by the blare of the herdsman ' s trumpet before sunrise, awakening the shepherds. that day, every shepherd planned to take his herd out at the earliest and play his small horn. each shepherd made his own small horn for pentecost from osier or alder wood and added a hollow cow ' s horn to give it a better as the animals were leaving the barn, they were incensed with burning, dried herbs by the mistress of the house. the herd grazed until noon, then the shepherds decorated the entire herd and themselves and returned to the village singing and playing their horns. then the feasting began, hosted by the head herdsman. shepherds ' outings were organized on pentecost, called shepherds ' omelet, [ a. k. a. pautiene ]. in some regions shepherds stopped at homesteads in the morning to pick up prepared foods, while in others they asked for eggs, flour, butter, milk and salt so that they could bake their own omelet. in dzukija the following greeting was voiced, " happy pentecost, spent happily and peacefully with horses neighing and cows mooing. i was sent to you by the oxen for bread, for milk by the cows, by sheep for flour, by hogs for bacon and fat, by the motley hens for eggs, by the rooster for pancakes and by the shepherds for money ". if some households gave nothing, the returning herd was decorated with nettle wreaths and brooms tied to the cows ' horns, so that everyone would know about the stinginess of that household.. however, most homeowners were generous because they knew that by not giving the cows ' milk would be decreased. after collecting all he goodies, the shepherds went to feast, picnic in the woods. after the omelet was baked, the shepherds went into the forest, climbed a tree and called out to wolves and bears to come and have breakfast with them, saying, " if you do not come out now, you will never come out during the coming year ". this is an ancient prayer, an incantation. in some regions of the highlands [ a. k. a. aukðtaitija ], shepherds were allowed to sleep in while the herding in the morning was carried out by girls. they herded out very early, before the larks awakened. hearing the larks, village lads came out playing reed and pan


##tija ], shepherds were allowed to sleep in while the herding in the morning was carried out by girls. they herded out very early, before the larks awakened. hearing the larks, village lads came out playing reed and pan pipes. they also brought food, lit bonfires. the important ritual was made up of a game called " arrange a wedding ". the prettiest girl was chosen to play the bride and a lad was chosen to play the groom, while other girls dressed as bridesmaids. after the wedding rites, the newlyweds were taken to bed in a granary, a tent made of tree branches. after that came their awakening and the end of the wedding ritual games. people in ancient times believed that peoples ' sexual love and fertility stimulate earth ' s productivity. on the second day of pentecost, the hired hands together with the owner ' s sons carried on in the same manner as the shepherds. they provided drinks and music while maidens prepared the food. the maidens walked along fields of grain, singing songs with magical meanings : you osier, clover, green bush, clover, how tall you grew, clover, at the first gate, clover, the sun rose, clover, at the second gate, clover, the moon trundled, clover, at the third gate, clover, the maiden walked, clover. entire families visited the rye fields. checked both theirs ' and neighbors ' fields and shared farming advice. in some regions, hired hands brewed beer before pentecost so that they could treat the owners after their walks in the grain fields. everyone gathers to eat and drink, while the young people sing and dance. girls had separate amusements. they sat in a nice spot on a hill, twined wreaths, cast lots, told tales, sang and walked around grain fields. when christianity spread throughout lithuania, priests turned these ancient walkings around grain fields into blessings of the grain fields. people gathered in one farmstead upon the priests ' arrival and went together to bless the grain fields. feasting took place after the blessing. this tradition disappeared at the beginning of 20th century, when villages broke up into individual farms.


there has been a fair amount written recently about the use of capacitors to " drop " the mains voltage down to values suitable for transistor circuitry. i was recently asked to explain some aspects of such circuitry and looking through my references, was taken by the fact that one of the circuits described looked remarkably familiar. above are shown two circuits. only the bare essentials are shown, things like surge limiting resistors are omitted......... their similarities are self evident. now, if we wish to analyze fig. 1. in terms of current available, it is natural to think in terms of impedance. the reactance ( impedance ) of a capacitor is given by the formula ( 1 ) xc = 1 / 2p fc where f is the frequency in hz and c is the capacitance in farads. we can now apply ohms law to this and we find that, in a circuit where there is capacitance only, ( 2 ) i = 2 p fce where i is the ac current and e is the rms value of the ac supply. as d1 is a half wave regulator, ( 3 ) idc = p fce. let us see what a bit of simple arithmetic produces ; iim going to ignore things like voltage drop across diodes : - if we give c1 a value of 470 nf and an ac voltage of 230, equation ( 2 ) above gives us : - 2x p x 50 x 4. 7 x 10 - 7 x 230 = an ac current value of 34 ma. if we use half wave rectification, as in fig. 1, we should divide this by 2, i. e. 17ma. taking fig. 2, we would normally analyze it in terms of charge, it is after all, a charge pump, so we use classic capacitance theory, i. e. q = cv = it. ( charge = capacitance x voltage = current x time ) or i = cv / t. as t = 1 / f we can write this as idc = cvf. if we were to apply the mains to such a circuit we could assume that, because the mains has " unlimited capacity ", c1 charges up to twice the mains peak voltage ( i. e. 2 ( o 2 x 230 ) = 650 ), we then get : - idc = 2 o 2 ( fce ) or 2 x o 2 x 50 x


, c1 charges up to twice the mains peak voltage ( i. e. 2 ( o 2 x 230 ) = 650 ), we then get : - idc = 2 o 2 ( fce ) or 2 x o 2 x 50 x 4. 7 x 10 - 9 x 2. 3 x 102. this gives us a current of 15 ma. now this isnit too much of a discrepancy but it bothers me. the two figures should be the same! where is my simple arithmetic going wrong? david ledgard suggested that, if we want to find out why the answers are different, we put the two formulae side by side and cancel out the common factors, so : - p fce - - - - 2o 2 ( fce ) ( p x 50 x 470 x 10 - 9 x 230 ) - - - - ( 2 x o 2 x 50 x 470 x 10 - 9 x 230 ) the result is : - ( p ) - - - - ( 2o 2 ) now, p does not equal 2o 2 so this explains why the results are different but does illustrate that we will always get answers in that ratio, no matter what values are used for frequency, capacitance or voltage. the charge formula always gives a current value which is 10 % below that calculated using the impedance formula. which is correct? it doesnit really matter! the tolerances of capacitors are such that there can be a 10 % variation anyway! nevertheless, i remain puzzled. the two formulae are well established. you might even say that they are pillars of the electronic establishment. they should be equally valid and if so the answers should be the sameoo we have at least a couple of hundred folk in the b. a. e. c. and some of them must be smarter than me. come on chaps! tell me the answer.


henry craik, ed. english prose. 1916. vol. iv. eighteenth century character of pitt by horace walpole ( 17171797 ) from memoirs of the reign of king george ii. pitt had roused us from this ignoble lethargy : he had asserted that our resources were still prodigioushe found them so in the intrepidity of our troops and naviesbut he went further, and perhaps too far. he staked our revenues with as little management as he played with the lives of the subjects ; and as if we could never have another war to wage, or as if he meant, which was impracticable, that his administration should decide which alone should exist as a nation, britain or france, he lavished the last treasures of this country with a prodigality beyond example and beyond excuse ; yet even that profusion was not so blameable as his negligence. ignorant of the whole circle of finance, and consequently averse from corresponding with financiers, a plain set of men who are never to be paid with words instead of figures, he kept aloof from all details, drew magnificent plans and left others to find the magnificent means. disdaining, too, to descend into the operations of an office which he did not fill, he affected to throw on the treasury the execution of measures which he dictated, but for which he thus held himself not responsible. the conduct was artful, new, and grand ; and to him proved most advantageous. secluded from all eyes, his orders were received as oracles ; and their success, of consequence, was imputed to his inspiration. misfortunes and miscarriages fell to the account of the more human agents ; corruption and waste were charged on the subordinate priests. they indeed were charmed with this dispensation. as mr. pitt neither granted suits nor received them, newcastle revelled in a boundless power of appointing agents, commissaries, victuallers, and the whole train of leeches, and even paid his court to pitt by heaping extravagance on extravagance ; for the more money was thrown away, the greater idea pitt conceived of his systems grandeur. but none flattered this ostentatious prodigality like the germans. from the king of prussia and prince ferdinand to the lowest victualler in the camp, all made advantage of english easiness and dissipation. as the minister was proud of such


cambridge, john, land agent and businessman ; b. 13 dec. 1748 in england ; m. 16 jan. 1775 mary winchester, and they had ten children, only four of whom reached maturity ; d. 26 dec. 1831 in bristol, england. before his arrival on st john ’ s ( prince edward ) island in 1784, john cambridge remains a shadowy figure in historical records. a privy council report of 1791 identifies him as being “ formerly an obscure chairmaker in st. martin ’ s lane ” but there are indications that as early as 1777 he was associated with a group of merchants who planned to trade with and promote settlement on st john ’ s island. one of this group was the quaker colonizer robert clark * and it may have been the religious link that brought the two men together. cambridge was known on the island as a quaker, and he refused to take oaths in court on religious principles. nevertheless, he was not connected with the society of friends. indeed, he wrote in 1793 that although “ in full belief of friends principles ” he was not “ united to the society. ” it is probable that he became a member after returning to england, for he was buried a quaker. cambridge was named clark ’ s agent in 1783 and took up the appointment the following spring when he came out with his family to the island. he was called upon in 1786 to defend his employer ’ s interests against the island establishment following an attempt to confirm governor walter patterson * ’ s seizure in 1781 of part of clark ’ s property for non - payment of quitrents. in doing so cambridge alienated some island officials ; the alienation was later to develop into bitterness and litigation. john cambridge was not content to act simply as clark ’ s agent. in 1785, with the backing of merchants in london, including his brother - in - law william winchester, he began commercial activities of his own. he acquired property in the murray harbour district in the southeast part of the island and four years later was able to report that he had built two large brigs, both of which were on trading voyages, one to the west indies and the other to portugal. the shipping registers indicate that he was also the owner of a number of smaller vessels. these craft, mostly schooners, kept up a trade with newfoundland. he built a large sawmill at murray harbour and had houses there and in charlottetown. by 1788 cambridge had formed a partnership with william bowley, another island resident. bowley had purchased debts owed by clark, and cambridge in turn had a large


