about one - third of americans older than age 60 have hearing problems. about half the people who are 85 and older have hearing loss. whether a hearing loss is small ( missing certain sounds ) or large ( being profoundly deaf ), it is a serious concern. if left untreated, problems can get worse. hearing loss can affect your life in many ways. you may miss out on talks with friends and family. on the telephone, you may find it hard to hear what the caller is saying. at the doctor ’ s office, you may not catch the doctor ’ s words. sometimes hearing problems can make you feel embarrassed, upset, and lonely. it ’ s easy to withdraw when you can ’ t follow a conversation at the dinner table or in a restaurant. it ’ s also easy for friends and family to think you are confused, uncaring, or difficult, when the problem may be that you just can ’ t hear well. if you have trouble hearing, there is help. start by seeing your doctor. depending on the type and extent of your hearing loss, there are many treatment choices that may help. hearing loss does not have to get in the way of your ability to enjoy life. how do i know if i have a hearing loss? see your doctor if you : - have trouble hearing over the telephone, - find it hard to follow conversations when two or more people are talking, - need to turn up the tv volume so loud that others complain, - have a problem hearing because of background noise, - sense that others seem to mumble, or - can ’ t understand when women and children speak to you. what should i do? if you have trouble hearing, see your doctor. sometimes the diagnosis and treatment can take place in the doctor ’ s office. or your doctor may refer you to an otolaryngologist ( oh - toh - layr - ehn - gol - luh - jist ), a doctor who specializes in the ear, nose, and throat. the otolaryngologist will take a medical history, ask if other family members have hearing problems, do a thorough exam, and suggest any needed tests. you may be referred to an audiologist ( aw - dee - ah - luh - jist ). audiologists are health care professionals trained to measure hearing. the audiologist will use an audiometer to test your ability to hear sounds of different pitch and loudness. these tests are painless. audiologists can help if you need a hearing aid


. audiologists are health care professionals trained to measure hearing. the audiologist will use an audiometer to test your ability to hear sounds of different pitch and loudness. these tests are painless. audiologists can help if you need a hearing aid. they can help select the best hearing aid for you and help you learn to get the most from it. what causes hearing loss? hearing loss can have many different causes, including the aging process, ear wax buildup, exposure to very loud noises over a long period of time, viral or bacterial infections, heart conditions or stroke, head injuries, tumors, certain medicines, and heredity. what different types of hearing loss are there? presbycusis ( prez - bee - kyoo - sis ) is age - related hearing loss. it is common in people over the age of 50. people with this kind of hearing loss may have a hard time hearing what others are saying or may be unable to stand loud sounds. the decline is slow. just as hair turns gray at different rates, presbycusis can develop at different rates. it canbe caused by sensorineural ( sen - soh - ree - noo - ruhl ) hearing loss. this type of hearing loss results from damage to parts of the inner ear, the auditory nerve, or hearing pathways in the brain. presbycusis may be caused by aging, loud noise, heredity, head injury, infection, illness, certain prescription drugs, and circulation problems such as high blood pressure. the degree of hearing loss varies from person to person. also, a person can have a different amount of hearing loss in each ear. tinnitus ( tih - nie - tuhs ) accompanies many forms of hearing loss, including those that sometimes come with aging. people with tinnitus may hear a ringing, roaring, or some other noise inside their ears. tinnitus may be caused by loud noise, hearing loss, certain medicines, and other health problems, such as allergies and problems in the heart and blood vessels. often it is unclear why the ringing happens. tinnitus can come and go, it can stop completely, or it can stay. some medicines may help ease the problem. wearing a hearing aid makes it easier for some people to hear the sounds they need to hear by making them louder. maskers, small devices that use sound to make tinnitus less noticeable, help other people. music also can be soothing and can sometimes mask the sounds caused by


easier for some people to hear the sounds they need to hear by making them louder. maskers, small devices that use sound to make tinnitus less noticeable, help other people. music also can be soothing and can sometimes mask the sounds caused by the condition. it also helps to avoid things that might make tinnitus worse, like smoking, alcohol, and loud noises. conductive hearing loss happens when something blocks the sounds that are carried from the eardrum ( tympanic membrane ) to the inner ear. ear wax buildup, fluid in the middle ear, abnormal bone growth, a punctured eardrum, or a middle ear infection can cause this type of hearing loss. if ear wax blockage is a problem for you, the american academy of otolaryngology - head and neck surgery suggests using mild treatments, such as mineral oil, baby oil, glycerin, or commercial ear drops to soften ear wax. if you think you may have a hole in your eardrum, however, you should see your doctor. how can i help a person with hearing loss? here are some tips you can use when talking with someone who has a hearing problem : - face the person and talk clearly - speak at a reasonable speed ; do not hide your mouth, eat, or chew gum. - stand in good lighting and reduce background noises. - use facial expressions or gestures to give useful clues. - repeat yourself if necessary, using different words. - include the hearing - impaired person when talking. talk with the person, not about the person, when you are with others. this helps keep the hearing - impaired person from feeling alone and excluded. - be patient ; stay positive and relaxed. - ask how you can help. what can i do if i have trouble hearing? - let people know that you have trouble hearing. - ask people to face you, and to speak more slowly and clearly ; also ask them to speak without shouting. - pay attention to what is being said and to facial expressions or gestures. - let the person talking know if you do not understand. - ask people to reword a sentence and try again. what devices or treatments can help? what will help you depends on your hearing problem. some common solutions include : - hearing aids. these are small devices you wear in or behind your ear. hearing aids can help some kinds of hearing loss by making sounds louder. however, they sometimes pick up background noises — for example, traffic noise in the street or people talking at other tables in


