ahura mazda, in fact, is implored to be their very life and limb in both the worlds. 9 it is through the best righteousness that the true in heart aspire to behold the lord to approach him, and to associate with him. 10 the attainment of the companionship and the kingdom of ahura mazda is the pious wish of the supplicant. 11 8. y36. 1, 4, 5. 11. y40. 2 ; 41. 2, 5, 6. mazda ' s titles. the yasna sacrifice opens with the praise of ahura mazda and enumerates the following divine titles : maker, radiant, glorious, the greatest, the best, the most beautiful, the most firm, the most wise, of the most perfect form, the highest in righteousness, possessed of great joy, creator, fashioner, nourisher, and the most holy spirit. 12 he is all - pervading. there is no conceivable place where he is not. closer than the nose is to the ears, or the ears are to the mouth, is he to all that which the corporeal world thinks, speaks, and does. 13 he is the greatest temporal and spiritual lord. 14 he is the absolute ruler. 15 he is the most mighty and righteous. 16 he is benevolent. 17 he is the maker, the most holy, the most wise, and the best one to answer when questioned. 18 his is the omnisscent wisdom. 19 he is undeceivable. 20 he is omniscient and never sleeping. 21 radiant and glorious are the most frequent epithets with which the texts open the invocation to the divinity. above all ahura mazda is the spirit of spirits. 22 this essential trait stands intact through all changes in the concept of god. he is not invested with any anthropomorphic chracter, and his multifarious epithets are truly the figurative expressions of human language used by man in his feeble attempt to give vent to an outburst of the feelings of devotion and reverence for his heavenly father. ahura mazda is synonymous with light, even as his opponent is identical with darkness, and the sun is spoken of as his most beautiful form. 23 just as the rig veda speaks of the sun as the eye of mithra and varuna, 24 so do the avestan texts call the sun the eye of ahura mazda. 25 speaking about the nature of ahuta mazda, plutarch well


as the rig veda speaks of the sun as the eye of mithra and varuna, 24 so do the avestan texts call the sun the eye of ahura mazda. 25 speaking about the nature of ahuta mazda, plutarch well remarks that among objects of sense the zoroastrian godhead most of all resembles the light. 26 the star - spangled heaven is his garment ; 27 the holy spell is his soul. 28 many are the names by which mankind have learnt to know him. the first yasht, which is dedicated to him, enumerates seventy - four of these attributes. they are all descriptive of his wisdom, far - sightedness, power, righteousness justice, and mercy. 29 13. tdfr. 58, 59. 14. y27. 1 ; vr11. 21. 18. vd18. 7, 13, 66. 21. yt12. 1 ; vd. 19. 20, 26. 23. y36. 6 ; 28. 8. 24. rv. 1. 115. 1 ; 6. 51. 1 ; 7. 61. 1 ; 63. 1 ; 10. 37. 25. y1. 11 ; 3. 13 ; 4. 16 ; 7. 13 ; 22. 13. 26. is. et os. 46. 29. yt1. 7, 8, 12 - 15. only the world of righteousness is created by ahura mazda. as the antithesis between the deity and the evil spirit is now most strongly marked in the later avesta, the godhead is expressly described as the creator of everything that is good, 30 evil being the counter - creation of angara mainyu. ahura mazda and angra mainyu in the younger texts are described as creating good and evil in turn. the archangels are mazda ' s creations ; 31 so also are the angels and men, the animals, sky, water, trees, light, wind, and earth. 32 in the various enquiries which zarathushtra addresses to ahura mazda in the vendidad, the divinity is portrayed as the creator of corporeal world. ahura expressly says to zarathushtra that he has created everything in the world, and yet nothing in his creation comes up to the level of man, who is the greatest and the best of all creations. 33 through the wisdom of ahura mazda the world has come into being, and through his divine wisdom it will come also to an 32


nothing in his creation comes up to the level of man, who is the greatest and the best of all creations. 33 through the wisdom of ahura mazda the world has come into being, and through his divine wisdom it will come also to an 32. y1. 1, 2, 12 ; 2. 12 ; 12. 7 ; 17. 12 ; 37. 1 ; 38. 3 ; vr7. 4 ; vd19. 13, 16, 35 ; 21. 4, 8, 12 ; aog. 30. 33. aog. 30. spenta mainyubelief in an intermediary spirit between god and the world. from the days of thales ( about 600 b. c. ), the head of the school of miletus, the greek thinkers were in touch with the orient. the ionians were in close contact with the persians. pythagoras, we have seen, was believed by the classical writers to have been the pupil of zoroaster, though several centuries intervened between them. numenius of apamea says that pythagoras and plato reproduce the ancient wisdom of the magi and brahmans, egyptians and jews. alexandria became later a cosmopolitan seat of learning, and the intellectual east and west met there. it was here that judaism and afterwards christianity were hellenized. the wisdom of the east was held in high esteem at alexandria. persian influence, it seems, had been felt in greece in the early formative period of its philosophy. zarathushtra, we have noticed, postulated a quasi - independent spirit intermediary between the godhead and the universe, anaxagoras calls it nous, acting between god, and the world as the regulating principle of existence. plato says in his timaeus that the universe becomes an organism through the universal world - soul that is created by the demiurge, the supreme deity. the old testament refers to the spirit of yahweh. 1 philo judaeus unites the greek and jewish ideas about logos and says that logos is the first - born son of god and acts as a viceregent of god between god and the world. he is the prototypal man after whose image all men are created. logos is something more than plato ' s idea of the good, because, like spenta mainyu, he is creatively active. in common with spenta mainyu, logos is not a personal being, and like spenta mainyu again,


logos is something more than plato ' s idea of the good, because, like spenta mainyu, he is creatively active. in common with spenta mainyu, logos is not a personal being, and like spenta mainyu again, he appears sometimes as identified with god and at other times seems to be an attribute of god. the avestan texts refer to spenta mainyu and his adversary angra mainyu as thworeshtar or the fashioners or cutters and, speaking about the work of logos, philo speaks of him as tomeus, ' the cutter, ' employing the word of the same meaning. again as spenta mainyu or the spirit of light is shadowed by the opposite spirit of darkness, so logos, says philo, is the shekinah or glory or light of god, but he is also the darkness or shadow of god. this is so because, he adds, the creature reveals only half the creator and hides the other half. in the book of wisdom of solomon, wisdom, identical with the greek logos, is the divine essence, living a quasi - independent existence in god and side by side with god. she works as the active agent of god in the creation of the world. in mithraism, mithra held the position of the mediator between god who was unknowable and unapproachable and mankind. he fashioned the world as demiurge. the intermediary spirit of god occurs throughout the new testament. numenius of apamea, writing in the second century, says that god has bestowed divine qualities upon a second god who acts in the world as the power for good. the supreme god or the first principle, he adds, works in the spiritual world, whereas the activity of the second god extends to the spiritual as well as material world. origen, writing shortly after him, says that god created logos or the son. his relation to the father is the same as that which exists between ahura mazda and spenta mainyu. the son or logos, says origen, is co - eternal and co - equal with the father, but the son is lesser than the father. clement of alexandria says that logos, represents the will, power, and energy of god. he is the creator on behalf of god. he has introduced harmony in the universe and conducts its affairs as the pilot. | | 1. genesis 1. 2. | | the relation between ahura mazda and his holy spirit. it remains as subtle in


is the creator on behalf of god. he has introduced harmony in the universe and conducts its affairs as the pilot. | | 1. genesis 1. 2. | | the relation between ahura mazda and his holy spirit. it remains as subtle in the younger avestan texts as it was in the gathas. we have already seen in the treatment of this highly abstract concept, as it is portrayed in the gathic texts, that the term spenta mainyu either designated ahura mazda as his divine attribute, or occurred as a being separate from the godhead. the later avestan texts, it seems to us, lead us to the idea that spenta mainyu has no independent existence apart from ahura mazda, in other words, as shown above, he is not a personal being. the later avesta, moreover, as we shall see in the subsequent pages, teaches that all earthly and heavenly beings, belonging to the kingdom of goodness, including ahura mazda himself, have their fravashis, or guardian spirits. spenta mainyu alone in the realm of the good is without his guardian spirit. furthermore, spenta mainyu does not receive homage and invocation from man, as do ahura mazda, the amesha spentas, and the yazatas. in one passage the faithful dedicate their thoughts, words, deeds, and all to him. 2 spenta mainyu, therefore, may be taken as an attribute of ahura mazda which is either conjointly used with the godhead as his distinguishing epithet, or occurs alone by itself to designate the supreme being. in this latter use, it may be said, spenta mainyu represents ahura mazda, in the same manner as the royal title ' his majesty ' is frequently used as a substitute for the name of a king. | | 2. y58. 6. | | in contradistinction to the evil creation of angra mainyu, or the evil spirit, the avestan texts speak of the good creation as belonging to spenta mainyu, the holy spirit. 3 he maintains the sky, the waters, the earth, the plants, and the children to be born. 4 the stars also are spoken of as the creatures of the holy spirit. 5 he created mithra ' s chariot, inlaid with stars and made of heavenly substance. 6 he is spoken of as the holier of the two spirits. 7 he struggles with angra mainyu to seize the kingly glory [ khwarrah ]. 8


' s chariot, inlaid with stars and made of heavenly substance. 6 he is spoken of as the holier of the two spirits. 7 he struggles with angra mainyu to seize the kingly glory [ khwarrah ]. 8 characteristic or the highly developed type of dualism of the younger avestan period, we find that the two rival spirits divide their sphere of influence in regard to the wind, or vayu. the moderate wind that is conducive of good is called the wind of spenta mainyu, 9 and only to this good part of vayu are the faithful to offer sacrifice. 10 snavidhka, a tyrant foe of the iranian hero keresaspa, haughtily exclaims that if he ever grew to manhood he would make the heavens his chariot, convert the earth into a wheel, bring down spenta mainyu, or the holy spirit, from the shining paradise, and make angra mainyu, or the evil spirit, rush up from the dreary hell, and compel them to draw his chariot. 11 in a couple of instances ahura mazda is depicted as speaking of the holy spirit as a part of himself. speaking about the great work of the fravashis, or the guardian spirits, ahura mazda says that had not the ftavashis helped him, the wicked druj would have smitten the good creation, and it would never have been possible for spenta mainyu to deal a blow to angra mainyu. 12 ahura mazda sacrifices unto vayu and asks from this angel of wind a boon, that he may smite the creation of angra mainyu but that none may smite the creation of spenta mainyu. 13 | | 3. y1. 16 ; 8. 6, 11. 13 ; 17. 2 ; 57. 17 ; vr12. 4 ; yt6. 2 ; 8. 48 ; 11. 11 ; 13. 76 ; 15. 3, 43, 44 ; vd3. 20 ; 5. 33 ; 13. 1, 2, 5, 6, 16. 4. yt13. 28, 29. 5. y1. 11 ; 3. 13 ; 4. 16 ; 7. 13 ; 22. 13 ; yt12. 32. 9. y22. 24 ; 25. 5. 10. yt15. 5, 42, 57, 58 ; s1. 21 ; 2. 11. 11. yt19.


