table - land are densely wooded with tall pines. its top forms what is called a park country ; that is, it is covered with alternating groves of trees and open glades, each grove or glade varying in size from half a dozen to many hundred acres. we went in with the pack train two days ' journey before pitching camp in what we intended to be our hunting grounds, following an old indian trail. no one who has not tried it can understand the work and worry that it is to drive a pack train over rough ground and through timber. we were none of us very skilful at packing, and the loads were all the time slipping ; sometimes the ponies would stampede with the pack half tied, or they would get caught among the fallen logs, or in a ticklish place would suddenly decline to follow the trail, or would commit some one of the thousand other tricks which seem to be all a pack - pony knows. then at night they were a bother ; if picketed out they fed badly and got thin, and if they were not picketed they sometimes strayed away. the most valuable one of the lot was also the hardest to catch. accordingly we used to let him loose with a long lariat tied round his neck, and one night this lariat twisted up in a sage - brush, and in struggling to free himself the pony got a half hitch round his hind leg, threw himself, and fell over a bank into a creek on a large stone. we found him in the morning very much the worse for wear, and his hind legs swelled up so that his chief method of progression was by a series of awkward hops. of course no load could be put upon him, but he managed to limp along behind the other horses, and actually in the end reached the ranch on the little missouri three hundred miles off. no sooner had he got there and been turned loose to rest than he fell down a big wash - out and broke his neck. another time one of the maresa homely beast with a head like a camel ' smanaged to flounder into the very centre of a mud - hole, and we spent the better part of a morning in fishing her out. it was on the second day of our journey into the mountains, while leading the pack - ponies down the precipitous side of a steep valley, that i obtained my first sight of elk. the trail wound through a forest of tall, slender pines, standing very close together, and with dead trees lying in


leading the pack - ponies down the precipitous side of a steep valley, that i obtained my first sight of elk. the trail wound through a forest of tall, slender pines, standing very close together, and with dead trees lying in every direction. the narrow trunks or overhanging limbs threatened to scrape off the packs at every moment, as the ponies hopped and scrambled over the fallen trunks ; and it was difficult work, and most trying to the temper, to keep them going along straight and prevent them from wandering off to one side or the other. at last we got out into a succession of small, open glades, with boggy spots in them ; the lowest glade was of some size, and as we reached it we saw a small band of cow elk disappearing into the woods on its other edge. i was riding a restive horse, and when i tried to jump off to shoot, it reared and turned round, before i could get my left foot out of the stirrup ; when i at last got free i could get a glimpse of but one elk, vanishing behind a dead trunk, and my hasty shot missed. i was a good deal annoyed at this, my opening experience with mountain game, feeling that it was an omen of misfortune ; but it did not prove so, for during the rest of my two weeks ' stay, i with one exception got every animal i fired at. a beautiful, clear mountain brook ran through the bottom of the valley, and in an open space by its side we pitched camp. we were entirely out of fresh meat, and after lunch all three of us separated to hunt, each for his own hand. the teamster went up stream, merrifield went down, while i followed the tracks of the band of cows and calves that we had started in the morning ; their trail led along the wooded hill - crests parallel to the stream, and therefore to merrifield ' s course. the crests of the hills formed a wavy - topped but continuous ridge between two canyon - like valleys, and the sides fell off steeper and steeper the farther down stream i went, until at last they were broken in places by sheer precipices and cliffs ; the groves of trees too, though with here and there open glades, formed a continuous forest of tall pines. there was a small growth of young spruce and other evergreen, thick enough to give cover, but not to interfere with seeing and shooting to some distance. the pine trunks rose like


here and there open glades, formed a continuous forest of tall pines. there was a small growth of young spruce and other evergreen, thick enough to give cover, but not to interfere with seeing and shooting to some distance. the pine trunks rose like straight columns, standing quite close together ; and at their bases the ground was carpeted with the sweet - scented needles, over which, in my moccasined feet, i trod without any noise. it was but a little past noon, and the sun in the open was very hot ; yet underneath the great archways of the pine woods the air though still was cool, and the sunbeams that struggled down here and there through the interlacing branches, and glinted on the rough trunks, only made bright spots in what was elsewhere the uniform, grayish half - light of the mountain forest. game trails threaded the woods in all directions, made for the most part by the elk. these animals, when not disturbed, travel strung out in single file, each one stepping very nearly in the tracks of the one before it ; they are great wanderers, going over an immense amount of country during the course of a day, and so they soon wear regular, well - beaten paths in any place where they are at all plentiful. the band i was following had, as is their custom, all run together into a wedge - shaped mass when i fired, and crashed off through the woods in a bunch during the first moments of alarm. the footprints in the soil showed that they had in the beginning taken a plunging gallop, but after a few strides had settled into the swinging, ground - covering trot that is the elk ' s most natural and characteristic gait. a band of elk when alarmed is likely to go twenty miles without halting ; but these had probably been very little molested, and there was a chance that they would not go far without stopping. after getting through the first grove, the huddled herd had straightened itself out into single file, and trotted off in a nearly straight line. a mile or two of ground having been passed over in this way, the animals had slackened their pace into a walk, evidently making up their minds that they were out of danger. soon afterwards they had begun to go slower, and to scatter out on each side, browsing or grazing. it was not difficult work to follow up the band at first. while trotting, their sharp hoofs came down with sufficient force to leave very distinct footprints,


slower, and to scatter out on each side, browsing or grazing. it was not difficult work to follow up the band at first. while trotting, their sharp hoofs came down with sufficient force to leave very distinct footprints, and, moreover, the trail was the more readily made out as all the animals trod nearly in each other ' s steps. but when the band spread out the tracking was much harder, as each single one, walking slowly along, merely made here and there a slight scrape in the soil or a faint indentation in the bed of pine needles. besides, i had to advance with the greatest caution, keeping the sharpest look - out in front and on all sides of me. even as it was, though i got very close up to my game, they were on foot before i saw them, and i did not get a standing shot. while carefully looking to my footsteps i paid too little heed to the rifle which i held in my right hand, and let the barrel tap smartly on a tree trunk. instantly there was a stamp and movement among the bushes ahead and to one side of me ; the elk had heard but had neither seen nor smelt me ; and a second afterward i saw the indistinct, shadowy outlines of the band as they trotted down hill, from where their beds had been made on the very summit of the crest, taking a course diagonal to mine. i raced forward and also down hill, behind some large mossy boulders, and cut them fairly off, the band passing directly ahead of me and not twenty yards away, at a slashing trot, which a few of them changed for a wild gallop, as i opened fire. i was so hemmed in by the thick tree trunks, and it was so difficult to catch more than a fleeting glimpse of each animal, that though i fired four shots i only brought down one elk, a full - grown cow, with a broken neck, dead in its tracks ; but i also broke the hind leg of a bull calf. elk offer easy marks when in motion, much easier than deer, because of their trotting gait, and their regular, deliberate movements. they look very handsome as they trot through a wood, stepping lightly and easily over the dead trunks and crashing through the underbrush, with the head held up and nose pointing forward. in galloping, however, the neck is thrust straight out in front, and the animal moves with labored bounds, which carry it


and easily over the dead trunks and crashing through the underbrush, with the head held up and nose pointing forward. in galloping, however, the neck is thrust straight out in front, and the animal moves with labored bounds, which carry it along rapidly but soon tire it out. after thrusting the hunting - knife into the throat of the cow, i followed the trail of the band ; and in an open glade, filled with tall sage - brush, came across and finished the wounded calf. meanwhile the others ran directly across merrifield ' s path, and he shot two. this gave us much more meat than we wished ; nor would we have shot as many, but neither of us could reckon upon the other ' s getting as much game, and flesh was a necessity. leaving merrifield to skin and cut up the dead animals, i walked back to camp where i found the teamster, who had brought in the hams and tongues of two deer he had shot, and sent him back with a pack - pony for the hides and meat of the elk. elk tongues are most delicious eating, being juicy, tender, and well flavored ; they are excellent to take out as a lunch on a long hunting trip. we now had more than enough meat in camp, and did not shoot at another cow or calf elk while on the mountains, though we saw quite a number ; the last day of my stay i was within fifty yards of two that were walking quietly through a very dense, swampy wood. but it took me some time longer before i got any fine heads. the day after killing the cow and calf i went out in the morning by myself and hunted through the woods up toward the rocky peaks, going above timber line, and not reaching camp until after nightfall. in hunting through a wild and unknown country a man must always take great care not to get lost. in the first place he should never, under any conceivable circumstances, stir fifty yards from camp without a compass, plenty of matches, and his rifle ; then he need never feel nervous, even if he is lost, for he can keep himself from cold and hunger, and can steer a straight course until he reaches some settlement. but he should not get lost at all. old plainsmen or backwoodsmen get to have almost an instinct for finding their way, and are able to tell where they are and the way home in almost any place ; probably they keep in their heads an accurate idea of their course and of the general lay of


or backwoodsmen get to have almost an instinct for finding their way, and are able to tell where they are and the way home in almost any place ; probably they keep in their heads an accurate idea of their course and of the general lay of the land. but most men cannot do this. in hunting through a new country a man should, if possible, choose some prominent landmarks, and then should learn how they look from different sidesfor they will with difficulty be recognized as the same objects, if seen from different points of view. if he gets out of sight of these, he should choose another to work back to, as a kind of half - way point ; and so on. he should keep looking back ; it is wonderful how different a country looks when following back on one ' s trail. if possible, he should locate his camp, in his mind, with reference to a line, and not a point ; he should take a river or a long ridge, for example. then at any time he can strike back to this line and follow it up or down till he gets home. if possible, i always spend the first day, when on new ground, in hunting up - stream. then, so long as i am sure i do not wander off into the valleys or creeks of another water - course, i am safe, for, no matter on what remote branch, all i have to do is to follow down - stream until i reach camp ; while if i was below camp, it would be difficult to tell which fork to follow up every time the stream branched. a man should always notice the position of the sun, the direction from which the wind blows, the slope of the water - courses, prominent features in the landscape, and so forth, and should keep in mind his own general course ; and he had better err on the side of caution rather than on that of boldness. getting lost is very uncomfortable, both for the man himself and for those who have to break up their work and hunt for him. deep woods or perfectly flat, open country are almost equally easy places in which to get lost ; while if the country is moderately open and level, with only here and there a prominent and easily recognized hill or butte, a man can safely go where he wishes, hardly paying any heed to his course. but even here he should know his general direction from camp, so as to be able to steer for it with a compass if a fog comes up. and if he leaves his horse hidden in a gu


