ideas to biomass as an alternative - energy source. by the 1980s, biomass power plants were being built in north america. today, the biomass power association ( bpa ) in portland, maine, represents 80 biomass power plants in 20 states across the country. biopower systems are typically direct - fired, co - fired, gasification or modular ( transportable ). a growing sector industrial info resources ( iir ) in texas, a provider of global market intelligence for industrial, heavy manufacturing and energy markets, reports more than $ 3 billion in u. s. biomass power - generation projects are scheduled to begin construction this year. research by biomass power and thermal magazine reveals a 20 percent increase in proposed biomass projects going into this year. the top 10 states with the most operating plants and proposed projects are california ( 22 ), florida ( 16 ), new york ( 14 ), new hampshire ( 14 ), maine ( 11 ), michigan ( 11 ), massachusetts ( 10 ), minnesota ( 9 ), pennsylvania ( 9 ) and connecticut ( 8 ). in addition, the california energy commission has set an ambitious goal to add as much as 2, 200 megawatts ( mw ) of biomass power by 2020, part of that state ’ s goal to achieve 33 percent of its electricity from renewable sources by that year. though biomass currently plays a relatively small role in the u. s. electric power - generation market - — it represents about 10 gigawatts ( gw ) of electricity generation


to achieve 33 percent of its electricity from renewable sources by that year. though biomass currently plays a relatively small role in the u. s. electric power - generation market - — it represents about 10 gigawatts ( gw ) of electricity generation, according to the u. s. department of energy ’ s office of energy efficiency and renewable energy — the bpa reports biomass supplies more than half of the united states ’ renewable electricity. this niche will continue to grow along with other alternative energies, at a pace partially dictated by the price of natural gas. in its annual energy outlook 2011, the u. s. energy information administration projects renewables will constitute 14 percent of all electric - power generation, just behind nuclear ( 17 percent ) by 2035. in the u. s. consumption of liquid fuels, biofuels are projected to make up 3 percent. success in landfill gas though a niche market, ecs are finding competitive work in alternative - power generation. some contractors have been involved in such work for years. o ’ connell electric co. inc., victor, n. y., entered the world of landfill gas - to - energy some 20 years ago when it was approached by representatives from a county landfill. “ in new york, landfills are required to flare off the gas they produce or do something with it, ” said tim ehmann, senior manager for o ’ connell electric. “ some choose to generate electricity, capturing and reprocessing the gas from the landfill. ” producing wholesale power for utilities is a major application. but there are others, too. interface, a carpet tile manufacturer based in lagrange, ga., uses the city ’ s landfill gas to supplant its facility ’ s natural gas usage by 20 percent. landfill gas is about 40 – 60 percent methane, with the remainder being mostly carbon dioxide ( co2 ). typical landfill - to - gas projects use compressors, blowers, switchgear, engine controls, gas compression controls, power distribution, lighting and a utility substation. such operations offer many opportunities for the savvy electrical contractor. “ the gas has to be conditioned before it goes into a generator, ” ehmann said. “ there are mechanical concerns and specialty engineering that goes into the gas preparation. essentially, you collect, pressurize and regulate the gas flow. we needed to partner with specialty engineers to design the mechanics. ” ehmann said today ’ s major landfill gas - to - energy customers are larger waste generators, such as waste management


essentially, you collect, pressurize and regulate the gas flow. we needed to partner with specialty engineers to design the mechanics. ” ehmann said today ’ s major landfill gas - to - energy customers are larger waste generators, such as waste management inc. that company asserts that its landfill gas projects create enough energy to power 400, 000 homes every day and offsets almost 2 million tons of coal per year. waste management currently has 110 landfill gas facilities. “ in the last six years, we ’ ve seen an increase in alternative - energy developers ( private or co - op, biomass people ) working to install power generators for landfill gas and utilize the carbon credits, ” ehmann said. “ they are calling us. ” o ’ connell electric also is performing other biopower work involving large dairy farms. central vermont public service calls it “ cow power. ” it has six vermont farms providing power to the grid that are estimated to produce between 0. 78 and 3. 5 megawatt - - hours of electricity per year. the process is simple. an anaerobic digester creates biogas from dry, processed manure. the biogas fuels a modified natural gas engine - powered generator that, in turn, creates electricity that is fed into the grid. o ’ connell electric is involved in two such projects providing the wiring for the biofuel process and power generators and the interconnections and relay work to the grid. a farm might generate more power than it can use and would then sell the power back to the utility. “ our work in biogas and landfill gas is really side work for us, ” ehmann said. “ it falls in between two existing divisions : line and alternative - energy work. relay work and power protection and testing are services we provide to pull this project work together. we ’ ve seen a rebirth in this work, in part due to rates going up and its rediscovery as an alternative - energy green power. ” ehmann said his company has to compete. “ the electrical interconnection business competition is maybe one in 10 instead of one in 100 for us, ” he said. “ we have the history, which helps us win the work. we also have our technicians earn their certification in the commissioning of the electrical interconnection ( relays and utility ’ s relay testing ). this has helped open the doors for new and repeat business. ultimately, our customers turn to us to help maintain their systems. ” in new york, landfill gas operations need to be certified through


, to design and construct a biogas - upgrading skid that takes a manure digester ’ s raw biogas and cleans and compresses it for use in natural gas burning vehicles. the dairy ’ s semi trucks are the first cow - powered trucks in the united states. “ biopower holds some advantages over solar and wind. it doesn ’ t have the intermittent power dips and has no need for energy storage, ” carter said. “ it is also available 24 / 7. ” while biopower is a small market for newkirk electric, like o ’ connell electric, it is still a key sector for the company and has grown significantly in the past 5 years. the firm does business across the country and has completed projects in 34 states from california to florida, where newkirk electric has an office. the company is currently involved in 10 projects outside michigan. “ for interested ecs, it depends on what role they want to play in this green - energy work, ” carter said. “ if it ’ s just electrical install, power is power. at the very least, develop partnerships with mechanical contractors. if you want to be an added resource to your customer, you have to develop specialized skills. for us, its electrical controls, switchgear, facility interface, line work, substation design and build, and helping fill out paperwork for the cogeneration connection with the utility. knowing the behind - the - scenes required to successfully running biomass and landfill gas projects puts you ahead of the pack as go after this work. ” gavin is the owner of gavo communications, a marketing services firm serving the construction, landscaping and related design industries. he can be reached at email @ example. com.