22. 13 ; yt12. 32. 9. y22. 24 ; 25. 5. 10. yt15. 5, 42, 57, 58 ; s1. 21 ; 2. 11. 11. yt19. 43, 44. 12. yt13. 12, 13. 13. yt15. 2, 3. the superlative forms, spentotema mainyu, 14 or spenishta mainyu, meaning the most holy spirit ; are spoken of as ahura mazda ' s 14. y1. 1 ; 37. 3. 15. y19. 1 ; yt1. 1 ; 14. 1, 34, 42 ; vd2. 1 ; 7. 1 ; 9. 1 ; 10. 1 ; 14. 1 ; 18. 14 ; a4. 4. amesha spentasthe archangels. the higher celestial beings that had not expressly acquired a distinguishing name of their own in the gathas are now designated as the amesha spentas, or ' holy immortal ones. ' they are thus addressed for the first time in the haptanghaiti, or the yasna of seven chapters, the earliest prose composition of the avestan period, though still made in the gathic dialect. 1 they are all created by ahura mazda. 2 plutarch and strabo refer to them in their works. 3 with the godhead at the pinnacle they form a heptad and are henceforth mentioned as the seven holy immortal ones. 4 severally they are both male and female. 5 vohu manah, asha vahishta, and khshathra vairya are conceived of as masculine beings, though neuter in grammatical gender ; spenta armaiti is pictured as a feminine concept ; and haurvatat and ameretat are treated as masculine beings, though their grammatical gender is feminine. in a paramount degree they are all of one thought, one word, and one deed ; their father and lord is the creator ahura mazda. 6 they look into one another ' s soul ; 7 and they each have their special fravashi. 8 garonmana [ garothman ], the highest heaven, is their dwelling - place, and there they occupy the golden seats that belong to spirits in the realm supernal. 9 their sacred names are the most mighty, most glorious, and the most victorious of the spells. 10 to utter their name is synonymous with efficacy and power. yasht


they occupy the golden seats that belong to spirits in the realm supernal. 9 their sacred names are the most mighty, most glorious, and the most victorious of the spells. 10 to utter their name is synonymous with efficacy and power. yasht 2 is devoted to their praise. 1. y39. 3 ; 42. 6. 3. is. et os. 47 ; strabo, p. 732 ; thomas, strabo and the ameshaspands in j. j. madressa jubilee volume, p. 173 - 176. 4. yt2. 13 ; 13. 83 ; 19. 16 ; for seven babylonian igigis and seven elamite deities, see gray, the foundations of the iranian religions, p. 17. 5. y4. 4 ; 24. 9 ; 39. 3 ; vr9. 4. 6. yt13. 83 ; 19. 16. 7. yt13. 84 ; 19. 17. 9. vd19. 32, 36. their attributes. the amesha spentas are the ever - living and the ever - helping ones ; 11 they are the wise ones, and good rulers. 12 it is they that are the shining ones ; of efficacious eyes, exalted, mighty, valiant, imperishable, and righteous. 12 they are the makers, rulers, fashioners, guardians, protectors, and preservers of the creation of mazda, 14 and mazda has given them 11. y4. 4 ; 39. 3 ; vr9. 4 ; 11. 12. 12. y2. 2 ; 4. 4 ; 6. 1 ; 24. 9 ; 25. 4 ; 35. 1 ; 58. 5 ; 70. 1 ; vr8. 1 ; 11. 12 ; vd19. 9. 13. y26. 3 ; yt13. 82. 14. y58. 5 ; yt19. 18 ; vd19. 9. their work. the archangels hold their celestial councils on the heights of the heavens. 16 from there they come down to the seven zones into which the world was divided according to the avesta, 17 and rule over the realms of earth. 18 they are naturally invited to the sacrifice, 19 and offerings are placed by the devout for them to accept. 20 the faithful pray that the amesha spentas may visit and enjoy sacrifices in their houses, 21 for shining is the path by which they descend to earth to receive the


the sacrifice, 19 and offerings are placed by the devout for them to accept. 20 the faithful pray that the amesha spentas may visit and enjoy sacrifices in their houses, 21 for shining is the path by which they descend to earth to receive the libations offered in their honour. 22 even mithra as a god - like embodiment sacrificed unto them, 23 and for him they have made a dwelling. 24 they are of one accord with the sun ; 25 and they gather together the light of the moon and pour it down upon the earth. 26 they are the divine ones who help in bringing about the final restoration of the world. 27 each of them will smite his opponent at the time of the resurrection. 28 17. y57. 23 ; yt11. 14. 22. yt13. 84 ; 19. 17. 25. yt10. 51 ; 13. 92. zarathushtra the first among mortals to sacrifice unto the amesha spentas. mazda asks his prophet to invoke the amesha spentas, even though he could not behold them with his eyes. 29 zarathushtra follows mazda ' s behests ; and he is the first man to invoke them. 30 a spiritual predecessor having been sraosha. for that reason the faithful sacrifice unto the amesha spentas with love and joy, 31 and pray to them for help and protection. 32 their praise and sacrifice form one of the cardinal articles of faith. 33 hence it is that we find in the oft - repeated formulas of the later avestan texts that sacrifice, invocation, propitiation, and glorification are offered to them for the furtherance of prosperity in the world of righteousness. 34 nor must it be forgotten that in his benedictions upon king vishtaspa the prophet invokes upon his royal patron the blessings of brightness, glory, riches, swift horses, and good sons that come as a benign gift from the archangels. 35 the ceremonials performed in honour of the amesha spentas by unholy priests delight them not ; 36 on the other hand, distress and harm flee from that worshipper whose homage has reached them. 37 when their loving votary performs his devotions and finds his spirit inflamed by their love, he forthwith dedicates to them the very life of his body and all his earthly possessions. 38 31. y15. 1 ; vr6. 1. 36. yt10. 139 ; 24.


may act in such a way that vohu manah may come to them. 44 it is through his medium that the devout can aspire to reach ahura mazda ; 45 and on that account he is implored to further bodily life. 46 it is said, moreover, that he is more a possession of the hard - working man of the world, who has married and toils for his family, than of the celibate or the ascetic. 47 vohu manah ' s function of guarding the animal kingdom is not emphasized in the avestan texts. | | 43. yt13. 77, 78. | vohu manah welcomes the righteous souls to paradise. when the blessed ones cross the great bridge and come up to the gates of heaven, this premier angel rises from his golden throne and in gracious words receives the new - comers. 48 | | 48. vd19. 31. | in the final conflict between the hosts of the rival powers, he will smite his adversary aka manah. 48a the formation of the name. the younger avesta, in conformity with the gathas, calls this archangel asha and adds the epithet vahishta or ' best ' to the name. the variant stem arta is, however, found as an element of astvatereta, the name of the renovator [ soshyant ]. 49 it is also met with in the proper names during the achaemenian period. we have, for example, artakhshathra, artadata, artapata, and artafarnah. its forms areta, ' proper, ' and anareta or anaretha, ' improper, ' are likewise found. 50 a righteous person is called ashavan which is equivalent to the vedic rtavan. in the use of avestan ashahe kha and vedic kha rtasya, ' source of righteousness, ' we have an interesting instance of the common words employed by both. 51 49. yt13. 110, 117, 128, 129 ; 19. 92, 95. 50. y12. 4 ; 65. 9 ; vr1. 2 ; 2. 2. 51. y10. 4 ; rv2. 28. 5. | his righteousness remains the basic doctrine of zoroastrianism during the later avestan period. ahura mazda is the righteous lord of righteousness. 52 among the many names by which ahura mazda is invoked in


. 28. 5. | his righteousness remains the basic doctrine of zoroastrianism during the later avestan period. ahura mazda is the righteous lord of righteousness. 52 among the many names by which ahura mazda is invoked in the hymn dedicated to him, the fourth is asha vahishta or best righteousness. 53 ahura mazda has created asha vahishta, or best righteousness, 54 who is the greatest, best, fairest, the radiant, the all - good archangel. 55 in one instance he is called by the indo - iranian epithet bagha, ' divinity. ' he it is who smites disease, death, fiends, sorcerers, noxious creatures, and his adversary druj, deceit or wickedness. 56 zarathushtra for that reason proclaims the glory of asha vahishta, through whom the way to the abode of the archangels, paradise, becomes easy. 57 the souls of the dead, who are the fravashis of the righteous, dwell in the shining realm of asha vahishta. 58 this celestial personification gives joy to the souls of the righteous dead. 59 it is through him that the devotee aspires to behold and reach ahura mazda. 60 he offers homage and adoration to him along with ahura mazda. 61 emphasizing zarathushtra ' s dictum in the gathas, the younger avesta affirms that there is one path alone that leads to the eternal life, and that is the path of righteousness. 62 the vedas likewise allude to the path of rta. 63 the achaemenian kings refer to the right path in their rock inscriptions. 64 buddha embodies his teachings in his noble eightfold path. 65 during the same period lao - tze interprets his philosophy in the tao or the way in china. shinto or the way of the gods appears in the national cult of japan. the prophets and seers reveal the path or way of life to mankind and jesus calls himself the way, a thousand years after zarathushtra. the faithful invoke the holy waters of ahura mazda for the attainment of this path which is the most upright and which leads to the paradise of the righteous. 66 atar, the genius of fire, leads to this straightest path all those who lie not unto mithra. 67 referring to the guilty persons who have undergone punishments for the crime of assaulting other persons, the vendidad6


righteous. 66 atar, the genius of fire, leads to this straightest path all those who lie not unto mithra. 67 referring to the guilty persons who have undergone punishments for the crime of assaulting other persons, the vendidad68 admonishes sinners to walk in the path of righteousness in future. darius likewise exhorts men not to leave the path which is right. 69 | | 55. y13. 8 ; 37. 4 ; 59. 32 ; 60. 13 ; yt1. 22 ; 2. 7 ; 13. 91, 92 ; s1. 3 ; 2. 3. 59. tdfr. 72 - 74. 64. naksh - i rustam a. 6. 65. mahavagga, 1. 6. 18. 69. nr. a. 6. zarathushtra was the first among mortais to praise this embodiment of holiness ; 70 and king vishtaspa, by adopting the new faith, helped to open the way for righteousness in this world. 71 the faithful beseech ahura mazda to bless them with intelligent men who embrace righteousness ; 72 good, thoughts of the mind, good words of the tongue, and good deeds of the hand make man ashavan, or righteous. 73 he obtains purity when he cleanses his own self with them. 74 the friendship of asha in this world and the next is the most coveted boon for all time. 75 it is easy to understand why asha is invoked to enter the house of the faithful to smite the wicked druj. 76 the excellence of religious thoughts, words, and deeds, which is ordained by ahura mazda, and nourished by vohu manah, is furnished by the righteousness of 71. yt13. 99 ; 19. 93. 73. tdfr. 57 - 59 ; see nariman, buddhist parallels to humata, hukhta, hvarashta in dastur hoshang memorial volume, p. 311 - 316. 75. y40. 2 ; 41. 6. 77. vr12. 3, 4. righteousness is the highest riches. man, we are told, pines for the riches of the earth and often strives to obtain the boon of wealth even by unlawful means. on the contrary, he should rather aspire to a store of righteousness, which is the real and permanent wealth. when a man starts on a journey, he takes provisions and stores with him. 78


