was that illustrious sons were born unto them. thus zarathushtra himself was born unto pourushaspa because the latter praised haoma. 296 zarathushtra, the poet says, thereupon paid homage to the angel, and proclaimed his cult as the most praiseworthy. 297 295 y9. 3, 4. 296 y9. 6 - 13. haoma ’ s titles. the standing epithet of haoma is ' far from death. ’ he is the powerful one, and rules according to his will. 298 he is the lord of knowledge and possesses good wisdom. 299 he is the healing one, beautiful, lordly, and of golden eyes. 300 299 y9. 27 ; 10. 2. 300 yt9. 17 ; 10. 88. 17. 37. his gifts. zarathushtra invokes haoma and asks from him intelligence, courage, victory, health, increase, prosperity, vigour of body, and power to rule at will, and to smite the wicked that he may vanquish the evil done by the wicked men and demons. 301 the prophet further prays to him for health of the body, long duration of life, the all - shining abode of the righteous, the realization of his wishes on earth, a complete triumph over the wicked and a foreknowledge of the evil intents of the wicked : 302 haoma bestows these boons upon him, haoma in like manner gives knowledge to the aspiring students, husbands to the ripening maidens, beautiful offspring and righteous progeny to women, and paradise to the righteous. 303 the devout worshipper, in return, dedicates his very body to him. 304 piety accompanied by joy enters the house in which haoma dwells. 305 301 y. 9. 17, 18. 303 y9. 22, 23 ; 11. 10. 304 y10. 14 ; 11. 10. haoma implored to rout the wicked. this angel is invoked to guard the faithful from the harm of the wicked, to take away the power of their hands and feet and to confuse their minds, so that they cannot behold the universe with both their eyes. 306 he is besought to hurl his weapons at the skulls of the wicked for the protection of the righteous, 307 and to crush the thought of the maligner. 308 haoma ' s due. haoma is to be propitiated with sacrifice. among other objects animals were sacrificed in the


the skulls of the wicked for the protection of the righteous, 307 and to crush the thought of the maligner. 308 haoma ' s due. haoma is to be propitiated with sacrifice. among other objects animals were sacrificed in the zoroastrian ritual unto the angels, and the different parts of the consecrated flesh were allotted to the various yazatas. the pahlavi books elaborately treat the question of reserving particular parts of the animal for the various yazatas. we are told that ahura mazda has set apart for haoma as his share in the sacrifice the jaw - bone, the tongue, and the left eye of the immolated animal. 309 in general this is also in accordance with the statement of herodotus310 regarding the persian acts of sacrifice in worship. 310 herod. 1. 132. haoma ' s curse. haoma does not give good children of priestly virtues to the woman who wrongfully partakes of the sacred cake consecrated to him. 311 whosoever deprives haoma of his portion in the sacrifice, displeases him, and the penalty he pays for this slight to haoma is that a priest, a warrior, or a husbandman is not thereafter born in his house. 312 the faithful is exhorted to propitiate him with his due portion, lest the offended angel should bind him with heavy iron chains as he bound franrasyan. 313 haoma pronounces his curse of being childless and of evil name and fame against those who, like thieves, rob him of his legitimate portion in the sacrifice. 314 he hurled down the arrogant keresani from his 312 y11. 5, 6. haoma, king of plants. haoma is the sovereign lord of all plants among both the indians and the iranians. physically it is the plant that grows on the highest summits of mount hara berezaiti, the modern alburz. 316 according to the vedic texts, it grows on the mount mujavat. the birds carried it from there in all directions. 317 an eagle brought it down, says the veda. 318 the nourishing earth is its mother where it grows in vales and dales, spreading sweet perfume all around. 319 it is of golden hue, say both, and the celestial drink prepared from its branches is most invigorating and profitable for the soul of man. 319a indulgence in intoxicating beverages causes wrath and strife, quarrel and confusion


319 it is of golden hue, say both, and the celestial drink prepared from its branches is most invigorating and profitable for the soul of man. 319a indulgence in intoxicating beverages causes wrath and strife, quarrel and confusion, but the drink of haoma is accompanied by righteousness and piety. 320 it confers immortality. it is the source of righteousness. 321 haoma grows in abundance when it is praised by man. the pounding of the haoma juice for sacrifice is tantamount to the destruction of the demons by thousands. 322 misery vanishes and happiness and health enter the house in which haoma is prepared. 323 the exhilarating drink gives inspiration and enlightenment to his supplicant and makes the beggar ' s mind as exalted as that of the rich. 324 the faithful pray that the healing remedies of haoma may reach them for the strength of their bodies. 325 there is a close affinity between the haoma - soma cults and the rituals performed to celebrate them have great resemblance to each other. we shall notice it in our chapter on rituals. 318 rv. 3. 43. 7 ; 4. 26. 6, etc. 320 y10. 8 ; yt17. 5. physically she stands for plenty, morally for piety. on the physical side ashi vanghuhi, or good sanctity, is the guardian of earthly riches. she fills the barns of men with grain and with cattle, their coffers with gold, the fields with foliage, the chests of virtuous women with ornaments and their boxes with fine garments. 326 she brings happiness, cattle, fodder, and protection to him to whom the glory cleaves. 327 on the ethical side she personifies sanctity and thus represents spiritual riches. she is also the giver of the mental riches unto men, that is, the bright understanding and the innate wisdom. 328 ahura mazda is her father and spenta armaiti, the embodiment of holy devotion, is her mother. the archangels, as well as sraosha, rashnu, and mithra, are her brothers, and daena, the genius of the holy faith of zarathushtra, is her sister. 329 as the genius of plenty she joins mithra, who increases pastures and fodder. 330 the seventeenth yasht is dedicated to her. parendi, chisti, erethe, and rasanstat are invoked


her sister. 329 as the genius of plenty she joins mithra, who increases pastures and fodder. 330 the seventeenth yasht is dedicated to her. parendi, chisti, erethe, and rasanstat are invoked in her company. 331 331 yt17. 62 ; sr. 1. 25. ashi ' s attributes. she is bright, exalted, well - formed, well worthy of sacrifice, possessed of the bright chariot, courageous, giver of weal and health. 332 she is beautiful, shining with joy, and far - reaching through radiance. 333 she, the exalted one, is well - made and of noble origin ; she rules at her will and is possessed of glory in her body. 334 she, the courageous one, carries all desirable things in her hands. 335 she is the protector, guardian, helper, healer, smiter of the malice of the demons and of the wicked men, the giver of good gifts, blessings, and success, and the bestower of the greatest, best, and the fairest reward unto men. 336 she comes in the shape of a well - built, beautiful, tall, high - up girded maiden of noble birth. 337 332 y2. 14 ; 57. 3 ; yt17. 1 ; sr. 2. 25. her supplicants. haoshyangha, yima, thraetaona, haoma, haosravah, before zoroaster, as well as the prophet himself and king vishtaspa, his royal patron and helper in the propagation of the new faith, are among the most illustrious of her supplicants. these worshippers severally offered her sacrifices and asked for various boons from her, which she granted in answer to their prayers. 338 the most favoured among her votaries is zarathushtra himself ; for him her loving regard is great. 339 this is because the prophet himself is the visible embodiment of sanctity on earth and the promoter of righteousness among men. 338 yt17. 24 - 26, 28 - 31, 33 - 35, 37 - 39, 41 - 43, 45 - 47, 49 - 52, 61. her work. she is ever ready to help the faithful. she leads to rectitude. 340 she goes to those who invoke her from near or afar with pious libations. 341 the house which ashi graces with


. her work. she is ever ready to help the faithful. she leads to rectitude. 340 she goes to those who invoke her from near or afar with pious libations. 341 the house which ashi graces with her presence becomes full of perfume. 342 happy indeed is the man whom ashi attends, for riches, abundance, and prosperity spring in his house. the kings whom she favours have kingdoms rich in snorting horses, sounding chariots, flashing swords, large tributes, and an abundance of rich food. 343 happy indeed are they whom ashi attends, for they come by well - furnished houses wherein live righteous persons, rich in cattle, who have well - adorned beds, with rich cushions, and with feet inlaid with gold. 344 their wives and daughters have square bored earrings and necklaces of gold. 345 and the men on whom ashi, the genius of fortune, smiles have hoards of silver and gold and rich garments and swift and loud neighing horses and chariots, and large - humped, fiery camels, and weapons of war. 346 glory is his whom she, in her goodness, attends. 347 the devout pray and implore her not to turn her face from them and withhold her kindness from them. 348 that ashi may not quit their houses, is the fervent prayer of the faithful ; 349 and the fravashis are invoked by the righteous to bring the blessed ashi into their abodes. 350 the householder prays that she may come and stay in his house. 351 she follows the generous man who causes joy unto the righteous poor by his liberal gifts, and the moment she puts her one foot in the house, it is filled with a thousand fold flocks and horses and virtuous offspring. 352 zarathushtra asks ashi to bestow her gifts upon king vishtaspa. 353 the twenty - sixth day of the month is sacred to her. 354 341 yt17. 2. 345 yt17. 10, 11. what offends ashi most. she is grieved at the sight of maidens who remain unmarried for a long time. 355 she does not accept the libations offered by sterile persons and wicked courtesans. 356 as the zealous guardian of the sanctity of matrimony, she abhors the wife who is untrue to the nuptial tie, the woman who violates the law of cha


and wicked courtesans. 356 as the zealous guardian of the sanctity of matrimony, she abhors the wife who is untrue to the nuptial tie, the woman who violates the law of chastity, and the adulteress who sells her body for profit or pleasure. 357 three times does she raise her wailing at such a shameful display of unchastity and longs either to flee to the heavens or sink into the earth, whereupon ahura mazda consoles her and leads her to his celestial abode. 358 357 yt17 ; 57, 58. ashi ' s associate. parendi, as the female genius of riches, plenty, and activity, is identical with the vedic puramdhi, the goddess of plenty. she is the constant companion of ashi vanghuhi, and is invoked with her. 359 she is active in thought, active in word, and active in deed, and gives activity to man ' s body. 360 she moves about in a light chariot. 361 as the impersonation of earthly riches parendi accompanies the celestial car of mithra, the lord of wide pastures, or again she attends tishtrya. the genius of rain, in furthering the prosperity of the earth. 362 zarathushtra invokes her to enrich king vishtaspa. 363 359 y13. 1 ; 38. 2 ; yt8. 38 ; 10. 66 ; sr. 1. 25 ; 2. 25. 360 vsp. 7. 2. 361 yt8. 38 ; 24. 9 ; sr. 1. 25 ; 2. 25. 362 yt8. 38 : 10. 66. the female genius of cattle. she is a female genius of the animal world. as the guardian of herds, she is invoked in company with geush tashan and geush urvan. 364 a yasht ( 9 ) is consecrated to her and bears her name, or more familiarly that of gosh or geush urvan. drvaspa moves about in her own chariot of sounding wheels. mazda has made her heroic and righteous. she is the bestower of health upon the cattle and kine. she watches well from afar, gives welfare and long continuing friendship. she is nourishing, courageous, well formed, possessed of weal, giver of health, and powerful helper of the righteous. 365 36