the west nile virus infectious diseases are creeping in from abroad in 1999 crows in new york started dying in unusual numbers. but it took weeks of further clues, including the deaths of two flamingos and a cormorant at the bronx zoo, for officials to find the culprit. the west nile virus had invaded new york. it was the first time the virus had been recorded in the western hemisphere. since then, west nile has reappeared each summer. as of august 29th cases were up 40 % from a week earlier, reaching 1, 590, with 66 deaths. mosquitoes contract the virus when they bite infected birds. then, with their typical generosity, they give the virus to humans. eighty per cent show no symptoms. the rest may get a fever, nausea or a rash. about one in 150, however, will develop a serious illness, such as inflammation of the brain. this year ’ s outbreak is notable mainly for its scale, and the apprehension that future years will unleash equal havoc. nearly half of the cases have been in texas, no stranger to vaguely biblical events. the winter was mild, the spring and summer hot. throughout the year, it has rained intermittently — in short, ideal conditions for mosquitoes. the centre of the outbreak is dallas. by august 15th county leaders had reported some 200 west nile infections and ten deaths. the mayor declared a state of emergency and authorised aerial spraying — the first time dallas has done so since 1969, according to the dallas morning news. health officials started fogging, distributing larvicide and bug repellent, and scouting for standing water. complicating matters, dallas county also includes 30 or so smaller towns ; some were wary of aerial spraying. west nile is not the only developing - country disease that has seeped into america. since 2001 three states have seen outbreaks of dengue fever. the centres for disease control and prevention ( cdc ) estimate that 300, 000 people in the united states, overwhelmingly immigrants, are infected with chagas disease, caught from parasites that feed on the face and are usually found in central and south america. a cdc survey found that 14 % of americans have been exposed to toxocara, roundworms that often cause no symptoms, but which can damage inner organs and the eye. worryingly, the cdc found higher rates among those who are poor and black. a study of houston observed that west nile was more common among the homeless. in general, mosquitoes find the poor inviting hosts, explains peter hotez


eden mekabu is the ruffled, flowering sprout located at the base of the sea vegetable, wakame undaria pinnatifida just above the root. mekabu is also known as the sporophyll of the wakame plant. eden wakame grows wild in the environmentally protected ise ( ee - say ) bay, located in the central eastern area of the main island, honshu. mekabu has a pleasant, mellow sweet flavor and is highly regarded in japan and other parts of asia. the wakame is hand harvested by fishermen in boats using long bamboo poles with a sickle attached that cuts the wakame loose. as the wakame floats to the surface, the fishermen pull the plants into the boats. after bringing the wakame to shore, the upper wavy fronds are removed and used to make whole dried wakame, like eden wakame, or instant dried flakes, like eden wakame flakes. the root is removed and the remaining section, mekabu is washed before undergoing a two step drying process using both sun and slow oven drying techniques for several more hours. after sun drying thoroughly, the mekabu is misted with pure water, very finely shredded and then oven dried. after soaking mekabu is usually seasoned and eaten as is or added to salads, without further cooking or simply added toward the end of cooking for soups. a sticky substance in mekabu, called fucoidan, is believed to be more beneficial to health in raw mekabu. modern science affirms that fucoidan, a natural complex contained in the viscous and sticky sporophyll of mekabu, is a beneficial polysaccharide that breaks down when the seaweed is cooked. this was determined when studies were performed on the japanese island of okinawa, known for it ' s highest degree of health in japan. fucoidan is believed to be of benefit to the immune system as well as digestive and thyroid health. for those using sea salt, sea vegetables are a source of iodine. the fda says, " diets low in sodium may reduce the risk of hypertension or high blood pressure, a disease associated with many factors. " eden mekabu is very low in sodium, fat free, and cholesterol free. mekabu is usually eaten in small amounts, like a condiment, rather than a side dish. one teaspoon ( about


there are certain types of people that are just naturally caregivers. these people are generally compassionate, motivating and kindhearted. nursing is a popular career option for these types of people. for those thinking of becoming a nurse the research process can be quite overwhelming. bachelors and associates nursing education the first step to starting a nursing career starts with the preliminary research. becoming a nurse requires an advanced education. although you do not need a college degree to become a nurse, those who have a nursing degree will make more money and have more career options in the future. there are many options to obtaining a nursing degree. the most common is a bachelor of science nursing which is a 4 year degree at a traditional university. usually a bachelor of science nursing degree is required for admission to a masters of nursing program. by completing a college degree individuals will become a registered nurse and will have many career paths they could take. individuals choosing not to become rn ’ s can also obtain an associates degree from a community college and work taking care of the sick, injured or elderly in special needs programs. make sure the nursing program is accredited with the national league for nursing accrediting commission and commission on collegiate nursing education before enrolling. advanced nursing education licensed practical nurses care for the sick, injured and disabled under the direct supervision of physicians and registered nurses. an lpn is responsible for taking basic care, taking vital signs, monitoring equipment and changing dressings. getting an lpn degree usually takes 1 year and can be found at vocational schools. some universities offer accelerated programs for students who already have some other degree but wish to pursue nursing. these programs usually last 1. 5 - 2 years in length. there are many advanced degrees as well such as degree completion programs for rns, master, doctoral and post - doctoral programs. getting a degree is the first step in a meaningful nursing career. once you have a degree in nursing there are many different certification programs available to further ones career. some registered nurses are required to complete certification classes on a regular basis to show competence of their job skills. there are no set standards for every hospital or clinic but rather each employer can choose to participate in ongoing training / certification. online programs do exist and our gaining in popularity due to their reduced cost and time. it pays to be a nurse a nursing career is one of the most popular and most needed jobs in america. currently there are more than 100, 000 rn openings in the united states. by 2020 there will be a need for 800, 000 rns. the increased need is