. he built a large sawmill at murray harbour and had houses there and in charlottetown. by 1788 cambridge had formed a partnership with william bowley, another island resident. bowley had purchased debts owed by clark, and cambridge in turn had a large bill for his wages and expenses as clark ’ s agent. together they sued clark and the court case, begun in 1789, developed into protracted litigation, with countersuits and appeals dragging the matter out until the end of the century. even before the conclusion of the court battle cambridge was able to gain control of clark ’ s assets and land, establishing himself as a substantial merchant. his relations with members of the colonial administration were not good, however. he had supported lieutenant governor edmund fanning * against the doomed patterson faction on fanning ’ s arrival in 1786 but this support, predicated on a quick resolution of the problem caused by patterson ’ s illegal expropriations, did not last long. of lesser officials cambridge became excessively intolerant. he was a strong - willed individual who, when he considered himself slighted, took full measures to obtain what he considered justice. in 1787 he carried a complaint against isaac swan, a petty patterson supporter, to the governor and council ; in another incident two years later he was able to persuade that body to dismiss high sheriff walter berry for irregularities. he was less successful when he brought charges against the attorney general, joseph aplin * – a poor move, since aplin was usually successful in the courts whatever the law. as a sharp merchant cambridge was especially conscious of any apparent favour extended to his competitors and, when he learned that collector of customs william townshend * was allowing use of the iles de la madeleine for the evasion of customs duties, he was quick to publicize the fact. in doing so he precipitated a struggle because townshend retaliated by seizing several of cambridge and bowley ’ s vessels for smuggling. the latter case dragged on for three years with cambridge complaining that he could not obtain justice in the island courts. it was not until 1791 that the case was settled, but by then cambridge ’ s complaints had been broadened to include almost the entire government of the colony. in concert with john hill *, another island merchant, cambridge and bowley in 1791 brought charges of malfeasance before the privy council in london against townshend, fanning, aplin, and chief justice peter stewart *. cambridge carried the complaints to england in a petition that he persuaded a number of the island


to london had cost him more that £10, 000. he was forced to spend a short time in jail before he could convince the four officials of his ability to pay. because making the settlement would quickly exhaust cambridge ’ s assets, the officials, who were more interested in payment than in revenge, agreed to assist him in recovering funds from hill and bowley. the latter were each asked to contribute one - third of the settlement, and when they refused legal action was brought against them. in 1793 suits prepared by aplin were successful and resulted in executions against their property on the island. within days the property of hill, who was absent from the island, and the valuable greenwich estate, belonging to bowley and his children, were sold at auction by the sheriff and passed into cambridge ’ s hands ; bowley himself was forced to flee under cover of darkness to avoid imprisonment. attempts at appeal were refused by the courts and the governor in council in 1794, and bowley was forced to appeal to the king in council in 1796 to have the case reopened on the island. hill, too, had to bring an action in london against his former associate and was successful, but before he could move against cambridge the latter ’ s assets were placed in the hands of a trustee. hill appears to have given up at this point but bowley ’ s action was not settled for almost 50 years. in length and complexity the case bowley v. cambridge rivalled the celebrated jarndyce case in charles dickens ’ s novel bleak house, which was ended only when the total assets of the estate were swallowed up in legal fees. cambridge ’ s legal problems were exacerbated by business reverses. in 1794 he lost the support of his backers in england and his few remaining assets were seized by creditors. his schooner endeavour was taken that year by the french on a voyage to the west indies and he was left with no capital to rebuild his business. the loss of his london backers was the low point of his career. faced with a report that even william winchester, his brother - in - law, had joined the creditors, he considered leaving the colony and going to the united states. however, on learning that winchester had stood by him and that it had been the other partners who had taken the action, he and his wife resolved to stay on the island. the lieutenant governor and principal officers gave him encouragement. in a letter to alexander ellice *, a montreal merchant for whom cambridge was agent, he reported that “ the people in the island in general are


and his wife resolved to stay on the island. the lieutenant governor and principal officers gave him encouragement. in a letter to alexander ellice *, a montreal merchant for whom cambridge was agent, he reported that “ the people in the island in general are much attached to us, and lament our failure, and hope we shall get into business again. ” that he was able to do so was the result of a fortunate precaution. it appears that cambridge had placed his affairs in the hands of a trustee “ as the property of a bankrupt, ” but he may not have declared bankruptcy. at any rate the move was sufficient to relieve the pressure on his finances and he was able to begin again. he kept the secure base at murray harbour and returned to the shipping of lumber and livestock to newfoundland. the key factor in cambridge ’ s ability to rebuild lay in the fact that he retained control of several large parcels of property, much of which he had obtained through lawsuits. he seems to have made an effort to bring settlers to his lands and thereby avoid the attacks of those who would escheat for non - payment of quitrents. with this base he was able to continue efforts at settlement and the lumber trade. his mills processed timber from his own land which he then sent to newfoundland in his own ships. by 1801 he had won back the contract to supply the garrison with fuel and had a new vessel on the ways, the first in ten years. it was launched the following year and cambridge wrote to his wife that the ship, after proceeding to liverpool with a timber cargo, was to sail to ireland for a load of irish protestants “ in order to preserve our lands from forfeiture. ” perhaps it was the renewed threat of escheat that prompted him in 1805 to sign with charles worrell * and william townshend a memorial to lieutenant governor joseph frederick wallet desbarres citing the efforts of himself and other proprietors, including john macdonald * of glenaladale and lord selkirk [ douglas * ], in settling people on their lands and contributing to the island ’ s prosperity. in 1806 cambridge was commended by the assembly for his efforts in this regard. it was the timber trade that brought cambridge fortune, and this prosperity he shared with the rest of the colony. initially the trade was part of the gulf of st lawrence commerce and most cargoes went to newfoundland. shipping to britain was too expensive and there was often a long search for a return cargo. from 1803 until 1807 only about two cargoes a year went across the atlantic from


part of the gulf of st lawrence commerce and most cargoes went to newfoundland. shipping to britain was too expensive and there was often a long search for a return cargo. from 1803 until 1807 only about two cargoes a year went across the atlantic from the island as a whole. the situation began to change in 1807 when the napoleonic blockade of ports on the baltic sea opened the british north american timber trade. the island was well suited to fill the demand : because it had many small harbours where trees grew close to the water ’ s edge, timber could be easily moved and loaded. in 1808, 41 vessels left the island with shipments for britain and the following year the number swelled to 78 despite what cambridge termed “ an uncommon bad season ” with timber left behind because of deep snow. the trade brought manpower shortages to the colony and high prices. oxen, usually raised for food, were employed in the woods and the provisioning of ships left food scarce. sales to newfoundland fell off dramatically. ships were a necessary element of the cambridge operation and john lost no time building and acquiring them. from 1808 there was rarely a year when a new cambridge vessel did not appear on the register and often there were several. when the timber trade stabilized after 1817 cambridge remained successful by entering a new form of commerce, later followed by james yeo *, which combined the exporting of timber with the building and marketing of vessels. in 1824 four ships were registered and twice that number in the following year. many of these vessels were large, fully rigged ships in excess of 300 tons ; the cambridge ( 536 tons ), launched in 1826, was one of the largest built on the island. in his will, made in 1829, cambridge instructed his sons that he had “ found the most effectual way of getting my debts remitted... to be by building a ship annually and by loading her with timber ” and disposing of both in the united kingdom. family correspondence reveals that in spite of prosperity the firm was never far from a financial crisis as dependence on credit was a necessary part of long - distance trade. other operations of the cambridge firm also seemed to do well. in 1808 he boasted that his mill at murray harbour was perhaps the first in north america equipped with an 18 - unit gang saw cutting 7, 000 feet of deals a day. a new venture was the construction of a brewery at the bird island ( wrights ) creek mills near charlottetown. unfortunately it was not a success, in part because food shortages had raised the price of barley