these are small devices you wear in or behind your ear. hearing aids can help some kinds of hearing loss by making sounds louder. however, they sometimes pick up background noises — for example, traffic noise in the street or people talking at other tables in a crowded restaurant. this can affect how well you hear in certain situations. before buying a hearing aid, check to find out if your insurance will cover the cost. there are many kinds of hearing aids. an audiologist can help fit you with the hearing aid that will work best for you. you can ask the audiologist about having a trial period to try out a few different aids. remember, when you buy a hearing aid, you are buying a product and a service. find a hearing aid dealer ( called a dispenser ) who has the patience and skill to help you during the month or so it takes to get used to the new hearing aid. you may need to have several fittings of your hearing aid, and you will need to get directions on how to use it. hearing aids use batteries, which you will need to change on a regular basis. they also may need repairs from time to time. buy a hearing aid that has only the features you need. - assistive / adaptive devices. there are many products that can help you live well with less - than - perfect hearing. the list below includes some examples of the many choices : - telephone amplifying devices range from a special type of telephone receiver that makes sounds louder to special phones that work with hearing aids. - tv and radio listening systems can be used with or without hearing aids. you do not have to turn the volume up high. - assistive listening devices are available in some public places such as auditoriums, movie theaters, churches, synagogues, and meeting places. - alerts such as doorbells, smoke detectors, and alarm clocks can give you a signal that you can see or a vibration that you can feel. for example, a flashing light could let you know someone is at the door or that the phone is ringing. - cochlear implants. if your deafness is severe, a doctor may suggest cochlear implants. in this surgery, the doctor puts a small electronic device under the skin behind the ear. the device sends the message past the non - working part of the inner ear and on to the brain. this process helps some people hear. these implants are not helpful for all types of deafness or hearing loss. there are many things you can


the device sends the message past the non - working part of the inner ear and on to the brain. this process helps some people hear. these implants are not helpful for all types of deafness or hearing loss. there are many things you can do about hearing loss. the first step is to check with your doctor. you also can get more information from the following groups : national institute on deafness and other communication disorders ( nidcd ) nidcd information clearinghouse national institutes of health 31 center drive, msc 2320 bethesda, md 20892 - 2320 phone : 1 - 800 - 241 - 1044 ( toll - free ) american academy of otolaryngology - head and neck surgery, inc. ( aao - hns ) 1 prince street alexandria, va 22314 - 3357 american speech - language - hearing association ( asha ) 10801 rockville pike rockville, md 20852 phone : 1 - 800 - 638 - 8255 ( toll - free / voice / tty ) american tinnitus association ( ata ) p. o. box 5 portland, or 97207 - 0005 phone : 1 - 800 - 634 - 8978 ( toll - free ) self help for hard of hearing people, inc. ( shhh ) 7910 woodmont avenue bethesda, md 20814 laurent clerc national deaf education center 800 florida avenue, ne washington, dc 20002 - 3695 phone : 202 - 651 - 5000 ( voice and tty ) for more information about health and aging contact : national institute on aging p. o. box 8057 gaithersburg, md 20898 - 8057 phone : 1 - 800 - 222 - 2225 ( toll - free ) national institute on aging u. s. department of health and human services national institutes of health this publication sourced from the national institute on aging.


last month, we started a list of " hot astronomy links " for the net - surfers, and said that we ' d continue the list this month. if i may beg off for another month, let me share with you a continuation of a story we were telling last year at this time. january 6th is celebrated in most western churches as the feast of the epiphany, commemorating the arrival of the magi in bethlehem. matthew ' s gospel tells us that they were led on their journey by a " star. " astronomers and other scholars have been trying to identify the " star " ever since, with theories ranging from a supernova blast to halley ' s comet. last year at this time, i suggested that a series of planetary conjunctions in 7 - 6 bc would have attracted the attention of persian astrologers. historians have traditionally placed the death of herod in 4 bc, and suggest that a 4 year error by the monks who first counted back to the events surrounding the nativity ( essentially skipping the rule of octavian before he became augustus ) would also place the nativity in this time frame. we also mentioned a book by ernest martin, " the star that astonished the world, " which argues for a 1 bc death of herod, making a spectacular conjunction of jupiter and venus a likely candidate for the " star of bethlehem. " his arguments are based on accounts by jewish / roman historian flavius josephus, which detail the events surrounding the death of herod, and make the 4 bc scenario unlikely. a 1999 book by astronomer mark kidger, " the star of bethlehem, " presents a different argument, again suggesting 4 bc as the time of the star. chinese and korean court astrologers reported a " guest star " near the constellation aquila on the same date in either 4 or 5 bc - one of the records is apparently a transcription error - which persisted for over 70 days visibility. as seen from babylon or persia, this guest star would have been first seen after midnight " in the east. " if these astrologers had been primed by the conjunctions of 7 - 6 bc to look for a sign, this would have been something of which to take note. perhaps it would be sufficiently noteworthy to pack up and go searching for a new king of the jews, presaged by the planets and confirmed by this " new star. " an overland journey from persia would be just possible in 70 days, if they were already primed to leave. such a journey from babylon would