description from flora of china shrubs, shrublets, perennial herbs, or rarely annual herbs or small trees ; trichomes typically medifixed ( t - shaped ), equally to very unequally 2 - branched and sometimes crisped, or rarely simple multicellular hairs present with glandular tips. stipules persistent or caducous. leaves usually imparipinnate but for some species simple or reduced to 1 leaflet ; stipels present or absent ; leaflet blades usually opposite but sometimes subopposite or alternate, rarely with glands, margin entire. racemes axillary ; bracts usually caducous. calyx campanulate or cup - shaped ; teeth 5, subequal or abaxial one longer. corolla usually reddish, sometimes white or yellow ; standard usually covered outside with appressed trichomes but occasionally glabrous, base shortly clawed, apex usually obtuse to emarginate and mucronate ; wings narrow, base auricled ; keel falcate or spatulate, with spur adnate to wings. stamens 10, diadelphous, only vexillary one free ; anthers uniform, basifixed or subbasifixed, sometimes both ends hairy, apex apiculate ; pollen 3 - colporate. ovary sessile, with 1 to many ovules ; style linear, usually glabrous ; stigma capitate. legume linear, oblong, or ovoid, cylindric or 4 - sided in cross section, 2 - valved, septate, dehiscent ; endocarp often spotted with tannin deposits. seeds globose to rectangular ; hilum small ; cotyledons unequal ; radicle oblique. a single collection has been seen from yunnan of what appears to be an additional species closely related to indigofera laxiflora craib ( kew bull. 1912 : 148. 1912 ), otherwise only known from thailand. about 750 species : tropics and subtropics worldwide ; 79 species ( 45 endemic, two introduced ) in china. ( authors : gao xinfen ( 高 信 ) ; brian d. schrire )


skip to main content more search options a member of our team will call you back within one business day. blood or body fluids may contain pathogens ( germs ) that can cause disease. if there is an accident at work involving blood or body fluids, these germs can be spread. the most common and serious bloodborne pathogens are the hepatitis b virus ( hbv ), hepatitis c virus ( hcv ), and human immunodeficiency virus ( hiv ). other bloodborne germs include syphilis and malaria. once these germs infect you, they can spread to your loved ones. the three bloodborne germs described below are the most common causes of infections in the workplace. hepatitis b can cause severe damage to the liver and can even lead to death. a vaccine is available to help prevent hepatitis b infection. this vaccine is given as several injections over a period of time. like hepatitis b, hepatitis c can cause severe damage to the liver and can lead to death. there is no known vaccine for hcv. hiv makes it harder for the body to fight infection. hiv causes acquired immune deficiency syndrome ( aids ), which is a serious illness that can lead to death. there is no known vaccine for hiv. how you could get infected at work bloodborne diseases can infect you when : you help an injured person without using a protective barrier between you and the infected person ' s blood or body fluids. an object or surface with infected blood or body fluids on it touches your broken skin. you smoke, eat, or touch your eyes, nose, or mouth after getting someone else ' s infected blood or body fluids on your hands. you are pricked or scratched by a sharp object ( such as broken glass ) that has infected blood or body fluids on it.


recently, i had a family member consult me regarding the prescription of medication for her son who has been diagnosed with a " mild form of add ". the physcian recommended that he be given a low dose of medication to treat his symptoms. immediately her mother ' s intuition sparked and she felt that this may not be the best course of action, however, she didn ' t know what her options were. interestingly enough, many physicians may not tell you, but diet plays a huge role in symptomology produced by add or adhd. many times it is not considered in treatment, but the british medical journal stated recently that properly supervised trial eliminating colors and preservatives from the diet of hyperactive children should be considered a part of the standard treatment. if your child is experiencing symptoms consistent with add or adhd consider the following dietary changes : 1. eliminate artificial colors and flavors from their diet. 2. make sure that the child is eating some protein with every meal and snack. helps to regulate blood sugar. 3. eliminate sodas and juices.... even natural sugars can cause blood sugar spikes if the whole fruit is not eaten ( the fiber of the fruit is the important part! ). 4. consider eliminating wheat and gluten from their diet. there are several links to gluten sensitivity and / or allergy in add / adhd 5. a good quality multivitamin and omega 3 supplement is a must! all user - generated information on this site is the opinion of its author only and is not a substitute for medical advice or treatment for any medical conditions. members and guests are responsible for their own posts and the potential consequences of those posts detailed in our terms of service.


phthalates action plan summary - what chemicals are addressed in the action plan? - why is epa concerned about these chemicals? - what action is epa taking? what chemicals are addressed in the action plan? eight chemicals are included : dibutyl phthalate ( dbp ), diisobutyl phthalate ( dibp ), butyl benzyl phthalate ( bbp ), di - n - pentyl phthalate ( dnpp ), di ( 2 - ethylhexyl ) phthalate ( dehp ), di - n - octyl phthalate ( dnop ), diisononyl phthalate ( dinp ), and diisodecyl phthalate ( didp ). phthalates are high production volume chemicals used primarily as plasticizers in polyvinylchloride ( pvc ) products. why is epa concerned about these chemicals? epa is concerned about phthalates because of their toxicity and the evidence of pervasive human and environmental exposure to these chemicals. phthalates are used in many industrial and consumer products, many of which pose potentially high exposure. phthalates have been detected in food and also measured in humans. adverse effects on the development of the reproductive system in male laboratory animals are the most sensitive health outcomes from phthalate exposure. several studies have shown associations between phthalate exposures and human health, although no causal link has been established. recent scientific attention has focused on whether the cumulative effect of several phthalates may multiply the reproductive effects in the organism exposed. what action is epa taking? on the basis of existing information, epa included the the following actions in its action plan : - epa intends to initiate rulemaking in autumn 2010 to add these eight phthalates to the concern list under tsca section 5 ( b ) ( 4 ) as chemicals that present or may present an unreasonable risk of injury to health or the environment. - epa also intends to initiate rulemaking in late 2010 to add the six phthalates not already on the toxics release inventory ( tri ). - in preparation for rulemaking in 2012 under tsca section 6 ( a ), epa intends to cooperate with the consumer product safety commission ( cpsc ) and the food and drug administration ( fda ) to more fully assess the use, exposure and substitutes for these chemicals. epa plans to consider the results of the cumulative assessment currently being developed and due to be completed by cpsc in 2012 pursuant to the


) and the food and drug administration ( fda ) to more fully assess the use, exposure and substitutes for these chemicals. epa plans to consider the results of the cumulative assessment currently being developed and due to be completed by cpsc in 2012 pursuant to the consumer product safety improvement act of 2008 ( cpsia ), as well as the ongoing review of phthalates at fda and the assessment for epa ’ s iris program, due to be completed in 2011. these assessments will inform epa ’ s decision on future action to address these chemicals. epa ’ s potential control measures may include a ban of all or several of these chemicals, as appropriate. - epa may consider pursuing additional rulemaking under tsca section 5 ( a ) ( 2 ) in late 2010 or early 2011 to require manufacturers and processors of dnpp to notify epa before manufacturing or processing dnpp for a significant new use. the most recent inventory update reporting ( iur ) data contains no reports of this phthalate being produced or imported into the united states, and thus it is possible that any use of dnpp may be a significant new use. - epa intends to conduct a design for the environment and green chemistry alternatives assessment by 2012. the information developed could be used to encourage industry to move away from phthalates in a non - regulatory setting to expand risk management efforts beyond whatever regulatory action might be taken under tsca, or it could be used as input to a regulatory action. the alternatives assessment would build upon existing knowledge and would consider exposures to all human subpopulations, including children, as well as environmental exposure. - august 2011 : epa began the dfe alternatives assessment. download the complete phthalates action plan ( pdf ), 16 pages, 80 kb, about pdf