, hardly paying any heed to his course. but even here he should know his general direction from camp, so as to be able to steer for it with a compass if a fog comes up. and if he leaves his horse hidden in a gully or pocket while he goes off to hunt on foot, he must recollect to keep the place well in his mind ; on one occasion, when i feared that somebody might meddle with my horse, i hid him so successfully that i spent the better part of a day in finding him. keeping in mind the above given rules, when i left camp the morning after the breaking up of the band of cows and calves, i hunted up - stream, and across and through the wooded spurs dividing the little brooks that formed its head waters. no game was encountered, except some blue grouse, which i saw when near camp on my return, and shot for the pot. these blue grouse are the largest species found in america, except the sage fowl. they are exclusively birds of the deep mountain forests, and in their manners remind one of the spruce grouse of the northeastern woods, being almost equally tame. when alarmed, they fly at once into a tree, and several can often be shot before the remainder take fright and are off. on this trip we killed a good many, shooting off their heads with our rifles. they formed a most welcome addition to our bill of fare, the meat being white and excellent. a curious peculiarity in their flesh is that the breast meat has in it a layer of much darker color. they are very handsome birds, and furnish dainty food to men wearied of venison ; but, unless their heads are knocked off with a rifle, they do not furnish much sport, as they will not fly off when flushed, but simply rise into a fairly tall tree, and there sit, motionless, except that the head is twisted and bobbed round to observe the acts of the foe. all of the sights and sounds in these pine woods that clothed the bighorn mountains reminded me of the similar ones seen and heard in the great, sombre forests of maine and the adirondacks. the animals and birds were much the same. as in the east, there were red squirrels, chipmunks, red hares, and woodchucks, all of them differing but slightly from our common kinds ; woodpeckers, chickadees, nuthatches, and whisky jacks came about camp ; ravens and eagles flew over


chipmunks, red hares, and woodchucks, all of them differing but slightly from our common kinds ; woodpeckers, chickadees, nuthatches, and whisky jacks came about camp ; ravens and eagles flew over the rocky cliffs. there were some new forms, however. the nutcracker, a large, noisy, crow - like bird, with many of the habits of a woodpecker, was common, and in the rocks above timber line, we came upon the little chief hare, a wee animal, with a shrill, timorous squeak. during our stay upon the mountains the weather was generally clear, but always cold, thin ice covering the dark waters of the small mountain tarns, and there were slight snow - falls every two or three days ; but we were only kept in camp one day, when it sleeted, snowed, and rained from dawn till nightfall. we passed this day very comfortably, however. i had far too much forethought to go into the woods without a small supply of books for just such occasions. we had rigged the canvas wagon sheet into a tent, at the bottom of the ravine, near the willow - covered brink of the brook that ran through it. the steep hill - sides bounding the valley, which a little below us became sheer cliffs, were partly covered with great pines and spruces, and partly open ground grown up with tall grass and sage - brush. we were thus well sheltered from the wind ; and when one morning we looked out and saw the wet snow lying on the ground, and with its weight bending down the willow bushes and loading the tall evergreens, while the freezing sleet rattled against the canvas, we simply started a roaring fire of pine logs in front of the tent, and passed a cosy day inside, cleaning guns, reading, and playing cards. blue grouse, elk hams, and deer saddles hung from the trees around, so we had no fear of starvation. still, towards evening we got a little tired, and i could not resist taking a couple of hours ' brisk ride in the mist, through a chain of open glades that sloped off from our camp. later on we made a camp at the head of a great natural meadow, where two streams joined together, and in times long gone by had been dammed by the beaver. this had at first choked up the passage and made a small lake ; then dams were built higher and higher up, making chains of little ponds.


, where two streams joined together, and in times long gone by had been dammed by the beaver. this had at first choked up the passage and made a small lake ; then dams were built higher and higher up, making chains of little ponds. by degrees these filled up, and the whole valley became a broad marshy meadow, through which the brook wound between rows of willows and alders. these beaver meadows are very common ; but are not usually of such large size. around this camp there was very little game ; but we got a fine mess of spotted trout by taking a long and most toilsome walk up to a little lake lying very near timber line. our rods and lines were most primitive, consisting of two clumsy dead cedars ( the only trees within reach ), about six feet of string tied to one and a piece of catgut to the other, with preposterous hooks ; yet the trout were so ravenous that we caught them at the rate of about one a minute ; and they formed another welcome change in our camp fare. this lake lay in a valley whose sides were so steep and boulder - covered as to need hard climbing to get into and out of it. every day in the cold, clear weather we tramped miles and miles through the woods and mountains, which, after a snow - storm took on a really wintry look ; while in the moonlight the snow - laden forests shone and sparkled like crystal. the dweller in cities has but a faint idea of the way we ate and slept. one day merrifield and i went out together and had a rather exciting chase after some bull elk. the previous evening, toward sunset, i had seen three bulls trotting off across an open glade toward a great stretch of forest and broken ground, up near the foot of the rocky peaks. next morning early we started off to hunt through this country. the walking was hard work, especially up and down the steep cliffs, covered with slippery pine needles ; or among the windfalls, where the rows of dead trees lay piled up across one another in the wildest confusion. we saw nothing until we came to a large patch of burnt ground, where we at once found the soft, black soil marked up by elk hoofs ; nor had we penetrated into it more than a few hundred yards before we came to tracks made but a few minutes before, and almost instantly afterward saw three bull elk, probably those i had seen on the preceding day. we had been running briskly up - hill


we penetrated into it more than a few hundred yards before we came to tracks made but a few minutes before, and almost instantly afterward saw three bull elk, probably those i had seen on the preceding day. we had been running briskly up - hill through the soft, heavy loam, in which our feet made no noise but slipped and sank deeply ; as a consequence, i was all out of breath and my hand so unsteady that i missed my first shot. elk, however, do not vanish with the instantaneous rapidity of frightened deer, and these three trotted off in a direction quartering to us. i doubt if i ever went through more violent exertion than in the next ten minutes. we raced after them at full speed, opening fire ; i wounded all three, but none of the wounds were immediately disabling. they trotted on and we panted afterwards, slipping on the wet earth, pitching headlong over charred stumps, leaping on dead logs that broke beneath our weight, more than once measuring our full - length on the ground, halting and firing whenever we got a chance. at last one bull fell ; we passed him by after the others which were still running up - hill. the sweat streamed into my eyes and made furrows in the sooty mud that covered my face, from having fallen full length down on the burnt earth ; i sobbed for breath as i toiled at a shambling trot after them, as nearly done out as could well be. at this moment they turned down - hill. it was a great relief ; a man who is too done up to go a step up - hill can still run fast enough down ; with a last spurt i closed in near enough to fire again ; one elk fell ; the other went off at a walk. we passed the second elk and i kept on alone after the third, not able to go at more than a slow trot myself, and too much winded to dare risk a shot at any distance. he got out of the burnt patch, going into some thick timber in a deep ravine ; i closed pretty well, and rushed after him into a thicket of young evergreens. hardly was i in when there was a scramble and bounce among them and i caught a glimpse of a yellow body moving out to one side ; i ran out toward the edge and fired through the twigs at the moving beast. down it went, but when i ran up, to my disgust i found that i had jumped and killed, in


glimpse of a yellow body moving out to one side ; i ran out toward the edge and fired through the twigs at the moving beast. down it went, but when i ran up, to my disgust i found that i had jumped and killed, in my haste, a black - tail deer, which must have been already roused by the passage of the wounded elk. i at once took up the trail of the latter again, but after a little while the blood grew less, and ceased, and i lost the track ; nor could i find it, hunt as hard as i might. the poor beast could not have gone five hundred yards ; yet we never found the carcass. then i walked slowly back past the deer i had slain by so curious a mischance, to the elk. the first one shot down was already dead. the second was only wounded, though it could not rise. when it saw us coming it sought to hide from us by laying its neck flat on the ground, but when we came up close it raised its head and looked proudly at us, the heavy mane bristling up on the neck, while its eyes glared and its teeth grated together. i felt really sorry to kill it. though these were both well - grown elks, their antlers, of ten points, were small, twisted, and ill - shaped ; in fact hardly worth preserving, except to call to mind a chase in which during a few minutes i did as much downright hard work as it has often fallen to my lot to do. the burnt earth had blackened our faces and hands till we looked like negroes. the bull elk had at this time begun calling, and several times they were heard right round camp at night, challenging one another or calling to the cows. their calling is known to hunters as " whistling " ; but this is a most inappropriate name for it. it is a most singular and beautiful sound, and is very much the most musical cry uttered by any four - footed beast. when heard for the first time it is almost impossible to believe that it is the call of an animal ; it sounds far more as if made by an æolian harp or some strange wind instrument. it consists of quite a series of notes uttered continuously, in a most soft, musical, vibrant tone, so clearly that they can be heard half a mile off. heard in the clear, frosty moonlight from the depths of the rugged and forest - clad mountains the effect is most beautiful ; for its charm is heightened by the