7, 000 feet of deals a day. a new venture was the construction of a brewery at the bird island ( wrights ) creek mills near charlottetown. unfortunately it was not a success, in part because food shortages had raised the price of barley on the island. in 1808 cambridge, whose family figured in all his business affairs, formed a partnership with his son lemuel and his son - in - law george wright *, son of thomas wright *, the surveyor general. wright did not have the business sense of other members of the cambridge family and the partnership was dissolved in 1813 when john took his other son, artemas, into the company, now termed cambridge and sons. in the next few years control of the firm passed more and more to the sons, who were described by lieutenant governor charles douglass smith * as “ very fine young men & of the very best reputation. ” with some stability in business and his sons in charge of the island operation, cambridge, at the urging of his wife, who had run the business whenever her husband was in england, decided to conduct the british end of the firm ’ s transatlantic commerce. he apparently moved to bristol in 1814 and did not return to the island in his later years. by the time of his departure he seems to have made his peace with the colonial administration. he was nominated high sheriff in 1809 but declined, citing his quaker beliefs, and his son lemuel served instead. by 1813 he was noted as being an intimate friend of chief justice cæsar colclough. when he died in 1831 at age 83 cambridge held 102, 000 acres on the island, almost one - tenth of the total. in addition he and his family owned extensive mills, shipbuilding facilities, and stores, and the cambridge estate was the home of at least 5, 000 people, many of whom were tenants. there is no doubt that cambridge was the greatest island landowner of his day but his empire, like many others, was built on credit. the lands had been heavily mortgaged to provide capital for shipbuilding and expansion. seven years after cambridge ’ s death samuel cunard * and others purchased the mortgage for £12, 000 sterling and in 1841 gained possession of the entire estate. in the same year the island ’ s court of chancery finally decided bowley v. cambridge. after twice reaching the king in council, and following the death of both litigants, the case was resolved when the court divided bowley ’ s estate equally between the claimants. john cambridge was hardly a typical merchant of


calgary ; photocopies are available at pac, mg 24, b133. additional letters from cambridge to alexander ellice are found in the ellice papers at the nls, dept. of mss, mss 15113 – 26, available on microfilm at the pac, mg 24, a2. cambridge ’ s affairs appear frequently in colonial office correspondence, with the following references being most useful : pro, co 226 / 9 : 176 ; 226 / 10 : 29, 135 – 37, 234, 238, 252 – 93 ; 226 / 11 : 17 ; 226 / 12 : 12, 27 ; 226 / 13 : 21 – 45, 207, 218 – 19, 280 – 82, 377 – 78 ; 226 / 14 ; 226 / 15 : 172 ; 226 / 16 : 186 et seq., 248 ; 226 / 17 : 107 – 48 ; 226 / 18 : 162 – 206 ; 226 / 19 : 72 – 74, 204 et seq., 233, 347, 352 ; 226 / 20 : 106 – 8, 142 ; 226 / 21 : 110 ; 226 / 23 : 65 – 74 ; 226 / 27 : 78 – 83 ; 226 / 28 : 53, 220 – 22 ; 226 / 29 : 67 – 71, 115 ; 226 / 30 : 177 – 80 ; 226 / 34 : 391 – 99 ; 226 / 39 : 49 – 54, 260, 416 – 22 ; 226 / 42 : 132 ; 226 / 47 : 166. minutes of the island ’ s executive council, found in papei, rg 5, have references to cambridge on the following dates : 12 april 1787 ; 15 dec. 1788 ; 12, 16, 19 – 20, 23 – 24 march, 6, 27 april, 5 may 1789 ; 26 april, 17 july 1790 ; 7, 30 oct. 1792 ; 23 feb. 1793 ; 25 oct. 1796 ; 6 aug. 1799. details of ship ownership by members of the cambridge family are found in pac, rg 42, e1, 1658 ; papei, rg 9, 2 ; and the prince edward island register, 3 jan. 1826, 16 jan. 1827, 29 jan. 1828, 13 jan. 1829, and 9 feb. 1830. a significant amount of information concerning cambridge is found in the prince edward island court records ( papei, rg 6 ), which were examined for the entire period. this source is especially detailed for bowley v. cambridge, 1793 – 1841 ( rg 6, court of chance


is found in the prince edward island court records ( papei, rg 6 ), which were examined for the entire period. this source is especially detailed for bowley v. cambridge, 1793 – 1841 ( rg 6, court of chancery papers, box 1 ). material regarding the privy council appeals in the case is at pro, pc 1 / 64 / b. 30 ; 1 / 65 / b. 33, 35, and 38 ; and 1 / 66 / b. 40. these collections shed much light on cambridge ’ s litigious nature. information concerning his land holdings is scattered throughout papei, rg 16, land registry records. cambridge ’ s will is located in the estates division of the supreme court of p. e. i. ( charlottetown ), liber 2 : f. 198. secondary sources which proved useful include : canada ’ s smallest prov. ( bolger ), pp. 37 – 94 ; warburton, hist. of p. e. i., 255 – 65 ; and w. s. macnutt, “ fanning ’ s regime on prince edward island, ” acadiensis ( fredericton ), 1 ( 1971 – 72 ), no. 1 : 37 – 53. h. t. h. ] papei, acc. 2984 / 4, cambridge to [ flowden? ], 28 sept. 1793 ; cambridge to b [ william winchester ], [ c. 1793 ] ; cambridge to alexander ellice, 26 nov. 1794 ; rg 3, journals, 18 dec. 1806 ; rg 6, supreme court, case papers, 1789, cambridge, bowley & co. v. clark ; 1790, townshend v. the adventure ; 1790, townshend v. the elizabeth ; minutes ; rg 16, land registry records, conveyance reg., liber 8 : f. 94 ; liber 49 : f. 203. private arch., george wright ( charlottetown ), cambridge family bible. bristol gazette, and public advertiser ( bristol, eng. ), 29 dec. 1831. bristol mirror, 31 dec. 1831. felix farley ’ s bristol journal, 31 dec. 1831. royal gazette ( charlottetown ), 28 feb. 1832.


| community - scale biomass energy : the facts | download a pdf of this article when community - scale biomass energy systems are well - designed, well - run, and sustainably supplied, it is a positive, proven, renewable energy option that can be practical and safe, can strengthen our economy and security, and can help ease the urgent strain on our planet ’ s ecosystem. and, in regions throughout the united states with abundant forest resources, it is available now. community - scale biomass energy systems burn biological material — most often wood from low - quality trees — in highly efficient, high - temperature combustion systems to produce heat. sometimes, these systems also produce a certain amount of electric power ( this is called chp, combined heat and power ). but the most efficient use of biomass for energy is to provide space heating and domestic hot water. community - scale systems typically provide this to single buildings, such as schools and hospitals, or to groups of buildings such as college campuses, industrial parks, or whole towns or cities through “ district heating ” systems. community - scale biomass systems that produce heat or chp are different from electric power plants, which are generally much larger and mainly produce electricity for broad distribution. biomass - fueled technology is only about 20 - 25 percent efficient at producing electric power ; at producing heat, it is 70 - 90 percent efficient. power plants sometimes ( though this is rare ) sell the excess heat they generate, where it is economically feasible and if there is an appropriate user nearby ; this is only 40 - 45 percent efficient. technology is also being developed that can use biomass to produce liquid biofuels. community - scale thermal applications are the most efficient biomass energy technologies — they do the best job of turning biomass fuel into energy, with the least waste. systems of this type have been in use since the early 1980s, and have built a track record of safety and reliability. today, a growing number of community - scale systems, most fueled with woodchips and some with wood pellets, are delivering heat and hot water to schools, businesses, colleges, hospitals, city centers, and whole communities across the northern united states, canada, and north and central europe. biomass fuel can be used in a wide range of technologies, from home woodstoves to power plants. because community - scale thermal systems combine high - efficiency combustion with sophisticated emission controls, this technology meets and exceeds all emission - safety standards, while providing heat energy at relatively stable fuel prices from a local fuel source. when wood fuel is harvested responsibly


community - scale thermal systems combine high - efficiency combustion with sophisticated emission controls, this technology meets and exceeds all emission - safety standards, while providing heat energy at relatively stable fuel prices from a local fuel source. when wood fuel is harvested responsibly from well - managed forests, community - scale biomass energy is a sustainable whole system. it keeps energy dollars circulating in the local and regional economy, by using a renewable fuel that is harvested nearby — and its carbon emissions are re - captured as the forests that supply the fuel continue to grow. in contrast, fossil - fuel systems extract carbon that is buried underground in geological deposits, then add it to the atmosphere over time. finally, by developing a reliable, local market for low - quality wood, biomass energy can create a new financial incentive for forestland owners to manage their forests for long - term productive health, lessening the pressure to “ high - grade ” ( cut only the most valuable trees and leave the rest ). the revenue stream for biomass fuel can help landowners make ends meet, also relieving the pressure to sell woodland for development. benefits of using biomass at the community scale modern community - scale biomass energy systems use sophisticated emission controls biomass energy systems emit 1 / 6 of the sulfur oxides, which contribute to acid rain, than do oil - fired systems. nitrogen oxide emissions are about the same as oil. when their fuel is harvested responsibly from sustainably managed forests, biomass systems can be low - carbon, or carbon neutral over time good forest management is essential to realizing the carbon benefits of biomass energy. key factors include : where trees are harvested, how they are harvested, how this plays out over the landscape and over time, and whether management practices support long - term forest health. it is also important that biomass energy systems be well - designed and efficiently run. when these positive factors are in place, converting from oil - or gas - fired energy to biomass can reduce net co2 emissions by 75 - 90 percent. a well - managed biomass fuel industry, coupled with sustainable growth in demand, creates new incentives to protect and preserve the working forest landscape image captions ( from top to bottom ) a typical below - grade woodchip storage bin at a public school. woodchips being conveyed from the storage bin to to the boiler room. the 2010 installation of middlebury college in middlebury, vermont exemplifies a community - scale biomass application. woodchips burning inside the combustion chamber of a biomass boiler. the chipping of low - grade wood from harvesting


baby humor development it is during this time in a child ’ s life that they begin to closely watch their parent ’ s expressions. this is when they start to understand how to interpret when something is funny. the study was conducted in the u. s. where researchers studied a group of 30 babies in their own homes on two separate occasions. the first occasion was when the babies were 6 months old and the second was when they were one year old. the babies were studied initially while they watched their parents react to two ordinary events and later to two unordinary events. for the ordinary event the researcher read a picture book and showed a red ball to the babies. for the unordinary event the researcher bounced the picture book on her head and put the red ball on her nose. when the unordinary event occurred the parents were told to either point and laugh at the researcher or to stare without making an expression. at 6 months of age, during the absurd events, the babies watched their parents closely as they laughed and stared for a longer time than when the normal events took place. however, there was no distinct correlation between the babies ’ reactions and their parents ’ reactions. at 1 year of age, when the same events took place, the babies showed they had already developed a sense of humor by laughing when the absurd events took place even when their parents remained expressionless. researchers suggest, “ the combination of paying close attention to absurd events and to others laughing at those events when they are 6 months old may explain how babies develop the sense of humor they have when they ’ re a year old ”. the study was presented at the british psychological society meeting in glasgow, scotland this september where researchers explained how humor is an important vehicle for understanding infant development. the study revealed that social referencing is a key ingredient to infant development ; particularly in relation to emotional advice received by parents. the author of the study, gina mireault of johnson state college, claims, “ our findings suggest that 6 - month - olds are starting to see parents as a source of emotional information, and this is likely to be an important step on the way to being able to obtain emotional advice from parents when this is needed, which we know infants do at 8 months. by 12 months, infants seem to have had just enough life experience to make up their own minds — at least about what is absurdly funny. ”