the cattle and kine. she watches well from afar, gives welfare and long continuing friendship. she is nourishing, courageous, well formed, possessed of weal, giver of health, and powerful helper of the righteous. 365 364 sr. 1. 14 ; 2. 14. her sacrificers. the yasht gives a list of her supplicants who have asked her to grant them various boons. they are the same persons that invoke ashi vanghuhi and pray for the same boons that they ask from her. the only difference between the forms of invoking drvaspa and ashi is that no offering is made to ashi by any of her supplicants, whereas in the case of drvaspa we see that with the exception of haoma and zarathushtra the other heroes, haoshyangha, yima. thraetaona, haosravah, and vishtaspa, bring to her offerings of a hundred horses, a thousand oxen, ten thousand small cattle, and the libations. 366 366 yt9. 3 - 5, 8 - 11, 13. 15, 17 - 19, 21 - 23, 25 - 27, 29 - 32. geush tashan and geush urvan drvaspa ’ s associates. we have seen above in the gathas among the impersonations of the animal world two distinct beings geush tashan, geush urvan. gav azi represented the joy - giving cattle. in the later avestan texts geush tashan appears about six times. 367 we do not hear anything more definite regarding him than the fact that he is invoked by name along with other tutelary divinities. it may indeed be emphasized that he is entirely unknown from the time of the pahlavi period onward. geush urvan is invoked in company with geush tashan and drvaspa. 368 gav azi occurs but once. the master of a house is enjoined to give a gav azi, or a three - year - old cow, to the cleanser who imparted him bodily purification. 369 verethraghna, the angel of victory, complains before zarathushtra that the mischief of the demons and their worshippers increases upon earth because men do not offer sacrifices to geush urvan. 370 367 y1. 2 ; 39. 1 ; 70. 2 ;


victory, complains before zarathushtra that the mischief of the demons and their worshippers increases upon earth because men do not offer sacrifices to geush urvan. 370 367 y1. 2 ; 39. 1 ; 70. 2 ; vsp. 9. 5 ; sr. 1. 14 ; wfr. 6. 1. 368 y1. 2 ; 39. 1 ; 70. 2 ; vsp. 9. 5 ; sr. 1. 14 ; 2. 14. 369 vd. 9. 37. | the sun deified. hvarekhshaeta is the shining sun as well as the genius presiding over him. the sixth yasht and the first nyaish are consecrated to him ; but in fact the first two nyaishes celebrate hvarekhshaeta and mithra conjointly. these two litanies, moreover, are always recited together during the day time. the treatment of the sun - yazata, like that of surya, the sun in the rig veda, and the physical sun as a phenomenon of nature is so complicated that it is difficult in many instances to distinguish the one from the other. it is not so much havarekhshaeta in the capacity of an angel that figures here, as does hvarekhshaeta, the sun itself. the writer of the hymn in honour of hvarekhshaeta is more interested in depicting the movements of the sun itself as the orb of day than in giving account of the yazata, or presiding genius of the sun. we have a vivid picture of the sun ' s movements, its rising and setting, its power to rout the fiends of uncleanness and impurity, but we have hardly anything which treats of the spiritual personality behind this great luminary of nature. the worship of the brilliant sun must have preceded the period of its deification, and the poet cannot quite rid himself of the fascination of the primitive form of nature - worship. the physical phenomenon of the sun is always present before the mind of the writer ; and there is very little attempt to address the presiding genius through his visible image, the concrete representative being the direct object of praise and glorification. the sun rises up above the mountain hara berezaiti and enters upon his daily career. 371 | | 371 yt10. 118 ; vd. 21. 5. | hvarekhshaeta is invoked by his name, and his


up above the mountain hara berezaiti and enters upon his daily career. 371 | | 371 yt10. 118 ; vd. 21. 5. | hvarekhshaeta is invoked by his name, and his standing epithets are ' the imperishable, radiant, and the swift - horsed. ' ovid attests that a horse was consecrated to the sun for the reason that the sun itself was swift moving like the horse. 372 several classical writers write about the homage and sacrifice offered by the persians to the sun. a white horse of the best nisaean breed was selected for the sacrifice to the sun. 373 a white chariot, covered with garlands was sacred to the sun. 374 a temple consecrated to the sun, with a priestess of the royal family at its head, is mentioned. 375 | | 372 fasti, 1. 385, 386. 373 gray, op. cit., p. 85, 86 ; fox and pemberton, op. cit., p. 16, 41, 67, 69, 84. 374 xenophon, cyropaedia, 8. 3. 12 ; dio chrysostom, orationes, 36, 39. 375 flavius vopiscus, aurelianus, 5. 5. | the amesha spentas are all of one accord with the sun. 376 when the sun warms with its light, a hundred and a thousand spiritual yazatas gather its glory and distribute it upon the earth for the furtherance of the world of righteousness. 377 when the sun rises up, purification comes unto the earth and unto the standing and flowing waters and unto the waters of the wells and seas, and unto the righteous creation of the holy spirit. 378 if indeed the sun were not to rise high up, the demons would destroy all things that are in the seven regions. not even the spiritual angels would find means to withstand and repel them. 379 the offering of sacrifice unto the sun in order to withstand darkness and demons, thieves and robbers, sorcerers and enchantresses, is equivalent to sacrificing unto ahura mazda, amesha spentas, the yazatas, earthly and heavenly, and one ' s own soul. 380 the demons who, in the darkness of night, come out by the million from the bowels of the earth, glide away as soon as the sun mounts the sky and


yazatas, earthly and heavenly, and one ' s own soul. 380 the demons who, in the darkness of night, come out by the million from the bowels of the earth, glide away as soon as the sun mounts the sky and the world is ablaze with its. light. though they feast in the night time, as darkness is congenial to their nature, they fast during the day, for light is destructive to their being. when the light of hvarekhshaeta breaks through the darkness of night, it drives away, not only darkness, but defilement, disease, and death. like the moon and the stars, it grieves the sun to shine upon a defiled person. 381 ahura mazda has the sun for his eye. 382 in the vedic literature, the sun is similarly spoken of as the eye of mitra varuna. 383 in the litany to the sun, homage is paid to the two eyes of ahura mazda, 384 which are evidently the sun and the moon. the heavens bathed in the light of the sun form his garments. 385 the eleventh day of the month is sacred to him. 386 | | 377 yt6. 1 ; ny1. 11. 378 yt6. 2 ; ny1. 12. 379 yt6. 3 ; ny1. 13. 380 yt6. 4 ; ny1. 14. 381 vd. 9. 41. 382 y1. 11 ; 3. 13 ; 4. 16 ; 7. 13 ; 22. 13 ; 68. 22. 383 rv. l. 115. 1 ; 6. 51. l ; 7. 61. 1, 63. 1 ; 10. 37. 1. 385 yt13. 3. leprosy is especially regarded as a consequence of sinning against the sun, and herodotus tells us that persons affected with the disease were not permitted to enter a town. 387 387 herod. 1. 138. | the moon personified. herodotus writes that the moon is the tutelary divinity of persia. 388 the case of this nature divinity is analogous to that of the sun. maonghah is at one and the same time the moon and the personification of the moon. the seventh yasht and the third nyaish are dedicated to this divine personage. here also we find throughout the description of the waxing and the waning of the moon,


same time the moon and the personification of the moon. the seventh yasht and the third nyaish are dedicated to this divine personage. here also we find throughout the description of the waxing and the waning of the moon, the periods of the new and the full moons, and the benefit that the light of the moon imparts to the world. we hear much of the concrete moon, but very little of the abstract person of the angel. the sole - created bull, the progenitor of the animal world, is invoked along with the moon. 389 the moon waxes and wanes through ahura mazda. 390 the amesha spentas gather the glory of the moon and distribute it upon the earth. 391 when the moon warms up with its light, the golden coloured plants grow up from the earth during the spring. 392 | | 388 herod. 7. 37. 389 sr. 1. 12 ; 2. 12. 390 yt7. 2 ; ny3. 4. 391 yt7. 3 ; ny3. 5. 392 yt7. 4 ; ny3. 6. the moon is constantly spoken of as the possessor of the seed of the bull. 393 the moon is furthermore described as the bestower, radiant, glorious, possessed of water, possessed of warmth, possessed of knowledge, wealth, riches, discernment, weal, verdure, good, and the healing one. 394 the twelfth day of the month is dedicated to the moon. 395 393 see gray, in spiegel memorial volume, p. 160 - 168. 394 yt7. 5 ; ny3. 7. | deification of the endless light. anaghra raochah means the endless light. it is the celestial light as opposed to the earthly light. 396 in the order of naming the various kinds of heavenly lights, anaghra raochah comes after the stars, moon and the sun. 397 like the stars, the moon, and the sun, this supreme light stood without motion until the fravashis or the guardian spirits showed it its path of movement. 398 | | 397 y71. 9 ; yt12. 35 ; 13. 57 ; g. 3. 6. anaghra raochah is personified as a yazata, being invoked at the sacrifice, 399 and the thirtieth day of the zoroastrian calendar bears