, musical, vibrant tone, so clearly that they can be heard half a mile off. heard in the clear, frosty moonlight from the depths of the rugged and forest - clad mountains the effect is most beautiful ; for its charm is heightened by the wild and desolate surroundings. it has the sustained, varied melody of some bird songs, with, of course, a hundred - fold greater power. now and then, however, the performance is marred by the elk ' s apparently getting out of breath towards the close, and winding up with two or three gasping notes which have an unpleasantly mule - like sound. the great pine - clad mountains, their forests studded with open glades, were the best of places for the still - hunter ' s craft. going noiselessly through them in our dull - colored buckskin and noiseless moccasins, we kept getting glimpses, as it were, of the inner life of the mountains. each animal that we saw had its own individuality. aside from the thrill and tingle that a hunter experiences at the sight of his game, i by degrees grew to feel as if i had a personal interest in the different traits and habits of the wild creatures. the characters of the animals differed widely, and the differences were typified by their actions ; and it was pleasant to watch them in their own homes, myself unseen, when after stealthy, silent progress through the sombre and soundless depths of the woods i came upon them going about the ordinary business of their lives. the lumbering, self - confident gait of the bears, their burly strength, and their half - humorous, half - ferocious look, gave me a real insight into their character ; and i never was more impressed by the exhibition of vast, physical power, than when watching from an ambush a grizzly burying or covering up an elk carcass. his motions looked awkward, but it was marvellous to see the ease and absence of effort with which he would scoop out great holes in the earth, or twitch the heavy carcass from side to side. and the proud, graceful, half - timid, half - defiant bearing of the elk was in its own way quite as noteworthy ; they seemed to glory in their own power and beauty, and yet to be ever on the watch for foes against whom they knew they might not dare to contend. the true still - hunter should be a lover of nature as well as of sport, or he will miss half the pleasure of being in the woods.


to be ever on the watch for foes against whom they knew they might not dare to contend. the true still - hunter should be a lover of nature as well as of sport, or he will miss half the pleasure of being in the woods. the finest bull, with the best head that i got, was killed in the midst of very beautiful and grand surroundings. we had been hunting through a great pine wood which ran up to the edge of a broad canyon - like valley, bounded by sheer walls of rock. there were fresh tracks of elk about, and we had been advancing up wind with even more than our usual caution when, on stepping out into a patch of open ground, near the edge of the cliff, we came upon a great bull, beating and thrashing his antlers against a young tree, about eighty yards off. he stopped and faced us for a second, his mighty antlers thrown in the air, as he held his head aloft. behind him towered the tall and sombre pines, while at his feet the jutting crags overhung the deep chasm below, that stretched off between high walls of barren and snow - streaked rocks, the evergreens clinging to their sides, while along the bottom the rapid torrent gathered in places into black and sullen mountain lakes. as the bull turned to run i struck him just behind the shoulder ; he reeled to the death - blow, but staggered gamely on a few rods into the forest before sinking to the ground, with my second bullet through his lungs. two or three days later than this i killed another bull, nearly as large, in the same patch of woods in which i had slain the first. a bear had been feeding on the carcass of the latter, and, after a vain effort to find his den, we determined to beat through the woods and try to start him up. accordingly merrifield, the teamster, and myself took parallel courses some three hundred yards apart, and started at one end to walk through to the other. i doubt if the teamster much wished to meet a bear alone ( while nothing would have given merrifield more hearty and unaffected enjoyment than to have encountered an entire family ), and he gradually edged in pretty close to me. where the woods became pretty open i saw him suddenly lift his rifle and fire, and immediately afterwards a splendid bull elk trotted past in front of me, evidently untouched, the teamster having missed. the elk ran to the other side of two trees that


the woods became pretty open i saw him suddenly lift his rifle and fire, and immediately afterwards a splendid bull elk trotted past in front of me, evidently untouched, the teamster having missed. the elk ran to the other side of two trees that stood close together some seventy yards off, and stopped for a moment to look round. kneeling down i fired at the only part of his body i could see between the two trees, and sent a bullet into his flank. away he went, and i after, running in my moccasins over the moss and pine needles for all there was in me. if a wounded elk gets fairly started he will go at a measured trot for many hours, and even if mortally hurt may run twenty miles before falling ; while at the same time he does not start off at full speed, and will often give an active hunter a chance for another shot as he turns and changes his course preparatory to taking a straight line. so i raced along after the elk at my very best speed for a few hundred feet, and then got another shot as he went across a little glade, injuring his hip somewhat. this made it all right for me, and another hundred yards ' burst took me up to where i was able to put a ball in a fatal spot, and the grand old fellow sank down and fell over on his side. no sportsman can ever feel much keener pleasure and self - satisfaction than when, after a successful stalk and good shot, he walks up to a grand elk lying dead in the cool shade of the great evergreens, and looks at the massive and yet finely moulded form, and at the mighty antlers which are to serve in the future as the trophy and proof of his successful skill. still - hunting the elk on the mountains is as noble a kind of sport as can well be imagined ; there is nothing more pleasant and enjoyable, and at the same time it demands that the hunter shall bring into play many manly qualities. there have been few days of my hunting life that were so full of unalloyed happiness as were those spent on the bighorn range. from morning till night i was on foot, in cool, bracing air, now moving silently through the vast, melancholy pine forests, now treading the brink of high, rocky precipices, always amid the most grand and beautiful scenery ; and always after as noble and lordly game as is to be found in the western world. since writing the above i killed an elk near my ranch ; probably the last


, rocky precipices, always amid the most grand and beautiful scenery ; and always after as noble and lordly game as is to be found in the western world. since writing the above i killed an elk near my ranch ; probably the last of his race that will ever be found in our neighborhood. it was just before the fall round - up. an old hunter, who was under some obligation to me, told me that he had shot a cow elk and had seen the tracks of one or two others not more than twenty - five miles off, in a place where the cattle rarely wandered. such a chance was not to be neglected ; and, on the first free day, one of my elk - horn foremen, will dow by name, and myself, took our hunting horses and started off, accompanied by the ranch wagon, in the direction of the probable haunts of the doomed deer. towards nightfall we struck a deep spring pool, near by the remains of an old indian encampment. it was at the head of a great basin, several miles across, in which we believed the game to lie. the wagon was halted and we pitched camp ; there was plenty of dead wood, and soon the venison steaks were broiling over the coals raked from beneath the crackling cottonwood logs, while in the narrow valley the ponies grazed almost within the circle of the flickering fire - light. it was in the cool and pleasant month of september ; and long after going to bed we lay awake under the blankets watching the stars that on clear nights always shine with such intense brightness over the lonely western plains. we were up and off by the gray of the morning. it was a beautiful hunting day ; the sundogs hung in the red dawn ; the wind hardly stirred over the crisp grass ; and though the sky was cloudless yet the weather had that queer, smoky, hazy look that it is most apt to take on during the time of the indian summer. from a high spur of the table - land we looked out far and wide over a great stretch of broken country, the brown of whose hills and valleys was varied everywhere by patches of dull red and vivid yellow, tokens that the trees were already putting on the dress with which they greet the mortal ripening of the year. the deep and narrow but smooth ravines running up towards the edges of the plateaus were heavily wooded, the bright green tree - tops rising to a height they rarely reach in the barren plains - country ; and the rocky sides of


of the year. the deep and narrow but smooth ravines running up towards the edges of the plateaus were heavily wooded, the bright green tree - tops rising to a height they rarely reach in the barren plains - country ; and the rocky sides of the sheer gorges were clad with a thick growth of dwarfed cedars, while here and there the trailing virginia creepers burned crimson among their sombre masses. we hunted stealthily up - wind, across the line of the heavily timbered coulies. we soon saw traces of our quarry ; old tracks at first, and then the fresh footprints of a single elka bull, judging by the sizewhich had come down to drink at a mirey alkali pool, its feet slipping so as to leave the marks of the false hoofs in the soft soil. we hunted with painstaking and noiseless care for many hours ; at last as i led old manitou up to look over the edge of a narrow ravine, there was a crash and movement in the timber below me, and immediately afterwards i caught a glimps of a great bull elk trotting up through the young trees as he gallantly breasted the steep hill - side opposite. when clear of the woods, and directly across the valley from me, he stopped and turned half round, throwing his head in the air to gaze for a moment at the intruder. my bullet struck too far back, but, nevertheless, made a deadly wound, and the elk went over the crest of the hill at a wild, plunging gallop. we followed the bloody trail for a quarter of a mile, and found him dead in a thicket. though of large size, he yet had but small antlers, with few points.


a key conclusion of this discussion is the fact that all sectors of the economy must achieve deep reductions, not just one or two. this certainly includes the transportation system, which in california is the largest single source of ghgs ( 38 percent of the total, according to the california air resources board ). transportation - related emissions, in turn, are a product of three factors : - the fuel efficiency of vehicles - the carbon content of fuels - vehicle miles traveled ( vmt ) what does this really mean in practice? well, if we think of fuel efficiency and carbon content collectively as " carbon efficiency " ( or carbon emission per mile ), then we see that the carbon efficiency times the vmt must be reduced on the order of 88 percent per capita in forty years. if carbon efficiency were quintupled over that time period through a combination of fuel efficiency gains and decarbonization of fuel stocks, we would still need to reduce vmt by 40 percent per capita relative to today ' s levels. in other words, we would have to " make do " with 40 percent less personal driving, trucking, business travel and all other uses of motorized vehicles. if carbon efficiency is merely doubled, we would need to reduce the per capita vmt by 76 percent! are these changes feasible? certainly. in fact, there are americans right now who live well on 76 percent less vmt than their average compatriots. they ' re the americans who live in dense urban centers such as new york and san francisco. bringing the transportation system into line with our 2050 climate goals means making sure ( among other things ) that vastly more americans can live in those kinds of truly dense, mixed - use environments, rather than simply somewhat - more - dense suburban settings ( which tend to achieve vmt reductions of only about 20 - 30 percent ). it can be done - - but modest changes to how we build urban regions won ' t get us there.