the presence of a large multi - burner gas range at the heart of the cooking line is about as fundamental as it gets in any restaurant. that iron and stainless steel behemoth uses a lot of energy, throws a lot of heat, and requires a dedicated ventilation system just to keep the cooks from getting overwhelmed. for decades no proper chef would have it any other way. that ’ s beginning to change, and the catalyst of that change is the induction range. induction cooking works in a completely different manner than traditional gas or electric ranges. instead of using a superhot medium like burning gas or an electrically heated element, induction ranges use the energy created by two opposing magnetic fields driven by an electric current to make the metal in the cookware itself become hot. sound a little geeky? it is, in a cool science project kind of way. for professional chefs, the most interesting thing about induction cooking are the practical advantages it can bring to the process, including : precision temperature control. while there is certainly a steep learning curve in the beginning, once a chef gets an induction range dialed in based upon the numbers on the knob, you can be sure you ’ ll get consistent, perfectly even heat every time. this is especially beneficial for low temperature and simmering applications, because an induction range can maintain a much lower heat than a traditional gas or electric range. speed. you ’ ve never seen a pot boil faster or oil heat up quicker than on an induction range. because the metal of the pot or pan sitting on the burner becomes the heating agent instead of the medium, induction is by far the fastest way to heat whatever you ’ re cooking. efficiency. an induction range uses a fraction of the energy used by a traditional range. there ’ s also almost zero energy waste since the energy used to heat food is created in the metal of the cookware instead of below it. this energy is also created by a relatively weak electrical current, which can be much more inexpensive than natural gas. safety. an induction burner that ’ s turned on to full heat is still cool to the touch. as it heats metal cookware it will become hot, but the burner itself creates no heat. this makes induction much safer than traditional ranges. some induction ranges even have automatic detectors that shut off the burner when there is no pan present, when the pan is empty, or when foreign objects fall onto the surface of the range. ventilation. because induction ranges don ’ t burn fuel like a gas range, minimal ventilation is needed, and much less


burner when there is no pan present, when the pan is empty, or when foreign objects fall onto the surface of the range. ventilation. because induction ranges don ’ t burn fuel like a gas range, minimal ventilation is needed, and much less heat is created, even if you ’ re running induction all day on a busy line. this can save any restaurant a boatload of money on the ventilation and cooling costs normally associated with a traditional gas range. make sure you consult the local regulations in your community when deciding how much ventilation you need to install for an induction range. in general, however, the requirements should be a fraction of those for a gas range. induction cooking isn ’ t for every restaurant. some chefs don ’ t like the fact that cookware cools off rapidly when it ’ s not in contact with the burner – a distinct disadvantage for techniques that call for using the pan to flip or sautee ingredients as they cook. induction also supports only certain types of cookware – usually stainless steel or cast iron – which means your aluminum cookware will be useless on an induction range. if you are interested in induction cooking, vollrath has been a pioneer in developing induction ranges, countertop burners, and even chafers for the food service industry. so far another factor slowing the widespread adoption of induction technology in restaurants has been the cost of equipment. as energy prices, especially natural gas, continue to rise and the cost of quality induction equipment comes down, however, induction cooking starts to make more and more sense. check out a full inventory of vollrath induction equipment here.


i ’ m working on an ebook titled “ 6 powerful mechanisms behind personal change ”. this post is a part of the chapter about positive attitude. i will show you what attitude is and how you can use it to be proactive. the nature of attitude daniel d. droba claims he was the first to define the attitude concept and he did so in his article the nature of attitude from 1933. droba based his study on 55 books on sociology and psychology and he concluded that attitude is a state of preparation to action. “ attitude is a state of preparation to action ” carl jung ’ s definition of attitude i ’ m surprised that droba only used american sources and studies because the attitude concept has a central role in carl jung ’ s psychological types published in 1923. jung ’ s work is used today in personality tests and development of organisations. in his work “ psychological types ” ( pp. 526 - 30 ) jung gave his definition of attitude : “ attitude is a readiness of the psyche to act or react in a certain direction. ” jung places great emphasis on the attitude concept because it is a powerful mechanism that is based on experience : “ to have a certain attitude means to be ready for something definite [ … ] having an attitude is synonymous with an a priori direction towards a definite thing. ” jung believes that we have both a conscious and an unconscious attitude. i you want to act in a certain direction you have to be conscious about it ; for that you need attitude. “ active apperception is impossible without an attitude. ” jung has identified certain types of attitudes that are based on habits. “ when a function habitually predominates, a typical attitude is thereby produced. ” this means, that habits can develop both consciously and unconsciously ; these habits will produce some kind of attitude. if you want to change something you need the right attitude to do so. that is why you can combine habits and attitudes and thereby create personal change. experience → attitude → action it ’ s raining. rain is wet and cold. → rain is bad → cancel date habits → attitude → action bad habit → negative attitude → negative projection to other people unhealthy diet → feeling of guilt → healthy people are patronising you can use this mechanism to create change. changing a habit is difficult and it takes time, but you can choose to adopt a certain attitude, e. g. a positive attitude, and thereby change your action. another type of action will lead to a new experience. that new experience is your resource to the


there seems to be a lot of confusion out there as to the best sources of omega - 3 fatty acids. this article will break down the major sources of omega - 3 ’ s and give you the information you need to make educated choices. first, there are three main types of omega - 3 fatty acids : dha, epa and ala. dha ( docosahexaenoic acid ) and epa ( eicosapentaenoic acid ) are found in fish and ala ( alpha - linolenic acid ) is found in plants like flaxseed. when you choose an omega - 3 source, we suggest that you select a healthy balance of all fatty acids, but make sure you are getting enough epa and dha, as these fatty acids are responsible for the majority of the health benefits of omega - 3 ’ s. this is important to remember : if a food or supplement states it is high in omega - 3, it does not necessarily mean it is high in epa and dha. for example, although flaxseed oil is six times richer than most fish oils in omega - 3 ’ s, flaxseed oil contains mainly ala, not dha and epa. unfortunately, our bodies can only convert ala into dha and epa in very small amounts. scientific studies have revealed that fatty acids from fish or fish oil, but not flaxseed oil, benefited patients with cardiovascular disease and adhd. more...


earth day is arriving next week - - and guess what? children fear that soon we won ' t be celebrating any additional earth days. in a survey commissioned by habitatheroes. com, more than half believe the earth will not be a good place to live when they grow up. one in three fear the demise of the planet. sharon lowe, mother of three, environmental activist, and creator of habitatheroes. com, offers these tips to help parents allay their kid ' s fears about the environment : - communication is key. parents need to be open and honest with their children. - allow your children to ask questions. acknowledge their fears as real, no matter how big or small. explain in a manner they can relate to. show them pictures. visit websites like habitat heroes and engage in child friendly games and activities to help explain the issues in a way that is not scary. habitat heroes offers printable activity sheets and lesson plans which can help reinforce your conversations. you can also find out if your child ' s class is being educated about topics that they are fearful of. many schools are taking the initiative to teach students about these environmental and social issues and how to cope. as with anything parents should always lead by example. here are some simple ways to educate kids about being green. 1 ) add more clothing before adding more heat. 2 ) take off a layer of clothing before turning up the air conditioning. 3 ) replace light bulbs with energy efficient ones. make it an activity with the kids. 4 ) turn off electrical appliances at the powerpoint, not just the switch. 5 ) turn off the tv when you leave the room. 6 ) turn off the lights when you leave the room. 7 ) open up curtains and enjoy natural light. 8 ) take recycled / hemp shopping bags with you instead of using plastic bags. 9 ) place food scraps into a compost bin for your garden. you can turn that into a fun activity for the kids. they will love watching the worms! 10 ) recycle plastics, glass and paper in the appropriate places. check if your municipality or local stores recycle electronic goods and furniture. for more information check out habitat heores


at statehood, the federal government promised all states that it would transfer title for all public lands within the states. the u. s. supreme court has called these promises “ solemn compacts, ” “ bilateral ( two - way ) agreements, ” and “ solemn trusts ” that must be performed “ in a timely fashion. ” with the vote of 35 - 15, sb1332 was changed from requiring that washington turn over “ public lands ” to a demand that they do so. if it passes the senate, it will place arizona governor jan brewer in the position that utah gov. gary herbert found himself in when he signed similar legislation last month, do they join the western land war : 5 states fight d. c. for control of federal areas. the fight centers on the millions of acres of lands that were never turned over to the western states after they were admitted to the union. these lands are being held in “ trust ” for the “ public ” but they hold valuable resources that the states feel they have a right too. the following list shows what these states see as unequal treatment by the federal government. the percentage of land that is under the control of the feds west of the mississippi is staggering and they want it turned over as promised in the enabling acts that brought these states into existence. - nevada 84. 5 % - alaska 69. 1 % - utah 57. 4 % - oregon 53. 1 % - idaho 50. 2 % - arizona 48. 1 % - california 45. 3 % - wyoming 42. 3 % - new mexico 41. 8 % - colorado 36. 6 % now compare that to other states and you will be able to understand why the western states feel that they must demand respect for their sovereignty and their lands as promised. - connecticut 0. 4 % - rhode island 0. 4 % - iowa 0. 8 % - new york 0. 8 % - maine 1. 1 % - kansas 1. 2 % - nebraska 1. 4 % - alabama 1. 6 % - ohio 1. 7 % - illinois 1. 8 % the argument has been the definition of a “ timely manner ” for turning over these lands but as you can see by the dates of admittance to the union these states have been more than patient with washington ’ s failure to keep its promises. - nevada oct 31, 1864 - alaska jan 3, 1959 - utah jan 4, 1896 - oregon feb 14, 1859 - idaho jul 3, 1890 - arizona feb 14, 1912 - california sep 9, 1850 - wyoming jul 10, 1890