the boon of wealth even by unlawful means. on the contrary, he should rather aspire to a store of righteousness, which is the real and permanent wealth. when a man starts on a journey, he takes provisions and stores with him. 78 he takes care to provide himself with more goods than are his actual requirements. 79 how sad it is, then, that he should not furnish himself now, while it is time, with the spiritual stores of righteousness for the great journey which he will have one day to undertake and from which he will never return. 80 in the end cattle are dust ; gold and silver are dross ; even the body of man mingles with clay. righteousness alone does not mingle with the dust, but survives the bodily death of man. 81 there comes a day or there comes a night, when the master leaves his cattle, when the cattle leave their master, and the soul leaves the body. 82 but righteousness, which is the greatest and the best of all riches, accompanies the soul after death. 83 riches and fortune one cannot have for oneself, nor can one maintain form and beauty of body forever at will ; but everyone can embrace righteousness and make it his own in this world. 84 the best man is the righteous man. he is not heroic who is not heroic in righteousness, he is not valiant who is not valiant in righteousness. 85 life in departing leaves the richest empty in the midst of his abundance, if he lacks righteousness. 78. aog. 41. 79. aog. 42 - 44. 80. aog. 46 - 47. 81. aog. 84. 82. aog. 51. 83. aog. 52. 84. tdfr. 95 - 98. 85. tdfr. 103, 104. the world of righteousness, as against the world of wickedness. the universe is divided into two hostile camps. the righteous form a distinct world by themselves, and they are the favourite ones of ahura mazda. the men who have chosen to naturalize themselves as citizens of the kingdom of wickedness form a separate world of their own. the texts in the later avesta speak of the ashaono sti, ' the world of the righteous man, ' as opposed to the drvato sti, ' the world of the wicked fiend, ' the sorcerers and the wicked destroy the world of righteousness. 86 it is the faithful that work for the furtherance of the one, and for


as opposed to the drvato sti, ' the world of the wicked fiend, ' the sorcerers and the wicked destroy the world of righteousness. 86 it is the faithful that work for the furtherance of the one, and for the destruction of the other. 87 the man that is holy rejoices in the prosperity of the former, just as he exults in the adversity of the latter. 88 he who does not gladden a righteous person who comes within his gates has no lasting or true joy. to be charitable to such a one is to attain paradise. 89 but again, he rejoices not who helps a wicked person that clamours for help. to help such an evil one is equivalent to hindering righteousness, inasmuch as he is wicked who is a source of goodness to the wicked. 90 a gift bestowed upon a righteous man is the best of all libations, 91 but not so when it is made to a wicked one. refusing food to a demon - worshipper or a wicked one does not make one guilty. 92 the faithful pray that a righteous king may rule over them, but that a wicked one may be baffled and defeated. 93 89. tdfr. 107 - 109. 90. y71. 13 ; tdfr. 110 - 112. bodily purity contributes to righteousness. next to life the second best good for man is purity. 94 this is the dictum of the gathas, and it is most consistently developed throughout the entire subsequent literature. it is the favourite theme on which, the zoroastrian theologians are never tired of expatiating. purity of body is the most salient feature in the life of a zoroastrian. it is rated higher than anything else. the problem of cleanness and uncleanness, purity and impurity, has evoked an extensive literature. the tenets of the faith in this respect have been worked out into a science of health. bodily purity is indispensable to purity of mind. cleanliness of body is an essential requisite for saintliness. the clean in body find it easy to be pure in mind, and the pure in heart have just a step to take to be holy in spirit. asha vahishta comes to be regarded as the healing spirit of bodily diseases. as the many kinds of healers restore bodily health by herbs and drugs, and remove the tumours and cancers by knife and implements, so there are healers that heal through righteousness


comes to be regarded as the healing spirit of bodily diseases. as the many kinds of healers restore bodily health by herbs and drugs, and remove the tumours and cancers by knife and implements, so there are healers that heal through righteousness or by the holy spell. we shall speak later on, in its proper place, of the art of healing by means of the holy spell. the yasht which receives its name after asha vahishta is in fact mostly consecrated to asha vahishta ' s associate airyaman, the guardian genius of human health. of all the healers, the avestan texts announce, the spiritual healer is the best one ; it is he that heals the faithful through his own righteousness by means of the utterance of the holy spell. 95 | | 95. yt3. 6 ; vd7. 44. | asha vahishta ' s relation to fire. we have seen in the gathas asha ' s dual association with the universal order prevailing everywhere and fire. we find these early zoroastrian conceptions reflected in the writings of the greek philosophers of the period. heraclitus, who flourished at ephesus, near the end of the sixth century b. c., postulates fire as the first principle from which everything that exists has come. it is working as reason or logos and reveals the stable, divine law in the eternal flow of things in the universe. heraclitus left a deep impression on greek philosophy and his conceptions appear in later thinkers. 96 | | 96. see also carnoy, zoroastrianism in ere 12. 866. | in the avestan liturgy asha vahishta is invoked together with atar ; the genius of fire. 97 angra mainyu, as the devil, exclaims that zarathushtra burns him with asha vahishta as with molten metal. 98 this allegory of burning and annihilating the evil spirit through righteousness is taken literally in the later period of zoroastrianism, where asha vahishta is identified at times with the household fire on the hearth. such identification in the realms of matter and of spirit serves only to bring more into prominence the main tenets of zoroaster ' s teachings in regard to asha. 97. y1. 4 ; 2. 4 ; 3. 6 ; 4. 9 ; 6. 3 ; 7. 6, 17. 3 ; 22. 6 ; 59. 3 ;


zoroaster ' s teachings in regard to asha. 97. y1. 4 ; 2. 4 ; 3. 6 ; 4. 9 ; 6. 3 ; 7. 6, 17. 3 ; 22. 6 ; 59. 3 ; yt4. 9 ; sr1. 7 ; 2. 7 ; afr. 4. 2 ; g. 2, 9, 12. the change that the concept undergoes. the gathic khshathra now takes vairya, ' desirable, ' as its standing epithet, and hence both the terms combine to form the name of this archangel. this archangel of ahura mazda99 gradually loses the abstract side of his nature in the avestan texts. in the gathic prose text of the yasna haptanghaiti the abstract idea of the divine kingdom occurs but once. in this solitary passage the devout long for the everlasting kingdom of ahura mazda. 100 throughout the younger avestan texts this abstract idea of the spiritual kingdom recedes into the background, or rather is entirely lost sight of. true, khshathra vairya is still occasionally invoked by name along with the other celestial beings, but his higher function as the genius of the sovereign power in the abstract entirely falls out. | khshathra vairya as the genius of earthly wealth. materially khshathra vairya is the genius of metal, and his activity is now limited to guarding this concrete creation of god. he is not spoken of as the genius of the celestial riches of the divine kingdom of ahura mazda. khshathra vairya and the molten metal are invoked side by side. 101 in fact he very soon loses even this trait of his work ; he is identified with metal and just becomes metal itself. 102 thrita, the first reputed healer of the bodies of mortals, received from him a surgical instrument for healing. 103 | | 101. vr20. 1 ; yt2. 7 ; sr1. 4 ; 2. 4. 102. yt10. 125 ; vd9. 10 ; 16. 6 ; 17. 6, 8. as the genius of metal, khshathra vairya is the lord of earthly riches. he generously bestows his possessions on the poor. he is sometimes invoked in company of marezhdika, ' mercy, ' 104 who is styled the protector of the poor. we can trace this relation of khshathra vairya as the merciful help


his possessions on the poor. he is sometimes invoked in company of marezhdika, ' mercy, ' 104 who is styled the protector of the poor. we can trace this relation of khshathra vairya as the merciful helper of the poor to the ahuna vairya [ ahunwar ] formula. | | 104. yt2. 7 ; sr1. 4 ; 2. 4. | her position in the avesta. as devotion personified on the abstract side, and as the genius of the earth on the concrete side, spenta armaiti, ' holy devotion, ' retains her dual nature in the younger avesta. through the medium of devotion the faithful aspire to approach ahura mazda, 105 and in the confession of faith the pious follower of zarathushtra chooses devotion, and yearns to make her his own. 106 upon lifting up his devotional prayer the house - lord prays that she may enter his house and thus rout heresy. 107 the malice and harm of the wicked could be averted through her help. 108 she is the daughter of ahura mazda and as the genius of devotion is the mother of ashi vanghulti, or the genius of good piety, 109 while rata, the guardian spirit of generosity, is invoked with her. 110 105. y13. 6 ; 39, 5. 109. yt17. 16 ; vd19. 13, 16. 110. sr1. 5 ; 2. 5. armaiti as earth. from her position as the female genius of the earth, 111 armaiti very soon becomes the earth herself. she is now more frequently spoken of as the earth than as the genius of the earth. 112 she wears the star - studded sky as her 112. y16. 10 ; yt24. 50 ; vd2. 10, 14, 18 ; 18. 51, 64. haurvatat and ameretat | the dual archangels. these two amesha spentas are closely united to each other and generally occur together side by side. 114 haurvatat has a yasht consecrated to him, being invoked as the lord of seasons and years. 115 ahura mazda created haurvatat for the help, joy, comfort, and pleasure of the righteous ones. 116 the man who invokes the name of haurvatat as one of the archangels is able to smite the legion of demons. 117 the two,


a yasht, or hymn of praise, which narrates the doings and functions of its respective genius. besides the yashts that form a special biographical literature of these minor divinities, the whole iranian literature is filled with the record of their achievements. ahura mazda himself is a yazata, 4 even as he is an amesha spenta. he is the greatest and the best yazata. 5 zarathushtra himself is spoken of as a yazata. 6 2. vr8. 1 ; for a list of minor divinities see gray, the foundations of the iranian religions, p, 221 - 224. 3. is et os., 47. 5. y16. 1 ; yt17. 16. 6. y3. 21 ; 7. 21. history of the yazatas. some of these yazatas are, as we have already seen, pre - zoroastrian and go back to the indo - iraniam period ; but with the exception of sraosha, atar, and ashi, they do not appear in the gathas, though frequent enough in the later avesta. in fact, they permeate all the later texts, and form an indissoluble part of the zoroastrian pantheon. we shall group them under two headings and distinguish those that are common to the indians and the iranians from those that are indo - lranian : mithra, airyaman, haoma, verethraghna, parendi, rata, nairyosangha, apam napat, ushah, and vayu. iranian : atar, ardvi sura anahita, hvarekhshaeta, maonghah, tishtrya drvaspa, sraosha, rashnu, raman, daena, chisti, erethe, rasanstat, ashi vanghuhi, arshtat, asman, zam, manthra spenta, damoish upamana, and anaghra | characteristics of the yazatas. like their celestial elders, the amesha spentas, the yazatas impersonate abstract ideas and virtues, or concrete objects of nature. many of them preside over both spiritual and material phenomena. the nature yazatas hvarekhshaeta, mithra, maonghah, ardvi sura, atar, and others