a new king of the jews, presaged by the planets and confirmed by this " new star. " an overland journey from persia would be just possible in 70 days, if they were already primed to leave. such a journey from babylon would take less time, allowing for preparations after first sighting the star. by the time the magi arrived at jerusalem, the star would appear to the south, just because of the normal shift in constellations with the seasons. bethlehem lies due south of jerusalem, so they might think of the star going before them, and " stopping over the house where the child was. " which scenario is correct? i doubt that we ' ll ever know for sure. but, in a larger sense, does it really matter? the central story of christmas and epiphany is not about the star, but about the interaction between humanity and the transcendent - and the details of the story pale before that. lunar phases for january 2001 : first quarter on the 2nd, at 5 : 31 pm ; full moon on the 9th, at 3 : 24 pm ; last quarter at 7 : 35 am on the 16th ; new moon on the 24th, at 8 : 07 pm. the full moon will be accompanied by a total lunar eclipse, but the moon will be directly overhead for observers in oman, on the arabian peninsula. we won ' t see it from virginia! evening twilight will find venus very bright to the southwest, with jupiter and saturn high and to the southeast. mercury will be hard to find, but will be below and to the right of venus. early risers can view mars to the southeast before dawn. our midmonth overhead view at about 8 : 00 pm finds jupiter and saturn almost directly overhead, just a bit south of zenith. they ' re in the constellation taurus, near the bright star aldebaran, and the open cluster of the pleiades. a line drawn straight to the southeast horizon from aldebaran takes your line of sight through orion to the bright star sirius in canis major. castor and pollux, in gemini, lie above the eastern horizon. directly above the twins, closer to zenith you will find capella, in the constellation auriga. mirfak, in perseus is just a bit higher. the wide, nearly - empty square of pegasus is to the west, with the andromeda galaxy visible on a clear, moonless night just above. deneb, the bright star at the tail of the swan ( cy


© duane a. cline 2002 click here to return to the main page of the pilgrims & following the decimation of the native american population in king philips war in 1675, the native population was so reduced and dispersed that their language was finally lost. the native americans who survived were so fearful of the european settlers that they tried to conceal their native american heritage and take on the appearance and speech of the settlers. preservation of the indian language as a result, the native american language of the wampanoag people slowly became extinct. the language of the wampanoag people has not been spoken as a common language for about seven generations. only recently has there been a renewed interest in trying to retrieve the language of the wampanoag – a daunting task, indeed. fortunately the entire bible and a few other writings had been translated into the massachusett language by john eliot while it was still a vital language. through great effort, it is hoped the language can be revived. john eliot was born about 1604 in widford, hertfordshire, england, the son of bennett eliot, a yeoman who was a landholder in the parishes of ware, widford, hansdon and estweeke. john was baptized on 5 august 1604. he matriculated at jesus college cambridge university on 20 march 1619 as a “ pensioner, ” which meant he paid his own expenses at jesus college. his father died the year before john received his a. b. degree from cambridge in 1622. in his father ’ s will john was provided financial assistance for his maintenance at cambridge, “ where he is a scholar. ” after leaving cambridge, john taught for nine years in a grammar school which had been established by rev. thomas hooker at little braddow, near chelmsford, england. there he came under the puritan influence and decided to become a minister. since the church of england was still dealing harshly with anyone who did not conform to its doctrines and ordinances, john emigrated to new england, landing in boston on 4 november 1631. on his arrival in new england john pastored a church in boston for a while before he was ordained to serve the church at roxbury, mass. apparently, john had become engaged to a woman before leaving england. she came to new england in 1632 and they were married at roxbury on 4 september 1632. during the next few years, john developed a deep interest in the neighboring indians, their language and their culture. in collaboration with his colleague, rev.


she came to new england in 1632 and they were married at roxbury on 4 september 1632. during the next few years, john developed a deep interest in the neighboring indians, their language and their culture. in collaboration with his colleague, rev. thomas mather, and neighbor, rev, richard mather, of nearby dorchester, eliot translated “ the psalms of david ” into the indian language. he began to preach to the indians in 1646. there is an account of his first meeting with the indians in his book, “ the daybreaking, if not sunrising, of the gospel with the indians in new england, ” london, 1647. he tells how on 28 october 1646 four of them went to the wigwam of waaubon at nonantum, which was located in the northeast corner of newton ( about five miles from roxbury ). there they met with a group of indian men, women and children who had gathered from the surrounding area. john opened the meeting with a prayer in english and proceeded to preach for an hour and a quarter in their own language, following which there was a period of questions and answers. the meeting lasted about three hours, during which apples were given to women and children and tobacco to the men. by 1651 natick had been selected as the place for an indian church and community to be organized for the settlement of the “ praying indians ” from the surrounding area. it was seventeen miles from boston and some distance from the groups of early settlers. in 1653 or 1654 eliot produced his “ catechism, “ which was probably the first book to be printed in the indian language. by 1655 eliot had prepared the “ book of genesis ” and the “ gospel of matthew. ” they were printed at cambridge in 1662. the natick church was formed and a civil government established in 1660. the new indian community was opposed by a number of indians and colonists alike. eliot organized towns for indian converts where they could preserve their own language and culture and live by their own laws. through the next few years fourteen of those towns were established with the total converts numbering about four thousand. by 1674 each of the communities had a school where the indians were taught english and handicrafts. while the towns prospered, eliot prepared indians to become missionaries to their own people. daniel takawambpait became the first indian minister in new england when he was ordained at natick in 1681. the establishment of those indian towns met with angry opposition from many of the indians and settlers alike