promises. - nevada oct 31, 1864 - alaska jan 3, 1959 - utah jan 4, 1896 - oregon feb 14, 1859 - idaho jul 3, 1890 - arizona feb 14, 1912 - california sep 9, 1850 - wyoming jul 10, 1890 - new mexico jan 6, 1912 - colorado aug 1, 1876 “ the bill ’ s chief supporter said environmental constraints put on mining, logging and other resource industries limit how federally controlled public land can be used in the west, to the detriment of states ’ economic prosperity. ” “ this will take the shackles off of us and allow us to prosper, ” sen. al melvin, r - tucson, said during a march committee hearing on the bill. “ this will be a major game - changer. ” “ the utah law and the arizona bill both call for formation of a state commission to decide details of how the transfers of control of public land would work. ” for state sovereignty to mean anything then these western states must gain control over the lands within their borders. if you live in arizona – act now. not tomorrow or next week. today, not tomorrow – right now. 1. visit the link below for contact information for your senator : 2. click on your senator ’ s name and get their email address and two phone numbers – capitol and district offices. 3. call them. best option – respectfully, yet firmly urge them to pass this bill. let them know that you want them to stand up for the constitution of the united states and the constitution of arizona – they took an oath to both. 4. email them – even if call, you can still email too. alternatively, just send them a firm but courteous email urging them to vote yes on this bill. 5. do the same for the governor ’ s office – 602 ) 542 - 4331 or ( 520 ) 628 - 6580 http : / / www. azgovernor. gov / contact. asp 6. report back – when you get responses, let us know! we want people to be informed of what their delegates are saying and doing.


q : i have a plant that looks like a cattail, but it has a plume on top instead of a catkin. what is it? mike – cottonwood, az a : it sounds like you ’ ve got phragmites. also known as “ common reed, ” certain invasive varieties of this plant have taken root on the east coast, midwest and pacific northwest – and, apparently, in your pond! to identify the species of phragmite in your pond, check out cornell university ’ s “ morphological differences ” website here. generally speaking, phragmite is a perennial wetland grass that can grow to 6 to 15 feet in height. its stems, which are erect, smooth and hollow, measure nearly 1 inch in diameter and are topped with 12 - inch - long dense panicles, or purple - brown pyramid - shaped plumes of flowers, that emerge between july and september. the leaves that arise from the stem are 10 to 20 inches long and up to 2 inches wide. the plants propagate mainly via an extensive network of underground rhizomes, or horizontal stems, that produce roots and shoots that grow as deep as 39 inches, with their root systems growing down another 3 feet. they ’ re hardy – and unfortunately, they can be tough to control. a substantial threat these invasive, non - native bad guys can do some serious damage to your lake or pond. not only do they create tall, dense stands that crowd out native plants and animals, but they also block your shoreline views, create fire hazards from dry plant material, and reduce areas for swimming, fishing and hunting. they ’ re definitely not something you want on your property. once phragmites has taken root in your lake or pond, you ’ ll need to develop a long - term management plan to control them. unfortunately, because the plants spread through their rhizomes, they could be difficult to eradicate entirely. that ’ s where chemical and mechanical control can help. - chemical control : first, you can spray an epa - registered herbicide and surfactant product, like kraken™ & cide - kick™ combo, in the late summer or early fall. mix the herbicide with 2 gallons of water, pour it into pond sprayer and spray on the plants with your airmax® pressurized pond sprayer, completely wetting the surface of the leaves. allow the mixture to absorb into the plant and the root system – the most difficult part of the plant to kill – for two weeks. - mechanical


plants with your airmax® pressurized pond sprayer, completely wetting the surface of the leaves. allow the mixture to absorb into the plant and the root system – the most difficult part of the plant to kill – for two weeks. - mechanical control : once the herbicide has had a chance to soak into the phragmites ’ root system and kill the plants, use a weed cutting and removal tool, like the pond logic® pond rake and weed cutter, to slice at the base of the plants and remove them. if you can control your pond ’ s or lake ’ s water line, you can also cut the phragmites 2 to 3 inches below the water surface to cut off the plant ’ s supply of oxygen and drown the plant. - destroy what you ’ ve removed : to prevent the accidental spread of the plant, collect the cut material and bag it before disposing of it. in extreme cases, prescribed burning after herbicide treatment can provide additional control. before you begin, check with your local environmental agency to see if a permit is required for the treatments of these buggers. plan to repeat this routine several years in a row. patches may emerge even after regular treatments, but once you ’ ve wiped out the majority of the phragmites, the plant will be much easier to control. just remember : early detection is key! pond talk : how do you control phragmites in your lake or pond?


although much of henry wellcome ’ s collection was devoted to instruments and materials of healing, some of the objects found in it have a more sinister purpose. elizabeth baddeley looks at a tradition of punishment rooted in the fear of female autonomy. when visitors peer into our cabinet of masks in medicine man they are, almost without fail, drawn first to the bright, colourful disease masks from sri lanka ; to the exaggerated features of the ritual mask from bhutan ; to the almost eerily realistic grinning false face iroquois mask from north america. it seems almost as an afterthought that they turn to our object here : the matt grey, iron mask of the scold ’ s bridle. it seems clunky and dull next to the lively features of the more geographically exotic specimens it is displayed alongside. surprisingly, the history, use and legacy of this and similar objects are a much underexplored subject. this object is between 200 and 450 years old and is from belgium, but could be from any part of northern europe from the late medieval or early modern period. it is made from heavy iron, and has the caricatured ears of an ass, exaggerated facial features and twisted, cruel - looking horns. it is a scold ’ s bridle. the offence of scolding means little to nothing to us today, but in the 16th and 17th centuries, it was an acute insult. it was a uniquely female misdemeanour, and as such it is often compared to that other contemporary, and uniquely female, crime of being a whore. both were often punished with a round on the ‘ cucking stool ’ – a mechanism where the accused was dunked into a river or pond while secured to a seat – and both are often viewed as female crime in a male - dominated legal system. a scold was, after all, ‘ a troublesome and angry woman, who by her brawling and wrangling amongst her neighbours, doth break the publick peace, and beget, cherish and increase publick discord ’ according to william sheppard in 1675. the gendered nature of this crime has led to historians discussing whether it was a male way of limiting women ’ s powers of expression and activity. indeed, the prevalence of accusations against scolds seems to have peaked between the mid - 16th and 17th centuries, and in britain has been linked to the wider social upheaval surrounding the english civil war. punishment with a bridle like this one, or ‘ branks ’


scolds seems to have peaked between the mid - 16th and 17th centuries, and in britain has been linked to the wider social upheaval surrounding the english civil war. punishment with a bridle like this one, or ‘ branks ’ as they were also known, is less well recorded, but we know that it was done, as with the cucking stool, to ridicule and expose the women in front of her neighbours. it could also be painful. the woman would be made to wear the device for a stated time, and it would be heavy, the iron would be very cold ( especially in winter ), and the strut of metal that went into her mouth to hold down her tongue from further nagging ( which has unfortunately broken off this example ) would become increasingly uncomfortable. indeed, on some bridles this was not just a piece of metal but a spike, designed to cause pain. the idea of punishing a woman for stepping out of her place is not uniquely british : as mentioned above, scold ’ s bridles have been found across europe. this crime of being a scold is represented in the mocking ‘ world turned upside down ’ rituals of french charivari and italian carnivals. men dressed as women, children played bishops and bishops dressed as paupers during the festival ; this reversal and ridiculing of traditional norms was used to reinforce the correctness and normality of those norms in everyday life. this was true especially in relation to gender roles : alongside the punishing of scolds was the ridiculing of what cultural historian natalie davies calls the ‘ woman on top ’ : domineering wives, especially young brides of elderly husbands or women who abused their husbands. also linked is the enduring idea that witches were female, often wise old spinsters or midwives. statistically, we know that a huge number of men were also accused and punished for witchcraft, but the concept of witches and the description of them in contemporary sources is usually purely female and contributes to the general fear of women stepping out of their place. the contemporary fear of powerful women has in the past been linked to a high number of young, unmarried but wage - earning women living away from home as servants and the measure of power and freedom this gave them. one idea that connects the scold ’ s bridle, accusations of witchcraft and the ‘ woman on top ’ is the belief that women were particularly prone to bouts of irrational behaviour, prone to communicating with the devil as they did not have


them. one idea that connects the scold ’ s bridle, accusations of witchcraft and the ‘ woman on top ’ is the belief that women were particularly prone to bouts of irrational behaviour, prone to communicating with the devil as they did not have the rational power to stay away, and inclined to scold and nag about unimportant matters. according to early modern medical ideas of the four humours, a theory about the body existent since ancient greece and changed little by the 16th century, women were cold and damp with little blood. indeed, this small amount of blood would linger around their uterus, instead of spreading throughout the body and into the brain. the greeks even wrote of how the uterus would ‘ wander around ’ the body if it had too little blood. as such, women were often seen as being ‘ led ’ by their uterus, a dangerous organ, making them prone to irrational behaviour. nor was this idea soon forgotten, for the very victorian illness of hysteria takes its name from the greek ‘ hystera ’, meaning uterus. this may seem odd to a modern audience, more used to hearing of men being led by their nether regions than women. elizabeth baddeley is a visitor services assistant at wellcome collection.