, or concrete objects of nature. many of them preside over both spiritual and material phenomena. the nature yazatas hvarekhshaeta, mithra, maonghah, ardvi sura, atar, and others personify the sun, light, moon, water, and fire. at times their names designate merely the objects of nature that they personify. this simultaneous treatment of the dual aspect of these angels is frequently found in one and the same paragraph and makes it difficult to distinguish the actual impersonations from the personified objects. very often praise and sacrifice are offered more to the sun, light, moon, water, and fire as such than to the yazatas presiding over them. we learn from herodotus that the persians sacrificed unto the sun, moon, earth, fire, water, and winds. 7 | | 7. herod. 1. 131. | instances are not wanting in which a yazata begins his career as the personification of some one particular virtue or an object of nature, but with the lapse of time either substitutes for it some other or widens his sphere of activity and takes some new virtue in the abstract or some new object of nature under his guardianship in addition to his original duty. some of the yazatas are lacking in real individuality. the functions of the yazatas. various are the boons that the yazatas give unto man. 8 by hundreds and by thousands they gather together the light of the sun and pour it upon the earth. 9 men invoke them with sacrifices10 and in return they help men, they have a share of invocation and sacrifice offered unto ahura mazda, who is not jealous of the oblations thus dedicated to his subordinates. they are the holy, mighty, beneficent ones, 11 full of glory and healing. 12 apart from the general work which the yazatas perform as a class of spiritual beings, they are severally allotted different functions, which we shall notice under their respective headings. 8. y65. 12, 14. 9. yt6. 1 ; ny1. 11 11. y25. 8 ; 65. 12, 14 ; g2. 6. offerings and sacrifices to the yazatas. libations of milk and haoma, of the draonah [ dron ], or wafer - bread, and of meat are the objects generally dedicated to the angels, who always demand that man shall not forget their


yazatas. libations of milk and haoma, of the draonah [ dron ], or wafer - bread, and of meat are the objects generally dedicated to the angels, who always demand that man shall not forget their invocation and praise. they are ever eager to protect and help man in peace or war, provided that man propitiates them with offerings and sacrifices. to anahita as celestial guardian of the waters, to drvaspa, who protects cattle, and to vayu, the wind, a hundred horses, a thousand oxen, and ten thousand sheep are consecrated in sacrifice by some of the early kings and heroes. we shall turn to this subject later. division of the yazatas according to their grammatical gender. the yazatas are both males and females, or rather the personifications of virtues and ideas that are in gender masculine and feminine. there is no distinction between these male and female divinities. both of them are on the same level, occupy the same place of honour, and receive the same amount of homage. the gentle work becoming to the fair sex is allotted to female angels, and they are as powerful and awe - inspiring in their own sphere of activity as their fellow - workers of the opposite sex are in theirs. the female angels are : ushah, zam, ardvi sura anahita, drvaspa, daena, chisti, arshtat, erethe, rasanstat ashi vanghuhi, parendi, and rata. all others are the male sex. group yazatas. the usual manner of sacrificing unto the angels is to invoke each one separately by his name, or in company of his comrades and co - workers, or in joint pairs. on this last point we shall speak anon under a separate heading. sometimes all the angels are invoked in a group under the comprehensive title of vispe yazata, " all yazatas, " 13 closely corresponding to the vedic vishve devah, ' all divinities. ' in fact an entire book of the ritual is dedicated to the various spiritual lords under the title visperad, literally meaning ' all lords. ' | | 13. y1. 19 ; 2. 18 ; yt11. 17 ; 17. 19 ; wfr. 5. 1. | dual yazatas. a particular feature common to the avestan and vedic religions is the arrangement of certain divinities


is a female divinity of religion. very little is known of her personality more than the fact that she is the genius of the holy law of mazda. she has a yasht assigned to her which is called after her name ; and yet even this is entirely consecrated to chisti, who is her usual associate. the offerings are made to her companion, and various boons are asked from her. daena has no share in this. she is simply mentioned by name in invocation along with chisti. even here she is assigned a secondary place, for chisti takes precedence over her. throughout the avestan texts in which the two are mentioned together, daena stands second in the order of invocation. 25 ashi vanghuhi, or good piety, is her sister and sraosha, rashnu, and mithra are her brothers. 26 the twenty - fourth day of every month is dedicated to her. 27 25. y22. 24 ; 25. 5 ; s1. 24 ; 2. 24 ; ny1. 8 ; 2. 8. 26. yt17. 15, 17. the names of the religion. it is called the daena vanghu mazdayasnya, ' the good mazda - worshipping religion, ' 28 or daena mazdayasna, ' the mazda - worshipping religion. ' 29 it is named conjointly with ahura and zarathushtra and called ahuirya zarathushtri, ' the ahurian zarathushtrian. ' 30 it is further named data zarathushtri, ' the law of zarathushtra. 31 it is also spoken of without associating it with ahura mazda or zarathushtra as hu - daena, ' good religion. ' 32 the religion in standing opposition to the mazda - wotshipping religion is always called daevayasnya, ' the daeva - worshipping religion. ' the preliminary short prayers, the gahs, the niyayeshes, the yashts generally begin with a short confessionary formula in which the reciter says he is the worshipper of mazda, a zarathushtrian, he is against the daevas, and he is of ahurian faith, ahura - tkaesho. one of the nasks, the vendidad in its original form, vi - daeva - data, means ' the law against the daevas or demons '. 33 this religion of the demons is called aka -


tkaesho. one of the nasks, the vendidad in its original form, vi - daeva - data, means ' the law against the daevas or demons '. 33 this religion of the demons is called aka - daena, ' evil religion ' ; 34 or duzh - daena, ' evil religion. ' 35 the man who follows the same religion is hamo - daena, ' the co - religionist. ' 36 the man of other religion is of anya - tkaesha or anya - varena. 37 27. y16. 6 ; s1. 24 ; 2. 24. 28. y1. 13 ; 2. 13 ; 9. 26 ; 11. 16 ; 16. 6 ; 22. 24, 25 ; 25. 5, 6 ; 70. 3 ; vr6. 1 ; yt2. 13 ; 16. 20 ; s1. 24 ; 2. 24 ; ny1. 8 ; 2. 8 ; vd19. 6, 7, 13, 16. 29. y8. 1, 3 ; 22. 25 ; 25. 6 ; 71. 4 ; vr12. 3 ; yt8. 23, 29 ; 10. 68, 126, 127 ; 11. 3 ; 16. 17 ; 18. 8 ; 19. 2 ; 24. 52 ; g2. 7 ; vd2. 42 ; 3. 30, 31, 41, 42 ; 5. 21 ; 9. 2, 47, 52 ; 10. 18. 30. y12. 9 ; 60. 3 ; yt13. 99 ; vd2. 1, 2. 31. y1. 13 ; 2. 13 ; 22. 25 ; 25. 6 ; yt11. 3 ; vd5. 25 ; 19. 16. 32. vr3. 3 ; yt4. 10 ; 19. 95 ; 22. 18 ; g4. 8. 33. y1. 13 ; 2. 13 ; 22. 25 ; 25. 6 ; 71. 5 ; yt11. 17 ; vd5. 22 ; 19. 16. 35. y65. 6 ; yt5. 109 ; 9. 31 ; 19. 47, 87 ; 22. 36. 37. y16. 2 ; vd12. 21 ; 15. 2. | the excellence of the mazda - worshipping religion. the angel sraosha is the teacher of the religion. 38 arshtat, the


22. 36. 37. y16. 2 ; vd12. 21 ; 15. 2. | the excellence of the mazda - worshipping religion. the angel sraosha is the teacher of the religion. 38 arshtat, the genius presiding over rectitude, is once identified with daena. 39 ahura mazda brought for haoma the heavenly made star - bespangled girdle and the good mazda - worshipping religion. 40 he asked yima to be the bearer of his religion to mankind, but the illustrious king pleaded his inability to undertake such a mighty task. 41 zarathushtra then became the prophet of ahura mazda, and brought his religion to the world. the kingly glory clave unto king vishtaspa and he thought and spoke and acted according to the religion. 42 he became the arm and support of the ahurian zoroastrian religion. 43 he found her fettered in chains and made her widely known. 44 | | 38. y57. 24 ; yt11. 24. 41. vd2. 3, 4. the ahurian zoroastrian religion, we are told, is the greatest, best, and fairest of all religions that are and that will be. 45 she is as much higher in greatness, goodness, and fairness than others as the vourukasha is above all waters, or a great river, flowing swifter than a rivulet, or as a great tree overshadowing small plants, or as the heaven compassing the earth. 46 she is beautiful and spread far and wide. 47 as dissensions - dispelling, she causes weapons to be laid down. 48 she rejoices, protects, and guards the righteous man. 49 she takes away the sins of those who confess their wrongs and removes their evil thoughts, evil words, and evil deeds, as the powerfully blowing wind cleanses the plain. 50 the mazdayasnian religion gives all good things of life. 51 she gives purification to him who cleanses his self with good thoughts, good words, and good deeds. 52 the place where the faithful pray and sacrifice according to religion is happy. 53 hard work and industry are prime zoroastrian virtues. agriculture is the staple industry of the people and the texts say that sowing corn again and again feeds the mazda - worshipping religion, it makes her walk with a hundred men ' s feet and suckles her with a thousand women ' s breasts. 54


is the staple industry of the people and the texts say that sowing corn again and again feeds the mazda - worshipping religion, it makes her walk with a hundred men ' s feet and suckles her with a thousand women ' s breasts. 54 the householder prays for the long - enduring excellence of the religion in his house. 55 priests going afar for the propagation of religion, pray for a good memory and the soundness of the body. 56 he is not an athravan who has not girded his loins for religion. 57 the white colour, it is said is symbolic of the mazda - worshipping 50. vd3. 41, 42. 52. vd5. 21 ; 10. 18. 54. vd3. 30, 31. | divinity of religious wisdom. unlike her partner, just mentioned, chisti, divinity of religious wisdom, has a personality that is sharply defined. her standing epithets are ' good ' and ' most upright. ' she is the most upright, holy, bearing libations, wearing a white garment as her emblem. 59 zarathushtra longs to own her and devoutly implores her to grant him, among other things, the clearest vision. 60 the prophet ' s noble consort hvovi, as well as the itinerant priests and the lords of the country, are among her supplicants, asking various boons, which she grants to those who are pure in heart. 61 the faithful long to approach ahura mazda through the deeds of chisti. 62 | | 61. yt16. 15, 17, 19. the word chisti is often used to denote spiritual wisdom. the eighth name of ahura mazda is chisti or wisdom, and the ninth is ' possessed of wisdom. ' 63 the world first came into being through ahura mazda ' s understanding and wisdom. 64 haoma makes the mind of the poor exalted with wisdom. 65 63. yt1. 8, 9. his personality. sraosha is one of the few angels whose prominence increases with the lapse of time. two yashts are dedicated to him. the latter of which occurs also in the yasna. he is the angel whose name has reached afar and whose very body is the holy spell. 66 sraosha occupied a conspicuous place in the gathas, and was associated with ahura mazda and his six abstract figures that have now become a corporate body of the seven amesha spentas