become missionaries to their own people. daniel takawambpait became the first indian minister in new england when he was ordained at natick in 1681. the establishment of those indian towns met with angry opposition from many of the indians and settlers alike. however, they prospered until 1675 when king philip ’ s war created havoc. after the war four of the communities were re - established, but did not continue long. the natick church, which was originally established in 1660, managed to continue until the death of their last pastor, daniel takawambpait, in 1716. in 1660 thomas thorowgood made the first reference to john eliot as the “ indian apostle, ” a designation which has continued to be associated with eliot to this day. the entire new testament was printed at cambridge in 1661, and the next year a second edition of the “ catechism ” was printed there. a small edition of “ the psalms of david ” was published at cambridge in 1662, and the same year a second edition of the “ catechism ” was printed. in 1663 “ the old testament ” was printed and bound together with a metrical version of the “ psalms. ” this has been considered the first bible printed in america. a second edition of “ the new testament ” was printed in 1680, and in 1685 it was printed and bound with the “ old testament. ” other books written by eliot were : “ the christian commonwealth, ” 1659 ; “ the communion of the churches, ” 1665 ; the indian primer ” 1669 ; “ harmony of the gospels, ” 1678 ; and in 1689 his indian translation of “ the sincere convert ” by rev. thomas shepard was published. he had also been a major contributor to the “ bay psalm book. ” after a long illness, john eliot died at roxbury, mass., on 21 may 1690. in eliot ’ s honor, may 21 is celebrated by some as “ saint day of john eliot. ” last modified october 2, 2002 webmaster dave lossos


how do i decide whether or not to take part? you need to feel you have been given enough information to help you decide whether or not to take part in a clinical trial. the main benefits of taking part in a clinical trial include : - you may receive a new treatment before it becomes widely available - you will be closely monitored ( patients on clinical trials often receive more attention ) - helping future patients with cancer. the disadvantages of taking part in a clinical trial include : - you may have more appointments at the hospital than if you weren ’ t in a clinical trial - new treatments may have side effects or risks that doctors were not expecting - participants in randomised trials will not be able to choose which treatment they receive. the importance of information trials need to be a team effort to make sure they are successful. if you decide to take part, you are an essential member of this team. you must be given all the information you want, you must understand what will happen, and you must freely agree to take part. your doctor or researcher should discuss the following points with you : - what type of trial it is, why it is being done and how it was planned - an explanation of how the trial will affect you ; for example, how long the trial will last or any extra tests or hospital visits - the meaning of the words and phrases that are used - the benefits, risks and all other treatment options available to you - the safeguards which exist to protect you - who you should contact if you have any concerns or problems - how to find out the results of the research, if you want to do so. see a list of other questions you should consider. you may find it helpful to discuss the details of a trial with a research nurse. if you wish to know more or don ’ t understand what has been said, please ask.


definition of pharmacologic stress test pharmacologic stress test : there are a diversity of pharmacologic stress tests. here this refers specifically to a pharmacologic cardiac stress test in which certain medications are administered that stimulate the heart to mimic the physiologic effects of exercise. one of the medications used in a pharmacologic stress test is dobutamine, which is similar to adrenaline. dobutamine is carefully administered to gradually increase the heart rate and strength of the contractions of the heart muscle. simultaneously, echocardiography or radionucleide imaging is performed. alternatively, a medicine called adenosine is administered, which simulates the physiology of the coronary artery circulation during exercise. adenosine is combined with radionucleide isotope imaging to provide a very accurate test for the detection of significant coronary artery disease ( cad ). pharmacological stress testing is commonly performed in patients who are thought to be at high risk for significant cad and who are scheduled for major non - cardiac surgical procedures. these patients are often unable to perform exercise stress testing due to the underlying condition for which they require surgery. in this setting, pharmacological stress testing is invaluable in assessing the cardiac risk of patients prior to surgery. source : medterms™ medical dictionary last editorial review : 6 / 14 / 2012 get the latest treatment options.


it ' s hard enough to keep track of your daily responsibilities. it ' s even harder to plan for events years down the road. but if you have diabetes, you must start taking steps now to possibly avoid complications in the future. diabetes is a serious and complex disease that can lead to a number of complications, including blindness and kidney disease. fortunately, these complications are possibly preventable. as diabetes - related complications can take decades to develop, you might find it hard to think about them today. but now is the time to make important lifestyle changes. you have the power to prevent or delay the complications of diabetes by keeping an eye out for certain symptoms, controlling your blood sugar, and maintaining a conversation with your diabetes health care team. what complications are associated with diabetes? people can live long, fruitful lives with diabetes. however, if your diabetes is left unchecked, you are at risk for a variety of health problems, including : - eye problems - foot problems - skin problems - heart disease - high blood pressure - kidney disease - ketoacidosis, or high levels of blood acids called ketones this article will give you an explanation of these common complications and provide tips on how to avoid them. eye problems are common in people with diabetes. in fact, according to the american diabetes association ( ada ), most diabetes patients will get some kind of retinopathy, a disorder of the retina. even though people with diabetes have a higher risk of blindness than others, most diabetes patients are faced with only minor eye problems. for those who develop major eye problems, there are treatments that can help. as with all complications of diabetes, the best way to prevent eye problems is to keep your blood sugar under control. it is also crucial to get a regular eye exam at least once a year. what eye problems develop in diabetes patients? diabetes patients have a 40 percent higher risk of developing glaucoma, and that risk increases the longer someone has diabetes. older patients are also more likely to suffer from glaucoma. the front part of the eye contains a clear fluid called aqueous humor. this fluid is always being made behind the iris ( the colored part of the eye ). in a healthy eye, the fluid is regularly drained. in glaucoma, however, the aqueous humor cannot drain, which causes a buildup of pressure. this pressure can cause damage to the optic nerve ( carrier of messages from the retina to the brain ). over time, a person will lose vision because