this winter i ’ m taking a course on urban education. our first topic : segregation and desegregation in schools. firstly, what do we mean by segregation? as a working definition, i ’ ll offer that segregation is the spatial pattern of people across some attribute. so we could talk about segregation by race, by income, or by favorite ice cream flavor. once we pick something to measure against, we find that every city is segregated according to this definition. what matters is in what way the segregation manifests and the consequences on the populace the pattern has. segregation patterns can be uniform, with all groups distributed more or less evenly within a region, or clustered. likewise, we could also calculate the extent to which subpopulations are isolated from each other — which also gives a rough estimation of how often members of one group is likely to run into someone outside of their group. i think when we talk about ‘ segregated ’ groups, we typically mean highly clustered populations that are isolated from the other groups in the city. i don ’ t think that clustered, isolated groups are necessarily bad on their own. i love visiting the north end and chinatown. because they ’ re both t - accessible, it ’ s easy for me to get there. ( though, both neighborhoods have had rough pasts. ) and harvard square is the nicest place i ’ ve ever lived. score one for segregation! moral judgments aside, self - selection can have a big influence on patterns of segregation, at least it can in models. the positive feedback loops reinforce small, individual choice to generate large - scale patterning. schelling ’ s model of segregation is a classic, good first example of what i mean. in this model individuals exhibit only a slight preference to have neighbors that are similar to them. the individuals in this model are not racist. ( or maybe they are. i don ’ t have a good functional definition of racism yet. ) when individuals find themselves in a neighborhood that is too unlike themselves, they move somewhere else at random, possibly to a neighborhood more dissimilar from themselves than the last. even with this mild, partially blind behavior, a totally segregated structure emerges. in more relaxed models that completely ignore race, even more realistic patterns of segregation form. in this class of model, individuals simply choose to live in the nicest area they can afford. as if by magic, isolated poor and rich neighborhoods form. depending on the details of the model, wealthy suburbs appear spontaneously. if we use socioeconomic status as a proxy


model, individuals simply choose to live in the nicest area they can afford. as if by magic, isolated poor and rich neighborhoods form. depending on the details of the model, wealthy suburbs appear spontaneously. if we use socioeconomic status as a proxy for race, it ’ s the same old story. except this time, we have a systems - level mechanism that generates isolated, poor communities that lack the power to advocate for equitable resources and very rich communities with disproportionately high share of public goods insulated by a buffer of middle class individuals. race was not the cause ; money was. when was ask whether it ’ s morally justified for a white family to send their kid to a predominantly white school, i think it ’ s important to know what about the school is so attractive. do all parents value differentiated cultural and social understanding across many kinds of experience? are they likely to value it more than a pretty campus or reputation of success by its graduates? sure, in some cases the choice may be motivated largely by racism. but i ’ d expect that in many cases, it ’ s mostly a matter of ensuring access to the most and best resources possible for their child. it just so happens that low - resource groups aggregate, even in the absence of race. i believe that diversity ( of background, experience, perspective, and the like ) is important in schools because, as has been mentioned a few times by others, students learn how to navigate social situations outside of school from the people they meet in school. but when we talk about diversity, do we really mean racial diversity? as an example, imagine that an elite, wealthy, mostly white college in the northeast has recently been chastised for admitting a student body that is not sufficient diverse. consequently, the school begins recruiting wealthy black students from africa, some of whom attended the same boarding schools as students already enrolled in the college. in time, the student body comes to be half white, half black with an even mix in all classes and housing situations. in what sense, if any, has the college increased diversity on campus? do you think the college has produced the diversity they were previously lacking? while i think that racial segregation is a problem, i don ’ t think race is necessarily the capital - c cause. in a world without racism, economic segregation will still exist. but i ’ m willing to bet that in a world with no financial disparity, a lot of the troubles we associate with racism would evaporate. and so, i think race


july 18, 2012 since the industrial revolution, ocean acidity has risen by 30 percent as a direct result of fossil - fuel burning and deforestation. and within the last 50 years, human industry has caused the world ’ s oceans to experience a sharp increase in acidity that rivals levels seen when ancient carbon cycles triggered mass extinctions, which took out more than 90 percent of the oceans ’ species and more than 75 percent of terrestrial species. rising ocean acidity is now considered to be just as much of a formidable threat to the health of earth ’ s environment as the atmospheric climate changes brought on by pumping out greenhouse gases. scientists are now trying to understand what that means for the future survival of marine and terrestrial organisms. in june, sciencenow reported that out of the 35 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide released annually through fossil fuel use, one - third of those emissions diffuse into the surface layer of the ocean. the effects those emissions will have on the biosphere is sobering, as rising ocean acidity will completely upset the balance of marine life in the world ’ s oceans and will subsequently affect humans and animals who benefit from the oceans ’ food resources. the damage to marine life is due in large part to the fact that higher acidity dissolves naturally - occurring calcium carbonate that many marine species – including plankton, sea urchins, shellfish and coral – use to construct their shells and external skeletons. studies conducted off arctic regions have shown that the combination of melting sea ice, atmospheric carbon dioxide and subsequently hotter, co2 - saturated surface waters has led to the undersaturation of calcium carbonate in ocean waters. the reduction in the amount of calcium carbonate in the ocean spells out disaster for the organisms that rely on those nutrients to build their protective shells and body structures. the link between ocean acidity and calcium carbonate is a directly inverse relationship, which allows scientists to use the oceans ’ calcium carbonate saturation levels to measure just how acidic the waters are. in a study by the university of hawaii at manoa published earlier this year, researchers calculated that the level of calcium carbonate saturation in the world ’ s oceans has fallen faster in the last 200 years than has been seen in the last 21, 000 years – signaling an extraordinary rise in ocean acidity to levels higher than would ever occur naturally. the authors of the study continued on to say that currently only 50 percent of the world ’ s ocean waters are saturated with enough calcium carbonate to support coral reef growth and maintenance, but by 2100, that proportion is expected to drop to a mere


. the authors of the study continued on to say that currently only 50 percent of the world ’ s ocean waters are saturated with enough calcium carbonate to support coral reef growth and maintenance, but by 2100, that proportion is expected to drop to a mere five percent, putting most of the world ’ s beautiful and diverse coral reef habitats in danger. in the face of so much mounting and discouraging evidence that the oceans are on a trajectory toward irreparable marine life damage, a new study offers hope that certain species may be able to adapt quick enough to keep pace with the changing make - up of earth ’ s waters. in a study published last week in the journal nature climate change, researchers from the arc center of excellence for coral reef studies found that baby clownfish ( amphiprion melanopus ) are able to cope with increased acidity if their parents also lived in higher acidic water, a remarkable finding after a study conducted last year on another clownfish species ( amphiprion percula ) suggested acidic waters reduced the fish ’ s sense of smell, making it likely for the fish to mistakenly swim toward predators. but the new study will require further research to determine whether or not the adaptive abilities of the clownfish are also present in more environmentally - sensitive marine species. while the news that at least some baby fish may be able to adapt to changes provides optimism, there is still much to learn about the process. it is unclear through what mechanism clownfish are able to pass along this trait to their offspring so quickly, evolutionarily speaking. organisms capable of generation - to - generation adaptations could have an advantage in the coming decades, as anthropogenic emissions push earth to non - natural extremes and place new stresses on the biosphere. sign up for our free email newsletter and receive the best stories from smithsonian. com each week.


radiation from japanese nuclear plant found in colorado : health dept. says no need to panic last week, the colorado department of public health and environment tried to counter media - fueled fears about radiation from the stricken fukushima nuclear power plant in japan creating health risks here. today, that job just got more difficult. the cdphe confirms that " minuscule " amounts of radiation from the accident have been detected in colorado. in a release on view below, the department stresses that the risk of harm from the current radiation is far less than the damage that could be done by unnecessarily gobbling potassium iodide pills, no matter what panicky talking heads might suggest. here ' s the cdphe ' s take : colorado detects radioactive isotope minuscule detection level - no risk to public health colorado has joined other states now reporting detection of minuscule levels of radiation coming from the fukushima nuclear power plant in japan. preliminary sampling from a colorado monitor has detected a radioactive isotope, iodine - 131. the colorado sampling data is being sent to epa for further analysis. " levels detected in colorado are minuscule and represent no risk to human health, " said dr. chris urbina, chief medical officer and executive director of the colorado department of public health and environment. " radiation can be detected at levels millions of times lower than the level that would cause health impacts. radiation levels detected in colorado are consistent with those reported for other states. " according to an epa news release, " in a typical day, americans receive doses of radiation from natural sources like rocks, bricks and the sun that are about 100, 000 times higher than what we have detected coming from japan. for example, the levels we ' re seeing coming from japan are 100, 000 times lower than what you get from taking a roundtrip international flight. " four days ago, california first reported detection of radiation from a state monitor. the new york times reported monday, " officials have tracked the radioactive plume as it has drifted eastward on prevailing winds from japan - - first to the west coast and now over the east coast and the atlantic, moving toward europe. " as reported nationally, the plume ' s radiation has been diluted enormously in its journey of thousands of miles and - - at least for now, with concentrations so low - - its presence will have no health consequences in the united states. dr. urbina added, " there is no need for people to seek potassium iodide, as there is no risk to public health from the trace amounts of radiation being reported in