afar and whose very body is the holy spell. 66 sraosha occupied a conspicuous place in the gathas, and was associated with ahura mazda and his six abstract figures that have now become a corporate body of the seven amesha spentas. his close connection with them is remembered by the composers of the later avestan texts. we are told that he was the first in the entire creation to worship ahura mazda, the amesha spentas. and the two protectors. 67 he chanted the five holy gathas of zarathushtra in order to propitiate the archangels. 68 from his battles against the demons, he returns victorious to the celestial assembly of the archangels. 69 his dwelling is supported by a thousand pillars, is self - lighted from within, and star - spangled from without. 70 he drives forth in a heavenly chariot drawn by four white shining horses that are fleeter than the winds, fleeter than the rain, fleeter than the winged birds, and fleeter than the well - darted arrow. 71 they overtake all, but none can overtake them, when sraosha drives towards hapta hindu or the land of seven rivers in india. 72 the sacred formula ahuna vairya [ ahunwar ] and the other consecrated spells are his weapons. 73 his sisters are ashi and daena, and his brothers are rashnu and mithra, 74 and unto him haoma offered sacrifice. 75 owing to his victorious courage and wisdom the archangels come down to the seven zones. 76 66. y3. 20 ; 4. 23 ; yt13. 85 ; vd18. 14. 67. y57. 2, 6. 71. y57. 27, 28. sraosha ' s attributes. his standing epithets are : holy, well - shapen, victorious, ad world - increasing. he is the strongest, the sturdiest, the most active, the swiftest, and the most awe - inspiring of youths. 77 he is the word incarnate, the valiant wielder of the club, which is levelled against all demoniacal powers, especially against the fiendish druj. 78 he is courageous, mighty, swift, powerful, terrible, and heroic. 79 he is a formidable foe to the wicked. he is not afraid or anyone, but the demons tremble at his sight and flee to the region of darkness. 80 his mace does havoc on them. he is the warrior of the strong arms


heroic. 79 he is a formidable foe to the wicked. he is not afraid or anyone, but the demons tremble at his sight and flee to the region of darkness. 80 his mace does havoc on them. he is the warrior of the strong arms, who breaks the skulls of the demons. 81 himself unconquerable, he is the conqueror of all. 78. y3. 20 ; 4. 23 ; 57. 1, 33 ; yt11. 0, 23 ; sr1. 17 ; vd18. 14. 79. y57. 3, 11, 12, 13, 23. 80. y57. 18 ; yt11. 13. 81. y57. 34 ; yt11. 9. | the work of sraosha. mazda has revealed his religion to sraosha, who now teaches it to the world of humanity. 82 this was the prime function, as we have seen above, that the gathas allotted him. the younger avestan texts speak more of his all - absorbing work of combating the demons. in the gathas he preached devout submission to mazda ' s mandates ; in the later avesta he does the fighting with the rebels that revolt against divine authority. he, the exalted one, comes down to the creation of mazda, with loins girt up to fight the demons. 83 sleep has forsaken his eyelids since the two spirits spenta mainyu and angra mainyu created the world. 84 ahura mazda has created him to withstand the demon aeshma. 85 with an uplifted club he guards the world after sunset from the onslaughts of aeshma, his constant rival, and against all the forces of wickedness. 86 three times during the day and three times during the night the holy sraosha descends on earth to smite the evil spirit angra mainyu, aeshma, the demons of mazandaran, and all other demons. 87 just as the shepherd dog guards and protects cattle against harm, so does sraosha protect men ; and the faithful, therefore, yearn with good thoughts, good words, and good deeds to live under his constant guardianship. 88 the fire of the hearth calls sraosha for help in the third part of the night, for the demon azi threatens to extinguish his life. 89 sraosha, thereupon, wakes up the cock parodarsh, his ally, who lifts up his voice to rouse the world


third part of the night, for the demon azi threatens to extinguish his life. 89 sraosha, thereupon, wakes up the cock parodarsh, his ally, who lifts up his voice to rouse the world of humanity, and warns it against the mischief of bushyansta, who lulls it to sleep. 90 with his terrible mace levelled at the head of druj, he enters into controversy with her, extorts from the demoness her secret devices, 91 and smites her. 92 as the teacher of religion unto men he moves about spreading religious lore at his will over the whole material world. 93 | | 82. y57. 24 ; yt11. 14. 84. y57. 17 ; yt11. 11, 12. 86. y57. 10, 16 ; yt11. 10, 11. 87. y57. 31, 32. 90. vd18. 23, 24. 92. y57. 15 ; yt11. 3, 10. the master of rituals takes his name from sraosha and is called sraoshavarez. 94 parodarsh is called the sraoshavarez of sraosha. 95 the implement of administering stripes to the criminals is called sraoshocharana. 96 94. vr3. 1 ; yt24. 15 ; vd5. 25, 57, 58 ; 7. 17, 18, 71 ; g3. 5. 95. vd18. 14, 15. 96. vd3. 36, 37 ; etc. sraosha ' s gifts. he is implored to give strength to the spans of the warriors ' steeds in battle, soundness of body, and power to meet the adversary. 96a he is like a firmly built house unto the poor, who look to him for support. 97 the faithful entreat him to guard them in both the worlds. 98 the householder invokes him to smite disobedience in his family. 99 he smites kunda. 100 the mazdayasnians are asked to sacrifice unto him. 101 evils of all kinds vanish from the house, clan, town, and country, wherein the righteous man thinking good thoughts, speaking good words, and doing good deeds, welcomes and sacrifices unto sraosha. 102 the faithful pray for all the houses protected by sraosha, wherein he is friendly, beloved, and honoured. 103 they be


man thinking good thoughts, speaking good words, and doing good deeds, welcomes and sacrifices unto sraosha. 102 the faithful pray for all the houses protected by sraosha, wherein he is friendly, beloved, and honoured. 103 they beseech him to come to their help. 104 97. y51. 10 ; yt11. 3. 103. y57. 35 ; yt11. 20. his place in the avestan pantheon. of all the indo - iranian divinities that have found their place in the zarathushtrian theology, mithra is the most prominent figure. as an associate of varuna, mithra ' s individuality was eclipsed during the indo - iranian period. after the separation of these two groups of the aryan people, mithra rose to great eminence, and was the premier divinity in western iran, when zarathushtra preached his religion. during the period of syncretism after the passing away of the prophet, mithra became the most conspicuous angel of the younger avestan period. the longest yasht, which is eight times longer than the yasht composed in honour of ahura mazda, celebrates his greatness. he is the most masculine, exacting, implacable, and relentless of all the yazatas. ahura mazda has created him the most glorious of the spiritual yazatas, 105 as worthy of sacrifice and prayer as himself. 106 the description of him in the yasht that is dedicated in his honour gives a vivid picture of the character of the pre - zarathushtrian divinities that came to be worshipped in iran. mithra was the most eminent of the primitive ahuras, as he was conjointly worshipped with ahura mazda. 107 the writer who consecrated yasht 10 in his honour was conversant with the past greatness of this divinity, whose cult had struck so deep a root in the popular mind. he certainly was unsparing in eulogizing the work of this genius in the universe. the texts sometimes speak of mithra in terms that are usually applied to ahura mazda, and the latter himself is represented in this particular yasht as having sacrificed unto mithra. 108 the heptad of the amesha spentas having been already complete, mithra is not raised to the rank of these higher beings. but is assigned a place among the yazatas. the old persian inscriptions of the achaemenian kings mention a very limited number


the amesha spentas having been already complete, mithra is not raised to the rank of these higher beings. but is assigned a place among the yazatas. the old persian inscriptions of the achaemenian kings mention a very limited number of the celestial beings. mithra occupies a prominent place among these divinities. artaxerxes mnemon and artaxerxes ochus invoke mithra for help and protection. 109 105. vd19. 35 ; ny1. 7. 107. y1. 11 ; 2. 11 ; yt10. 113, 145 ; ny1. 7 ; 2. 12. 109. sus. a ; ham. b ; pers. 4. mithra ' s attributes. of all the yazatas that rule over this earth, mithra is the strongest, the most sturdy, the most active, the most swift, and the most victorious. 110 ahura mazda has created him the most glorious of all the spiritual yazatas. 111 the composer of the yasht who sings to his favourite divinity applies to him the same honorific epithets as are applied to the godhead. mithra is called omniscient, which is strictly speaking the epithet of mazda alone. 112 he is the greatest of the yazatas, with body shining like the moon, and face ( ainika ), as brilliant as tishtrya. 113 it is interesting to note that the rig veda uses the correspording skt. form ( anika ), and says that varuna ' s face is as shining as that of agni. 114 he is the strongest of the strong the sturdiest of the sturdy, the most intelligent among the divinities, victorious, glorious, heroic, and the undeceivable one, deep, courageous, weal - giving, propitiated when invoked, exalted, skilful, with a body made of spells, and a warrior of powerful, arms, the leader of hosts, of a thousand devices, lordly, ruling, the all - knowing one, the one of good renown, of good form and glory, granting boons and pastures at his will, the giver of good, of ten thousand spies, heroic, and the all - knowing. 115 he is ever afoot, watchful, valiant, a dominating figure in the assembly, causing the waters to flow, listening to appeals, causing the trees to grow, ruling over the district full


spies, heroic, and the all - knowing. 115 he is ever afoot, watchful, valiant, a dominating figure in the assembly, causing the waters to flow, listening to appeals, causing the trees to grow, ruling over the district full of devices, a creature of wisdom. 116 he is the swiftest among the swift, generous among the generous, valiant among the valiant, chief among the chiefs of assembly, increase - giving, fatness - giving, flock - giving, son - giving, life - giving, felicity - giving, joy - giving, glory - giving, kingdom - giving, and piety - giving. 117 mithra is highly merciful, foremost, and peerless. 118 he is the protector and guardian of an creatures. 119 he is the most fiend - smiting among all the yazatas. 120 he is both good and bad for men and nations, peace and war between nations are from him. 121 with his wide knowledge, he furthers the creation of spenta mainyu. 122 the sixteenth day of a month and the seventh month of a year are sacred to mithra. 110. yt10. 98, 135. 112. yt10. 24, 35. 113. yt10. 142, 143. 114. rv. 7. 88, 2. 115. yt10. 24, 25, 27, 31, 35, 46, 56, 60, 63, 69, 82, 141, 143. 117. yt10. 16, 65. 120. yt10. 98, 135. mithra ' s associates. among those who work in unison with mithra, ahura mazda stands first ; mithra - ahura ate invoked together as a couple. their union is pre - zarathushtrian and corresponds to the vedic mitra - varuna. a detailed account of their joint activity is not found in the avesta, but they are called the two exalted, imperishable, and holy ones, 123 and are invoked for special help. 124 mithra is again jointly invoked with hvarkhshaeta, the angel presiding over the sun. this is natural, because one of the chief iunctions of mithra is to work as the guardian of light. of the five zoroastrian nyaishes, or litanies, two are consecrated to the sun and mithra, and these two are always recited together. 125 on the moral side mithra protects truth. consequently at an early date he is


of the five zoroastrian nyaishes, or litanies, two are consecrated to the sun and mithra, and these two are always recited together. 125 on the moral side mithra protects truth. consequently at an early date he is associated with rashnu, who is the chief genius of truth. 126 they are united as two friends. 127 one of the principal attributes of mithra is that he is the lord of wide pastures. in this capacity he joins in partnership with raman khvastra, who is essentially the angel that gives good pastures and happy dwellings, together with full joy of life. 128 123. y1. 11 ; 2. 11 ; ny1. 7 ; 2. 2 ; yt10. 113, 145. 125. ny1. 2 ; yt6. 126. vr7. 2 ; yt13. 47, 48 ; 14. 47 ; 24. 52 ; vd4. 54. 127. yt10. 79, 81. 128. y2. 3 ; 25. 4 ; vr2. 9 ; vd3. 1 ; g1. 2, 7, 8 ; s1. 16 ; 2. 16. mithra, the genius of light. on the material side mithra presides over light, especially over the light that radiates from the sun with the radiance of which he is identical on the physical plane. as the harbinger of light and herald of the dawn, mithra precedes the rising sun on the summits of mountains, and from there watches all aryan settlements, nay more, even all the seven zones of the world. 129 the great vault of heaven is therefore mithra ' s garment. 130 ahura mazda and the amesha spentas, being in one accord with the sun, have built up for mithra a dwelling as wide as the earth in this material world, on the great mountain hara berezaiti ( alburz ) where neither night nor darkness, nor cold wind, nor hot wind, nor sickness, impurity ; death and clouds can ever reach. 131 from this elysian abode mithra surveys the whole universe at a glance. 132 sleepless and ever wakeful, he watches and spies the doings of men, like vedic mitra - varuna, as an infallible sentinel of heaven. he has posted eight of his comrades as scouts on the celestial watch - towers to spy upon men ' s doings. 133 after the sun has set