hummingbirds are attracted to a good nectar recipe, but so are ants, bees and wasps. fortunately, there are many easy ways to control insects on hummingbird feeders to eliminate these pests without harming the birds. hummingbird feeder pests several types of insects find hummingbird nectar irresistible. bees, wasps and ants are the most common uninvited guests, but other insects such as moths and earwigs may also be attracted to the nectar. when too many bugs are feeding on the sugar water, it becomes contaminated and less attractive to hummingbirds. in extreme cases, dozens or hundreds of insects may be monopolizing a feeder, preventing the birds from visiting it at all. by knowing the proper ways to control these insects, birders can manage their hummingbird feeders and reserve the nectar for the birds. ways to control insects on hummingbird feeders there are many ways to control insects on nectar feeders, but the first thing that birders need to realize is that it is quite impossible to remove 100 percent of the insects that are attracted to a feeder. by using multiple methods, however, it is possible to encourage most bugs to dine elsewhere without harming the hummingbirds. effective and safe ways to control insects on hummingbird feeders include : - choose no - insect feeders : some types of hummingbird feeders are less insect - friendly than others. saucer feeders, for example, position the nectar away from the feeding port and insects are unable to get to it, while hummingbirds with their long tongues have no trouble. other feeder designs include ant moats or bee guards that are designed to keep insects from accessing the nectar without impeding hummingbirds. - relocate the feeder : once hummingbirds find a food source, they will visit it frequently. insects are only likely to visit convenient food sources and are less inclined to search for relocated feeders. moving the feeder by just a few feet can minimize the insect visitors without discouraging the hummingbirds. - avoid yellow feeders : wasps and bees are attracted to the color yellow but do not find red appealing. avoid feeders that have yellow insect guards or flower accents to minimize the feeders ’ attractiveness to insects. if your feeder comes with yellow accents, repaint the accents with red, non - toxic paint. - keep the feeder clean : as birds feed, drips of nectar will inevitably fall from their bills onto the feeder. feeders can also drip if they are filled too full, as the air pressure inside the feeder will force


non - toxic paint. - keep the feeder clean : as birds feed, drips of nectar will inevitably fall from their bills onto the feeder. feeders can also drip if they are filled too full, as the air pressure inside the feeder will force the nectar out the feeding ports when it heats up. each time the feeder is refilled, carefully clean the outside and around the feeding ports to remove spilled nectar. - use insect traps : commercial insect traps and feeder accessories are available to minimize insects ’ access to nectar feeders. while these can be effective deterrents, use them sparingly so you do not disrupt the insects ’ place in your backyard ecosystem. - hang feeders carefully : ants may climb a pole to reach a nectar feeder, so choose to hang the feeder from a branch or gutter instead. using fishing line to hang the feeder is another option, as the line is too thin for most ants to climb to access the feeder. - keep the feeder shaded : most flying insects prefer to feed in full sunlight, so make nectar feeders less attractive by hanging them in a shadier spot. this will also keep the nectar cooler and slow fermentation. - offer substitute feeders : if you want to minimize insects on hummingbird feeders but still want the bees around for your flowers or garden, offer them a substitute feeder with a sweeter sugar water solution. place the diversion feeder in an obvious, sunny location, while using additional techniques to protect the hummingbird feeder. - avoid other attractions : bees, wasps and ants are naturally attracted to other features of your yard, including plants and flowers. this is highly desirable for a healthy garden, but avoid uncovered trash, soda cans and other things the insects may find attractive to minimize their unintended food sources and keep their populations under control. how not to remove insects it may take several different techniques to completely minimize the appearance of insects at your hummingbird feeders. there are two techniques, however, that should not be used because they are potentially destructive to hummingbirds. - insecticides : even a small amount of pesticide chemicals near the hummingbird feeder can be devastating to small birds. do not use any sprays near the feeder, and if you do choose to use insect traps, be sure they are positioned away from the feeder. - oils : one home remedy for insects on hummingbird feeders is to use olive oil, cooking spray, petroleum jelly or similar substances around feeding ports or on the poles or chains supporting feeders. while this can deter insects,


the question to answer is did dino - raptors live and hunt and feed in packs, like wolves? i ’ m biased. i worked on the movie “ jurassic park, ” consulting with the special effects artists. and the book “ jurassic park ” has references to my research. and … my first dig was excavating raptors near bridger, montana, in 1964. i was a freshman. grant meyer was the field boss – a fine fellow with delicacy of touch that was surprising in such a hulking physique. grant is the guy who really started “ jurassic park. ” it was grant meyer who found the raptor deinonychus, four of them, their bones intermingled in a thin layer of dark gray clay - stone. he directed us kids in extracting the bones. back at yale, another undergrad, peter parks, cleaned the rock off the bones. professor john ostrom named the beast “ terrible claw ” – deinonychus. i prepared the first restoration and the temporary exhibit. | model of a dromaeosaurus raptor claw raptor kick - boxer of the cretaceous deinonychus became a dino celebrity. it was fast, smart, maneuverable – we imagined it as a kick - boxer of the cretaceous. it would leap up and slash its victims with the huge, curved hind - claw, shaped like a box - cutter. we wondered whether the four deinonychus were a social unit in real life. maybe the hunted together. since deinonychus was close kin to velociraptor, dug in the 1920 ’ s in mongolia, we started calling all the similar critters “ raptors. ” michael crichton read about the yale raptors and he got thinking : “ hmmmmm … wouldn ’ t it be cool to use genetic engineering to bring back to life … a pack of dino - raptors … ” his best - seller “ jurassic park ” was the result. in his book, he called deinoncyhus a species of velociraptor ( they are close ). csi of multiple victims. but how can we be sure that the four raptors lived and hunted together? perhaps these four raptors lived separately, died separately, and then their bodies got washed in together. how can we be certain that the way fossils are buried truthfully preserves the way they lived? here ’ s a fundamental rule of paleontology : all species tend to leave their dead bodies in clumps. whether or


got washed in together. how can we be certain that the way fossils are buried truthfully preserves the way they lived? here ’ s a fundamental rule of paleontology : all species tend to leave their dead bodies in clumps. whether or not they hunted together, extinct animals get buried together. example of non - pack mass burial we ’ re digging in north texas now, excavating the first specialized top predator that ever evolved – the finback dimetrodon. it ’ s 170 million years before deinonychus. dimetrodons had very small brains, slow legs, and certainly were not nearly as quick witted or quick legged as a komodo dragon lizard of today. lizards don ’ t make wolf - packs. we wouldn ’ t expect dimetrodon to make well organized social units. but we find them buried in clumps. in one quarry there are fossils from at least 500 dimetrodons. maybe 5000 … we find hundreds of bones from scores of dimetrodons all mixed together at dozens of spots within the quarry that is about 200 yards long. there are babies, adolescents, young adults, and old dimetrodons all piled on top of each other – in fifteen separate layers. and ….. dimetrodons were cannibals!!!!!! here ’ s the proof : what we look for is ballistic evidence. first, we search for clues that victims were dismembered and gnawed – we want to find marks on bones left by carnivore teeth. second, we want fossil bullets. bullets are the tooth crowns shed by meat - eaters as they fed. like crocs and sharks today, dinosaurs and primitive reptiles like dimetrodon shed old tooth crowns as they fed. new crowns would grow in to replace the old. so … when we find many shed teeth mixed with chewed bones that ’ s excellent csi evidence about who ate whom. do our dimetrodon bones have tooth marks? yes! and do we find shed teeth from the perpetrators? yes again. who ’ s the perp? 98 % of the shed teeth at our big dimetrodon quarry are from … … dimetrodon cannibalism surprised us at first, but it shouldn ’ t have. it ’ s standard operating procedure today. meat is hard to come by and most carnivore species won ’ t turn up their noses at a meal of their own kind. lions eat lions. wolves eat wolves. hyenas will


have. it ’ s standard operating procedure today. meat is hard to come by and most carnivore species won ’ t turn up their noses at a meal of their own kind. lions eat lions. wolves eat wolves. hyenas will eat everybody. our mega - dimetrodon quarry was different from the four raptor site. the dimetrodons included babies, adolescents and adults. and a dozen other species were buried with the dimetrodons, including big and small herbivores, insect - eaters, fresh - water sharks, and bottom - living aquatic amphibians shaped like salamanders. we don ’ t know yet what killed our dimetrodons. we don ’ t know why so many carnivores came to one spot – maybe they were attracted to amphibians who were trapped in a pond that was drying up. but it ’ s perfectly natural that the dimetrodon survivors would gobble up the dimetrodon victims. cannibalism is just common sense. back to the four raptors … … did dinosaur predators feed together? | x - ray of an allosaur upper jaw showing the new tooth crowns growing inside the tooth sockets i ’ ve dug several jurassic spots with shed teeth from carnivorous allosaurs. these jurassic sites show that the allosaurs were cannibals but still may have been good parents. we dug a spot with heaps of giant, multi - ton prey. herbivore bones were tooth - marked and chewed. there were shed teeth only from one species – an allosaur. both baby shed teeth and adult shed teeth were mixed with the giant bones. so here it looked like parents and babies did eat together – and the parents may have brought food to the young. five of the victims chewed by adult and baby allosaurs were …. adult allosaurs. perfectly natural – cannibalism is nature ’ s way. did deinonychus eat its own dead? they ’ d be foolish if they didn ’ t. at the four raptor site there are some tooth marks on some bones and a few shed teeth. we just dug another montana site where someone had chewed on a deinonychus hip and left some shed teeth. the chewer was ….. another deinonychus. ok – no surprise to find chewed & clumped raptors. cannibalism is ubiquitous. but we ’ re not through with our dino - csi. we need to analyze why the four raptors