armenian literature. the armenian church fostered literature, and the principal early works are religious or hagiographical, most of them translations. the first major armenian literary work is a 5th cent. translation of the bible ; its language became the standard of classical armenian. early mesopotamian influence resulted in syriac translations ( aphraates and st. ephraem syrus ). armenia then turned to the west for literary inspiration, producing translations of many religious works ( athanasius, basil the great, gregory of nyssa, gregory nazianzen, and john chrysostom ). among secular works are renderings of aristotle and of the romance of alexander. the original writings of the golden age are confined to saints ' lives and histories. the 5th - century history of moses of khorni contains practically all that is known of pre - christian armenia, its folklore and epics. later historians include thomas ardzruni ( 10th cent. ), matthew of edessa, who described the crusades, and stephanos orbelian, who wrote of the mongol hordes ( 13th cent. ). a tradition of nationalistic epic poetry, influenced by muslim form, emerged ; the best - known example is david of sassoun. the principal figure of the 12th cent. is catholicos narses iv, a prelate and poet notable for his literary style. after the decline of armenian cultural centers in the 14th cent., the literature of armenians abroad was heavily influenced by their host countries. in 18th - century constantinople, mechitar ( 1676 – 1749 ), a monk of the catholic armenians, founded a community ( the mechitarists ) to cultivate armenian letters. their headquarters are now in venice, and they are the principal armenian publishers. anticipated by the late 18th - century folk poetry of sayat nova ( = haroutioum sayadian ), the 19th cent. saw a considerable revival of armenian letters and the establishment of a modern literary language. the major novelists of the 19th cent. were khachatur abovian and hagop melik - agopian ( called " raffi " ). the 1915 turkish massacres sent many armenian writers ( including hagop ochagan, nigoghos sarafian, and zareh vorpuni ) into exile, which became the subject of their writing. after the incorporation of part of armenia into the soviet union in 1921 the poet leguiche tcharentz and novelist alexander bakountz perished


galago - bush baby, tiny african primate the galago or bush baby is a small primate which can be found across many countries, mainly in africa. no one is really sure how the term " bush baby " came to be used but it has been suggested that the name is either due to their appearance or their sharp cry. this species is a very small primate which has an average size of approximately 5 inches ( 13 cm ). the bush baby has long, fuzzy wool - like fur which can be either a shade of silvery gray or brown. their ears are very large with four ridges which allow them to bend back easily and wrinkle up. they also have characteristically large eyes. other interesting characteristics of this species include its advanced hearing, thickened pads on its toes to allow it to cling and climb safely and also its second tongue. this second tongue is situated below their normal tongue and is used specifically in conjunction with their front teeth for grooming. it ’ s interesting to think the bush baby has evolved to have an actual appendage designed solely for grooming! the bush baby is especially well known for its amazing jumping abilities. in fact, this species can jump up to 6. 6 feet ( 2 m ) in the air and it is believed this is due to elastic energy stored in the tendons of their lower legs. without these special tendons, they would not be able to jump as high as they can because of their comparatively small size. bush babies have a gestation period of between 110 and 130 days. the young are born with their eyes half - closed and for the first few days of their life they cannot move independently. after the first few days of life, the mother will carry the infant round in their mouth and puts it down on branches when it is time to feed. there are many different subspecies of bush baby including the rondo bush baby and dusky bush baby. they can be found all across africa and they are a really cuddly looking creature. of course as a wild animal they are very timid and shy but it can ’ t hurt to look at them!


[ this section may require several minutes to download ] please click on underlined categories to view : [ to search for subject matter, depress ctrl / f ] : plants yielding fibers have been second only to food plants in their usefulness to humans and their influence on the furthering of civilization. primitive humans in their attempts to obtain the three most important necessities for life : food, shelter & clothing, focused on plants. even though animal products were available, some form of clothing was needed that was lighter and cooler than skins and hides. it was easier to obtain from plants such items as bowstrings, nets, snares, etc. also plant products were available from the leaves, stems and roots of many plants to construct shelter. very early on plant fibers have had a more extensive use than silk, wool and other animal fibers. gradually as humans ’ needs multiplied, the use of vegetable fibers increased greatly until presently they continue to be of great importance even after the onset of plastics. it is impossible to estimate the number of species of fiber plants, but over a thousand species of plants have yielded fibers in america alone, and over 800 occur in the philippines. however, plant fibers of commercial importance ore relatively few, the greater number being native species used locally by primitive peoples in all parts of the world. their durability often exceeds those of synthetic manufacture, one example being sisal & manila hemps. the most prominent fibers of the present are of great antiquity. the cultivation of flax, for example, dates back to the stone age of europe, as discovered in the remains of the swiss lake dwellers. linen was used in ancient egypt and cotton was the ancient national textile of india, being used by all the aboriginal peop0les of the new world as well. ramie or china grass has been grown in the orient many thousands of years. plastic materials are often used instead of natural products because they cost less and sometimes tend to be more durable. however, natural plant products continue to have some superior attributes and are used when materials are readily available. there are six principal groups of fibers distinguished according to the way in which they are used. textile fibers are the most important in that they are used for fabrics, cordage and netting. to make fabrics and netting flexible fibers are twisted together into thread or yarn and then either spun, knitted, woven or in some other way utilized. fabrics include cloth for wearing apparel, domestic use, awnings, sails, etc., and also coarser materials such as gunn