- its presence will have no health consequences in the united states. dr. urbina added, " there is no need for people to seek potassium iodide, as there is no risk to public health from the trace amounts of radiation being reported in the united states. potassium iodide may have side effects. using potassium iodide when it is unnecessary could cause intestinal upset ( vomiting, nausea and diarrhea ), rashes, allergic reactions, soreness of teeth and gums, and inflammation of the salivary glands. pregnant women and the developing fetus are particularly sensitive to the health risks of taking potassium iodide. " colorado ' s monitor is part of epa ' s radnet, a national network of monitoring stations that regularly collect samples for analysis of radioactivity. the radnet network has stations in each state and has been used to track environmental releases of radioactivity from nuclear weapons tests and nuclear accidents. nationwide radnet reports can be found at its website : http : / / www. epa. gov / japan2011 / rert / radnet - data. html # states. for information about radiation, please call cohelp at 877 - 462 - 2911. more from our news archive : " tsa machines may irradiate your junk unless you ' ve got rocky flats gear ( photos, video ). "


why the oceans? simple : the ocean supports life on this planet. it feeds us, produces the oxygen we breathe, maintains our climate, cycles vital nutrients through countless ecosystems and provides food and medicines. the ocean provides jobs, food, energy, and recreation. as if that weren ’ t enough, the ocean is beautiful and inspiring. and that would be enough. people are drawn to where water meets land, because it is there we find a primeval, vital connection that goes deep into the human psyche. we feel it. put simply, the oceans give us life. let ’ s return the favor. 3 ways you can to save the oceans : 1. go to the beach & get inspired. 2. share your love of the ocean. 3. eat sustainable seafood. more great ways to make a difference. links & videos the value of our oceans, world wildlife fund in the same net : ocean life, ethics, and the human spirit, carl safina, you tube cod : the fish that made new england, you tube knowledge and devotion, carl ’ s blog deep ocean mysteries and wonder, ted talk, you tube world oceans day, wikipedia value of ecosystem services, world research institute ecosystem services, wikipedia hawaii ocean waves, you tube what is the ocean worth to you? carl ’ s blog valuing oceans : the $ 2 trillion question, economist cod : the fish that made new england, pew oceans nothing tells a story like the eyewitnesses who were there. old - timers in new england ’ s commercial cod fishery don ’ t want us to forget how we arrived where we are today. in the same net : ocean life, ethics, and the human spirit, carl safina prominent ecologist, marine conservationist, and author carl safina keynoted earthstock 2010 with his lecture exploring our changing oceans, and what those changes mean for wildlife and for people. his talk, which was part autobiography, part science lecture, and part book reading, told the story of his global journey from fisherman to scientist and touched upon the scientific dimensions as well as moral and social implications of our relationship with nature. in the deepest, darkest parts of the oceans are ecosystems with more diversity than a tropical rainforest. taking us on a voyage into the ocean — from the deepest trenches to the remains of the titanic — marine biologist david gallo explores the wonder and beauty of marine life. enjoy this relaxing video from hawaii. you can see hawaiian sea turtles, honu, swimming underwater. they surface very briefly in the beginning and ending of


concerns that the us economy can no longer innovate seem to be trickling into the cultural realm. according to grant mccracken at the harvard business review, some music critics are worried that “ innovation in popular music is in decline, ” and that, “ if this is true, a big cultural change is upon us — the end of popular music as the great lab bench for our culture, as the defining innovator of our time. ” but mccracken recognizes the nostalgia that underlies such fears, and puts forth five ways in which youth culture and pop music are actually changing the boundaries of what those cultural concepts mean today : 1. contemporary musical forms like mashups are not a “ barren genre. ” they are merely a new grammar, invented by cultural innovators to express a new culture. 2. originality is not so much in decline as being revalued. 3. young consumers are interested in music produced by previous generations, but they are using this music for their own purposes. 4. the new forms of music are expressive of new forms of self and group. 5. if music matters less to the way young consumers define themselves it ’ s because they have found other, more useful media to do the job. music doesn ’ t have to be the innovative media it was for reynolds ’ and other generations. that it worked especially well for earlier generations is due to historical chance and happenstance. music matters to reynolds for the same reason books matter to boomer academics : it just happens to be the form that ideas assumed in the world they grew up in. mccracken ’ s conclusion echoes breakthrough journal writer dan krewson, who wrote of punk ’ s enduring, if unconventional, legacy in “ punk and possibility ” : in many ways, punk ’ s legacy is such that it is now a mark of sophistication among artists to draw from a constellation of influences, just as it was once stylish for prog rockers to draw upon classical music. consider top 40 rapper kid cudi. born in 1984, cudi unapologetically channels pink floyd over grandmaster flash. he rhymes about outer space instead of the ghetto and samples lady gaga rather than james brown. he combines orchestral strings with turntable scratching. he references facebook, carl jung, and insomnia, embracing big pop hooks that helped his record debut at number four on the billboard 200. asked about his wide - ranging sound and influences, cudi said, “ i did want to make something that would baffle


in the run up to the international climate change talks in cancun last year, you took action to demand more information for the world ’ s poorest. you called on uk chancellor george osborne to push the eu to open up about the money pledged to help poor countries cope with climate change. you asked four simple questions. - where will the money come from for climate finance? - what will it be spent on? - will the money be in the form of grants or loans? - who will be responsible for spending the money? ” so how did they do? thanks to your efforts, the eu opened up with a new annual report, the ‘ fast start finance report ’. during the cancun talks, they published the first of these reports, which gave extra details about the €2. 2 billion the eu mobilised to combat climate change throughout 2010. this forms part of the €7. 2 billion they pledged they would give ( in the years up to 2012 ) during the copenhagen talks. they also released more detailed information from individual eu member states on spending by country and on specific climate projects. the level of detail was a huge improvement on previous reports but questions still remain. where the money will come from the €7. 2 billion was promised to be ‘ new and additional ’ but as the eu did not report on where the money was coming and whether it was coming out of existing aid budgets, developing countries have serious fears that climate finance is being recycled from money already allocated for development. the uk itself has been transparent that climate finance is being taken from overseas aid budgets, but justifies this by saying that the aid budget is increasing. however, the agreed level of uk aid was set in 1970, when there was little recognition or understanding of climate change. climate change is a new issue and an added burden to countries already trying to address poverty and therefore should not come out of existing budgets. what the money will be spent on the report released important information on what projects the money will be spent on. however, the vast majority of climate finance to date is being spent on mitigation ( reducing emissions ), with only a third going to helping poor people adapt to the effects of climate change. whilst bringing down reductions is crucial, we need to ensure an equal amount of money is dedicated to helping address the needs of the poorest and most vulnerable. how the money will be given the report also included information about the source of the finance. according to the eu, over half the money given this year was awarded as loans or other forms


to helping address the needs of the poorest and most vulnerable. how the money will be given the report also included information about the source of the finance. according to the eu, over half the money given this year was awarded as loans or other forms of finance, rather than grants. it is unfair to expect poor countries to accumulate new debts to deal with a problem that they did not cause. who will be responsible for spending the money? the annex to the report provided oversight into who will govern the fast start finance. this is positive as it shows who to hold to account. however, most of the uk money is going through multilateral funds such as the world bank where developing countries remain unrepresented. for long term finance, leaders agreed to set up a climate fund that is under the authority of the un and has equal representation from the world ’ s regions. we ’ ll be keeping a close eye on this positive first step. maintaining the momentum thank you to everyone who took action calling on the eu to open up. now we have the crucial questions answered, we can begin to lobby our government to ensure the promised money reaches the poorest and most vulnerable to climate change. we ’ ll keep you posted on ways you can act in the run up to the climate change talks in south africa later this year.


it ' s that time of year again. although it was chilly this morning in canton, the birds are singing, the daffodils are sending up their thick green leaves, and it ' s time to change the clocks again. that ' s right, spring forward tonight, it ' s daylight saving time. although it doesn ' t really save us anything, and can actually cause our electric and heating bills to go up for the first few weeks. according to a 2008 study that examined billing data in indiana before and after that state adopted dst in 2006, " dst increased overall residential electricity consumption between 1 and 4 percent, due mostly to extra afternoon cooling and extra morning heating ; the main increases came in the fall. the overall annual cost of dst to indiana households was estimated to be $ 9 million, with an additional $ 1. 7 – 5. 5 million for social costs due to increased pollution. according to a huffington post article : this time change is much trickier for our bodies to handle than when we " fall back " in november. that ' s because so many of us aren ' t getting enough shut - eye to begin with, and being robbed of an additional hour can put us over the edge. in fact, as many as 47 million people are sleep deprived and 43 percent of americans say they rarely or never get a good night ' s sleep during the week. " it ' s hard to get up an hour earlier, " dr. sam j. sugar, director of sleep services at the pritikin longevity center and spa, a wellness spa and weight - loss program in miami, fla told the huffington post. " when we do, since most of us don ' t sleep the recommended seven or eight hours anyhow, another hour less is not good for us, and we wind up fatigued and tired during the next day. " much like traveling between time zones, the changing of the clocks requires our bodies to adjust to a new sleep and wake schedule that feels similar to jet lag. " our internal clocks, which run on a more or less 24 - hour cycle - - that clock is suddenly confused, " sugar said. and, just like traveling east is more difficult to adjust to than traveling west, so too is " springing forward " compared to " falling back " explains dr. robert oexman, director of the sleep to live institute, a laboratory of sorts that examines the impact that environment, behavior and sleep equipment have on sleep quality. because our normal circadian rhythm is slightly longer


to " falling back " explains dr. robert oexman, director of the sleep to live institute, a laboratory of sorts that examines the impact that environment, behavior and sleep equipment have on sleep quality. because our normal circadian rhythm is slightly longer than 24 hours, it ' s easier on us to extend the day, like we do in the fall, rather than cut the day short by an hour as we do this weekend, he said. while adjusting to this slightly - altered cycle can take up to a week, for most people, it will only take a few days, said sugar. " our brains are incredibly good at adjusting to anything we throw at them, and for almost everybody it isn ' t a problem, " he said. while only about 1 percent of drivers crash because of drowsiness each year, that equals a total of 1. 9 million drivers, according to the national sleep foundation. more than half of all drivers have driven at least once in the past year while feeling sleepy, and 28 percent do at least once a month. in the days after the shift, heart attacks are also more common. the effects of sleep deprivation on the heart are well - documented : skimping on zzz ' s can promote the buildup in arteries that leads to heart attacks and strokes, as well as increase the risk of high blood pressure and inflammation. plus, the most sleep - deprived people often weigh more, increasing their risk for heart problems even before the time change. workers also report more injuries on the job the monday after the beginning of daylight saving time. and while it might do more harm to our employers than to our own bodies, the day is also witness to a dramatic increase in what ' s come to be known as " cyberloafing " - - or wasting time on the internet, according to a recent study that examines the link between lack of sleep and decreased productivity. so, don ' t forget, 2 a. m. becomes 3 a. m. tonight.