.. another deinonychus. ok – no surprise to find chewed & clumped raptors. cannibalism is ubiquitous. but we ’ re not through with our dino - csi. we need to analyze why the four raptors died and were buried so close together. the three d ’ s of death : there are three big mass killers in nature, the three big d ’ s : disease. drought. drowning. a long - lasting drought can kill thousands, both herbivores and carnivores. a sudden flood can drown thousands of all species. epidemics wipe out multitudes of plant - eaters and meat - eaters. the d ’ s work together : a drought can kill and dry up many victims. then, a flood can wash the desiccated carcasses into a sandbar. after disease kills many, the bodies may dry up, then get washed in together. did a flood drown the raptors and wash them into one spot? no evidence for that. the water that carried in the mud was moving very slowly – it wasn ’ t a killer flood. and … this is important … there weren ’ t other victims bunched up with the raptors. a major flood would wash in turtles and crocs, fish and dino - herbivores. the four raptors were alone in their burial – no other species. there are flood sites with dinosaurs – huge river sand bar deposits with hundreds of skeletons. usually there are many species – plant - eaters and meat - eaters. bone cabin quarryin wyoming was such a sandbar and had stegosaurs, apatosaurs, diplodocus, camarasaurs, camptosaurs – all herbivores, adults and youngsters. and there were allosaurs and ornitholestes, both predators. the four - deinonychus quarry wasn ’ t like that. did drought kill the four raptors? no evidence here either – the habitat seemed peaceful and normal. drought should concentrate water - loving critters – we should see crocs and turtles huddled together in the last ponds and lakes. that ’ s not our four raptor site. what could clump raptors in life? the four raptors were all adults, one a bit older than the others. no babies. in many jurassic and cretaceous digs, we get adolescent predators – one of my como digs had a half dozen young allosaurs. but not at the deinonychus site dug


, one a bit older than the others. no babies. in many jurassic and cretaceous digs, we get adolescent predators – one of my como digs had a half dozen young allosaurs. but not at the deinonychus site dug by grant meyer. what would concentrate four adults of one raptor species and no one else? why didn ’ t the young die and get buried? did disease kill the raptors? disease today hits social predators hard. since they live together, all the predators in a pack can come down with a virus or bacterial ailment together. age segregation and adult - only death | model of a dromaeosaurus - from the same family as the deinonychus plus – social predators do separate the young from the adults during hunting. group hunting is common among mammals, birds and some advanced reptiles. crocs are the most social reptiles alive today. nile crocodiles do some adult - group hunting when wildebeest herds cross rivers. several big crocs ( probably brothers ) gang up on the wildebeest. hunting groups - wolves, hyenas, lions, crocs - usually contain only adults, babies and adolescents are well advised to stay away so they won ’ t get hurt. therefore, social hunting is one way adults clump together and may die together. therefore …. at this stage in our investigation … when we look at all the clues from the mud, current velocity, lack of babies, lack of other species … … group hunting by adult deinonychus raptors is a viable hypothesis. it ’ s not the only hypothesis but still, i think, the strongest one.


the oceans are being emptied of fish. a forthcoming united nations report lays out the stark numbers : only around 25 % of commercial stocks are in a healthy or even reasonably healthy state. some 30 % of fish stocks are considered collapsed, and 90 % of large predatory fish — like the bluefin tuna so prized by sushi aficionados — have disappeared since the middle of the 20th century. more than 60 % of assessed fish stocks are in need of rebuilding, and some researchers estimate that if current trends hold, virtually all commercial fisheries will have collapsed by mid century. " fisheries across the world are being plundered, or exploited at unsustainable rates, " said achim steiner, the executive director of the united nations environment programme. in some respects, steiner could have stopped at " plundered, " because as much damage as the legal, commercial fishing trade has wrought on the oceans, it ' s the illegal trade that could spell their doom. legal fishermen — the everyday farmers of the seas — have licenses they must protect and laws they must obey. but illegal fishing — often done on the high seas where regulations are lax and catch limits can be exceeded with impunity, or in the coastal waters of developing nations, which lack the ability to fight back — abides by rules of its own. now, a team led by stefan flothmann of the pew environment group has published a study in the may 20 issue of science showing just how hard stopping the illegal fishing scourge will be. there are a lot of factors driving the rising global demand for fish. a growing global population needs ready sources of protein, and fish — generally low in fat and high in nutrients — is a natural. plus, the worldwide explosion in the popularity of sushi means that even people who never liked fish before have developed a taste for it. global seafood consumption has doubled over the past 40 years, and the sushi boom has tracked that trend. but there ' s also a major problem with overcapacity — or the simple excess of fishermen — thanks to the $ 27 billion in subsidies given to the worldwide fishing industry each year. those subsidies — especially the billions that go to cheap diesel fuel that makes factory fishing on the high seas possible at all - - have created an industry bigger than the oceans can support. the u. n. estimates that the global fleet consists of more than 20 million boats, ranging from tiny subsistence outfits to massive trawlers. together they have a fishing capacity 1. 8 to 2. 8 times larger than the


by : clemente rendon de la garza he was born in villa de cadereyta, nuevo leon in 1639. he was the son of alonso de leon y josefa gonzalez. his occupation was agriculture and livestock. he married agustina cantu and they had seven children, alonso, juan, santiago, ines, mateo, juana and andres. in 1667 he was named mayor of cadereyta, position that he served for eight years. after that position alonso was named “ encomendadero ”, in which he help in the transformation of indians to the catholic religion. during the period of 1668 - 82 he was known for the pacification of indians. in 1682 alonso was named sargento mayor and by the end of that year governor of nuevo leon, position that he served until 1684. “ el mozo ” wrote the book “ derrotero diario y demarcacion del viaje ”, in which he described the trip to the bahia del espiritu santo looking for french settlers. in 1687 the viceroy named alonso governor of the coahuila republic with the mission to start new towns and once again help in the indian pacification. “ el mozo ” headed other expeditions looking for french settlements and during those trips he named rio nueces, rio hondo, rio del leon, rio nuestra senora de guadalupe and rio san marcos. general alonso de leon died on march 21, 1691. the first exploration of “ el mozo ” was the south of the rio grande. he was one of the first explorers in san juan de los esteros hermosos ( matamoros ) and the one that brought fray diego de orozco who made possible the first mass in matamoros. don jose de escandon y de la helguera was born in soto de la marina, santander in march 19, 1700, being the son of don jose de escandon rumoroso y de dona francisca de la helguera. at the age of 15, he migrated to new spain and enrolled with the army ( caballeros montados de merida ). in 1721 he moved to queretaro as teniente de infanteria y caballeria. don jose married dona maria antonia ocio y ocampo in 1724 and they had two children, jose and ana maria. dona maria died in 1736 and in 1737 he remarried dona maria josefa juana de llera y bayas. they had seven children, manuel,


antonia ocio y ocampo in 1724 and they had two children, jose and ana maria. dona maria died in 1736 and in 1737 he remarried dona maria josefa juana de llera y bayas. they had seven children, manuel, ignacio, vicente, mariano, francisco, josefa maria and maria josefa. during the period of 1727 through 1734 he served in the indian pacification. in 1736 he started his pacification work in the sierra gorda region. with his work in sierra gorda he gained the title of teniente de capitan general de la sierra gorda. on september 3, 1746 viceroy juan francisco de guemes y horcasitas, conde de revillagigedo gave don jose the rights to colonize nuevo santander. after some planning, in january 7, 1747 don jose started his project. he left queretaro with fray jose velasco, fray lorenzo de medina captain maldonado, two sergeants, 10 soldiers and some servants. along the trip some other people joined him from san luis, nuevo reino de leon and coahuila. don jose arrived to the rio grande on february 24, 1747 and established a camp named real del rio del norte, currently known as el soliseno. this camp served as based for escandon ’ s inspection of the area. after three months, the expedition ended and by october 1747 he wrote a report about the expedition and future plans for settlement. on may 31, 1748 conde revillagigedo authorized escandon to start his settlement plans. don jose de escandon founded 22 towns in 3 periods : first period 1748 - 49 original name actual name date santa maria de la llera llera december 25, 1748 san francisco de guemes guemes january 1, 1749 padilla viejo padilla january 6, 1749 santander de los cinco senores santander jimenez february 17, 1749 burgos burgos february 20, 1749 santa ana de camargo camargo march 5, 1749 reynosa reynosa march 14, 1749 san fernando de presas san fernando march 19, 1749 altamira altamira may 2, 1749 horcasitas magiscatzin may 11, 1749 santa barbara ocampo may 19, 1749 real de los infantes bustamante may 26, 1749 second period 1750 - 51 original name actual name date santa maria de los dolores rancho dolores, texas august 22, 1750 soto la marina soto la marina september 3, 1750 santa maria de ag