35 ; 13. 57 ; g. 3. 6. anaghra raochah is personified as a yazata, being invoked at the sacrifice, 399 and the thirtieth day of the zoroastrian calendar bears his name. in a couple of instances we find paradise and the bridge of judgment, likewise apam napat, haoma, dahma afriti, and damoish upamana, invoked along with anaghra raochah. 400 it is the name of the highest paradise. 401 399 y1. 16 ; 16. 6 ; 71. 9 ; sr. 1. 30 ; 2. 30 ; vd. 19. 35. 400 sr. 1. 30 ; 2. 30. firmament deified. in its original meaning asman means the sky ; it is later personified as the genius of the sky, and invoked as a yazata. 402 he is shining, exalted, and powerful. asman and vahishta ahu, or paradise, are invoked together, 403 and the twenty - seventh day of the zoroastrian month is called after the name of asman. 402 y1. 16 ; 16. 6 ; sr. 1. 27 ; 2. 27. 403 sr. 1. 27 ; 2. 27. the female divinity of dawn. ushah is identical with the vedic ushas, and is the female divinity of the dawn in both religions, thus coming down from the common indo - iranian period. it is she who announces as the first glimpse of light, to creation, the approach of dawn. ushah ' s personality is very faintly pronounced both in the rig veda and in the younger avestan texts. the vedic poets have, however, produced most exquisite lyric poetry in praise of the dawn in about twenty hymns. there is only a short avestan hymn in prose composed to celebrate the dawn and even this has but six lines devoted to the subject of the composition. here she is described as beautiful, resplendent, possessed of bright steeds, blessed, and heroic ; and her light illumines all the seven zones. 404 auxiliaries to ushah are ushahina and berejya and nmanya. in fact ushahina, who is also a male personification of dawn, is the name of the fifth period of the day, and the prayer consecrated to ushah bears his name. the priest at the sacrifice undertakes


all other stars, even as he has ordained zarathushtra as the spiritual lord of all mankind. 411 the creator has made him as worthy of sacrifice, as worthy of invocation, as worthy of propitiation, and as worthy of glorification as himself. 412 according to plutarch he is established as a scout over all other stars. 413 410 yt8. 12 ; ny1. 8. 412 yt8. 50, 52. 413 is. et os. 47. | the sacrificial offerings enable tishtrya to work with added vigour and strength. tishtrya smites the wicked fairies. 414 like verethraghna, he takes upon himself successive forms when he goes out for active work. he moves forward in the heavens for the first ten nights of the month in the form of a young man, for the next ten nights in the form of a bull, and then for the last ten nights in the shape of a white beautiful horse. 415 in accordance with the will of ahura mazda and the archangels, he traverses the most distant parts of the earth, 416 and the iranian countries long for his advent, for it is through him that the country will witness a year of plenty or of drought. 417 men and beasts, the waters and all, look eagerly to the rising of the star tishtrya, as he will send a flood of rain to fertilize their waste lands with water and bestow riches upon the earth, if the righteous faithfully offer him praise and worship. 418 the farmer yearns for a few drops of tishtrya ' s rain to moisten his parched fields, the gardener longs for a shower to brighten the foliage. the land smiles with rich harvests as a result of his fertilizing waters. | | 414 yt8. 8, 39, 40, 51 - 55. 415 yt8. 13, 16, 18 ; vd. 19. 37. tishtrya complains before ahura mazda about the indifference of men who do not sacrifice unto him. when invoked with sacrifice, as are the other angels, he is willing to hasten to the help of the righteous, whether for a single night, or two or fifty nights, or even a hundred nights. 419 tishtrya affirms that owing to his power to further righteousness, he is worthy of sacrifice and invocation, and if people will offer him libations


night, or two or fifty nights, or even a hundred nights. 419 tishtrya affirms that owing to his power to further righteousness, he is worthy of sacrifice and invocation, and if people will offer him libations and haoma in sacrifice, he will grant them heroic children, and purity unto their souls, the riches of oxen and horses. 420 he pours down water in abundance upon the earth, brings prosperity unto the whole creation, when he receives the offering of a sacrifice and is propitiated, rejoiced, and satisfied. 421 never, in that event, would the hostile horde invade the countries, nor would any calamity or evil of any kind befall them. 422 yet in spite of all this, the bounteous kindness of tishtrya grants boons to his votary whether he prays for them or not. 423 his fight with the demon of drought. tishtrya is opposed in his work of producing rain by his adversary apaosha, the demon of drought, who keeps back the rain. the tishtrya yasht gives a picturesque account of the struggle between them. in the combat with the fiend that holds the world in clutch through famine and drought, apaosha, who appears in the form of a terrifying black horse, assaults his opponent and in their opening combat succeeds in forcing tishtrya to retreat. worsted by the fiend, tishtrya mourns his defeat and complains that men do not sufficiently sacrifice unto him as they do unto other celestial powers, for had they not been sparing in their invocation, he would have been able to bring a further strength of ten horses, of ten camels, of ten oxen, of ten mountains, and of ten rivers to his side. ahura mazda himself, thereupon, offers a sacrifice unto tishtrya and thus imparts new strength to him. thus emboldened, he now, with renewed vigour, attacks his rival for the second time, and after a fierce struggle overcomes him. his triumph is hailed as the triumph of the waters, plants, and the religion of mazda, for tishtrya is now in a position to bring prosperity to the country. 424 ahura mazda, the amesha spentas, as well as mithra, ashi vanghuhi, and parendi, are among those that help tishtrya in this war of the elements for the benefit of mankind425 a


ahura mazda, the amesha spentas, as well as mithra, ashi vanghuhi, and parendi, are among those that help tishtrya in this war of the elements for the benefit of mankind425 a star - yazata. the other important star - yazata besides tishtrya who is classed among the spiritual beings is vanant. the twentieth yasht is composed in his honour. tradition assigns to him the special work of guarding the gates of the great alburz round which the sun, moon and the stars revolve, and accounts him as the leader of a constellation in the western heavens in the war against the planets. in the avestan yasht bearing this star - yazata ' s name, vanant is specially invoked to give help to smite the noxious creatures of angra mainyu. 426 some spells to this effect, composed in the pazend language, are later appended to this particular yasht. it is elsewhere stated in the avesta that ahura mazda has created him, 427 and that the faithful ask him for strength and victory to enable them to remove distress and tyranny. 427a 427 yt8. 12 ; ny1. 8. an acolyte of tishtrya. the star satavaesa is also personified, but his individuality is very faintly pronounced. he has no yasht or hymn composed to glorify him. as an acolyte of tishtrya, he causes the waters of the sea vourukasha to flow down to the seven zones for the nourishment of plants and animals, and for the fertility and prosperity of the aryan nations. 428 428 yt8. 9 ; 13. 43 ; sr. 1. 13 ; 2. 13. another acolyte of tishtrya. this constellation, ursa major, is also raised to the position of a lesser divinity. ninety - nine thousand nine hundred and ninety - nine fravashis watch over this stellar cluster. 429 the genius of this star is invoked to enable mankind to oppose the evil caused by the sorcerers and fairies. 430 430 yt8. 12 ; sr. 2. 13. the deification of the wind. vayu, or vata, is the indo - iranian impersonation of wind. the terms vayu and vata are variously used to represent either the wind or the genius of wind in both the rig veda


deification of the wind. vayu, or vata, is the indo - iranian impersonation of wind. the terms vayu and vata are variously used to represent either the wind or the genius of wind in both the rig veda and in the avestan texts. yet vayu is chiefly the personification of the wind. as we have already seen, the whole of the ram yasht treats of the exploits of raman ' s comrade vayu. vayu ' s wind is divided into two parts, the good and the evil. the wind is productive of good, but it also causes harm. that part of vayu which is supposed to be the source of harm is branded as evil, and classed among angra mainyu ' s creations. hence the faithful take care to sacrifice unto that part alone of vayu which is the creation of spenta mainyu. 431 the twenty - second day of the month is named after vayu. 432 431 y22. 24 ; 25. 5 ; yt15. 5, 42, 57 ; sr. 1. 21 ; 2. 21. vayu ’ s attributes. the genius of wind is most frequently called ' working on high. ' he strikes terror among all, and fearlessly enters the deepest and the darkest places to smite the demons. 433 he is high - girt, of strong stature, of high foot, of wide breast, of broad thighs, and of powerful eyes. 434 he wears a golden helm and a golden crown, a golden necklace, and golden garment ; he has golden shoes and a golden girdle ; and armed with golden weapons he rides in a golden chariot rolling on golden wheels. 435 a fine image this, to immortalize vayu in a golden statue! the poet gives a long list of the names of vayu, and is very prolific in ascribing high attributes to him. in this the ancient composer follows the yasht dedicated to ahura mazda. in fact vayu is the only angel who is known, like ahura mazda, by many names. the text enumerates about forty - seven of such titles. almost all of these attributes of vayu are derived from the function of vayu as wind, rather than from his activity as the genius of wind. they pertain to the atmospheric phenomenon more than to the abstract ideas about the angel. some of the more important of the names of vayu are as follows : the overtaker, the all - van


from his activity as the genius of wind. they pertain to the atmospheric phenomenon more than to the abstract ideas about the angel. some of the more important of the names of vayu are as follows : the overtaker, the all - vanquishing, the good - doer, the one going forwards and backwards, the destroyer, smiter, usurper, the most valiant, the strongest, the firmest, the stoutest, the vanquisher at one stroke, the destroyer of malice, the liberator, the pervading one, and the glorious. 436 those who offer sacrifices unto vayu. the recital of his names has a great efficacy, and vayu asks zarathushtra to invoke these names in the thick of the battle, or when the tyrant and heretic threaten him with their havocking hordes. the man in heavy fetters finds himself freed upon the recital of these names. 437 vayu is the greatest of the great and the strongest of the strong. the text briefly describes how some of the most illustrious personages invoked vayu and begged of him various boons, and in this connection we may recall that herodotus438 mentions the fact that the persians sacrificed to the winds among other divine forces in nature. the list of vayu ' s supplicants in yasht 15 is headed by ahura mazda himself, who desired the boon that he may smite the creatures of angra mainyu, but that none may smite the creation of spenta mainyu. 439 among the kings, renowned heroes. and other personages who sacrificed unto vayu, and to whom the angel granted their boons, are haoshyangha, takhma urupi, yima, thraetaona, keresaspa, aurvasara, hutaosa, and such maidens as are not yet given in marriage. 440 even the wicked azhi dahaka begged also of him a boon, but vayu rejected his sacrifice. 441 men sacrifice unto vayu with libations and prayers and ask for strength to vanquish their adversaries. 442 vayu asks zarathushtra to invoke him, in order that neither angra mainyu, nor the sorcerers, nor the demons may be able to injure him. 443 438 herod. 1. 131. 440 yt15. 7 - 17, 23 - 41. | the fire cult in iran. the