one of the most specialized branches of the healing arts, chiropractic care is used to treat problems such as : lower back pain, stress - related headaches, and neck pain. it is also effective in controlling pain associated with arthritis. the chiropractor ' s tool is the spinal adjustment. it is not a massage. the adjustments reset the alignment of the spine to restore normal nerve function. the method dates back to ancient greece and hypocrites, the father of medicine. established in 1895, the first chiropractic license in the us was issued in 1913. today, every state and territory licenses chiropractic, as do all provinces in canada, and many countries worldwide. doctors of chiropractic are recognized as primary care doctors in all 50 states giving more than 200 million treatments each year in the us workers compensation programs often call upon chiropractic health care to treat injured employees, as do most insurance companies. all american citizens are entitled to chiropractic care under the medicare programs. it takes at least seven years of college to earn a doctor of chiropractic degree. the chiropractic student is required to study human anatomy, spinal anatomy, neuro anatomy, chemistry, diagnosis and x - ray. like medical doctors, the dc must obtain a basic science background in a college or university and then attend a four - year accredited college of chiropractic. the focus of the education is in maintaining health with a specialty in spinal care.


according to christopher clark and nancy hewitt, “ both failures and successes were inherent in the task of rebuilding the nation following the civil war : vigilante violence, often fatal conflict over the right of african american men to vote, courageous african american insistence on self - determination and participation in the political process, and federal intervention in the south to help assure freedpeople ’ s rights. the union victory in 1865 had settled two major debates but left everything else in doubt. the united states of america was preserved ; slavery was dead, and african americans were now free. but who would hold and exercise economic and political power in the postwar south? what kind of labor system would replace slavery? who would lead the south politically? what would freedom mean for the four million former slaves? answers to these questions were widely contested and would emerge only after two decades of intense political and social struggle, a struggle that contemporaries hopefully called reconstruction. racial conflicts in the former confederacy continued to disrupt efforts at reunification, and a protracted financial crisis dashed hopes for a quick economic recovery. in response, northern political and business leaders focused their efforts on revitalizing the economy through reconciliation between north and south rather than protecting racial advancement in either region. thus … the old planter aristocracy – under the protection of a revived democratic party – returned to power, controlling a nonslave but still exploitative system of agricultural labor. the failure of reconstruction to transform southern race relations shaped the nation as a whole. still, it was freedpeople who paid the highest price. outgunned, both figuratively and literally, they were left with few alternatives. yet they did not give up. those who remained in the south established a dense network of autonomous community - based institutions, including black schools, churches, and businesses, to keep their democratic hopes alive within an oppressive and racist system. ” ( from clark, christopher and nancy a. hewitt. who built america, volume i, pages 589 - 590. ) the 1869 virginia constitution, unlike previous state charters, mandated public education. virginia ’ s position on public education – let alone its position on educating blacks – had been tenuous at best. the state had long resisted a system of free schools, despite the efforts of some of its more famous citizens. thomas jefferson ’ s unsuccessful campaign for free schools had yielded little more than a literary fund for indigent children. all of that changed when congress passed the reconstruction act of march 2, 1867 demanding that southern states ratify new constitutions guaranteeing black suffrage. once these constitutions met with


schools had yielded little more than a literary fund for indigent children. all of that changed when congress passed the reconstruction act of march 2, 1867 demanding that southern states ratify new constitutions guaranteeing black suffrage. once these constitutions met with congressional approval and after the state approved the fourteenth amendment, congress promised re - admittance into the union. responding to the reconstruction act, virginians registered voters and called an election to decide if the state would call a convention to revise the state ’ s constitution. in 1867 226 fairfax county blacks registered to vote – voting unanimously in favor of a constitutional convention. in 1869, they returned to the polls and voted for adoption of the constitution. at the 1867 - 1868 constitutional convention, education proved to be one of the most hotly debated topics, ( the state ’ s war debt was the other top issue ). though delegates largely consisted of northern immigrants and freedmen easily approved a public school system, they were strongly divided over the question of integration. many northern immigrants viewed public schools as the foundation of a democratic society and a key to reconstruction of the south. the question broke along racial lines. black members introduced resolutions ensuring equal access to education “ without distinction of color. ” white delegates never took these suggestions seriously. even radicals who supported desegregation voted against such resolutions. mindful of widespread sentiment against mixed schools, they did not want to risk ratification. in the end, while most assumed public schools would be segregated, no language could be agreed upon and the question was not resolved until the legislature revisited the issue in 1870. while blacks lost their campaign for mixed schools, they still passed a milestone in gaining access to public education. however, as a result of poor political and financial support, virginia ’ s first public schools for both blacks and whites were grossly inadequate. many did not have heat or toilets, schools were small and scattered ; also the average term was less than the five months mandated by the virginia constitution, and attendance, which was not required was sparse. despite these conditions – and those for black children were considerably worse than those for whites – still there were now public schools in which both black and white children learned. the william jasper family, 1808 - 1870 [ talking points ] • william jasper, an african american, was probably born in 1808 not far from george washington ’ s plantation in mount vernon. he was born a slave on the plantation of william hayward foote ’ s hayfield plantation. foote was one of the richest men in fairfax county — when he died he owned 50


1808 not far from george washington ’ s plantation in mount vernon. he was born a slave on the plantation of william hayward foote ’ s hayfield plantation. foote was one of the richest men in fairfax county — when he died he owned 50 slaves. • jasper worked on a plantation that grew wheat and corn, and raised horses, cattle, sheep and hogs. slaves at hayfield, including jasper, are likely to have had skills as farmers, blacksmiths, and carpenters. • jasper and his family were not sold south to booming cotton and sugar plantations, as were many other slaves. • according to his will, foote decided to free his slaves on or soon after his death in 1846. at this time jasper, in his thirties, was valued by appraisers to be worth $ 350. foote ’ s will also freed jasper ’ s wife sara, in her mid - twenties, and their two daughters who were six and four. they were actually freed in the early 1850 ’ s. • it is important to note that the jaspers were free blacks in virginia before the civil war. but even as free blacks they faced numerous obstacles. they could not : own a gun, obtain an education, vote, conduct business freely, worship in religious services unless supervised by whites. also they might be captured by slave traders and sold back into slavery. • the jaspers wanted to stay in virginia near friends and family, so in 1853 and 1858 they chose to register as free blacks in fairfax county to prove that they were free. this meant they could travel and gain employment. • in 1860 william jasper purchased 13 acres of land near the hayfield plantation. it is likely that he put together the $ 200 to pay a white farmer and slave owner for the land from his work as a farmer. • the jaspers probably did not stay on their newly bought land during the civil war - - and it is also likely that what they had on this land, including buildings, animals and crops, was lost during the war.


on september 9, 2010, an explosion of an 30 - inch natural gas pipeline rocked a residential neighborhood in san bruno, california. the tremendous blast and following blaze killed at least seven people and destroyed 53 homes. firefighters overwhelmed by the intense heat from the 60 - foot inferno could only try to keep flames from spreading to other homes until utility workers managed to shut down the gas main an hour and a half later. it is unclear what caused the explosion, although residents reported smelling gas prior to the blast. an investigation into the cause of the explosion may take up to a year. natural gas is an important part of america ’ s energy infrastructure, and deadly explosions such as this are uncommon. in this week ’ s online current events activity you will learn more about natural gas, how we collect and distribute it, and how we use it. all about natural gas it ’ s easy to confuse the term “ natural gas ” with our short form of the word gasoline. in fact, they are very different. to learn what natural gas is, where it comes from, and how we use it, visit naturalgas. org, an educational web site covering a variety of topics about the natural gas industry. the best place to begin any learning activity is usually the overview. first, read the background section of the site, which explains what natural gas is, gives its chemical composition, and explains how natural gas is formed. what are some of the characteristics of natural gas? what is the primary component in natural gas? why is mercaptan added to natural gas? what is the difference between “ dry ” and “ wet ” natural gas? where is natural gas typically found in the earth? next, learn about the history of natural gas as a fuel source. how did ancient civilizations discover natural gas, and what did they do with it? what was the first country to use natural gas commercially, and how did they produce it? who was the first american to dig a natural gas well? who was robert bunsen and what did he invent? natural gas is a fossil fuel, not a renewable energy resource. how much natural gas is left in north america? find out by reading the resources section. why is it difficult to estimate the amount of natural gas in the ground? give one estimate for the total number of cubic feet available. in what areas of the united states is natural gas plentiful? finally, learn about the uses of natural gas which, according to the energy information administration, accounts for 24 percent of total energy consumed in the united states. read