are twisted together into thread or yarn and then either spun, knitted, woven or in some other way utilized. fabrics include cloth for wearing apparel, domestic use, awnings, sails, etc., and also coarser materials such as gunny and burlap. fabric fibers are all of some commercial value. netting fibers that are used for hammocks, lace and all forms of nets include many of the commercial fabric fibers and a number of native fibers as well. both commercial and native fibers are used for cordage. for this the individual fibers are twisted together instead of being woven. binder twine, fish lines, hawsers, rope and cables are among the many types. brush fibers are stiff tough fibers including small stems and twigs that are utilized for making brooms and brushes. rough weaving & plaitling fibers. plaits are fibrous, flat and pliable strands that are interlaced to make straw hats, baskets, sandals, chair seats, etc. the most elastic strands are woven together for mattings and the thatched roofs of houses. the supple twigs or woody fibers are for making chairs, baskets and other wickerwork. filling fibers are used for stuffing mattresses, cushions and in upholstery ; for caulking seams in boats and in casks and barrels ; as stiffening in plaster and as packing material. natural fabrics are usually obtained from tree basts that are extracted from bark in layers or sheets and pounded into rough substitutes for lace or cloth. fibers for paper manufacture includes textile fibers and wood fibers that are used in either the raw or manufactured state. a plant cannot be restricted absolutely to any single group because the same fiber may be used for different purposes. also, a plant may yield more than one kind of fiber. thus the following discussion includes species that are considered in the group in which they are of the greatest importance. all fibers are similar in that they are sclerenchyma cells that serve as part of the plant skeleton. they are predominantly long cells with thick walls and small cavities and usually pointed ends. the walls often contain lignin as well as cellulose. fibers occur singly or in small groups, but they are more apt to form sheets of tissue with the individual cells overlapping and interlocking. fibers may occur in almost any part of a plant : stems, leaves, fruits, seeds, etc. the four main types grouped according to their origin include bast fibers, wood fibers, scleren


the individual cells overlapping and interlocking. fibers may occur in almost any part of a plant : stems, leaves, fruits, seeds, etc. the four main types grouped according to their origin include bast fibers, wood fibers, sclerenchyma cells associated with the vascular bundle strands in leaves, and surface fibers that are hair like outgrowths on the seeds of the plants. the term “ bast fiber ” is subject to criticism, as it gives no indication as to the particular tissue or region in which the fibers occur. it might be preferable to designate those fibers that occur in the outer parts of the stem as cortical fibers, pericyclic fibers or phloem fibers. but “ bast ” is a term that has been in use for a long time and is so established in commerce that it will be used in this discussion. fibers of economic importance occur in many different plant families, especially those from the tropics. some of the more important families are the palmaceae, gramineae, liliaceae, musaceae, amaryllidaceae, malvaceae, urticaceae, linaceae, moraceae, tiliaceae, bromeliaceae, bombacaceae, and luguminosae. these fibers must be long and possess a high tensile strength and cohesiveness with pliability. they must have a fine, uniform, lustrous staple and must be durable and abundantly available. only a small number of the different kinds of fibers possess these traits and are thus of commercial importance. the principal textile fibers are grouped into three classes : surface fibers, soft fibers and hard fibers, with the last two often referred to as long fibers. surface or short fibers include the so - called cottons. the soft fibers are the bast fibers that are found mainly in the pericycle or secondary phloem of dicotyledon stems. bast fibers are capable of subdivision into very fine flexible strands and are used for the best grades of cordage and fabrics. included are hemp, jute, flax and ramie. hard or mixed fibers are structural elements found mainly in the leaves of many tropical monocots, although they may be found in fruits and stems. they are used for the more coarse textiles. sisal, abaca, henequen, agaves, coconut and pineapple are examples of plants with hard fibers. cotton is one of the greatest of all industrial crops. it is the principal fiber plant as well as one


coarse textiles. sisal, abaca, henequen, agaves, coconut and pineapple are examples of plants with hard fibers. cotton is one of the greatest of all industrial crops. it is the principal fiber plant as well as one of the oldest and most economical. it was known since ancient times and well before written records. there are references to cotton by the ancient greeks and romans. cotton was found in india before 1, 800 b. c. the hindus were believed to be one of the first people to weave cloth in the eastern hemisphere, although reference to nordic traders of woven goods in north america during the bronze age has been made by fell 1982 ( http : / / faculty. ucr. edu / ~ legneref / bronze / fell2. htm ). cotton was introduced to europe by the arabs who called the plant “ qutn. ” the plant had several origins because columbus found it in cultivation in the west indies, and it was known to the amerindians of neotropical america in pre - columbian times. cotton became a commercial crop in the united states after 1787.. several species of the genus gossypium provide what we call cotton. the fine fibrous hairs that occur on the seeds constitute the raw material. these hairs are flattened, twisted and tubular. they compose the lint, floss or staple. their length and other qualities vary with the different varieties. the plant is a perennial shrub or small tree naturally, but under cultivation it is treated as an annual. it branches freely and grows to a height of 4 - 8 ft. cotton thrives in sandy soil in humid regions that are near water. this environment is typified in the southern united states and in the river valleys of india and egypt. cotton matures in 5 - 6 months and is ready to harvest soon after. hundreds of varieties have been developed from wild ancestors or produced by breeding during the long period of cultivation. varieties differ in fiber character as well as other morphological features. cotton is a difficult group to classify and the exact number of species is subject to argument. cultivated cottons of commercial importance are usually referred to one or another of four species : gossypium barbadense and g. hirsutum in the western hemisphere and g. arboreum and g. herbaceum in the eastern hemisphere. 1. - - gossypium barbadense probably originated in tropical south america. the flowers are bright yellow with purple spots. the fruit, or boll, has


g. arboreum and g. herbaceum in the eastern hemisphere. 1. - - gossypium barbadense probably originated in tropical south america. the flowers are bright yellow with purple spots. the fruit, or boll, has three valves, and the seeds are fuzzy only at the ends. two distinct types exist : sea - island cotton. this type has never been found in the wild as it was already being cultivated at the time of columbus. it has fine, strong and light cream - colored fibers that are regular in the number and uniformity of the twists and they have a silky appearance. these characteristics are valuable and sea - island cotton was formerly in great demand for the finest textiles, yarns, and lace and spool cotton. sea - island cotton was brought to the united states from the west indies in 1785. the finest types were developed on the islands off the south carolina coast and adjacent mainland. here strong and firm stables of two inches or more in length were produced. another form of sea - island cotton was grown along the coast in georgia to florida and in the west indies and south america. this has a staple of 1. 5 - 1. 75 in. in length. the yield of sea - island cotton was lower than other kinds of cotton, but this was compensated for by the greater value of the fiber. the boll weevil almost completely eradicated production of sea - island cotton before control measures were discovered. egyptian cotton this cotton is grown in the nile basin of egypt where it was introduced from central america. the plant is similar in appearance to sea - island cotton and is believed to be a hybrid. however, the staple is brown in color and shorter. its length, strength, and firmness make this cotton suitable for thread, undergarments, hosiery, and fine dress goods. egyptian cotton was brought to the united states in 1902 as an experimental crop and 10 years later it was recommended to farmers in the semiarid regions that were under irrigation. it was then grown in the western states of california, new mexico and arizona. repeated selection and breeding resulted in the development of new strains of which pima cotton is of highest quality. 2. - - gossypium hirsutum is a native american species that was grown by pre - columbian civilizations. it is usually called upland cotton, and is the easiest and most economical kind of cotton to grow. it constitutes the greater part of the cultivated cotton of the world. the flowers are white or light yellow and unspotted