, and wind on the summits of mountains. 448 dino, the contemporary of alexander, does not mention the fire - temples and says that the persians worshipped in the open air. 449 it may be that the early writers did not come across temples in iran, in the greek sense of the term. but there must certainly have been some kind of structures to protect the sacred fire from being extinguished. strabo450 for the first time mentions in cappadocia places dedicated to fire, and speaks of enclosures with fire altars in the centre. no sacrifices, we are told, were offered to any divinity without the accompaniment of the invocation of fire. these altars, we are further informed by strabo, were filled with ashes over which the sacred fire burned day and night. the magi, he adds, tended the holy flames, and with baresman twigs in their hands daily performed their devotions for about an hour. 451 pausanias ( a. d. 173 ) corroborates this statement from his personal observation in lydia. 452 xenophon and curtius rufus acquaint us with the practice of carrying fire on portable altars in religious processions. 453 446 y62. 3 ; ny5. 9. 447 bh. 1, 14. 448 herod. 1. 131. 449 cited by clemens alexandrinus, protreptica, 5. 65. 1. 450 60 b. c. 451 strabo, p. 733. 452 pausanias, 5. 27. 5, 6. 453 cyropaedia, 8. 3. 11 - 13 ; history of alexander 3. 3. 9 ; see edwards, altar ( persian ) in ere. 1. 346 - 348. atar is both the genius of fire and the element fire itself. as the fire dwells in every house, he is constantly spoken of in the rig veda as the lord of the house. the yasna in the manner calls him the lord of all houses. 454 he is the great yazata. 455 he is the most bountiful, 456 of renowned name457 the beneficent warrior, and full of glory and healing. 458 besides being the angel that presides over fire, atar is also fire as such. the two concepts are often so mixed up together that it becomes difficult to distinguish between the blazing fire burning upon the altar


full of glory and healing. 458 besides being the angel that presides over fire, atar is also fire as such. the two concepts are often so mixed up together that it becomes difficult to distinguish between the blazing fire burning upon the altar and the angel that personifies it. the difficulty is still more increased when we see the fire on the hearth conceived of as speaking and blessing as a person. the householders pray that the fire may ever burn and blaze in their houses. 459 in the vedas, agni is a friend of the man who entertains him as a guest and feeds him with fuel. 460 the fire of mazda, likewise, solicits devotional offerings from those persons for whom he cooks the evening and the morning meal, he looks at the hands of all passers - by, to see if they bring some present for him or not, even as a friend for a friend. when the faithful bring to him fuel, dry and exposed to the light, he is propitiated, and in the fulfillment of his wish blesses the votary with a flock of cattle and a multitude of men, an active mind and an active spirit, and a joyous life. 461 during the three watches of the night atar wakes up the master of the house, the husbandman, and calls sraosh for help. 462 here also it is not so much the angel atar that acts, as it is the fire itself, for the master of the house and the husbandman are asked to wash their hands and bring fuel to it, lest the demon azi should extinguish it. 463 the man who responds with alacrity, and is the first to wake up and tend the fire with dry wood, receives atar ' s blessings. 464 the man who sacrifices unto fire with fuel in his hand, with the baresman in his hand, with milk in his hand, with the mortar for crushing the branches of the sacred haoma in his hand, is given happiness. 465 phoenix of colophon ( 280 b. c. ), cited in athenaeus, speaks of the fire ritual of the magi and mentions the baresman. 466 in the litany to the fire, the faithful are enjoined to feed the fire with fuel that is dry and well exposed to the light, 467 and strabo tells us that the fire - priests fed the sacred fire with dry wood, fat, and oil ; and he further adds that some


of righteousness, atar in company with vohu manah opposes the malice of the evil spirit. 475 when yima, reft of his senses through the kingly glory, revolts from ahura mazda, the glory departs from him and he falls to destruction. 476 it can well be imagined that the monster azhi dahaka should strive to capture the departed glory, but atar intervenes and vanquishes him. 477 | | 473 rv. 10. 98. 11. 476 yt19. 34 - 36, 38. what causes grief to atar. angra mainyu has created the inexpiable crime of burning or cooking dead matter, 478 and the vendidad enjoins capital punishment for those who commit it. 479 we are informed that the persians considered it a mortal sin to defile fire by blowing it with the mouth, or by burning dead matter over it. 480 the achaemenian monarch cambyses roused the indignation of his countrymen when he burnt the corpse of king amasis at sais. 481 it is, therefore, a crime to bring back fire into a house in which a man has died, within nine nights in winter and a month in summer. 482 highly meritorious is the deed of bringing to the fire altar the embers of a fire desecrated by dead matter, and great shall be the doer ' s reward in the next world, when his soul has parted from his body. 483 elaborate rules are accordingly laid down for the purification of the fire defiled by the dead. 484 there is no purification for the man who carries a corpse to the fire. 485 in the case of every pollution of the pure element. atar is inexorable. 478 vd. 1. 16. 479 vd. 8. 73, 74. 480 strabo, p. 732 ; ctesias, persica, 57 ; nicolas damascenus, frag. 68 ; fhg. 3. 409. 481 herodotus, 3. 16. 482 vd. 5. 43, 44. 483 vd. 8. 81, 82. 484 vd. 8. 73 - 80. 485 vd. 7. 25 - 27. mazda ' s celestial herald. nairyosangha corresponds to the vedic narashamsa, generally applied to agni as his epithet. he is express


with mithra says that her cult came to iran from the semites of assyria and arabia. 497 | | 493 yt5. 85, 88, 132. 494 art. sus. a ; ham. 495 see gray, op cit., p. 57, 58 ; fox and pemberton, op. cit., 34 - 39, 58, 66, 68, 79. 496 gray, ib., p. 57. 497 herod. 1. 131. she is celebrated in one of the longest yashts and in 65th chapter of the yasna. she is described as the most courageous, strong, of noble origin, 498 good, and most beneficient. 499 ahura mazda has assigned to her the work of guarding the creation, like a shepherd guarding his fiock. 500 the eighth of the year and the tenth day of the month are named after waters of ardvi sura. 501 499 yt5. 130, 131. 500 yt5. 6, 89. her image in words found in the texts, corresponds with her statue in stone. the text gives a fine descriptive image of the female deity. she is a maiden of fair body, well - shaped, pure, courageous, tall, bright, beautiful, and glorious. upon her head she wears a golden crown studded with a hundred stars and beautifully adorned, square golden earrings adorn her ears, a golden necklace decorates her neck, she wears a golden mantle, she has tightly girded her waist so that her beautiful breasts come out prominently, her white arms graced by elegant bracelets are stouter than a horse, she wears golden shoes, a rich garment of gold or of the skin of the beavers. 502 pliny says that a statue made of solid gold was set up in the temple of anaitis. 503 we have already seen on the authority of berosus that artaxerxes mnemon ( b. c. 404 - 358 ) introduced the worship of the images of anahita among the persians. 504 502 yt5. 7, 15, 64, 78, 123, 126 - 129. 503 historia naturalis, 33, 4 ( 24 ) 82f. 504 cited by clemens alexandrinus, protreptica, 5, 65, 3 ; jackson, images and idols ( persian ) in ere. 7. 151 - 155 ; cf. cumont, ana


24 ) 82f. 504 cited by clemens alexandrinus, protreptica, 5, 65, 3 ; jackson, images and idols ( persian ) in ere. 7. 151 - 155 ; cf. cumont, anahita, in ere. 1. 414, 415. ahura mazda heads the list of the sacrificers who entreat her for various boons. the yasht dedicated to ardvi sura anahita furnishes us with the names of those who have sacrificed unto her and begged of her various boons. the number of her supplicants exceeds that of any other angel. ahura mazda and zarathushtra invoke her, with haoma and baresman, with spells and libations, whereas the majority of her other votaries severally offer her a hundred stallions, a thousand oxen, and ten thousand sheep. haoshyangha, yima, thraetaona, keresaspa, kavi usa, haosravah, tusa, vafra navaza, jamaspa, ashavazdah, the son of pourudakhshti, and ashavazdah and thrita, the sons of sayuzhdri, vistauru, yoishta, the members of the hvova and naotara families, vishtaspa, and zairi - vairi are all granted their diverse boons. these ask for sovereignty over all countries, victory on the battlefield, power to smite the adversaries in battle, to rout the sorcerers and fairies, the fiends and the demons ; they pray likewise for bodily health, wisdom to answer the riddles of heretics, and for riches and swift horses. 505 the boon that ahura mazda seeks is that he may win over zarathushtra to think after his reljgion, to speak after his religion, and to act after his religion ; the prophet in turn begs of her that he may gain to his side the mighty king vishtaspa as a patron to embrace his religion. 506 the rulers and chiefs invoke her that they may defeat their enemies and smite the demons, sorcerers, and fairies, the warriors beg of her swift horses and bodily health and glory, the priests and their disciples pray for knowledge, the maids beseech her to grant them strong husbands. 507 ardvi sura anahita bestows fruitfulness to women ; she


warriors beg of her swift horses and bodily health and glory, the priests and their disciples pray for knowledge, the maids beseech her to grant them strong husbands. 507 ardvi sura anahita bestows fruitfulness to women ; she purifies the seeds of all males and the wombs of all females for bearing. shes, as a divine bestower, gives easy childbirth to all females, and gives them right and timely milk. 508 ardvi sura likewise grants boons unto all, because it lies in her power to do so. the sacrificing priest implores her to come down from the stars to the sacrificial altar, and to grant riches, horses, chariots, swords, food, and plenty to men. 509 she gives health and increases flocks, possessions, and wealth. 510 505 yt5. 21 - 27, 33 - 39, 45 - 55, 61 - 83, 98, 108 - 114. 506 yt5. 17 - 19, 104 - 106. 508 y65. 2 ; yt5. 2, 87 ; ny4. 3 ; vd. 7. 16. 509 yt5. 130 - 132. 510 y65. 1 ; yt5. 1. she refuses to concede the wicked persons their wishes. azhi dahaka wickedly besought her to grant him a boon that he may make all the seven zones empty of men, and the turanian franrasyan sought her favour to secure the glory, and the sons of vaesaka implored her to grant that they may smite the aryan nation by tens of thousands and myriads ; arejat - aspa and vandaremainish craved for the defeat of king vishtaspa, zairivairi, and the aryan nation ; but ardvi sura anahita refused to grant the evil wishes to these national foes of iran. 511 511 yt5. 29 - 31, 41 - 43, 57 - 59, 116 - 118. the offerings of libations. ardvi sura anahita desires that men invoke her with libations and haoma ; 512 these libations are to be drunk by the priest who is well versed in religious lore, and not by any wicked and deformed person. 513 the faithful are to bring libations unto her at any time between the rising and the setting of the