of men, like vedic mitra - varuna, as an infallible sentinel of heaven. he has posted eight of his comrades as scouts on the celestial watch - towers to spy upon men ' s doings. 133 after the sun has set, mithra traverses the world all around, and surveys all that is between earth, and the heavens. 134 ahura mazda consequently has ordained that mithra should watch from on high over the entire moving world. 135 the heat of mithra it is, accordingly, that gives warmth and life to the plant world and bestows fertility upon this earth. mithra, as a guardian genius in the celestial realm, superintends the vast expanse of the universe. varuna has a thousand eyes, 136 and mithra is constantly spoken of as having a thousand ears and ten thousand eyes. the brilliant sun is the lord of yonder heavens, who with his infinite rays of light pervades the whole world, mithra furthermore receives in the avesta the standing epithets dainghu - paiti, ' the lord of countries, ' and vourugaoyaoiti ' of wide pastures. ' his light is the dispeller of darkness and of all the sin and evil concomitant with it. nothing is secret from mithra ' s penetrating gaze. mitra - varuna have a thousand - eyed spies ( spasah ), who descend from heaven and traverse the world, watching the doings of mankind. mithra, as we have seen, has ten thousand spies ( spaso ), who work as his messengers. 129. yt10. 13, 15 ; vd19. 28. 131. yt10. 44, 50, 51. 136. rv. 7. 34. 10. | mithra, the inveterate foe of falsehood. yet after all, the greater and more important work of mithra lies in the abstract sphere. at a very early date mithra was styled the warder of truth. light is synonymous with truth, as darkness is with falsehood. mithra being primarily the lord of light, it was but a step from the physical to the moral sphere that he should be depicted impersonating truth. from the divine activity of mithra, as portrayed in the avestan texts, we gather more information of his aggressively active crusade against falsehood than of his work in upholding truth. in his warring capacity of lord of hosts, mithra works more than all else to deal a destructive blow to the


in the avestan texts, we gather more information of his aggressively active crusade against falsehood than of his work in upholding truth. in his warring capacity of lord of hosts, mithra works more than all else to deal a destructive blow to the demon of falsehood, thereby strengthening the realm of truth. | to speak untruth was a henious sin. truth was a paramount among the ancient iranians. it was regarded as everything, it was religion. on this very account we see human evil reflectively focussed in the avesta as the druj, ' lie, ' which corresponds to drauga in the old persian inscriptions of the achaemenian kings, a conception almost like that of the devil. herodotus writes that one of the first things that every persian child was taught was to speak the truth. 137 lying unto mithra brings the offender the sin of being a deceiver of mithra. the faithful is exhorted never to lie, for mithra is unforgiving toward liars. sad is the abode wherein live those that lie unto mithra, for they are childless, and even their cattle stray along the road shedding tears over their chins. 138 neither the lord of the house, nor the lord of the clan, nor the lord of the town, nor the lord of the country should ever lie unto this celestial being. 139 he is the protector and guardian of these lords, only so long as they lie not unto him. 140 if, however, they commit such a sin, mithra is offended and angered, and destroys house, clan, town, and the country, along with their masters and nobles. 141 nor can these culprit lords escape him, for he overtakes them, no matter how swiftly they may run. 142 the man of little faith who thinks that he can evade mithra and indulges in falsehood is mistaken ; 143 but mithra thinks in his mind that were the evil thoughts, evil words, and evil deeds of the earthly man a hundred times worse, they would not rise as high as the good thoughts, good words, and good deeds of the heavenly mithra. 144 or again if the innate wisdom of the earthly man were a hundred times greater, it would not rise as high as the heavenly wisdom of the mithra ; or if the ears of the earthly man could hear a hundred times better, he would not hear so well as the heavenly mithra who with a thousand devices of his, hears well and sees every


as high as the heavenly wisdom of the mithra ; or if the ears of the earthly man could hear a hundred times better, he would not hear so well as the heavenly mithra who with a thousand devices of his, hears well and sees every man that tells a lie. 145 to such a one mithra gives neither strength nor vigour, glory nor reward, 146 but on the contrary, he inflicts dire punishment. into the hearts of all such he strikes terror, taking away the strength of their arms, fleetness from their feet, the sight from their eyes, and the hearing from their ears. 147 it is he that hurls down their heads as he deals death. 148 mithra keeps back harm and death from him who lies not unto him. 149 neither the wound of the well - sharpened spear nor that of the well - darted arrow harm him whom mithra comes to help. 150 137. herod. 1. 136 | 147. yt10. 23, 48, 63. mithra the guardian of contracts. ahura mazda enjoins upon zarathushtra not to break the contract that is entered into with the righteous or with the wicked, for mithra stands for both the righteous and the wicked. 151 in his role of genius of light he guards the sanctity of oaths, and the word mithra in the avesta is frequently used as a common noun, meaning ' contract. ' 152 for that reason, he who violates the oath, whether it be with a believer or a non - believer, feels the visitations of the stern angel ' s wrath. the crime of the one who thus violates a contract is called mithra - druj, ' deceiving mithra. ' such a criminal is heavily punished, and his guilt falls upon the shoulders of his kinsmen for years in the next world, making them answerable for it by punishment. 153 the ethics of thus holding a man ' s family and kinsmen responsible for his guilt seems to be a relic of the primitive type of group morality. 152. yt10. 116, 117 ; vd4. 2 - 16. mithra as a war divinity. incidental allusion has been made above to mithra as the lord of hosts. for that reason it is easy to comprehend the fact that warring nations invoke mithra for help before going into battle ; and the lord of hosts sides with that army which excels in offering sacrifice. 154 when mithra marches out


of hosts. for that reason it is easy to comprehend the fact that warring nations invoke mithra for help before going into battle ; and the lord of hosts sides with that army which excels in offering sacrifice. 154 when mithra marches out amid the hostile armies on the battlefield, he throws confusion into the camp of the enemy that has offended him, binds the hands of his offenders, covers their eyesight, takes away their power of hearing, deprives their feet of movement, 155 and breaks asunder their lines of battle, striking terror in their entire array. 156 though the enemy use arrows and spears, swords and maces, they nevertheless miss the mark in every case, 157 and, all the while, mithra rushes destructively from a thousand directions against the foes. 158 the adversaries who have lied unto him he kills by fifties and hundreds, by hundreds and thousands, by thousands and tens of thousands, by tens of thousands and myriads. 159 confusing their minds, he shatters their limbs and breaks their bones asunder, 160 at the same time as he throws down their heads161 he enters the battlefield in person, and levels his club at both the horse and the rider. 162 155. yt10. 48, 63. 156. yt10. 36, 41. 157. yt10. 39, 40. 160. yt10. 71, 72. mithra ’ s chariot. mithra goes forth on his daily round through the heavens and upon the earth driving in a celestial car that rolls upon one golden wheel, evidently the sun, with a shining axle. 163 ahura mazda made his chariot of heavenly substance and inlaid it with stars. 164 like sraosha ' s vehicle it is drawn by four white stallions that eat celestial food and are are undying, shining, and spiritual. 165 when mithra drives on aloft over the seven zones he is escorted on the left and the right, in front and from behind, by sraosha, nairyosangha, ashi vanghuhi, parendi, nairya ham - vareti, kingly glory, the sovereign sky, damoish upamana, rashnu, chisti, atar, verethraghna, and the fravashis. 166 with bows and arrows, spears and clubs, and with swords and maces placed by thousands in his chariot, this divine war lord plunges, mace in hand, into the field of battle, smiting


53, 54. 172. yt10. 108, 109. 174. yt10. 28, 87. 176. yt10. 69, 98, 135. sacrifices to mithra. varuna sits on the strewn grass at the sacrifice. 178 similarly, the faithful devoutly invoke mithra by his name with libations, and implore him to come and sit at the sacrifice, to listen to the invocation, to be pleased with it, to accept it, and to place it with love to their credit in paradise. 179 ahura mazda himself offered a sacrifice unto him in the shining garonmana. 180 zarathushtra is asked to offer sacrifices unto mithra and so are the mazdayasnians asked to sacrifice unto him with cattle and birds, along with haoma and libations. 181 the faithful who desires to drink the holy libations consecrated in honour of mithra is required to undergo certain penances. he has to wash his body for three days and three nights and undergo thirty stripes, or he might wash his body for two days and two nights and undergo twenty stripes, as the occasion requires. anyone who has no knowledge of the ritual is prohibited from partaking of the sacred libation. 182 in these observances we can recognize the beginnings of the later mithraic rites and mysteries for which the cult of mithra, centuries afterwards, became famous. mithra demands that his sacrifice shall be performed with out - and - out devotion. ahura mazda says unto zarathushtra that if a sacrifice is offered unto mithra by a holy and righteous priest, mithra will be satisfied, and will straightway come to the dwelling of the supplicant, but if it is performed by an unholy priest, it is rejected, no matter how long has been the sacrifice, nor how many bundles of the sacred twigs are consecrated. 183 mithra promptly comes to help when he is satisfied. 184 he brings sovereignty for him who has piously offered him libations, 185 and gives him a good abode with desirable possessions. 186 he is to be offered sacrifices around and within countries, in and above countries, under and before and behind countries. 187 178. rv. 1. 2. 64 ; 5. 72. 2. 187. yt10. 144 ; ny2. 11. mithra ' s boons. he is constantly spoken of as giving happy and joyful abode, to the aryan peoples. many indeed are the


; 5. 72. 2. 187. yt10. 144 ; ny2. 11. mithra ' s boons. he is constantly spoken of as giving happy and joyful abode, to the aryan peoples. many indeed are the boons asked for from mithra by his votaries, who always approach him with love, homage and sacrifice. he is generally invoked to come to the faithful for help, freedom, joy, mercy, healing, victory, well - being, and sanctification. the masters of the house, clan, town, and country invoke him for help, so do the poor, when wronged, look to him for the redress of their grievances. 188 the husbandman solicits that rich pasture may never fail him. horsemen sacrifice unto him even from on horseback and beg swiftness for their teams, vigour for their bodies, and might for overthrowing their adversaries. 189 neither the spear of the foe nor his arrow hits the man whom mithra helps, 190 for he guards and protects man from behind and in front. 191 furthers the possessions of man, he gives flocks of cattle, male offspring, chariots, spacious mansions, and prosperity192 he is therefore entreated to grant riches, courage, victory, good name and fame, felicity, wisdom, and strength to smite the adversaries. 193 the worshipper prays that just as the sun, rising beyond the alburz, reaches the height, so may he, with his ascending prayer, rise above the will of angra mainyu and approach mithra. 194 mithra ' s help, it may be added, is invoked for both the worlds. 195 188. yt10. 83, 84. 193. yt10. 33, 34, 58, 59. | personification of truth. this angel is preeminently genius of truth. his standing epithet is razishta, ' most upright '. to adopt the phraseology of the younger avestan texts, rashnu is the most holy, the most well - shaped, exalted, courageous, most knowing, the most discerning, the most fore - knowing, most far - seeing, the most helping, the greatest smiter of thieves and bandits. 196 he is as bright as the fire. 197 zarathushtra blesses king vishtaspa that he may be of right faith like rashnu. 198 | | 196. yt10.