by pre - columbian civilizations. it is usually called upland cotton, and is the easiest and most economical kind of cotton to grow. it constitutes the greater part of the cultivated cotton of the world. the flowers are white or light yellow and unspotted. the bolls are four - or five - valved, and the seeds are covered with fuzz. upland cotton thrives under a variety of conditions but does best in a sandy soil with abundant moisture during the growing and fruiting season and dryness during the time of boll opening and harvest as well as a temperature of 60 - 90 deg. fahrenheit. the northern limit of economic growth is 37 deg. n. lat. the cotton belt of the southern united states grows mostly upland cotton. the fibers are white with a wide range in staple length ( 5 / 8ths to 1. 3 / 8ths in. ). there are over 1210 named varieties, many of which were developed through breeding experiments. the species probably originated in guatemala or southern mexico and spread northward to its present limits in north america. a well - marked variety, often recognized as a distinct species, occurs in the west indies and along the dry coastal areas of south america as far as ecuador and brazil. another variety occurs in central america, northward along the gulf of mexico to florida and the bahamas and in the greater antilles. 3. - - gossypium arboreum is the perennial tree cotton of africa, india and arabia. it was most likely the first to be used commercially, but production is now confined to india. the staples are coarse and very short ( 3 / 8ths to 34 in. long ), but they are strong. 4. - - gossypium herbaceum is the principal cotton of asia. it was grown in indian in ancient times and continues to be used locally there and in iran, china and japan. its chief use is for fabrics, carpets and blankets and is often blended with wool. there are additionally several wild species of gossypium in some tropical and subtropical areas. cotton used to be an expensive material because it was difficult to remove the fibers from the seed. the cotton gin developed by eli whitney in 1793 changed this situation and a revolution of the industry was started. cotton then assumed a very prominent position in world commerce. the economics of cotton has had a profound effect on both the producing and purchasing nations. it is well accepted that slavery was perpetuated in america because of this crop. there are several steps necessary in the preparation


a very prominent position in world commerce. the economics of cotton has had a profound effect on both the producing and purchasing nations. it is well accepted that slavery was perpetuated in america because of this crop. there are several steps necessary in the preparation of raw cotton fiber in order to prepare it for the textile industry. these operations involve ginning in either a saw - tooth or a roller gin, baling, transporting to the mills, picking to remove any foreign matter and delivers the cotton in a uniform layer, lapping where three layers are combined into one, carding, combing and drawing where the short fibers are extracted and the others straightened and evenly distributed, and finally twisting the fibers into thread. cotton is used either by itself or in combination with other fibers in the manufacture of all types of textiles. unspun cotton is extensively used for stuffing purposes. treating the fibers with caustic soda, which imparts a high luster and silky appearance, makes mercerized cotton. absorbent cotton consists of fibers that have been cleaned and from which the oily covering layer has been removed. it is almost pure cellulose and makes up one of the basic raw materials of various cellulose industries. a noteworthy advance in the cotton industry was the utilization of what were formerly waste products. in the early stages of the industry the cotton seed along with its fuzzy covering of short hairs or linters was discarded. however, all parts of the plant are now conserved to yield products that are valuable. the stalks contain a fiber that can be used to make paper or fuel and the roots possess a crude drug. the seeds are used for oil extraction and for livestock feed. the linters give wadding, stuffing for pads, cushions, pillows, mattress, etc ; absorbent cotton ; low grade yarn for twine, ropes and carpets ; and cellulose. the hulls are also livestock feed ; fertilizer ; lining oil wells to prevent cave - ins of the sides ; as a source of xylose, a sugar that can be converted into alcohol or various explosives and industrial solvents. the kernels yield an important fatty oil, cottonseed oil ; and oil cake and meal are used for fertilizer, livestock feed, and flour and as a dye. once the most valuable and useful of fibers, flax gradually became less important as synthetics and cotton assumed more prominent roles. flax is more durable than cotton and can yield a very fine fabric. the plant has been under cultivation for so long that its point of


valuable and useful of fibers, flax gradually became less important as synthetics and cotton assumed more prominent roles. flax is more durable than cotton and can yield a very fine fabric. the plant has been under cultivation for so long that its point of origin is unknown. it was used by the swiss lake dwellers and was known to the ancient hebrews and is frequently noted in the bible. the ancient egyptians wore linen and used it for the burial cloths. they carved pictures of the flax plant on their tombs. long before the christian era the greek imported flax, and it is believed that the plant was being cultivated prior to 3, 000 b. c. flax is in the genus linum that contains several wild species of no economic importance as well as linum usitatissimum, the source of the commercial fiber. the plant is an annual herb with blue or white flowers and small leaves. it grows to a height of from 1 - 4 ft. the fibers are formed in the pericycle and are made up of very tough, stringy strands from 1 - 3 ft. long that are aggregates of many long pointed cells with very thick cellulose walls. flax does best in soil that is rich in organic matter and moisture and in temperate regions, but it may be grown elsewhere. preparation of the fibers is a more expensive procedure than for cotton. the crop is harvested and a process known as rippling breaks the stems. the fibers may then be rotted out by submerging the stems in water or by exposing them to dew. during this process called retting and enzyme dissolves the calcium pectate of the middle lamella, which holds the cells together, and frees the fibers. after retting the straw is dried and cleaned and the fibers are completely separated from the other tissues of the stem by an operation known as scutching. finally the shorter fibers that constitute the tow are separated from the longer fibers. the long fibers are the only ones suited for spinning. the fibers of flax have great tensile strength, staple length, durability and fineness. they are used in the manufacture of linen cloth and thread, canvas, duck, strong twine, carpets, fish and seine lines, cigarette paper, writing paper and insulating materials. fibers from the stalks of flax grown for seed are too harsh and brittle for spinning but may be used for other purposes. the principal production area was northern europe, with russia producing around 70 percent of the world crop. some of