are to be drunk by the priest who is well versed in religious lore, and not by any wicked and deformed person. 513 the faithful are to bring libations unto her at any time between the rising and the setting of the sun. those brought to her after sunset do not reach her ; on the contrary, they go to the demons, who revel in these misdirected offerings. 514 we are informed that the man who dedicates these libations before sunrise or after sunset does no better deed than if he should pour them down into the jaws of a venomous snake. 515 besides invoking ardvi sura anahita as the yazata of water, the waters themselves are collectively invoked to grant boons. zarathushtra is asked to offer a libation to the waters and to ask from them riches, power, and worthy offspring, 516 a happy and a joyful abode in this world and the next, accompanied by riches and glory. 517 the faithful pray that these waters may not be for those of evil thoughts, evil words, evil deeds, and evil religion, neither for the tormentors of their friends, neighbours, relatives, and priests. 518 nor may they be for their evil - wishers, 519 nor for thieves and robbers, murderers and sorcerers, buriers of the dead, jealous and niggard, and heretics and wicked persons. 520 512 yt5. 8, 11, 123, 124. 513 yt5. 92, 93. 514 yt5. 94, 95 ; nr. 68. 515 nr. 48. 517 y68. 13, 14, 21. animal sacrifices to anahita. strabo relates the mode of sacrificing to the waters. the sacrificial animal, we are told, is taken to the bank of a river or a lake ; a ditch is formed into which the animal is killed. the pieces of meat are then placed on myrtle or laurel, and holding tamarisk twigs in his hands, the priest pours oil mixed with honey and milk on the ground and chants the sacred formulas. great care is taken that no drop of blood falls into the water while the animal is being immolated ; nor must the mixture of oil, honey, and milk be poured into water. 521 this precaution is taken lest the waters be defiled. 521 strabo, p. 732. any defile


animal is being immolated ; nor must the mixture of oil, honey, and milk be poured into water. 521 this precaution is taken lest the waters be defiled. 521 strabo, p. 732. any defilement of the waters evokes ardvi sura ' s displeasure. it is sinful to contaminate the waters. such an act incurs great displeasure on the part of the genius of waters. those who wilfully bring dead matter to the waters become unclean for ever and ever. 522 if a man while walking or running, riding or driving, happens to see a corpse ftoating in a river, he must enter the river and go down into the water ankle - deep, knee - deep, waist - deep, nay even a man ' s full depth if need be, and take out the decaying body and place it upon the dry ground exposed to the light of the sun. 523 herodotus informs us that the persians do not make water, wash or bathe in a river. 524 524 herod. 1. 138. ardvi sura ' s chariot. like some of the yazatas, ardvi sura anahita has a chariot of her own, in which she drives forth in majesty. she holds the reins in her own hands, and controls four great chargers who are all of white color, of the same stock, and who smite the malice of all tyrants, demons, wicked men, sorcerers, fairies, oppressors, as well as those who are wilfully blind and wilfully deaf. 525 the text enables us to understand the allegorical statement regarding the steeds that are yoked to her chariot, for we are told that the four chargers of ardvi sura are the wind, the rain, the cloud, and the sleet ; and it was ahura mazda who made them for her. 526 525 yt5. 11, 13. his nature and work. this indo - iranian divinity of waters seems very early to have been eclipsed by anahita, who remains the chief genius presiding over waters in the cult. apam napat ' s vedic counterpart has an aqueous as well as an igneous nature. in the association of the avestan apam napat with the fire angel nairyosangha, spiegel sees traces of this secondary nature. 527 apam napat literally means ' the offspring of waters, ' and


and grace the sacrifice with her presence and be propitiated by it. 540 she is likewise invited to come with her gifts of health, prosperity, renown, the enlightenment of thoughts, words, and deeds, and for the well - being of the soul. 541 she is asked to give offspring that will further the prosperity of the house, village, town, and country and add to the renown of the country. 542 riches and glory, endurance and vigour of body, a long life and the shining, all - happy abode of the righteous are the boons that the devout ask from her. 543 the libations offered her are the most excellent and the fairest, and are filtered by pious men. 544 good thoughts, good words, and good deeds also serve as her libations. 545 the libations offered to ahurani cause joy to ahura mazda and the amesha spentas. 546 541 y68. 3, 4. | the earth deified. the avestan term for earth is zam, from which the angel zam, or zamyat, derives her name. her personality is very insipid as compared with armaiti, who, as we have seen, has the earth under her care and is, in fact, a more active guardian genius of the earth than zamyat. the twenty eighth day of every month is sacred to zamyat. 547 the poet who composed the yasht in honour of zamyat does not sing the glory of his heroine, but occupies himself rather with a description of the mountains of the world, 548 and with the celebration of the divine glory that descends upon the aryan race, symbolizing the greatness of the kings and the consecrated piety of the sainted souls. 549 cyrus, says xenophon, sacrificed animals to the earth as the magians directed. 550 | | 550 cyropaedia, 8. 24. | avesta - - zoroastrian archives | | contents | | prev | | history3 | | next | | glossary |


reflections after 50 years of space a protege of wernher von braun, jesco von puttkamer has spent his long career working in human spaceflight. in this long essay, von puttkamer gives his perspective on humanity ' s next steps into the universe. here he discusses the lessons mars has to teach us. for the longer future, the significance of the iss for the opening of a new era of peaceful cooperation between nations will undoubtedly be of considerably greater import that the important work underway on board today. in the wake of the process of worldwide restructuring and redefinition following the cold war of yesteryear, iss is acting as a catalyst for international understanding and collaboration. it helps to foster and form new partnerships among the nations of the earth, to inspire our youth, and to stimulate and support the next generation of scientists, engineers, entrepreneurs and businessmen. it cannot fail in that because, fundamentally, it represents an answer to the age - old human drive for exploration of the unknown, the push toward new goals and frontiers. i ' ll return to this aspect below. for human missions to mars, the vision discussed here, the space station assumes a key position : as residence in space it will provide a kind of early bridgehead to the new continent outside earth, to our next major goal, mars. first of all, relative to its development and operation, the iss can be considered something like an early " demo " model for a major international mars program in later years. even more, as an orbital research and development facility it establishes and cements, in the longer range, the scientific and technical foundations of future human planetary missions. for the latter, it could also, with appropriate extensions, serve as a transportation node and port - of - embarkation. as mentioned above, foremost among its research objectives are life sciences, particularly with regards to humans in space and all " human factors " associated with protection of health, well - being, and productivity of crews during extended stays in space - which do represent the toughest hurdles on the road to mars. they are : the effects of zero - g and the development of potent countermeasures, protection against radiation, maintenance of stability and productivity of small multi - cultural groups of humans in close confinement and extended isolation, and the development of reliable closed - cycle life - support systems for multi - year missions. these missions also require new technologies such as aerobraking ( to help conserve propellants by utilizing the atmospheres of mars and earth for flight maneuvers ), storage and


development of reliable closed - cycle life - support systems for multi - year missions. these missions also require new technologies such as aerobraking ( to help conserve propellants by utilizing the atmospheres of mars and earth for flight maneuvers ), storage and handling of cryogenics, ( i. e., gases supercooled to liquid form ), new spacesuits with greater flexibility and higher comfort for strenuous activity on the mars surface, solar and nuclear power systems, and local - resources utilization for producing propellants and other substances necessary for life. to shorten flight time and thus reduce the en - route exposure to microgravity and space radiation, human mars missions will also favor nuclear propulsion systems. nasa is studying advanced nuclear propulsion concepts, and our russian iss partner roskosmos is well advanced in the development of nuclear - electric propulsion. our exploration of the red planet is aimed not just at the search for life or later settlement by people but also at nearer - term objectives of quite concrete relevance for the present, motivated by fundamental questions such as why our sun has planets in the first place, how is it possible that earth and with it we humans exist, and is earth ' s and our existence an extraordinary or normal occurrence in the cosmos? why are we in this world, how did it come about, could it also have happened differently, and what will become of us? even more importantly, we are also exploring mars in order to better understand our terrestrial environment, to improve our ability to more accurately determine what we are changing on earth by our activities - on its surface and its atmosphere. mars is particularly well suited for such comparative planetology. the exploration of its topography, geology, geography, atmosphere, weather and climate conditions, developmental phases, indeed the entirety of its physical and chemical characteristics will add fundamentally to our knowledge and understanding of our own environment, thus serving considerably more than just the pure satisfaction of abstract human curiosity. mars ' formation and development still pose great riddles for science : it is the only other planet beside earth with a surface clearly marked by complex geological processes caused by ice ages, glaciers, and flowing water in niagara quantities. and that in a world which is so bone - dry today that all water in its presently considerably thinned - down carbon dioxide atmosphere would form a layer only two to five hundredths millimeter thick if it rained down to the ground all at once. mars has ice fields, mysterious dark zones, bright " deserts ", and various types of cloud formations which are subject to continual


atmosphere would form a layer only two to five hundredths millimeter thick if it rained down to the ground all at once. mars has ice fields, mysterious dark zones, bright " deserts ", and various types of cloud formations which are subject to continual seasonal as well as sporadic changes. it is a world full of wonders and mysteries, sculpted by processes the likes of which have been found nowhere else : it has the highest volcanoes and the greatest canyons in the solar system, with gigantic planetary sand storms, countless dry river beds, and vast, densely branched stream valley networks where water once rushed in torrents. it has polar caps of water ice and frozen carbon dioxide, and there is evidence of underground permafrost deposits and probably also reservoirs of water in liquid state. methane gas was recently discovered to exude from the ground at certain locations, which could be a sign of underground biological activity. thus, it is not completely out of the question that even today adapted alien life forms might be found there. mars, by all appearances, was created around the same time as earth. but if these neighboring worlds had the same beginnings, how could it have happened that they took such distinctly different developmental paths? if scientific research discovers what actually took place when the climate on the planet changed so drastically, how long ago it occurred and why it happened, then we will clearly gain a better understanding also of the history and future of our own climates and environment. one of the reasons for the difference is thought to be the phenomenon of plate tectonics, i. e., the shifting of the separate plates forming earth ' s solid outer shell, the lithosphere : its complete absence on mars could have been the key to the origin of its current conditions. on earth, plate tectonics causes a vertical convection process continuously mixing the materials deep in the earth ' s core, stoked by radioactive decay and the primeval heat of planetary formation ; it thereby intimately connects the complex interactions of atmosphere and oceans with the biosphere. thus, by inference, it appears possible that our plate tectonics could have brought about the earth as we know it, including our life - all terrestrial life. has mars a magnetic field like earth? or are we here, too, the exception among all earth - like planets, perhaps because earth with its iron core is the only planet in the inner solar system sufficiently large and rotating fast enough to generate a significant magnetosphere? this question is of great importance for environmental research because our magnetic field, which shields earth against energetic radiation


cell cycle pathway the cell cycle pathway is a unidirectional process that governs cell division. this process, which cannot be reversed once started, is critical for cell survival. the cell cycle typically involves four phases : s phase, in which dna is replicated, m phase, in which chromosomes are separated and two distinct cells are formed, and g1 and g2 phases during which the cell is preparing for cell division. the majority of the cell cycle pathway is regulated by two classes of proteins : cyclin - dependent kinases ( cdks ) and cyclins. cyclins and cdks form complexes that enable cdks to phosphorylate and activate specific cell cycle intermediates. in the initial stages of the cell - cycle signal, cyclin d will bind to cdk4 and this complex will phosphorylate the retinoblastoma ( rb ) gene. during a quiescent state, rb is bound to dna and blocks the transcription of specific genes. after phosphorylation, rb becomes unbound and genes necessary for the cell cycle are now accessible. the cell cycle pathway is a highly - regulated process that incorporates three major checkpoints. the first checkpoint is the g1 checkpoint, which determines whether or not a cell will enter into the cell division process. the second checkpoint, g2, will determine if the cell will enter into mitosis. both the g1 and g2 checkpoints can be affected by the presence or absence of various growth factors, dna damage, or replicative senescence. the final checkpoint, metaphase, ensures proper chromosome alignment prior to cell division. the cell cycle pathway is intrinsically linked to cell survival and cell death. for instance, failure of a cell to meet the requirements of the individual cell cycle checkpoints will result in the cell undergoing apoptosis. in cancer, the cell cycle checkpoints are often dysfunctional. checkpoint proteins, such as rb or p53, are often mutated or inactivated and this can result in cell division despite incomplete dna synthesis and segregation errors. inappropriate continuation of the cell cycle can lead to genomic instability, which is a common feature of malignant cells. 1. nigg. 1995. cyclin - dependent protein kinases : key regulators of the eukaryotic cell cycle. bioessays. 17 ( 6 ) : 471 - 80.