1749 real de los infantes bustamante may 26, 1749 second period 1750 - 51 original name actual name date santa maria de los dolores rancho dolores, texas august 22, 1750 soto la marina soto la marina september 3, 1750 santa maria de aguayo cd. victoria october 6, 1750 revilla guerrero viejo october 10, 1750 escandon xicotencatl march 15, 1751 third period 1752 - 57 original name actual name date santo domingo de hoyos hidalgo may 19, 1752 santillana abasolo december 26, 1752 mier cd. mier march 5, 1753 laredo laredo, texas may 15, 1755 real de borbon villagran may 8, 1757 by the end of 1749, escandon was called back to queretaro to help again in the indian pacification in sierra gorda. discontent from nuevo santander settlers turn into removal of settlement rights. he died in mexico city on september 10, 1770. fray manuel julio de silva was born in zacatecas in1736, he was the son of don joaquin de silva and dona ana maria caballero. he received the franciscan votes on may 2, 1754. in 1790 fray de silva was designated to be commissioner of the texas missions. he travel to san antonio with father francisco mariano garza and they visited mission san antonio valero and espiritu santo. fray de silva was called to go back to mexico and there he proposed to the viceroy the founding of missions along the cost to control karankawas and comanche indians. father de silva organized two groups, the first one headed by him and fray francisco puelles to work in texas and the second one, headed by his brother father joaquin maria de silva to work on the pacific coast. fray de silva got founding from spain to start the nuestra senora del refugio mission at north of rio san antonio. on his way back to san antonio, fray de silva and his followers passed through the congregation san juan de los esteros. as they found out that san juan did not had religious services, they stayed there some days. the residents from san juan decided to change the name of the congregation to nuestra senora del refugio de los esteros. fray de silva and fray puelles continued their trip to san antonio. when they learned about missing or lost funds, fray de silva returned to mexico. during this time, karankawa indians destroyed refugio mission. fray puelles had to relocate the mission and when fray de silva returned they


trip to san antonio. when they learned about missing or lost funds, fray de silva returned to mexico. during this time, karankawa indians destroyed refugio mission. fray puelles had to relocate the mission and when fray de silva returned they relocated the mission one more time to rancho santa gertrudis. after two years of hard work, fray de silva went back to zacatecas due to poor health. he died on december 3, 1798 in zacatecas. mariano antonio matamoros guridi was born on august 14, 1770 in mexico city, he was the son of don manuel matamoros salazar and dona mariana guridi. mariano got a bachelors of arts degree in 1786 and a degree in theology in 1789. he got license to say mass in some churches. he had a son, apolonio, before he became a priest and he raise him as his adoptive son and a daughter with her cousin catalina salazar. mariano believed in the mexican revolutionary movement and although he didn ’ t participated actively, his beliefs got him in trouble. once matamoros beliefs were public, he joined father jose maria morelos. he was named “ coronel ” and after proving his ability in some battles, morelos made his “ mariscal ” being second in command. he was sent to jail and had a trial, and on february 3, 1814 was killed. several cities had been named after don mariano matamoros and one of them is matamoros, tamaulipas. father balli was born on 1768 in reynosa, tamaulipas, he was the son of don jose maria balli fuera and dona rosa maria hinojosa benavides. father balli became priest in 1796. after serving in a chapel in reynosa, he became the priest at nuestra senora del refugio de los esteros in matamoros in 1800. the original site of the church was about 200 meter from the actual one ( 5th and matamoros ), but after a rio grande flood, father balli relocated it to the present site. he received a lot of land on both sides of the river and money as inheritance, and part of that inheritance he used to build the church in 1820. isla de santiago was also part of his inheritance, which is known as isla del padre. father balli died august 16, 1829 in matamoros, four years before the completion of his project, the church of nuestra senora del refugio. general


was also part of his inheritance, which is known as isla del padre. father balli died august 16, 1829 in matamoros, four years before the completion of his project, the church of nuestra senora del refugio. general mier y teran was born in mexico city on february 18, 1789, he was the son of manuel de mier y teran and maria ignacia de teruel y llanos. he joined in 1811 the revolutionary revolt with general rayon. later mier y teran joined his childhood friend in the battle, mariano matamoros. his main role during the was the construction of arms. once morelos died, mier y teran took control of the independence revolt. several defeats plus the need of food and arms made him to back out of the battlefield and began a more pacific life. iturbide was the next independence leader and once the proclamation of independence was a done deal, mier y teran return to the politics taking an active role in congress. mier y teran started a school to teach how to make arms and prepare the army. his poor relations with president guadalupe victoria, made him accept victoria ’ s proposition to go to the border and try to set the border limits between mexico and the united states. the border commission travel all the way to the rio rojo, and analyzed the boundaries. by march 1829, mier y teran was order to come back and stay in matamoros. during his time in matamoros, mier y teran had the opportunity to study the rio grande all the way to camargo. he knew that texas was in problems and that the mexican government needed to do something about it if they didn ’ t want to lose it. when mier y teran saw that nothing could be done to retain texas and that the mexican government kept fighting between itself, he committed suicide in san antonio de padilla. since december 5, 1972 his body lays down in matamoros. juan jose de la garza was born in villa de cruillas, tamaulipas on may 6, 1826, he was the son of juan b de la garza y maria eusebia galvan. he became governor of tamaulipas for the first time in 1852. de la garza supported the “ plan de ayutla ” against santa ana dictatorship. after some battles and the fall of santa ana government, juan jose de la garza became governor again and moved the state government from mata


time in 1852. de la garza supported the “ plan de ayutla ” against santa ana dictatorship. after some battles and the fall of santa ana government, juan jose de la garza became governor again and moved the state government from matamoros to tampico. he served eight times as governor of tamaulipas. de la garza founded the instituto cientifico y literario san juan in matamoros. the school closed for a period during the mexican revolution, but was later reopen as a middle school and currently as a high school with the name of his founder. after the decline in popularity on his eighth period as governor, de la garza moved to mexico city. there he became minister of the supreme court and law teacher. juan jose de la garza returned to tamaulipas after 20 years where he died on october 16, 1893. manuel gonzalez flores was born in matamoros on june 17, 1832, being the son of fernando gonzalez y eusebia flores. he joined the armed forces in matamoros in 1853. he participated in the puebla battle of 1862. benito juarez, as mexican president, named gonzalez governor of the national palace. manuel gonzalez was a supporter of porfirio diaz and those beliefs made him resign from juarez government to help diaz and his plan de la noria and plan de tuxtepec. he also supported diaz in his attack to brownsville and matamoros against president lerdo de tejada. once diaz became president, he named manuel gonzalez chief commander and governor of michoacan. gonzalez hold several positions in the army during diaz presidential period. at the end of diaz term, he helped manuel gonzalez to become the next mexican president ( december 1, 1880 – november 30, 1884 ). during gonzalez time in office, he extended the railroad from 1073 km to 5731 km, increased the telegraph to 30, 000 km, reformed the postal service and ended the problem on the border of guatemala and chiapas. also, he implemented the decimal system, organized the army college, reestablished relations with england, changed the silver coins to nickel, and founded the mexican national bank ( banamex ). on the other hand, the economy was having a recession and the debt with england increased. at the end of his days in office, gonzalez was not real popular. diaz became president again and gonzalez was named governor of guanajuato. he remained as governor with great popularity until his death. general manuel gonzalez died in mexico


england increased. at the end of his days in office, gonzalez was not real popular. diaz became president again and gonzalez was named governor of guanajuato. he remained as governor with great popularity until his death. general manuel gonzalez died in mexico city on march 8, 1893. lucio blanco was born in nadadores, coahuila on july 29, 1879, he was the son of don bernardo blanco and dona maria fuentes. he met madero and supported his revolutionary movement. he fought against diaz until he resigned as president. he helped madero throughout his presidential period and after he was assassinated, he joined carranza. he fought against huerta in matamoros, and took over the city. this was the first important battle won by the constitutionalists. from matamoros, he organized the ceremony to give agriculture land property titles to people from nuevo leon and tamaulipas. at the end of carranza period in office, blanco had to leave to laredo, texas due to his decline in popularity. although carranza did not support obregon, he became the next president. blanco returned to mexico, but once again had to leave due to rumors about him being against obregon. lucio blanco was found dead at the rio grande on july 7, 1922. maria lorenza hinojosa was born in matamoros, tamaulipas on august 10, 1864, being the daughter of don victor hinojosa longoria and maria rosa garcia de la garza. she developed an inclination towards the music. maria lorenza composed her first song at the age of eight. she graduated for the “ conservatorio nacional de musica de la ciudad de mexico ” and after that, she gave concerts in mexico and the us. maria lorenza returned to matamoros in 1904 were she composed many songs like the one for lauro villar. her eyes saw the entrance of lucio blanco to matamoros during the mexican revolution and that event made her compose songs to generals and revolutionary events. also, she composed a hymn to celebrate the first hundred years of the independence. maria lorenza hinojosa died in matamoros on january 19, 1936. jose maria barrientos was born cadereyta jimenez, nuevo leon on november 19, 1891, being the son don francisco barrientos gonzalez and dona trinidad garza zambrano. he joined a school band were he learned to play the cornet. during the first century celebration of independence, he started a band


on november 19, 1891, being the son don francisco barrientos gonzalez and dona trinidad garza zambrano. he joined a school band were he learned to play the cornet. during the first century celebration of independence, he started a band to participate in the festivities. jose maria barrienato composed several songs during revolutionary period. he was taken by carranza ’ s supporters to a military base to play. later, he joined the revolution in matamoros with general lucio blanco. he retired from the army in 1915 and went to new mexico were he joined a band. by 1916 he returned to matamoros and founded the municipal band. in 1925, barrientos also founded the brownsville band. he formed part of the matamoros first century festivities ( 1926 ) and his main contribution was to give the music to the words of the matamoros hymn. governor portes gil was really pleased with the hymn that ask barrientos to transform it into the tamaulipas hymn, only three words were changed. during the foundation of first secondary school of matamoros, barrientos was part of the founding teachers. the work with the students was far beyond his duties, barrientos was always willing to help in the creation of new bands. after a life full of great compositions, barrientos died on august 3, 1965. manuel feliciano rodriguez was born in matamoros, tamaulipas on february 15, 1897, he was the son of manuel rodriguez uresti and adelaida brayda trevino. dr manuel married raquel herminia longoria guerra and they had three children, raquel herminia, adela aurora and manuel feliciano. he became a doctor in mexico city during the period of the revolution of agua prieta. he returned to matamoros to work as a doctor and also made his certificate valid in texas. besides his work as a doctor, he became a teacher and made possible the reopening of the instituto cientifico juan jose de la garza as a middle school and later as a high school. his contribution to the matamoros society included the foundation of the rotary club, and his great literary work. dr manuel feliciano rodriguez died on september 6, 1976. eduardo chavez was born in mexico city on may 6, 1898, being the son of engineer agustin chavez pedroza and juvencia ramirez de chavez. as a high school student he joined the armed forces with carranza during the mexican revolution. he joined