insulating materials. fibers from the stalks of flax grown for seed are too harsh and brittle for spinning but may be used for other purposes. the principal production area was northern europe, with russia producing around 70 percent of the world crop. some of the finest flax is grown in belgium. the pilgrims introduced flax into north america and these and other colonists were growing sufficient amount for domestic use until 1900. flax is a good crop with which to reclaim native soil and for a long time its cultivation was confined to the frontier. flax is grown for its seed in areas with low rainfall. the seed is used in medicine and as a source of linseed oil. the term “ hemp ” is applied loosely to include a number of very different plants and fibers. the true hemp is cannabis sativa, a plant native to central and western asia but has spread worldwide where it often occurs as a troublesome weed. the plant is a stout, bushy, branching annual that varies from 5 - 15 ft in height. it is dioecious with hollow stems and palmate leaves. the best grade of fiber is obtained from male plants. hemp requires a mild humid climate and a rich loamy soil with an abundance of humus. calcareous soils are especially suitable. the fiber is white bast that develops in the pericycle. it is valuable because of its length that varies from 3 - 15 ft, its strength and great durability. however, it lacks the flexibility and elasticity of flax because of its lignification. yields are usually high with one acre producing 2 - 3 tons of stems, 25 percent of which is fibrous material. the plants are harvested and shocked and dried. the fibers are separated from the rest of the bark by retting, either in dew or in water. they are then broken, scutched and hackled. hemp must be harvested when the male flowers are in full bloom or the fibers are too week or too brittle to be of value. hemp is an ancient crop that had been grown in china before 2, 000 b. c. it was introduced into europe around 1, 500 b. c. it reached north america in early colonial days and became a viable industry in kentucky and wisconsin. by the 21st century very little of the crop was being grown in north america. hemp has been used to make ropes, carpets, twine, and sailcloth, yacht cordage, binder twine, sacks, bags and webbing.


by the 21st century very little of the crop was being grown in north america. hemp has been used to make ropes, carpets, twine, and sailcloth, yacht cordage, binder twine, sacks, bags and webbing. the waste and woody fibers of the stem were sometimes used to make paper. the finer grades can be woven into a cloth that resembles coarse linen. the short fibers or tow and ravelings constitute oakum. this is used for caulking the seams between the plants in shipbuilding, in cooperage and as packing for pumps, engines, etc. in the tropics hemp is grown for its seed, and also for a drug that is gotten from the flowering tops and leaves. the seeds contain oil that is useful in the soap and paint industries as a substitute for linseed oil. the drug, known as hashish, is a resinous substance that contains several powerful alkaloids. in america this type of hemp is known as marijuana. ganja is a specially cultivated and harvested grade of hemp used for smoking and in beverages and candies. it has high resin content. jute has been used almost extensively as cotton even though it is much less valuable than either cotton of flax. it is a bast fiber obtained from the secondary phloem of two species of corchorus of asia. the best quality is from c. capsularis, a species with round pods that is grown in lowland areas subject to flooding. the plant is a tall, slender, somewhat shrubby annual with yellow flowers that grows to a height of 8 - 10 ft. it requires a warm climate and a rich, loamy alluvial soil. fiber from c. olitorius, and upland species with long pods, is somewhat inferior but the two are not separated in commerce. harvest occurs within 3 - 4 months after planting and while the flowers are still in full bloom. the stems are retted in pools or tanks for several days to rot out the softer gummy tissues, and whipping the stems on the surface of the water then loosens the jute, or gunny, strands. the pale - yellow fibers are very long, from 6 - 10 ft. in length, and they are very stiff being highly lignified. they have a silky luster. they are produced in abundance, but are not especially strong and they tend to deteriorate when exposed to moisture. despite these disadvantages they are economical and easily spun. plastics have replaced many of the products


green on both sides. rhea fiber is included under ramie in industry. crotalaria juncea is an important fiber plant in asia. it has been cultivated since ancient times and there are no known wild ancestors. it is the earliest fiber to be mentioned in sanskrit writings ( hill 1952 ). it is a shrubby annual legume from 6 - 12 ft tall with bright yellow flowers. it is grown primarily in southern india. almost all the members of the malvaceae yield bast fibers that can be used in textiles. some of the most important are as follows : china jute or indian mallow ( abutilon theophrasti ) is an annual plant that yields a strong, coarse, grayish - white lustrous fiber with characteristics similar to jute. it has been extensively grown in china and was introduced into north america where it can thrive. the fibers have great tensile strength, take dyes readily and are used in china for making rugs and paper. kenaf ( hibiscus cannabinus ) is a tall herb that yields a fiber with has over 129 names, among them deccan, ambari or gambo hemp, java jute and mesta fiber. it is a substitute for hemp and jute in the manufacture of coarse canvas, gunnysacks, cordage, matting and fishing nets. the plant is adapted to a wide range of climates and soils. harvest is right after the flowers come into bloom. the fibers are 5 - 10 ft. long and are usually extracted by retting. kenaf seed yields up to 20 percent of edible oil on being refined. roselle or rama ( hibiscus sabdariffa ) is cultivated in india, southeastern asia and some pacific islands as a substitute for jute and for its edible fruit. the light - brown fibers are silky, soft and lustrous. roselle is adapted to well - drained fertile soil where there is a 20 - in. rainfall. it grows fast and can be harvested 90 days after planting. retting is accomplished in 10 - 12 days, and the fibers are easily slipped from the bark. the red fleshy calices and involucels surrounding the young fruits are acid and provide a sour relish. the juice is used for flavoring and in making jellies, jams and wine. aramina or cadillo ( urena lobata ) occurs as a weed in most tropical countries. it provides a yellowish - white fiber that is more durable than ju


used for flavoring and in making jellies, jams and wine. aramina or cadillo ( urena lobata ) occurs as a weed in most tropical countries. it provides a yellowish - white fiber that is more durable than jute and is used as a substitute in some industries. it has been grown commercially in cuba, madagascar, nigeria, the congo and brazil where it is made into coffee sacks. other malvaceous species that yield fibers but which are of minor importance include okra, hibiscus esculentus, majagua, hibiscus tiliaceus, and several species of the genus sida. sida acuta is an extremely easy plant to harvest and prepare and the fibers are twice as strong as jute. the amerindians used the bast fibers of different plant for their bowstrings, nets, etc. colorado river hemp, sesbania exaltata, was widely used by the western groups, while indian hemp, apocynum cannabinum, and milkweed, asclepias syriaca, yielded important fibers for eastern groups of amerindians. this is a premier cordage material that is obtained from several species of wild plantain or banana. musa textilis is the principal source. it resembles the true banana but has narrow more tufted leaves and inedible fruits. the plant forms a clump of 12 - 30 sheathing leafstalks 10 - 20 ft. high with a crown of spreading leaf blades 3 - 6 ft long. the fiber is secured from the outer portion of the leafstalks. mature stalks are cut at the roots and split open lengthwise. the pulp and the fiber strands are removed, and the strands are washed and dried. individual fibers are 6 - 12 ft. long, lustrous and variable in color from white to light ocher. they are light, elastic, stiff and very strong, durable and resistant to both fresh and salt water. therefore, the main use of abaca has been in the manufacture of high - grade cordage, especially marine cables. plastic cables are frequently substituted but they are not as easy to manage on ships as true abaca. other products made from this kind of hemp are binder twine, bagging, strong tissue paper, papier - mache, wrapping paper and manila paper for sacks. in japan manila hemp was used in making movable partitions in houses. the individual fibers cannot be spun, but strands of