the greatest smiter of thieves and bandits. 196 he is as bright as the fire. 197 zarathushtra blesses king vishtaspa that he may be of right faith like rashnu. 198 | | 196. yt10. 126 ; 12. 5 - 8. 197. vsp. 16. 1. the eighteenth day of the month is consecrated to him. 199 | | 199. y16. 5 ; sr. 1. 18 ; 2. 18. | | rashnu presides at the ordeal court. the twelfth yasht consecrated to rashnu deals mainly with the preparation of the ordeal ; and his presence at such trials is deemed indispensable. 200 in fact he is the chief celestial judge who presides at the ordeal. no specific habitat is assigned to rashnu. the officiating priest has to invoke him to come to the ordeal from whatever part of the world he happens to be in at that time, whether in one of the seven zones of the habitable world, or on the great waters or on some part of the wide earth, or on the high mountains, on the stars and the moon and the sun, or in the endless light, even in paradise. 201 the man who lies at the ordeal offends both rashnu and mithra, and is consequently punished. 202 | | 200. see dhalla, ' the use of ordeals among the ancient iranians, ' in le museon, vol. ii, p. 121 - 133, louvain, 1910. we have already seen how rashnu is often invoked in company with mithra, and likewise with sraosha ; in a similar manner, as noted in the next paragraph, we generally find arshtat the female personification of rectitude, invoked alongside of rashnu. 203 | | 203. y1. 7 ; 2. 7 ; yt10. 139 ; 12. 40 ; sr. 1. 18 ; 2. 1. 8. | | divinity of rectitude. arshtat or arshti is the female genius of truth. she does not play any prominent part in the younger avestan period. she co - operates with mithra, sraosha, and rashnu in the judgment of the dead. although the 18th yasht is dedicated to arshtat and bears her name, there is not in it a single mention of her by name ; the entire hymn treats only of the aryan glory. in two sir


in the judgment of the dead. although the 18th yasht is dedicated to arshtat and bears her name, there is not in it a single mention of her by name ; the entire hymn treats only of the aryan glory. in two sirozah passages ( 1. 26, 2. 26 ) mount ushidarena literally meaning ' the keeper of intelligence, ' is invoked in company with arshtat ; and tradition points to this mountain at the place where zarathushtra retired to meditate on the eternal problems of life and commune with the divine. as noted above, arshtat is generally invoked with rashnu ; 204 and she is called the world - increasing and the world - profiting. 205 in one instance she is identified with the mazdayasnian religion. 206 the faithful invoke her excellence. 207 | | 204. y1. 7 ; 2. 7 ; yt10. 139 ; 12. 40 ; sr. 1. 18 ; 2. 18. 205. y1. 7 ; 2. 7 ; vsp. 7. 2 ; yt10. 139 ; 11. 16 ; 13. 18 ; sr. 1. 26 ; 2. 26 206. vsp. 7. 2 as conjectured by foy, 208 and established by jackson, 209 after a careful examination of the old persian inscription on the behistan rock, 210 the name of this angel occurs in the very short list of zoroastrian divinities known to the achaemenian kings. the twenty - sixth day of the month is sacred to her. 211 208. kz. 35. 45 ; zdmg. 54. 364, n. 1. 209. persia past and present, p. 203 - 205, new york, 1906. 210. bh. 4. 64. 211. y16. 6 ; sr. 1. 26 ; 2. 26. erethe and rasanstat | minor divinities of truth. by the names of erethe and rasantat are designated two minor female angels presiding over truth. nothing is known about them excepting that they are invoked by name along with chisti and ashi vanghuhi. 212 they are given the epithet ' good. ' erethe is once called courageous. 213 | | 212. y1. 14 ; 3. 16 ; 4. 19 ; vsp. 9. 4 ; sr. 1. 25. 213. vsp. 9. 4. | the angel


no plague, nor evil of any kind would enter the aryan lands. 219 the sacrifice is to be offered through righteousness, and none but the righteous should partake of the holy food dedicated to verethraghna. untold calamity would befall the aryan countries if the wicked should have a share in the sacred feast. in such an event plagues and foes would devastate the country and the aryans would be smitten by their fifties and their hundreds, by their hundreds and their thousands, by their thousands and their tens of thousands, by their tens of thousands and their myriads of myriads. 220 219. yt14. 48 - 50. verethraghna ' s work. the armies that meet on the battlefield invoke verethraghna for victory. he favours that army which first seeks his help.. the army that secures his aid is sure to conquer and not to be conquered, it smites and is not smitten. 221 he breaks asunder the columns of the enemy, wounds them, shakes them, and cuts them to pieces. 222 he brings illness and death into the army that has lied unto mithra, binds their hands and feet, and deprives them of their eyesight and hearing. 223 he destroys the malice of the malicious demons and men, sorcerers and fairies, the willfully blind, and the willfully deaf. 224 zarathushtra sacrificed unto verethraghna, imploring from him victory in thought, victory in word, victory in deed, victory in addressing. and victory in replying. 225 verethraghna imparts to the prophet the excellence of uprightness, the strength of the arms, the health of the body, the strength of the body, and the powerful vision of the eyes. 226 221. yt14. 43, 44. 225. yt14. 28, 30, 32. his metamorphoses. verethraghna, along with dahma afriti and damoish upamana, imports a peculiar aspect into the iranian pantheon, that of assuming various shapes and manifesting his individuality in many forms. as the lord of victory he is ever ready to help those who invoke him, and comes down to his votary under different guises. ten of such forms of verethraghna are mentioned, when he appeared to zarathushtra. the divinity successively assumes the form of the wind, a bull


4 ; vsp. 1. 7 ; 2. 9 ; yt10. 146. yt15 ; sr. 1. 21 ; 2. 21 ; vd. 3. 1 ; g. 1. 7. 230. yt8. 2 ; 10. 4. 232. yt23. 7 ; 24. 6. | physical and mental inequality leads to economic inequality. providence does not distribute the physical and mental gifts to man on the basis of equality. some are born with agile, robust, and healthy bodies, whereas others are burdened with sluggish, weak, and sickly bodies. mankind has contributed considerably by its vice of ages to the deformity of body and derangement of mind. men and women are born with unequal physical and mental strength. the strong and strenuous, cunning and resourceful, vigorous and adventurous mercilessly overthrow the weak and slow, simple and dull, timid and indolent in the fierce scramble for the good things of life. the unequal distribution by nature of the gifts of body and brain, aided by selfishness and greed on the part of man bring about economic inequality. the disparity of poverty and wealth has appeared on the face of the earth ever since society took to settled life and, with the division of labour, embarked upon earning means of livelihood by different kinds of work. the strong have exploited the labour of the weak and forced them to slave like beasts of burden with their eyes raining tears of sorrow. the fear of starvation has hovered over millions of huts like vultures. the poor have generally lived in squalor and sickness and died like flies. countless persons have not experienced a full and satisfied stomach from birth to death. kindly mothers have eaten only half the bread that their children may have the other half. multitudes of children have lived with wasted cheeks, sunken eyes, and emaciated bodies among the dregs of life. men and women have sweated and starved and grown gray before their time. physical sufferings have rendered many the shadows of themselves, made them live two years in one and age fast. many have found it hard to equate the income and expenses, and earned a precarious living. the people whose tragedy it has been to be poor have always outnumbered the rich in the world. | | when life has thus denied many the barest necessities of life, it has loaded others with abundance. men of industry and enterprise have amassed riches, others have inherited wealth, still others have


have always outnumbered the rich in the world. | | when life has thus denied many the barest necessities of life, it has loaded others with abundance. men of industry and enterprise have amassed riches, others have inherited wealth, still others have filled their coffers by foul means. some have been parasites fattening upon the sweated toil of the tillers of the soil and have wrung from them the fruits of their labour. they have revelled in superfluous riches. they have lived in spacious halls with frescoed walls, and velvet hangings looped with golden tassels. they had a retinue of servants at their beck and call and lounged away their time upon luxurious divans. they had sumptuous tables laden with a dozen courses and sparkling wines and fed themselves to early death. others gave themselves up to gaiety and licentiousness. many have indulged in ostentatious and extravagant luxury when the vast numbers of the poor have clothed themselves in rags and their children have suffered from malnutrition. the insolence and hauteur, the cold behaviour and thinly concealed slights have stung the helpless poor to the quick. | the poor took the counsels of contentment given by the wise to heart and resigned themselves to the inscrutable will of god. moreover, there have always been noble souls everywhere who have come forward to father society ' s orphans and destitutes. they have acted on the principle that wealth was not given them for their selfish use, and that the rich were the stewards of their wealth given them by god for the amelioration of the condition of the poor. when some have not given anything from their abundance, many have always given something, and the few have given up their all. charity personified. the female genius of charity, grace, or alms - giving is rata, the companion of spenta armaiti, with whom she is conjointly invoked in the hymns of praise. 233 through her ahura mazda gives reward, 234 for he has spoken of her with express sanction to zarathushtra, and in obedience the prophet has introduced her to humanity. 235 the faithful pray that they may win ahura mazda ' s favours through rata. 236 she nourishes the poor. 237 sraosha is the best protector of the poor. 238 he shelters poor men and women in his mansion. 239 haoma exalts the mind of the poor.