, however, the aqueous humor cannot drain, which causes a buildup of pressure. this pressure can cause damage to the optic nerve ( carrier of messages from the retina to the brain ). over time, a person will lose vision because the retina and optic nerve are damaged. there are both medical and surgical treatments for glaucoma designed to relieve pressure in the eye. cataracts are common among people with and without diabetes alike. however, the eye condition is 60 percent more common in people with diabetes. in most people, the lens of the eye is clear. much like a camera lens, it focuses light as it passes to the back of the eye. in people with cataracts, this clear lens becomes clouded, blocking light and reduces vision. cataracts usually develop in older people. with diabetes, they tend to form at a younger age and to progress more rapidly. patients with mild cataracts often wear protective eyewear like sunglasses or glare - control lenses in their corrective glasses. if cataracts are severe, a doctor may decide to remove the lens of the eye. the retina is the part of the eye that records images, and then turns those images into electrical signals to be sent to the brain. diabetic retinopathy is a term used to describe all retina disorders caused by diabetes. these disorders can range from mild to severe. there are two main types of retinopathy : nonproliferative and proliferative. in nonproliferative retinopathy, capillaries in the back of the eye swell up and form pouches. in many cases, nonproliferative retinopathy does not require treatment. however, when fluid leaks into the macula ( the part of the eye where focusing happens ), macula edema can occur. macula edema causes blurry vision and, in some cases, total vision loss. patients with macula edema must seek treatment. fortunately, treatment usually stops or reverses vision loss. over time, retinopathy can get worse, eventually leading to proliferative retinopathy. in patients with this form of retinopathy, the blood vessels become completely closed off, causing new vessels to grow. these new vessels are not as strong as the old and tend to leak blood, which can block vision. this condition is called vitreous hemorrhage. in some cases, the new blood vessels cause scar tissue to develop, which can warp or knock the retina out of place.


old and tend to leak blood, which can block vision. this condition is called vitreous hemorrhage. in some cases, the new blood vessels cause scar tissue to develop, which can warp or knock the retina out of place. this condition is called retinal detachment. one reason eye exams are so important is that people with retinopathy often have no symptoms until it is too late. how can i prevent eye problems? keeping your blood sugar under tight control is the most important step you can take to prevent eye complications. results from the diabetes control and complications trial showed that diabetes patients who kept their blood sugar levels close to normal were four times less likely to get retinopathy than patients on standard treatment. blood pressure control is also key to maintaining your vision, as high blood pressure intensify your eye problems. it ' s probably something you have heard before, but here it is again : quit smoking now! it will help preserve your vision in addition to improving your overall health. get regular checkups from an eye care professional at least once a year. it may be time to see an eye specialist now if you have : - blurry vision - difficulty reading books or street signs - double vision - pain in one or both of your eyes - redness in your eyes that does not go away - pressure in your eyes - spots in your vision - trouble seeing straight lines as straight - trouble seeing things to your side diabetes - related foot complications come in many forms. nerve damage, or neuropathy, is the most common cause of foot problems in people with diabetes. problems also can be caused by poor blood flow or changes in the shape of your feet. what foot problems develop in diabetes patients? for some people, diabetic nerve damage can hurt. most often, it makes it harder to feel pain or temperature. since you cannot feel, you might not notice if you have hurt your foot. you could have an open wound all day that, if left ignored, could get infected. neuropathy can also cause your feet and toes to change shape. if this happens to you, your doctor may recommend special shoes. poor blood flow diabetes can cause the blood vessels in your legs and feet to harden and narrow, leading to poor circulation. if you have poor blood flow, your feet are more prone to infection and less able to heal. there are a few things you can do on your own to prevent poor blood flow. first, quit smoking. smoking makes your arteries harden faster. keeping your blood pressure and cho