eduardo chavez was born in mexico city on may 6, 1898, being the son of engineer agustin chavez pedroza and juvencia ramirez de chavez. as a high school student he joined the armed forces with carranza during the mexican revolution. he joined the national irrigation commission and work on the irrigation systems and in the rectification of the rio grande. chavez was sent to matamoros by president cardenas with the mission to build a levee to prevent flooding problems. once he finished the levee project, chavez discovered the possibility of an irrigation system by gravity. although the poor support of cadenas advisors, chavez got the authorization to start his irrigation project, el retamal. that project gave the possibility to increase the agriculture production and in order to do it, he brought people from nuevo leon. the new residents founded several towns near matamoros. irrigation district 25 brought prosperity to the region. chavez knowledge about the region and water treaty between mexico and the us, gave him the opportunity to create important water dams ( presa falcon and la amistad ). during the period of president ruiz cortines, chavez as a cabinet member, headed important projects on the gulf of mexico, rio yaqui, creation of mozucari water dam and irrigation district to name a few. eduardo chavez died in mexico city on may 28, 1982 and his body was buried in valle hermoso, tamaulipas. one of his projects, “ del panuco al bravo ”, could and still can be the solution to the present irrigation problems of matamoros and neighbor regions, but even know, the project do not have the necessary support. eliseo paredes was born in “ rancho la esperanza ” ( matamoros, tamaulipas ) on december 8, 1899, he was the son of don justo paredes cisneros and dona clotilde manzano vidal. he was a businessman and historian. during the 20 ’ s, he established a business in the juarez market. he married maria guadalupe rangel and they had seven children, sergio, eliseo, josefina, graciela irma, isaura, maria guadalupe, and sara alicia. eliseo paredes actively participated in different civic and cultural associations in matamoros. he founded a historic society in matamoros, formed and organized the museo casamata and became the first historian of matamoros. eliseo paredes died in matamoros on july 11, 1988.


click the study aids tab at the bottom of the book to access your study aids ( usually practice quizzes and flash cards ). study pass is our latest digital product that lets you take notes, highlight important sections of the text using different colors, create " tags " or labels to filter your notes and highlights, and print so you can study offline. study pass also includes interactive study aids, such as flash cards and quizzes. highlighting and taking notes : if you ' ve purchased the all access pass or study pass, in the online reader, click and drag your mouse to highlight text. when you do a small button appears – simply click on it! from there, you can select a highlight color, add notes, add tags, or any combination. if you ' ve purchased the all access pass, you can print each chapter by clicking on the downloads tab. if you have study pass, click on the print icon within study view to print out your notes and highlighted sections. to search, use the text box at the bottom of the book. click a search result to be taken to that chapter or section of the book ( note you may need to scroll down to get to the result ). view full student faqs 17. 2 two - way trade - distinguish between one - way trade and two - way trade. - explain why two - way trade may occur. the model of trade presented thus far assumed that countries specialize in producing the good in which they have a comparative advantage and, therefore, engage in one - way trade. one - way ( or interindustry ) tradesituation in which countries specialize in producing the goods in which they have a comparative advantage and then export those goods so they can import the goods in which they do not have a comparative advantage. occurs when countries specialize in producing the goods in which they have a comparative advantage and then export those goods so they can import the goods in which they do not have a comparative advantage. however, when we look at world trade, we also see countries exchanging the same goods or goods in the same industry category. for example, the united states may both export construction materials to canada and import them from canada. american car buyers can choose chevrolets, fords, and chryslers. they can also choose imported cars such as toyotas. japanese car buyers may choose to purchase toyotas — or imported cars such as chevrolets, fords, and chryslers. the united states imports cars from japan and exports cars to it. conversely, japan imports cars from


cars such as toyotas. japanese car buyers may choose to purchase toyotas — or imported cars such as chevrolets, fords, and chryslers. the united states imports cars from japan and exports cars to it. conversely, japan imports cars from the united states and exports cars to it. international trade in which countries both import and export the same or similar goods is called two - way ( or intraindustry ) trade. international trade in which countries both import and export the same or similar goods. two reasons countries import and export the same goods are variations in transportation costs and seasonal effects. in the example of the united states and canada both importing and exporting construction materials, transportation costs are the likely explanation. it may be cheaper for a contractor in northern maine to import construction materials from the eastern part of canada than to buy them in the united states. for a contractor in vancouver, british columbia, it may be cheaper to import construction materials from somewhere in the western part of the united states than to buy them in canada. by engaging in trade, both the american and canadian contractors save on transportation costs. seasonal factors explain why the united states both imports fruit from and exports fruit to chile. another explanation of two - way trade in similar goods lies in recognizing that not all goods are produced under conditions of perfect competition. once this assumption is relaxed, we can explain two - way trade in terms of a key feature of monopolistic competition and some cases of oligopoly : product differentiation. suppose two countries have similar endowments of factors of production and technologies available to them, but their products are differentiated — clocks produced by different manufacturers, for example, are different. consumers in the united states buy some clocks produced in switzerland, just as consumers in switzerland purchase some clocks produced in the united states. indeed, if two countries are similar in their relative endowments of factors of production and in the technologies available to them, two - way trade based on product differentiation is likely to be more significant than one - way trade based on comparative advantage. in comparison to the expansion of one - way trade based on comparative advantage, expansion of two - way trade may entail lower adjustment costs. in the case of two - way trade, there is specialization within industries rather than movement of factors of production out of industries that compete with newly imported goods and into export industries. such adjustments are likely to be faster and less painful for labor and for the owners of the capital and natural resources involved. because two - way trade often occurs in the context of imperfect competition,


industries that compete with newly imported goods and into export industries. such adjustments are likely to be faster and less painful for labor and for the owners of the capital and natural resources involved. because two - way trade often occurs in the context of imperfect competition, we cannot expect it to meet the efficiency standards of one - way trade based on comparative advantage and the underlying assumption of perfectly competitive markets. but, as we discussed in the chapter on imperfect competition, the inefficiency must be weighed against the benefits derived from product differentiation. people in the united states are not limited to buying only the kinds of cars produced in the united states, just as people in japan are not limited to buying only cars produced in japan. - specialization and trade according to comparative advantage leads to one - way trade. - a large percentage of trade among countries with similar factor endowments is two - way trade, in which countries import and export the same or similar goods and services. - two - way trade is often explained by variations in transportation costs and seasonal factors ; in similar goods it often occurs in the context of models of imperfect competition. - adjustment costs associated with expansion of two - way trade may be lower than for expansion of one - way trade. the text argues that two - way trade must be a result of transportation cost, climate, or imperfect competition. explain why. case in point : two - way trade in water : a growth industry © 2010 jupiterimages corporation in the 1930s, the successful introduction into the united states of french - made perrier showed that u. s. consumers were open to a “ new ” bottled beverage. since then, the u. s. bottled water business has taken off and bottled water is now the second largest commercial beverage category by volume, after carbonated soft drinks. seeing the increased popularity of bottled water, both pepsico and coca - cola launched their own bottled water brands, aquafina and dasani, respectively. both of these brands are made from purified tap water. dasani has minerals added back into it ; aquafina does not. other brands of water come from springs or artesian wells. while domestic brands of water have multiplied, americans still drink some imported brands. representing only about 3 % of the u. s. market, the volume of imported water nonetheless has about doubled in the last five years. and u. s. bottled water companies are also eyeing markets in other countries. as new york times columnist and book author thomas friedman noted as he was being shown around a customer call center in bangalore, india


has about doubled in the last five years. and u. s. bottled water companies are also eyeing markets in other countries. as new york times columnist and book author thomas friedman noted as he was being shown around a customer call center in bangalore, india, the water on the desktops of the telemarketers was none other than coke ’ s dasani. whether the differences in brands of water are perceived or real, it may not be too long before restaurants develop water lists next to their beer and wine lists. in the u. s. and in other countries around the world, there is likely to be a domestic section and an imported section on those lists. two - way trade in water seems destined to be a growth industry for some time to come. sources : thomas l. friedman, “ what goes around … ” the new york times, february 26, 2004, p. a27 ; tom mcgrath and kate dailey, “ liquid assets, ” men ’ s health 19 : 2 ( march 2004 ) : 142 – 49 ; statistics from beverage marketing corporation at www. bottledwater. org / public / stats _ 2004. doc. answer to try it! problem in the absence of one of these factors, there would only be one - way, or interindustry, trade, which would take place according to comparative advantage, as described in the first section of this chapter, with a country specializing in and exporting the goods in which it has a comparative advantage and importing goods in which it does not. efficiency differences would be the only basis for trade.