favours through rata. 236 she nourishes the poor. 237 sraosha is the best protector of the poor. 238 he shelters poor men and women in his mansion. 239 haoma exalts the mind of the poor. 239a with uplifted hands do the ill - treated poor call mithra for help. 240 the faithful fervently pray that the spirit of charity of the religious devotee241 may drive away the demon of stinginess from the house. if one of the faith approaches another seeking goods, or a wife, or knowledge, the man of means should help him with goods, he should arrange for the marriage of this poor coreligionist, he should pay for his instruction in religious matters. 242 it is in every man ' s power to practise charity, either in thoughts, or in words, or in deeds. 233. sr. 1. 5 ; 2. 5. | the angel of peace. this female divinity is peace personified, but even though perfectly clearly recognizable as such, she is very obscurely outlined as to traits. she is invoked in company with vohu manah, or good mind, 243 for nothing can break the inner peace in which the spirit of a man of good thoughts reposes. akhshti is usually called victorious. 244 | | 243. yt2. 1 ; sr. 1. 2 ; 2. 2. 244. vsp. 7. 1 ; yt2. 1, 6 ; 11, 15 ; 15. 1 ; sr. 1. 2 ; 2. 2. the term akhshti occurs also as a common noun. this peace as well as war lies in the power of mithra to bring upon the country. 245 the rulers invoke chisti to procure peace for their countries, 246 and the faithful pray that peace and concord may drive out discord and strife from their abodes. 247 the spirit of the spells. the gathas spoke of the manthra, the sacred formula, or inspired utterance of great spiritual potency, but did not personify it. the avestan texts do so, however, under the name manthra spenta, or holy formula. the manthras generally indicate the spells of magical charms in the younger avesta. manthra spenta, the embodiment of the holy spell, is invoked along with daena, the genius of religion, and vohu manah ' s wisdom. 248 as an angel


spells of magical charms in the younger avesta. manthra spenta, the embodiment of the holy spell, is invoked along with daena, the genius of religion, and vohu manah ' s wisdom. 248 as an angel presiding over the formulas of the faith he wards off evil, exorcises those possessed of the demons, and heals the sick ; he is consequently invoked to heal the ninety - nine thousand nine hundred and ninety - nine diseases created by angra mainyu. 249 he is efficacious and the most glorious one, 250 and like every other angel, manthra spenta has his fravashi. 251 the twenty - ninth day of the month is sacred to him. 252 248. sr. 1. 29 ; 2. 29. 249. vd. 22. 2, 6. 250. y1. 13 ; 2. 13 ; 25. 6 ; vsp. 21. 2 ; vd. 22. 2, 6. 251. yt13. 86. the potency of the spells. the collocation manthra spenta occurs more frequently in its ordinary meaning than as the name of the angel presiding over the holy spells. the term manthra without its appellative spenta is also freely used to designate the sacred texts. it is also used for the magical spells of various degrees of efficacy. these spells are interspersed in the avestan texts, especially in the yashts and the vendidad. their conjuring efficacy is very great. they are supposed to have inherent mysterious power of their own, and the mere recital of these magical charms produces marvellous effects. the mystical compositions, as such, are credited with some kind of spiritual efficacy, some superhuman power ; and through the recitation of them man can avert the baneful influence of the demons. such spells are awful, efficacious, victorious, healing. 253 the recital of the holy spell gives easy delivery at birth, and helps in the growth of the child. 254 he who heals by the recital of the holy spells is the best healer, for he best drives away sickness from the body. 255 these magical incantations are mostly used to drive away the demons of defilement, disease, and death. the holy spell is the very soul of ahura mazda. 256 whoso pronounces the names of ahura mazda by day and by night, on leaving his bed, or while retiring for sleep, or upon leaving his home


and death. the holy spell is the very soul of ahura mazda. 256 whoso pronounces the names of ahura mazda by day and by night, on leaving his bed, or while retiring for sleep, or upon leaving his home or his town, is able to withstand the attacks of the demons, and will receive as much succour and help as a thousand men could jointly give to one man. 257 254 vd. 21. 6, 10, 14. 255 yt3. 6. vd. 7. 44. 256 yt13. 81 ; vd. 19. 14. the chief spells. some of the most excellent, the most mighty, the most efficacious, the most smiting, the most victorious, the most healing, the greatest, and the best of the spells are the ahuna vairya formula, the airyaman ishya prayer, the names of ahura mazda and of the amesha spentas. 258 the airyaman ishya is the greatest, best, fairest, most fearful, most firm most victorious, and the most healing of all spells. 259 saoshyant and his companions will recite the airyaman ishya prayer at the time of the renovation of the world. through its intonation angra mainyu and his evil crew shall be hidden in the earth, the dead shall rise up, and ahura mazda shall rule according to his divine will. 260 there are other sacred formulas of great importance, such as the ashem vohu and yenghe hatam. these are composed in the gathic dialect and are of rare merit. they are next in importance only to the most sacred formula of all, the ahuna vairya, which is spoken of in the following paragraph. 258 yt1. 1 - 3 ; 3. 5, 6 ; 11. 3 ; wfr. 4. 1. 260 wfr. 4. see haas, an avestan fragment on the resurrection, with translation and notes in spiegel memorial volume, p. 181 - 187, bombay. 1908. | ahuna vairya. the greatest of all the spells, the word par excellence of the zarathushtrian theology, which is constantly on the tongue of the faithful, is the ahuna vairya. it is made up of twenty - one words, every one of which corresponds to one of the twenty - one nasks which make up the complete holy writ of the zoroastrians.


of the faithful, is the ahuna vairya. it is made up of twenty - one words, every one of which corresponds to one of the twenty - one nasks which make up the complete holy writ of the zoroastrians. it is the quintessence of the entire scriptures. in reply to the prophet ' s inquiry about the origin of this sacred formula, ahura mazda says that before the heavens, before the waters, before the earth, before the animals, before the trees, before the fire, before men, before the archangels, before the demons. and before the entire material existence, ahuna vairya was. 261 ahura mazda pronounced it when the world was not. 262 one correct recitation of it without any omission is worth the chanting of a hundred gathas, 263 and will enable the devout to reach paradise. 264 of all the sacred formulas that have ever been pronounced or are now recited, or which will be recited hereafter, this word that the lord god has announced to the holy prophet is the best. 265 it gives courage and victory to the soul and conscience of man. 266 humanity would redeem itself from the death by embracing it in the fullness of faith. 267 | | | zarathushtra chants aloud this word when the demon buiti seeks his death, and he puts the fiend to flight by the mere recital of it. 268 with the same word does the prophet repel the evil spirit himself, when he comes to tempt him. 269 | | 268 vd. 19. 2. 269 vd. 19. 9. the value of the recitation and the intonation of the formula is greatly impaired when it is inattentively chanted with errors and omissions. 270 ahura mazda prevents the careless soul that makes such mistakes from entering paradise. 271 the number of times that the spells are recited. the tenth fargard or chapter, of the vendidad gives a list of the gathic stanzas which are to be repeated twice, three times, and four times at the beginning of the spells to repel evil. the airyaman ishya prayer is generally repeated four times. the most frequently occurring formulas that are repeated in various numbers, as the occasion demands, are the ashem vohu and the ahuna vairya. they are generally used at the opening or at the close of all prayers. the number of times which they are recited varies from one to a hundred thousand, or to be precise


, are the ashem vohu and the ahuna vairya. they are generally used at the opening or at the close of all prayers. the number of times which they are recited varies from one to a hundred thousand, or to be precise, the following specific numbers are found among the references to the different prayers : one, two, three, four, five, seven, eight, ten, twelve, twenty - one, one hundred, two hundred, twelve hundred, and a hundred thousand. those privileged to recite the spells. manthrans, or chanters are those who are privileged to recite the spells. 272 whoso seeks wisdom with pious intent is to be taught the holy spells. 273 the knowledge of the secret formulas is to be zealously guarded, it is to be imparted only to the veriest few in the closest circle. 274 the potency of such spells greatly lies in their careful and accurate recitation, without omitting any part of the prescribed formulas, or without violating the rigid rules of the manner of chanting. this requires that the reciter should be well versed in the art of exorcising, of healing, or in any other function he undertakes to perform with the help of the sacred spells. teaching a manthra to an infidel is equivalent to giving a tongue to the wolf. 275 272 y7. 24 ; 41. 5. 273 vd. 4. 44. 274 yt4. 10 ; 14. 46. 275 tdfr. 3 ; nr. 17. she personifies the power of benediction. each time that a righteous person offers sacrifices unto this personification of a divine blessing, she comes to him in the shape of a camel. 276 she is beautiful and friendly, she fills the empty to over - filling and restores the sick to health. 277 when the collocation is used as a common noun it means the blessings of the pious. a healer takes his fees from persons whom he heals. but when he cleanses or heals a priest he has to do so for just the ‘ blessing of the pious ' that the priest can give. 278 276 tdfr. 64 ; 65. 277 vd. 22. 5, 12, 18. 278 vd. 7. 41 ; 9. 37. he personifies the power of anathema. this embodiment of the power to utter an awful malediction upon an offender against righteousness is generally mentioned alongside of mithra.


278 vd. 7. 41 ; 9. 37. he personifies the power of anathema. this embodiment of the power to utter an awful malediction upon an offender against righteousness is generally mentioned alongside of mithra. 279 when mithra goes forth on his crusade against the demons and their followers throughout the seven zones, this angel, with the dread power of uttering fatal imprecations, accompanies him in the shape of a ferocious boar. 280 this sharp - toothed and sharp - jawed frightful animal symbolizes the terrible power of the curse for injury to the wrong - doer. furthermore, when ahura mazda, the supreme heavenly judge, comes down to attend the ordeal court, damoish upamana is one of those to join among the number of his co - adjutors. 281 the contending parties were here put to self - imprecatory oaths. divine wrath fell upon him who swore falsely and the dreadful boar that typified the awful potency of dami upamana ' s curse fell upon him and killed him at a stroke. he is also seen moving in the company of the fravashis when they go out to the battlefield to help their favoured army. 282 the sacrificing priest invites him to attend the yasna - sacrifice. 283 279 yt10. 9, 66, 68, 127. 283 y1. 15 ; 2. 15. | the genius of health. this indo - iranian divinity originally conveys the idea of comradeship and occurs in the vedas as a groomsman at the wedding rites and casually in the avesta in connection with the wedding rites. the fifty - fourth chapter of the yasna is consecrated to airyaman. he is invoked to come down to the wedding for the joy of the faithful. 284 in regard to attributes given to airyaman we may add in this connection that his standing epithet is ' the beloved one. ' | | but airyaman plays a more prominent part in the iranian literature as the genius of health. he is an acolyte to asha vahishta, and is invoked together with him. 285 the third yasht, which bears the name of asha vahishta, is, in fact, mostly devoted to airyaman. ahura mazda created this earth immune from any sickness and disease, but the evil spirit introduced therein ninety - nine thousand nine hundred and ninety - nine diseases. 286 ahura mazda accordingly sends his messenger


in fact, mostly devoted to airyaman. ahura mazda created this earth immune from any sickness and disease, but the evil spirit introduced therein ninety - nine thousand nine hundred and ninety - nine diseases. 286 ahura mazda accordingly sends his messenger nairyosangha to airyaman with the request to go to the world with his healing remedies. airyaman quickly obeys the divine command and begins his work. 287 he smites and drives away all kinds of sickness and death, magic and sorcery. 288 airyaman does not heal by means of herbs and drugs, medicine and surgery, but by the holy spells. in fact one of the greatest of such sacred formulas, the airyaman ishya, as we have already seen, bears his name and is used to smite all manner of disease and death. 289 at the recital of the magic formula flee sickness and death, demons and infidels, the two - legged brood of wolfish and serpentine nature, pride and scorn, slander and strife, falsehood and evil eye, courtezan and sorcery. 290 it is employed to rout sorcerers, fairies, and the progeny of evil. 291 285 sr. 1. 3 ; 2. 3. 286 vd. 22. 2, 9, 15. 287 vd. 22. 7 - 20. 289 vd. 20. 11, 12. 291 vd. 20. 9 - 12 ; 21. 18 - 21. | the divinity of joint indo - iranian fame. one of the most distinctive features common to the indo - iranian peoples before their separation is the haoma - soma cult. the avestan haoma is identical with vedic soma, and both refer to the sacred drink prepared from a special plant and partaken of as a part of the ritual service. haoma has secured a prominent place in the later avestan theology and forms an essential part of the zoroastrian liturgy. haoma primarily is a plant of this world, from which the drink was quaffed as a religious act, but the idea soon evolves into an angel of the same name presiding over this plant. the two concepts are so closely interwoven that it often becomes difficult to ascertain whether the haoma occuring in a certain passage is the genius of the plant of that name, or the plant itself. the same difficulty is witnessed with reference to soma in the vedas. the anthropomorphic character of both