flow, your feet are more prone to infection and less able to heal. there are a few things you can do on your own to prevent poor blood flow. first, quit smoking. smoking makes your arteries harden faster. keeping your blood pressure and cholesterol under control also can improve your circulation. some people with diabetes develop foot ulcers, or wounds or open sores that do not heal or keep coming back. in most cases, diabetes patients get ulcers on the ball of the foot or bottom of the big toe. not every ulcer will hurt. but even if there is no pain, you should get every ulcer checked by your doctor. if left untreated, ulcers can lead to infection and possibly amputation. if you have a foot ulcer, let it heal. stay off your feet as much as possible. your doctor may even recommend you wear a special shoe or other device. you might have heard that people with diabetes have a higher risk than others of foot and leg amputations. unfortunately, that is true. so, why are diabetes patients more likely to have an amputation? for one, many diabetes patients have artery disease, which makes it hard for blood to flow to the feet. another reason is nerve damage, which makes it harder to feel pain or any problems in the feet and legs. the good news is that amputations, and all other diabetes - related foot complications, are possibly avoidable. how can i prevent foot problems? anyone with diabetes should get a complete foot exam at least once a year. if you already have foot problems, you should get your feet checked even more often. if you injure your foot, get care from your doctor as soon as possible. you should always let your doctor know if you have cut or broken the skin of your foot, even if it is just an ingrown toenail. it is also important to tell your doctor if you see in changes to the color or shape of your foot. there are a number of ways to prevent foot complications and to maintain healthy feet, including : - keeping your blood sugar under control - checking your feet daily for spots, cuts, swelling, or blisters - staying active - wearing special therapeutic shoes - washing your feet every day - using lotion to keep the skin of your feet soft and smooth - trimming your toenails - protecting your feet with socks and shoes - protecting your feet from extreme heat and cold, as you might not be able to feel temperature - keeping your blood


lotion to keep the skin of your feet soft and smooth - trimming your toenails - protecting your feet with socks and shoes - protecting your feet from extreme heat and cold, as you might not be able to feel temperature - keeping your blood flowing to your feet by putting your feet up while sitting, moving your toes and ankles multiple times a day - quitting smoking according to the ada, about 33 percent of people will have a diabetes - related skin problem at some point in their lives. some of these skin problems can happen to anyone, while others mainly affect only those with diabetes. people with diabetes have a higher risk for a number of general skin conditions. examples of bacterial infections affecting diabetes patients include : - styes, or infections of eyelid glands - folliculitis, or hair follicle infections - carbuncles, or deep tissue skin infections - infections around the nails people with diabetes are also at risk of fungal infections. in most cases, fungal infections are caused by candida albicans, a yeast - like fungus that can lead to itchy, red, and moist rashes, small blisters and scaly skin. other common fungal infections include : - athlete ' s foot - jock itch - vaginal infection diabetes - specific skin conditions some skin conditions are mostly or only seen in people with diabetes. these include : - diabetic dermopathy - changes in small blood vessels that cause light brown, scaly patches most often on the front of the legs - necrobiosis lipoidica diabeticorum - changes in blood vessels that cause spots that look like those of diabetic dermopathy, but bigger, deeper, and fewer - atherosclerosis - a hardening of the blood vessels that can make the skin hairless, thin, cool, and shiny, and can make it hard for sores to heal - eruptive xanthomatosis - a condition that causes hard, yellow, itchy growths on the back, hands, feet, arms, legs, and buttocks - digital sclerosis - the development of tight, thick, waxy skin on the back of the hands, toes, forehead - disseminated granuloma annular - raised rings or arcs usually occurring on parts of the body away from the trunk, such as fingers or ears - acanthosis nigricans - tan or brown raised areas of skin on the neck, armpits, and groin that usually occur in people who are overweight


on parts of the body away from the trunk, such as fingers or ears - acanthosis nigricans - tan or brown raised areas of skin on the neck, armpits, and groin that usually occur in people who are overweight how can i prevent skin problems? diabetes - related skin conditions can be irritating and, sometimes, very dangerous. luckily, most of them are both preventable and treatable. carefully managing your diabetes is the most important part of preventing skin conditions associated with diabetes. by following your doctor ' s instructions about diet, exercise, and medications, you can keep your blood sugar down and control your weight. doing these things will help you avoid most diabetes - related skin problems. you should also take care of your skin by avoiding too much sun and using lotions approved by your doctor. people with diabetes have a higher risk of having heart - related problems, compared to people without diabetes. in fact, heart disease is one of the leading causes of death in diabetes patients. it is certainly scary to think about the possibility of suffering a heart attack or stroke. but if you take the proper steps, you can protect yourself from these potentially deadly complications. how can i prevent heart disease? getting your diabetes under control is crucial in preventing heart disease. your blood sugar, blood pressure, and cholesterol all play a role in the development and prevention of heart disease. in order to lessen heart disease risk, you must first get your blood sugar under control. your doctor likely has given you a target goal for your levels of hba1c, a measure of blood sugar over three months. carefully managing your blood sugar to reach that goal is key in the management of heart disease risk. generally, people with diabetes should aim for an hba1c of seven percent or less. your doctor will advise you of your personal goal. secondly, you should keep an eye on your blood pressure. it is recommended that most diabetes patients aim for a blood pressure level below 130 / 80 mm hg. make sure your doctor checks your blood pressure at every regular appointment. lastly, it is important to watch your cholesterol. basically, you want to reduce your levels of ldl, or " bad " cholesterol and increase your levels of hdl, or " good " cholesterol. your kidneys are amazing filter systems. when we eat and digest, our bodies create waste. while useful substances like proteins stay in our blood, these waste products our filter out through the kidneys into our urine. diabetes can