a number of federal laws and ordinances protect u. s. employees from discrimination in the workplace. these laws are enforced by the u. s. equal employment opportunity commission ( eeoc ). the eeoc is the main entity responsible for upholding and designating all employment laws in the united states, including federal job discrimination. here ' s a look at federal job discrimination laws. civil rights act of 1964 ( title vii ). this act protects employees from job discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. all aspects of employment are covered, including hiring, firing, promotion, wages, recruitment, training, and any other terms of employment. equal pay act of 1963. this act ensures that employees receive the same pay, benefits, and opportunities as those employees of the opposite sex who perform the same work in the same establishment. age discrimination in employment act of 1967. this act protects workers who are 40 years of age or older from job discrimination that favors younger workers. title i and title v of the americans with disabilities act of 1990. this act protects qualified workers with disabilities from job discrimination in the private and state and municipal sectors. sections 501 and 505 of the rehabilitation act of 1973. this act protects qualified workers with disabilities who work for the federal government from job discrimination. civil rights act of 1991. this act clarifies some of the ambiguous sections of title vii, and provides monetary compensation for victims of federal job discrimination. if you think you are a victim of job discrimination if you think you are a victim of job discrimination under one of these federal laws, you can file a discrimination charge with the eeoc. in addition, a charge may be filed on your behalf by another person to protect your identity. you can file a charge by mail or in person at the nearest eeoc office. importantly, you must file a claim with the eeoc within 90 days of the alleged discrimination before a private lawsuit can be filed. you must provide the following information in order to file a charge with the eeoc : - the complaining party ' s name, address, and telephone number - the name, address, and telephone number of the claim ' s respondent - the date and a short description of the alleged discrimination the eeoc will then investigate the claim. it will either dismiss the case, attempt to settle the case, bring the case to federal court, or issue the charging party a " right to sue, " which allows the party to seek private counsel and bring suit upon the employer directly. other job discrimination laws


by dr. aleksandra drizo dr. aleksandra drizo, phosphoreduc llc. ceo, 70 south winooski avenue ; burlington, vt, usa 05405. corresponding author : firstname. lastname @ example. org phosphorus pollution problem water eutrophication caused by excess nutrient loading from human activities has been recognized as one of the major water quality issues for several decades ( 1, 2 ). the world resources institute has identified 415 hypoxic coastal zones in the world. the situation is even more alarming for freshwater resources with 54 % of lakes in asia, 53 % in europe, 48 % in north america, 41 % in south america and 30 % in africa being identified as eutrophic ( 3 ). although some environments are more greatly influenced by changing levels of nitrogen, addition of just 1 g of phosphorus promotes the growth of up to 100 g algae, and as such, represents the principal trigger of eutrophication and toxic blue - green algae blooms. the effect of algae blooms these blooms can decrease the oxygen levels in the waters, resulting in fish kills and reduced biodiversity. they can also cause foul odors and tastes, diminishing the recreational appeal of the waters or their potential for use as a water supply source. some species have even been found to release chemicals that are toxic to animals and humans. sources of phosphorus pollution given the magnitude of eutrophication worldwide, solutions for reducing phosphorus loading from municipal, agricultural, industrial, urban and rural point and nonpoint sources have been sought worldwide. while point source pollution is definable and thus controllable, nonpoint ( diffuse ) pollution originates from a variety of run - off sources, and consequently, controlling this type of contamination is even more complex, requiring an integration of technological, socio - economical and educational factors. methods of phosphorus removal methods for phosphorus removal from wastewaters and storm water runoff have emerged over the past few years. however, the current absence of the governmental regulations for phosphorus discharge limits, coupled with the extremely high costs of environmental technologies verification ( etv ) programs impose insurmountable obstacles in phosphorus removal technologies applications. current regulatory framework despite the recognized need for phosphorus reduction worldwide ( 2 - 5 ), the current regulatory framework for attenuation of this type of contamination has been extremely limited. phosphorus discharge criteria have been developed only for municipal wastewater treatment facilities ( mwtf ) and, in a very few developed countries. moreover, the current phosphorus removal methods ( either chemical or biological ) used in mw


this type of contamination has been extremely limited. phosphorus discharge criteria have been developed only for municipal wastewater treatment facilities ( mwtf ) and, in a very few developed countries. moreover, the current phosphorus removal methods ( either chemical or biological ) used in mwwtf are complex, extremely expensive, consume large amounts of energy and generate large volumes of sludge that then must be appropriately disposed of ( 5 ). phosphorus discharge criteria for other point and nonpoint pollution sources ( agricultural, industrial, or residential onsite wastewater treatment systems ( septic systems ) ), are not included in the current wastewater regulations. this situation is extremely alarming given the exponential growth of population, livestock and food production. for example, 30 - 40 % of the population in developed countries rely on septic systems consisting of a septic tank and a drain field. a hundred years ago, soil drain fields were considered natural adsorbing materials for phosphorus. however, the phosphorus retention capacity of any adsorbing material is finite and once it ’ s reached, the material needs to be replaced. the situation is much more disturbing in developing countries, where peri - urban settlements are not approved by the local and national governments. as a result, many rivers in third world cities are being used as large open sewers. the lack of regulatory framework greatly diminishes funding and the aspiration for scientific advancements for phosphorus removal technologies. while there has been a growing interest in investigations on phosphorus sorbing materials that could be used in onsite wastewater treatment systems, this research has been mainly performed in university laboratories, while field testing and applications remain limited to the efforts by a very few scientist in sweden and united states ( 6 ). the road from innovations to applications the biggest obstacle to any environmental technology application is in the current costs and the time required by the federal environmental technology verification ( etv ) programs. in the united states for example, the costs range from $ 120 - 140, 000 per application, lasting 24 - 36 months. this means that a small business such is phosphoreduc would have to invest a minimum of $ 360, 000 to obtain etv certification for the 3 types of wastewater, e. g. municipal, residential and agricultural effluents treatment. individual state permits do not require such large financial investments during the review process, however the process is also extremely lengthy, lasting 24 - 30 months from the moment of application. moreover, as phosphorus discharge limits currently do not exist in the regulatory framework, most of the water governmental agencies either


such large financial investments during the review process, however the process is also extremely lengthy, lasting 24 - 30 months from the moment of application. moreover, as phosphorus discharge limits currently do not exist in the regulatory framework, most of the water governmental agencies either reject applications or require intensive permitting processes, consisting of two different permit types : one for beneficial use of water filtration material and the other for general use of technology. each of the two permit processes require intensive water quality monitoring by accredited laboratories, thus an investment of at least $ 85 - 100, 000. and without certifications it is impossible to implement systems and bring water quality improvements. phosphoreduc innovative technologies i have dedicated over 20 years of my professional life to research and development of sustainable technologies for phosphorus pollution prevention and control. during my doctoral research at the university of edinburgh, uk, in the early 1990s, i have pioneered the research on use of various iron, aluminum and calcium based materials natural and industrial by - products that can be used as phosphorus sorbing materials in onsite treatment systems. as research professor at the university of vermont, and the director of the university constructed wetlands research center ( cwrc ), along with my research team we have developed several suites of sustainable wastewater treatment technologies including : integrated ( multistage ) constructed wetlands and phosphorus removal filter systems phosphorus removal and sequestration “ prs - 101 ” filters for the treatment of agricultural, municipal and residential wastewaters ( point pollution sources ) simple “ torpedo ” filter systems for agricultural tile drain and urban storm water outflows ( for capturing and treating phosphorus and solids pollution originating from nonpoint, diffuse pollution sources ( figure 1 ). these treatment technologies are efficient not only in phosphorus removal, but also in other pollutants reduction, including nitrogen, organic matter and suspended solids, pathogens and various metals and minerals. in addition, we have also shown that once the lifespan of the filter system is completed, the phosphorus retained by the filtration material can be re - used, instead of chemical fertilizer, to enhance soils used for agriculture, horticulture and forestry. in 2008, i applied for the agricultural innovation fund to the university of vermont college of agriculture and life sciences and the office for technology transfer ( uvm tto ). i was awarded the seed start - up funding that enabled me to establish my business phosphoreduc llc ( www. phosphoreduc. com ). the seed funding also provided necessary funding for patent applications. we currently have patents pending for