peninsula produced most of the crop. the leaves bear spines that make them difficult to handle. the light straw colored fiber is scraped out from the leaf tissue. it is hard, elastic and wiry, measuring 2 - 5 ft. in length. it was used mainly for binder twine, lariats and durable mats. it is not suited for marine or hoisting cables, as it is heavy and weak. tablemats constructed from this fiber have a beautiful luster and are resistant to stains. agave letonae from el salvador is a related species. production declined dramatically by the 21st century. this is very similar in appearance to henequen but the leaves bear few spines. native to mexico and central america it was cultivated in hawaii, the east and west indies and in several parts of africa. the plant is very drought resistant and will grow where other species fail. little cultivation is required. the coarse, stiff, light yellow to white fibers are removed, cleaned, dried and packed in bales for shipment. synthetic fibers also largely replaced sisal by the 21st century. in ancient times there were several fibers used in mexico under the names of istle, ixtle or tampico fiber. three species of most importance are jaumaveistle, agave funkiana, tula istle, a. lecheguilla, and palma istle, samuela carnerosana. several species of yucca were also grouped under the category of istle. the fibers are obtained from immature leaves of wild plants. although these fibers are shorter than those of sisal and henequen, they are very strong and durable. they were formerly used for brushes and as a cheap substitute for sisal and abaca to make bagging, twine and rope. manila maguey or cantala, agave cantala, is a species from mexico that was introduced into india and southeastern asia. it was grown commercially in the philippines, java and elsewhere as a substitute for sisal. mexican maguey is obtained from different species of agave and the fibers are valued only locally by the inhabitants of the region in which it grows. it was nevertheless a highly valued plant by amerindians who used it to make the fermented beverages of pulque and mescal. leaves of the green aloe, furcraea gigantea, are the source of mauritius hemp. the plant is native to tropical america but is grown worldwide, where local inhabitants use its fiber. it has


of tropical africa, s. roxburghiana of india and s. zeylanica of sri lanka. several species were introduced into north america among which is the florida bowstring hemp, s. longifolia. this is a term applied to the short, coarse and rough fibers that make up a large part of the husk of coconut fruits, cocos nucifera. it is the only prominent fiber that is obtained from fruits. unripe coconuts are soaked in salt water for several months to loosen the fibers. they are then beaten to separate the fibers that are then washed and dried. the product has varied uses. in tropical asia and pacific islands it is the source of sennit braid that is used for cables, small cordage and hawsers. coconut fibers are superior to all others for this purpose because they re very light and elastic and resistant to water. coir has also been used for brush bristles, doormats, sacks, floor coverings, some textiles, upholstery, and stuffing for the bearings of railroad cars and as a substitute for oakum. sri lanka has been the center for commercial production. in puerto rico coir was used in horticulture as a substitute for peat. pineapple, ananas comosus, is the source of fibers of great strength and fine qualities. they are shiny white, very durable and flexible and are not harmed by water. when grown for the fiber pineapples are planted closer together and develop longer leaves. the best fibers are gathered from leaves that have not attained their maximum length. two - year old leaves are usually harvested and the fibers scraped out by hand, which is an expensive process. after drying and combing, the fibers are tied end to end and can be woven. in the philippines pina cloth is one of the most delicate and expensive of fabrics made from these fibers. aechmea magdalenae is a plant that resembles pineapple. it is native to the dry alluvial soils from southern mexico to ecuador. the long leaves have a fiber of high quality known as pita floja or pita. these fibers are the basis of one of the most ancient and most important native industries in oaxaca and have also been used in central america and colombia. the fibers are 5 - 8 ft. long, white or light cream colored, lustrous, finer and more flexible than other hard fibers and with a high tensile strength. they are very resistant to salt water so they are used to make fish lines and nets.


5 - 8 ft. long, white or light cream colored, lustrous, finer and more flexible than other hard fibers and with a high tensile strength. they are very resistant to salt water so they are used to make fish lines and nets. they are also used for sewing leather. this fiber is a substitute for jute. it is from neoglaziovia variegata a bromeliad of the dry, hot arid areas of northeastern brazil. the leaves yield a soft, flexible, white elastic fiber three times as strong as jute. caroa is used for rugs, sacks, textiles, cordage, twine and paper. brushes, brooms and whisks are made from various vegetable fibers. these fibers need to be strong, stiff and elastic with a high flexibility. sometimes whole twigs, fine stems or roots are used, or the fibers are secured from leafstalks. several important brush fibers are as follows : a few species of palms that grow in tropical america and africa are the source of brush fibers called commercially piassava, piassaba or bass fiber. these trees have leaf stalks or leaf sheaths that yield the stiff, coarse, brown or black fibers in making brushes for sweeping large areas such as sidewalks and streets west african piassava is obtained from a wine palm, raphia vinifera that grows in profusion in the tidal bayous and creeks of liberia and other parts of west africa. the leafstalks are retted and the bundles beaten. the long fibers are used to make mats and brushes. a wine is fermented from the palm tree sap. brazilian piassava is from two species of palm found in profusion in the lowlands of the amazon and orinoco regions. attalea funifera is the source of bahia piassava. the fibers are wiry, stiff and brown and almost like bristles. they are removed from the swollen bases of the leafstalks with an ax. they have been used primarily for street - cleaning machine brushes because the fibers are very durable and retain their resiliency even when wet. para piassava fibers are formed on the margins of the leaf petioles of leopoldinia piassaba. they are used not only for brushes and brooms but also for hats, baskets and ropes. some other coarse fibers such as palmyra and kittul fiber are classed as piassava in commerce. palmyra fiber is from the palmyra palm, borassus flabellifer, of the east indies