" cholesterol. your kidneys are amazing filter systems. when we eat and digest, our bodies create waste. while useful substances like proteins stay in our blood, these waste products our filter out through the kidneys into our urine. diabetes can put a strain on our kidneys. high blood sugar levels make our kidneys filter too much blood. over time, a diabetes patient can start to lose useful proteins in the urine. small levels of protein in the urine is called microalbuminuria. microalbuminuria are an early sign of kidney disease. if your doctor can spot kidney disease early, there are treatments that can keep it from getting worse. if you already have high levels of protein in your urine ( macroalbuminuria ), you may develop kidney failure and need dialysis. how can i prevent kidney disease? tight blood sugar control is your key to avoiding kidney disease. studies have shown that diabetes patients who practice tight control of blood sugar may lower their risk of kidney disease by as much as one third. some research has suggested that tight blood sugar control may even reverse microalbuminuria. another serious complication of diabetes is called diabetic ketoacidosis, a condition that occurs when your body makes very high levels of blood acids called ketones. toxic ketones may enter your blood stream when you have too little insulin in your body. this may eventually lead to diabetic ketoacidosis. if you are suffering from ketoacidosis, you may experience : - excessive thirst - frequent urination - abdominal pain - loss of appetite - shortness of breath - breath that smells like fruit how can i prevent diabetic ketoacidosis? controlling your blood sugar and managing your insulin levels are key to preventing diabetic ketoacidosis. carefully monitor your blood sugar levels throughout the day. you may need to change your insulin dosage. based on your diet, level of exercise, and other health conditions, ask your doctor what insulin dosage is right for you. plan for your future it ' s not easy to hear your doctor give you a diagnosis of diabetes. but don ' t freak out. it ' s not the end of the world. you can live a long, relatively healthy life with the condition. for some people, it even may be possible to reverse the disease. follow your health care provider ' s instructions about diet, regular exercise, and drug treatments. controlling blood sugar, losing weight, and quitting smoking will help you


| the open door web site | whigs and tories gradually there emerged a group of mp ' s and lords who wanted parliament to be stronger than the king. they hated and feared catholics and sympathised with puritan non - conformists. they began to call themselves the country party ( opposed to the court party ). their enemies nicknamed them " whigs " after some scottish puritan outlaws. the other political group, the court party, were for the king and believed in divine rights. they were also in favour of the church of england with all its ceremonies and bishops. they hated non conformists. the whigs suspected that they were pro - catholic and nicknamed them after irish catholic outlaws : the " tories ". the whigs and tories were the world ' s first political parties and over the years to come they were to share government and opposition in a dual party system. the whigs became the liberal party in the 19th century and the tories became the conservative party. both still exist today, although the liberal party is now called the social democratic party. the habeas corpus act this act, passed in may 1679, allowed a prisoner to demand that he should be brought before a court and have his case examined. it was passed during the reign of charles ii and meant that even a political prisoner, an opponent of the king, as well as a common criminal, could have a fair trial and not just be thrown into prison to be forgotten about. it provided a dramatic contrast to the notorious " lettres de cachet " of louis xiv which existed in france at the same time and allowed the french king to imprison someone indefinitely, without any legal redress. habeas corpus literally means " bringing the body of an individual before a court of justice ". this right had existed in england in early norman times. ( article 36 of the magna carta of 1215 says that this right should " not be refused ". at that time it meant that an accused person could avoid a terrible trial by ordeal. ) once before a court, an accused person has his case examined and is then allowed bail ( is freed on condition that he leaves a sum of money and promises to return for further hearings ), or he is imprisoned again because the evidence against him is so great. by the time of charles i kings were saying that a simple royal order was sufficient to overrule a writ of habeas corpus. it was for this reason that, in the late 17th century, parliament wanted the law clearly and


chapter xv. — the souls vitality and intelligence. its character and seat in man. in the first place, ( we must determine ) whether there be in the soul some supreme principle of vitality and intelligence 1583 which they call “ the ruling power of the soul ” — το ηγεμονικον for if this be not admitted, the whole condition of the soul is put in jeopardy. indeed, those men who say that there is no such directing faculty, have begun by supposing that the soul itself is simply a nonentity. one dicæarchus, a messenian, and amongst the medical profession andreas and asclepiades, have thus destroyed the ( souls ) directing power, by actually placing in the mind the senses, for which they claim the ruling faculty. asclepiades rides rough - shod over us with even this argument, that very many animals, after losing those parts of their body in which the souls principle of vitality and sensation is thought mainly to exist, still retain life in a considerable degree, as well as sensation : as in the case of flies, and wasps, and locusts, when you have cut off their heads ; and of she - goats, and tortoises, and eels, when you have pulled out their hearts. ( he concludes ), therefore, that there is no especial principle or power of the p. 194 soul ; for if there were, the souls vigour and strength could not continue when it was removed with its domiciles ( or corporeal organs ). however, dicæarchus has several authorities against him — and philosophers too — plato, strato, epicurus, democritus, empedocles, socrates, aristotle ; whilst in opposition to andreas and asclepiades ( may be placed their brother ) physicians herophilus, erasistratus, diocles, hippocrates, and soranus himself ; and better than all others, there are our christian authorities. we are taught by god concerning both these questions — viz. that there is a ruling power in the soul, and that it is enshrined 1584 in one particular recess of the body. for, when one reads of god as being “ the searcher and witness of the heart ; ” 1585 when his prophet is reproved by his discovering to him the secrets of the heart ; 1586 when god himself anticipates in his people the thoughts