updated at 9 : 45 p. m. with figures provided by the bachmann campaign ottumwa, ia. – michele bachmann told a crowd here that growing tax burdens have undermined the american middle class and forced both parents into the workforce. to support her argument, she said tax rates in 1950 were just 5 percent – a fraction of the overall tax rate today. “ the average amount of taxes that the average family ( paid ) was 5 percent overall, ” bachmann said. with taxes that low, she continued, her father ’ s salary from the air force was enough to support her entire family. “ a sergeant could have a wife and four children and the wife didn ’ t have to work because you paid 5 percent for your overall tax burden. ” but her figures do not appear to be accurate. according to the nonprofit tax foundation, the overall tax rate in 1950 was actually 24. 6 percent – almost five times the rate cited by bachmann and just 3. 1 percent less than the 2011 tax rate of 27. 7 percent. the apparent error undermines bachmann ’ s central point, which is that the tax burden is primarily responsible for forcing both parents to work and other substantial changes to middle - class financial life over the past several decades. the bachmann campaign responded this afternoon that the 5 - percent figure comes from the taxpayers league of minnesota, and that bachmann has cited it for several years. this evening, a campaign spokeswoman provided two documents that she said were the sources bachmann relied on when making her comments. the spreadsheets, which contained no information identifying their source, show federal, state and local tax receipts as a percentage of the united states ’ gross domestic product over the last several decades. one of the documents shows that federal receipts on individual income taxes represented 5. 8 percent of national gdp in 1950 — meaning that the total of all individual income taxes paid to the federal government amounted to 5. 8 percent of the value of all goods and services produced within the united states in that year. but correlating figures that encompass the entire economy — like total income taxes paid and gdp — to the tax burden and incomes of the “ average ” family overlooks several complexities. for one, income tax rates vary depending on a taxpayer ’ s income and whether they qualify for deductions and other tax breaks. under the progressive income - tax system, moreover, high - income earners pay more in individual income taxes than do “ average ” income earners. and more significantly, gdp encompasses the


and whether they qualify for deductions and other tax breaks. under the progressive income - tax system, moreover, high - income earners pay more in individual income taxes than do “ average ” income earners. and more significantly, gdp encompasses the entire economy — including corporate profits and investment income — not just household incomes. if individual income taxes paid were calculated as a percentage of household incomes, the number would naturally be higher than 5. 8 percent, since household incomes are just one part of the total gdp. other themes : after bachmann repeated her call for the repeal of the federal health care law passed in 2010, a young man in the audience asked whether she would preserve the law ’ s ban on health insurers denying coverage to people with preexisting conditions. no, she said, because barring insurers from denying such coverage makes coverage for everyone more expensive. “ insurance companies know with this preexisting conditions thing that they have to jack up their rates to pay for everyone, ” bachmann said. “ that ’ s also a cost to everyone who ’ s in this room. ” the man who asked the question, brett livengood of dubuque, said he was disappointed that bachmann didn ’ t have a plan to preserve coverage for those with preexisting conditions. her solution seemed to be that the free market would work out that problem, he said. but that ’ s how things were before the law was passed, and the market simply excluded coverage for those people or charged them unaffordable rates. on immigration, bachmann suggested the federal government could pass a law barring citizenship to children born in the united states to illegal immigrants. “ we ’ ve got to end this anchor - baby program, ” she said. setting : the bridge view center, ottumwa. crowd : about 60. the candidate ’ s day : bachmann addressed a church congregation in fairfield saturday morning before holding the town - hall in ottumwa and was scheduled to hold a second town - hall in oskaloosa later in the afternoon. place in the race : today ’ s events continue a three - day swing through southeast iowa, which bachmann hasn ’ t visited since before the iowa straw poll. she followed highway 61 through davenport, muscatine and burlington on friday and will address another church congregation in marion tomorrow. reaching out to evangelicals is seen as critical for bachmann, who has fallen sharply in the polls since winning the august straw poll. socially conservative christians are famously enthusiastic


i believe that, from the perspective of the c + + standard, there is no difference between # include " xyz. h " and # include " xyz. cpp " if they both contain the same thing. in practice, an ide might create the makefile ( or other build script ) such that " xyz. cpp " is compiled even when it should not be, possibly leading to redefinition errors. sqlite ' s amalgamation is an example of an optimisation where the final source code is generated from the various header files and source files such that it becomes one big source file. this might be a better way than trying to develop by including ( non - header ) source files all over the place. but it can. quote : it would be truly amazing of the microsoft compiler if it can do that. i cannot say for sure, but usually when compiling a release, it is a pretty long process and many files are typically re - compiled, and during a debug build, you do not use optimizations. quote : but is that to say every time a cpp file is changed, the whole project needs to be recompiled? since that ' s the only way cross - file inlining can be done? but i think the optimization is done at the linker stage, so perhaps only the linking stage needs to be redone. for one thing, it is considered bad practice to include source files. not that it is really such a bad thing if used like this, but anyway. quote : if that is the case... then what ' s the difference between that and including cpp files? ( and keeping dummy header files for human reference, or include all headers before all cpp ' s? ) secondly, the entire code base is completely re - compiled everytime, even if nothing has changed in those source files. thirdly, i guess there will be complications, such as global variables with internal linkage, and such. probably much more. not sure what you are hinting at? quote : i thought one of the main advantages of using headers is that the project can be incrementally compiled. i think we should not call it " linking " when we ' re talking of " inlining from all of the source code ", because what really happens is that the compiler is doing the work in two or three steps. the first step involves reading and " understanding " the source code. the second step involves generating the actual


build your own simple random numbers liam o ’ connor got me thinking about the best way to explain the idea of a pseudo - random number generator to new programmers. this post is my answer. if you already understand them, there won ’ t be anything terribly new here. that said, i enjoy clean examples even for easy ideas, so if you do too, then read on! note : the title may have caused some confusion. i ’ m not suggesting you use the trivial algorithms provided here for any purpose. indeed, they are intentionally over - simplified to make them more understandable. you should read this as an explanation of the idea of how generating random numbers works, and then use the random number generators offered by your operating system or your programming language, which are far better than what ’ s provided here. suppose you ’ re writing a puzzle game, and you need to choose a correct answer. or suppose you are writing a role - playing game, and need to decide if the knight ’ s attack hits the dragon or deflects off of its scales. or you ’ re writing a tetris game, and you need to decide what shape is going to come next. in all three of these situations, what you really want is a random number. random numbers aren ’ t the result of any formula or calculation ; they are completely up to chance. well, here ’ s the sad truth of the matter : computers can ’ t do that. yes, that ’ s right. picking random numbers is one of those tasks that confound even the most powerful of computers. why? because computers are calculating machines, and we just said that random numbers aren ’ t the result of any calculation! of course, you ’ ve probably played games on a computer before that seem to pick numbers at random, so you may not believe me. what you ’ re seeing, though, aren ’ t really random numbers at all, but rather pseudo - random numbers. pseudo - random numbers are actually the result of a mathematical formula, but one designed to be so complicated that it would be hard to recognize any pattern in its results! writing a pseudo random number generator a lot of smart people actually spend a lot of time on good ways to pick pseudo - random numbers. they try a bunch of different complicated formulas, and try to make sure that patterns don ’ t pop up. but we can build a simple one pretty easily to pick pseudo - random numbers from 1 to 10. here it is, in the programming language haskell : random i = 7 *


, and try to make sure that patterns don ’ t pop up. but we can build a simple one pretty easily to pick pseudo - random numbers from 1 to 10. here it is, in the programming language haskell : random i = 7 * i ` mod ` 11 since it ’ s a function, it needs to have an input. it then multiplies that input by 7, and then finds the remainder when dividing by 11. we ’ ll give it the previous number it picked as input, and it will give us back the next one. suppose we start at 1. then we get the following : random 1 - > 7 random 7 - > 5 random 5 - > 2 random 2 - > 3 random 3 - > 10 random 10 - > 4 random 4 - > 6 random 6 - > 9 random 9 - > 8 random 8 - > 1 let ’ s look at the range of answers. since the answer is always a remainder when dividing by 11, it ’ ll be somewhere between 0 and 10. but it should be pretty easy to convince ourselves that if the number we give as input is between 1 and 10, then 0 isn ’ t a possibile answer : if it were, then we ’ d have found two numbers, both less than 11, that multiply together to give us a multiple of 11. that ’ s impossible because …. 11 is prime. so we ’ re guaranteed that this process picks numbers between 1 and 10. it seems to pick them in a non - obvious order with no really obvious patterns, so that ’ s good. we appear to have at least a good start on generating random numbers. notice a couple things : - we had to pick somewhere to start. in this case, we started out by giving an input of 1. that ’ s called the seed. if you use the same seed, you ’ ll always get the exact same numbers back! why? because it ’ s really just a complicated math problem, so if you do the same calculation with the same numbers, you ’ ll get the same result. - to get the next number, we have to remember something ( in our case, the last answer ) from the previous time. that ’ s called the state. the state is important, because it ’ s what makes the process give you different answers each time! if you didn ’ t remember something from the last time around, then you ’ d again be doing the same math problem with the same numbers, so you ’ d get the same answer. doing


what makes the process give you different answers each time! if you didn ’ t remember something from the last time around, then you ’ d again be doing the same math problem with the same numbers, so you ’ d get the same answer. doing better by separating state unfortunately, our random number generator has a weakness : you can always predict what ’ s coming next, based on what came before. if you write tetris using the random number generator from earlier, your player will soon discover that after a line, they always get an l shape, and so on. what you really want is for your game to occasionally send them a line followed by a t, or even pick two lines in a row from time to time! how do we do this? well, the next answer that ’ s coming depends on the state, so our mistake before was to use the previous answer as the state. the solution is to use a state that ’ s bigger than the answer. we ’ ll still be looking for random numbers from 1 to 10, but let ’ s modify the previous random number generator to remember a bigger state. now, since state and answer are different things, our random function will have two results : a new state, and an answer for this number. random i = ( j, ans ) where j = 7 * i ` mod ` 101 ans = ( j - 1 ) ` mod ` 10 + 1 - - just the ones place, but 0 means 10 that says take the input, multiply by 7, and find the remainder mod 101. since 101 is still prime, this will always give answers from 1 to 100. but what we really wanted was a number from 1 to 10, just like the one we had before. that ’ s fine : we ’ ll just take the ones place ( which is between 0 and 9 ) and treat 0 as 10. the tens place doesn ’ t really change the answer at all, but we keep it around to pass back in the next time as state. let ’ s see how this works : random 1 - > ( 7, 7 ) random 7 - > ( 49, 9 ) random 49 - > ( 40, 10 ) random 40 - > ( 78, 8 ) random 78 - > ( 41, 1 ) random 41 - > ( 85, 5 ) random 85 - > ( 90, 10 ) random 90 - > ( 24, 4 ) random 24 - > ( 67, 7 ) random 67 - > ( 65, 5 ) random 65 - > (