was awarded the seed start - up funding that enabled me to establish my business phosphoreduc llc ( www. phosphoreduc. com ). the seed funding also provided necessary funding for patent applications. we currently have patents pending for the two of our technologies, one for phosphorus removal from point pollution sources and the other for phosphorus removal from agricultural and urban drain outflows. our filtration systems are passive systems consisting of one or more filter units filled with iron ( fe ) and / or calcium ( ca ) based filtration material, modified steel slag, a recyclable by - product from the steel industry. the filtration media is packed, arranged and engaged with one another in specially - designed modules so as to form a modular composite filter, according to the method developed by phopshoreduc llc. to date, we have demonstrated that phosphoreduc filter systems reduce phosphorous, suspended solids and pathogens ( e. coli ) loads from sewage, agricultural and urban point and nonpoint pollution sources by 70 – 100 percent by systems implemented in a variety of climatic regions, on 4 continents. the examples of phosphoreduc applications include : 1. agricultural runoff treatment : a simple cartridge system installed to reduce phosphorus and solids from agricultural tile drains collecting water from 30 acres in vermont achieved reductions averaging 72 % and 75 %, respectively ( figure 1 ). currently, there is no agricultural practice designed to reduce phosphorus loading from agricultural tile drains. we have showed that phosphorus concentrations measured in 6 different agricultural drains over 10 spring storm events exceeded critical 0. 1 - 0. 2 mg / l p concentrations for incipient eutrophication in each rain event. feed bunks ( silage leachate ) runoff treatment, known as one of the most toxic waste streams on farms. currently, the vegetative treatment area ( practice code 635 ) is the major “ best management practice ” recommended by the us natural resources conservation service ( nrcs ) and widely implemented to treat silage leachate runoff on farms in the us ( 7 ). while it cannot achieve more than 20 % phosphorus reduction efficiency, the current cost of this practice implementation is in order of $ 15, 220 per acre. the results from a 2 year investigation by our research team has shown that the implementation of an innovative “ treatment train ” consisting of a phosphoreduc filter, and a vegetative trench could achieve up to 90 % phosphorus reduction at half the cost of the currently recommended 635


by our research team has shown that the implementation of an innovative “ treatment train ” consisting of a phosphoreduc filter, and a vegetative trench could achieve up to 90 % phosphorus reduction at half the cost of the currently recommended 635 practice ( 8 ). 2. urban stormwater treatment phosphoreduc filter installed in columbus, oh to treat a golf - course stormwater pond achieved an average of 85 % reduction efficiency. several follow up installations are planned in 2012. 3. sewage treatment phosphoreduc filter has been implemented in southern taiwan to test system efficacy in sewage wastewater treatment originating from the university student residences. this system showed nearly 100 % reductions in dissolved and total phosphorus and suspended solids over 10 months of investigation ( 9 ). following successful treatment in taiwan, two filter installations are currently planned to reduce phosphorus loading originating from a mixed sewage and urban runoff effluent and causing eutrophication of tubarao lagoons in vitoria state, brazil. the future of innovative phosphorus removal technologies despite all of the above obstacles, during the past two years phosphoreduc technologies started to gain interest among governmental agencies in the us and internationally. we have contributed to eutrophication prevention and water quality improvements in over 40 laboratory, pilot, demonstration and full scale projects across 5 continents ( europe, north america, south america, asia, new zealand ). in sweden, professor gunno renman developed polonite based systems for phosphorus removal from residential septic systems. however, polonite filtration material is made from the natural calcium rich material found only in poland, which restricts systems applications beyond these two countries. in any future research and development of phosphorus removal technologies we ought to keep in mind the fact that as a key component of fertilizers, phosphorus is fundamental for the world ’ s food supplies, and an irreplaceable and essential element of life with its sole source as phosphate - bearing rocks ( 10 - 11 ). phosphorus resources are non - renewable with global reserves estimated to reach their peak in the next 50 - 100 years ( 10 ). the current rate of phosphate extraction is reported at 167 million tonnes per year with a growing demand that accounts for a 2 % annual increase. with continuing decline of global phosphate reserves, the impacts are likely be immense, particularly in terms of rising food prices, growing food insecurity and widening inequalities between developed and developing countries ( 10 - 11 ). thus, not only should we continue research, development and implementation


, the impacts are likely be immense, particularly in terms of rising food prices, growing food insecurity and widening inequalities between developed and developing countries ( 10 - 11 ). thus, not only should we continue research, development and implementation of phosphorus removal technologies but we have to invent the ways of phosphorus re - use as a soil amendment in agriculture, forestry, acid mine reclamation and horticulture. sweden is the first country in the world that has established regulatory requirement to recycle phosphorus from municipal wastewater treatment effluents by 2016. it enabled professor renman and i to start developing processes for phosphorus re - use from our phosphorus removal treatment systems. ( 1 ) ryther, j. h. and dunstan, w. m. ( 1971 ). nitrogen, phosphorus and eutrophication in coastal marine environments. science 171 : 1008 - 1013. ( 2 ) conley, d. j., paerl, h. w., howarth, r. w., boesch, d. f., seitzinger, s. p., havens, k. e., lancelot, c. and likens, g. e. ( 2009 ). constrolling eutrophication : nitrogen and phosphorus. science 323 : 1014 - 1015. ( 3 ) world resources institute ( 2012 ). eutrophication and hypoxia : nutrient pollution in coastal waters. url : http : / / www. wri. org / project / eutrophication ( 4 ) us epa ( 2012 ). water : pollution prevention and control. url : http : / / water. epa. gov / polwaste / ( 5 ) jiang, f., beck, m. b., cummings, r. g., rowles, k. and russell, d. ( 2005 ). estimation of costs of phosphorus removal in wastewater treatment facilities : adaptation of existing facilities. water policy working paper # 2005 - 011. url : http : / / aysps. gsu. edu / wp2005011estimationofcosts. pdf ( 6 ) westholm, johansson, l., drizo, a. and renman, g. ( 2011 ). the use of blast furnace and electric arc furnace steel slag in water pollution control. ferrous slag - resource development for an environmentally sustainable world. euroslag publication no. 5. pp 103 -


renman, g. ( 2011 ). the use of blast furnace and electric arc furnace steel slag in water pollution control. ferrous slag - resource development for an environmentally sustainable world. euroslag publication no. 5. pp 103 - 11. url : http : / / www. euroslag. org / about - us / history / conferencesdetail /? tx _ ttnews [ tt _ news ] = 19 & chash = ae437d3893598f2b5faf16f5edf6a16c. ( 7 ) usda nrcs ( 2008 ). vegetative treatment area practice 635. usda, natural resources conservation service ― practice code 635. url : http : / / www. nrcs. usda. gov / internet / fse _ documents / nrcs143 _ 026548. pdf ( 8 ) drizo, a., liang, k. and gorres, j. ( 2011 ). phosphorus and e. coli reduction from silage leachate via innovative phosphoreduc filtration. final report to the conservation innovations grants program, submitted december 2011. university of vermont grant agreement number : 69 - 3a75 - 9 - 121. ( 9 ) autm, the association of university technology managers ( 2011 ). academic filtration innovations aim to solve what ails a perishable resource : water. published in the 2011 edition of a better world report. respond, recover, restructure : technologies helping the world in the face of adversity, pp 78 - 83. www. betterworldrpoject. net ( 10 ) the broker ( 2009 ). peak phosphorus - the next inconvenient truth. the broker online 15, august 2009. url : http : / / globalpnetwork. net / resource / peak - phosphorus - next - inconvenient - truth ( 11 ) yoshida, h., van dijk, k., drizo, a., vanginkel, s., matsubae, k. and buehrer, m. ( 2011 ). chapter 6 : phosphorus recovery and reuse. in : dijk, k. and yoshida, h. ( ed. ). phosphorus, food and our future. frontiers in life sciences. in review.


your 5 - year - old now even children who parted easily at preschool sometimes turn into wailing " cling - ons " come the first days of kindergarten. anxiety over the unknown is at the root of it. will i make friends? is learning to read going to be hard? will i find the bus on time? do i have to talk in class? most schools offer a time to tour the classroom and meet the teacher before the first day. do a dry run. show your child where he ' ll be dropped off and how to get to his classroom. as fears surface, talk them out. the more specific he can be about what ' s bothering him, the better able you will be to strategize solutions. most importantly, don ' t minimize your child ' s fears. " you ' ll meet new friends " isn ' t reassuring to a scared 5 - year - old. talk instead about how to approach new playmates. role - play what he might say to start up a game. in times of upheaval, it ' s also important for kids to have structure. keep things as sane as possible at home with before - and after - school schedules. your life now many parents grapple with the question of whether to let their children play with toy guns or engage in other violent play. it ' s an individual choice. but it can help to know that at age 5, your child ' s interest is less a reflection of our violent culture than a common, healthy developmental phase. gunplay is a form of imaginative play that allows your child to feel he ' s exerting control over his world ( vanquishing " bad guys, " for example ). there ' s no evidence linking toy guns to future acts of violence. the phase usually passes within a few years as your child moves on to other interests. many parents ban toy guns only to find their kids creating weaponry out of a sandwich, a stick, or the state of florida in a 50 - state puzzle. you can avoid buying realistic weaponry but stopping the play altogether is more challenging. rather than shaming your child about it, ask open - ended questions about why he likes such games. play along and find subtle ways to talk about your values and nonviolence. banning guns may also give them the power of being more attractive. the less of a big deal you make about gunplay — while being sure your child has lots of other playthings, too — the more quickly this stage tends to blow over.


on march 12, 2002 the first results from the 2001 census - population and dwelling counts - were released by statistics canada. information on other characteristics of the b. c. population such as age, ethnicity, education, income, etc. will be released over the next two years. british columbia was the third fastest growing province in canada, increasing 4. 9 % between 1996 and 2001. on may 15, 2001, the population of b. c. was counted as 3, 907, 738, compared with 3, 724, 500 in may 1996. b. c. ' s population growth was slightly stronger than the national rate of 4. 0 %. in the previous five year period, b. c. ' s population had increased 13. 5 %, more than double the 5. 7 % increase in the canadian population. between 1996 and 2001, alberta ( 10. 3 % ) and ontario ( 6. 1 % ) had the strongest population growth among the provinces. nunavut ' s population grew by 8. 1 %. fewer than half ( 12 out of 28 ) of the regional districts in the province experienced population growth between 1996 and 2001. the regions that grew were concentrated in the southwest mainland, eastern vancouver island and okanagan areas. squamish - lillooet ( 12. 3 % ), greater vancouver ( 8. 5 % ), central okanagan ( 8. 2 % ) and fraser valley ( 6. 8 % ) regional districts registered the strongest growth. on vancouver island, most of the growth occurred in the nanaimo ( 4. 3 % ) and capital ( 2. 4 % ) regional districts. the northern and kootenay regions registered population declines over the 5 - year period, with the largest decreases in skeena - queen charlotte ( - 12. 5 % ) and mount waddington ( - 10. 2 % ). among large municipalities ( those with populations of more than 100, 000 ), the strongest growth in the 1996 - 2001 period was posted in surrey ( 14 % ), followed by coquitlam ( 11 % ) and richmond ( 10 % ). among smaller municipalities ( those with populations of more than 5, 000 ), whistler had the strongest growth ( 24 % ), although the small neighbouring community of pemberton had even stronger growth ( 91 % ). top municipalities ( > 5, 000 people ) in terms of growth from 1996 to 2000 | municipality | | 2001 population | | % change | | whistler | | 8


small neighbouring community of pemberton had even stronger growth ( 91 % ). top municipalities ( > 5, 000 people ) in terms of growth from 1996 to 2000 | municipality | | 2001 population | | % change | | whistler | | 8, 896 | | 24. 0 % | | surrey | | 347, 825 | | 14. 2 % | | port moody | | 23, 816 | | 14. 2 % | | view royal | | 7, 271 | | 12. 9 % | | maple ridge | | 63, 169 | | 12. 5 % | | coquitlam | | 112, 890 | | 10. 9 % | | new westminster | | 54, 656 | | 10. 8 % | | richmond | | 164, 345 | | 10. 4 % | | port coquitlam | | 51, 257 | | 9. 8 % | | abbotsford | | 115, 463 | | 9. 6 % | urban and rural population between 1996 and 2001, the population has become more urbanised with 85 % of the provincial population now living in urban areas, up from 82 % in 1996 and 80 % in 1991. characteristics of population growth although information on the characteristics of the population growth between 1996 and 2001 is not yet available from the 2001 census, current population estimates provide insight into some aspects of the growth. about two thirds of the population growth between 1996 and 2001 was due to migration with natural increase ( births minus deaths ) accounting for the rest. the growth due to migration was entirely from international sources, as a large number of people left b. c. for alberta and only small numbers arrived from other parts of canada. between 1991 and 1996, a similar number of people had arrived from international sources but there had also been almost as large a net inflow from other parts of the country. more than three quarters ( 77 % ) of the immigrants to b. c. over the 1996 - 2001 period were from asian countries, followed by european sources ( 12 % ) and north and central america ( 4 % ).


the walking liberty half dollar has won many praises and criticisms in its time. adolph weinman ’ s walking liberty design was more than an attempt to beautify the half dollar. it represented a concerted effort to revitalize the denomination and to get half dollars back into circulation in again. the mint was able to churn out plenty of walking liberty half dollars in the design ’ s first year. of the first years mintage couldn ’ t compare to the numbers that were minted in the 1940s. adolph weinman was better known as a sculptor and medal designer. as such he won the competition to design the new half dollar. the mint began producing the new walking liberty design in november, 1916. however it was january 2, 1917 before any of these dated half dollars entered into circulation. the new half dollars debut soon brought many praises and some criticisms. the jan 23, 1917, issue of the elyra, ohio evening telegram is quoted as stating the walking liberty half dollar was more “ elaborate ” than the old barber half dollar. and that both half dollars shared one thing in common — they both seemed to have been inspired by some french coin designs. for what ever reason, weinman managed to work the american flag into the walking liberty half dollar design, which does seem to set it apart and gave it a more national character than other coin designs. weinman had his own comments on the symbolism in his design : “ the design of the half dollar bears a full - length figure of liberty, the folds of the stars and stripes flying to the breeze as a background. progressing in full stride toward the dawn of a new day, carrying branches of laurel and oak, symbolic of civil and military glory. the hand of the figure is outstretched in bestowal of the spirit of liberty. ” “ the reverse of the half dollar shows an eagle perched high upon a mountain craig, his wings unfolded, fearless in spirit, and conscious of his power. springing from a rift in the rock is a sapling of mountain pine, symbolic of america. ” many bird experts were amused at the design of the eagle displayed on the half dollar. it was quite unlike any other eagle pictured on other u. s. coins. one leading ornithologist remarked the eagle looked like a “ turkey. ” very little was said about the branch of mountain pine. it did add a very dramatic touch to the design and is probably the coin ’ s most distinctive feature. the walking liberty is definitely the most distinctive half dollar created. in time the


kids do not understand the dangers of fire and smoke and the havoc they can create if not used properly. kids consider most of the things which can trigger fire like match - boxes and sticks, lighters, electrical equipment to be toys and like playing with them. it is very important to teach children about the impacts of these things at a young age. educating children and making them aware about certain safety measures will make them responsible in the future as well. there are some basic safety tips which should be followed by children in order to keep themselves fire safe. the first and foremost thing is to tell them not to play with anything that can cause fire. they may take a match - box and lighter very lightly, but it is the parenta€™s duty to make them aware about the consequences of these things if not used properly. during any festivals it is important for the parents to stay along with their children in case they play with firecrackers. children should never remain unattended during such festivals. tell the children not to use a candle when no adult person is around them. children in the process of growing up find certain things very interesting and try experimenting with them. lighting paper to see whether it catches fire is one such thing which majority of the children tries during their growing up years. it is necessary for the parents to be aware of such facts and tell their children beforehand not to resort to such things. it is also important to make them aware that fire can get out of control in seconds and hence, a simple experiment can cause an outbreak of fire. if children are made aware of the cause and effects of fire right from the beginning, they will take good care and precaution so that such incidences do not occur.


what is iron deficiency? if you feel like your energy levels are low, you ’ re lacking motivation and you could fall asleep at your desk everyday, don ’ t blame your job right away. instead, take a close look at the signs and symptoms of iron deficiency. iron deficiency is the most prevalent nutrition deficiency in the world. it occurs when the body ’ s stores of iron are low ( the stage prior to anemia ), and, it may or may not cause any symptoms. iron deficiency disproportionately affects those in developing countries but it is also prevalent in industrialized countries. iron deficiency anemia develops when low iron stores persist for a period of time and the body cannot make enough healthy red blood cells to deliver oxygen throughout the body. in the united states, the largest nationwide survey, the national nutrition and health examination surveys ( nhanes ) found that approximately 16 % of teenage girls aged 16 - 19 and 12 % of women aged 20 - 49 are deficient in iron. these numbers are staggering in a country with an abundant food supply and an array of multivitamin and iron supplements. - stoltzfus rj. defining iron - deficiency anemia in public health terms : reexamining the nature and magnitude of the public health problem. j nutr 2001 ; 131 : 565s - 7s. - micronutrient deficiencies. iron deficiency anaemia. world health organization. http : / / www. who. int / nutrition / topics / ida / en / index. html - iron deficiency anemia. national anemia action council. http : / / www. anemia. org / patients / faq / # ida - iron deficiency. mmwr weekly. cdc. 2002 ; 51 ( 40 ) : 897 - 899. http : / / www. cdc. gov / mmwr / preview / mmwrhtml / mm5140a1. htm # tab1 - institute of medicine. food and nutrition board. dietary reference intakes for vitamin a, vitamin k, arsenic, boron, chromium, copper, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, silicon, vanadium and zinc. washington, dc : national academy press, 2001. - monson er. iron and absorption : dietary factors which impact iron bioavailability. j am dietet assoc. 1988 ; 88 : 786 - 90. - tapiero h, gate l, tew kd. iron : deficiencies


dread nought biography biography dread nought, was launched in 1912 ] ] the dreadnought was the predominant type of battleship of the 20th century. the revolutionary hms dreadnought of 1906 adopted an ' all - big - gun ' armament and steam turbine propulsion ; her impact was so great that battleships built after her were referred to as ' dreadnoughts ' and earlier battleships became known aspre - dreadnoughts. the concept of an all - big - gun ship had been in circulation for several years prior to dreadnought ' s construction, and the imperial japanese navy had even begun work on an all - big - gun battleship in 1904. gibbons, p. 168 the arrival of the dreadnoughts sparked a new arms race, principally between britain and germany but reflected worldwide, as the new class of warships became a crucial symbol of national power. technical development continued rapidly through the dreadnought era, with rapid changes in armament, armor, and propulsion, meaning that ten years after dreadnought ' s commissioning much more powerful ships were being built. these more powerful vessels were known as super - dreadnoughts. the only pitched battle between fleets of dreadnoughts was the battle of jutland, an indecisive clash that reflected britain ' s continuing strategic dominance. most of the dreadnoughts were scrapped or scuttled after the end of world war i, though some of the most advanced super - dreadnoughts continued in service through world war ii. the term " dreadnought " gradually dropped from use after world war i, as the pre - dreadnoughts and the first generations of dreadnoughts were scrapped. however, all battleships built since then shared the characteristics of the dreadnought. " dreadnought " can also be used to encompass battlecruisers, the other type of ship resulting from the dreadnought revolution. mackay r. fisher of kilverstone, p. 326, for instance ' s satsuma ; the first ship designed as an ' all - big - gun ' battleship ] ] the distinctive all - big - gun armament of the dreadnought was developed in the first years of the 20th century as navies sought to increase the firepower and range of their battleships. most pre - dreadnoughts had a main armament of four heavy guns of 9. 4 - 13. 5 inch ( 24 - 34 cm ), a secondary armament of six to eighteen quick / rapid - firing guns of 4. 7 - 7. 5 inch


dreadnoughts had a main armament of four heavy guns of 9. 4 - 13. 5 inch ( 24 - 34 cm ), a secondary armament of six to eighteen quick / rapid - firing guns of 4. 7 - 7. 5 inch ( 12 - 19 cm ), supplemented by a range of smaller weapons. some american designs had an intermediate battery of four, later eight, 8 - inch ( 20. 3 cm ) guns. by 1903, however, serious proposals for an all - big - gun armament were circulated in several countries. all - big - gun designs were begun almost simultaneously in three navies. the imperial japanese navy authorised satsuma, designed with twelve 12 - inch guns, in 1904, and she was laid down in may 1905jentshura, jung, mickel p. 22 - 3. evans & peattie p. 159. the royal navy began the design of hms dreadnought in january 1905 and she was laid down in october 1905sumrall, p. 15. the united states navy gained authorisation for uss michigan, carrying eight 12 - inch guns, in march 1905sumrall, p. 15 and she was laid down in may 1906sondhaus, p. 199. the exact reasons for the move to an all - big - gun design are still a matter of some controversy. the newest, fast - firing 12 - inch guns had more long - range firepower than a gun of 10 - inch of 9. 2 - inch calibre. friedman, battleship design and development. it is often stated that mixed - calibre guns prevented accurate fire control because of the potential for confusion between shell - splashes of different calibre. however, more recent work suggests that shell - splashes and salvo firing were not of much importance in decision - making. fairbanks, c the dreadnought revolution, international history review 1991 : this debate is also expanded on below the pre - dreadnought battleships combined heavy - calibre ship - killing guns, typically of 12 in calibre, with a secondary and tertiary armament that could generate a hail of fire destroying the less protected parts of enemy ships. at the battle of the yalu river and the battle of santiago de cuba ( 1898 ], this hail of fire destroyed most of the vessels of the defeated side. at santiago, none of the four us battleships present scored a single hit with their 12 - and 13 - inch guns. the naval war between china and japan and lesson from the war in the east,