one reads of god as being “ the searcher and witness of the heart ; ” 1585 when his prophet is reproved by his discovering to him the secrets of the heart ; 1586 when god himself anticipates in his people the thoughts of their heart, 1587 “ why think ye evil in your hearts? ” 1588 when david prays “ create in me a clean heart, o god, ” 1589 and paul declares, “ with the heart man believeth unto righteousness, ” 1590 and john says, “ by his own heart is each man condemned ; ” 1591 when, lastly, “ he who looketh on a woman so as to lust after her, hath already committed adultery with her in his heart, ” 1592 — then both points are cleared fully up, that there is a directing faculty of the soul, with which the purpose of god may agree ; in other words, a supreme principle of intelligence and vitality ( for where there is intelligence, there must be vitality ), and that it resides in that most precious part 1593 of our body to which god especially looks : so that you must not suppose, with heraclitus, that this sovereign faculty of which we are treating is moved by some external force ; nor with moschion, 1594 that it floats about through the whole body ; nor with plato, that it is enclosed in the head ; nor with zenophanes, that it culminates in the crown of the head ; nor that it reposes in the brain, according to the opinion of hippocrates ; nor around the basis of the brain, as herophilus thought ; nor in the membranes thereof, as strato and erasistratus said ; nor in the space between the eyebrows, as strato the physician held ; nor within the enclosure 1595 of the breast, according to epicurus : but rather, as the egyptians have always taught, especially such of them as were accounted the expounders of sacred truths ; 1596 in accordance, too, with that verse of orpheus or empedocles : “ namque homini sanguis circumcordialis est sensus. ” 1597 “ man has his ( supreme ) sensation in the blood around his heart. ” even protagoras 1598 likewise, and apollodorus, and chrysippus, entertain this same view, so that ( our friend ) asclepiades may go in quest of his goats bleating without


his heart. ” even protagoras 1598 likewise, and apollodorus, and chrysippus, entertain this same view, so that ( our friend ) asclepiades may go in quest of his goats bleating without a heart, and hunt his flies without their heads ; and let all those ( worthies ), too, who have predetermined the character of the human soul from the condition of brute animals, be quite sure that it is themselves rather who are alive in a heartless and brainless state. wisd. i. 6. 194 : 1586 prov. xxiv. 12. 194 : 1587 ps. cxxxix. 23. 194 : 1588 matt. ix. 4. 194 : 1589 ps. li. 12. 194 : 1590 rom. x. 10. 194 : 1591 1 john iii. 20. 194 : 1592 matt. v. 28. 194 : 1593 in eo thesauro. 194 : 1594 not suidas philosopher of that name, but a renowned physician mentioned by galen and pliny ( oehler ). 194 : 1595 the egyptian hierophants. 194 : 1597 the original, as given in stobæus, eclog. i. p. 1026, is this hexameter : αιμα γαρ ανθρωποις περικαρδιον εστι νοημα. 194 : 1598 or probably that praxagoras the physician who is often mentioned by athenæus and by pliny ( pamel. ).


jewish fairy tales and legends, by aunt naomi ( pseud. gertrude landa ),, at sacred - texts. com click to enlarge the gates opened from within and the arab stood before them. ( p. 185 ). ibrahim, the most learned and pious man of the city, whom everybody held in esteem, fell on troubled days. to none did he speak of his sufferings, for he was proud and would have been compelled to refuse the help which he knew would have been offered to him. his noble wife and five faithful sons suffered in silence, but ibrahim was sorely troubled when he saw their clothes wearing away to rags and their bodies wasting with hunger. one day ibrahim was seated in front of the holy book, but he saw not the words on its pages. his eyes were dimmed with tears and his thoughts were far away. he was day - dreaming of a region where hunger and thirst and lack of clothes and shelter were unknown. he sighed heavily and his wife heard. " my dear husband, " she said to him gently, " we are starving. you must go forth to seek work for the sake of our five little sons. " " yes, yes, " he replied, sadly, " and for you, too, my devoted wife, but " - - and he pointed to his tattered garments - - " how can i go out in these? who will employ a man so miserably clad? " " i will ask our kind neighbors to lend you some raiment, " said his wife, and although he made some demur at first, she did so and was successful in obtaining the loan of a cloak which completely covered ibrahim and restored to him his dignified appearance. his good wife cheered him with brave words. he took his staff and set out with head erect and his heart filled with a great hope. all people saluted the learned ibrahim, for it was not often he was seen abroad in the busy streets of the city. he returned their greetings with kindly smiles, but halted not in his walk. he had no wish to make any claims upon his fellow citizens, who would no doubt have gladly assisted him. he desired to go among strangers and work so that he should not be beholden to anyone. beyond the city gates, where the palm trees grew and the camels trudged lazily toward the distant desert, he was suddenly accosted by a stranger dressed as an arab. " o learned and holy man of the city, " he said, " command


gates, where the palm trees grew and the camels trudged lazily toward the distant desert, he was suddenly accosted by a stranger dressed as an arab. " o learned and holy man of the city, " he said, " command me, for i am thy slave. " at the same time he made a low bow before ibrahim. " my slave! " returned ibrahim, in surprise. " you mock me, stranger. i am wretchedly poor. i seek but the opportunity to sell myself, even as a slave, to any man who will provide food and clothing for my wife and children. " " sell not thyself, " said the arab. " offer me for sale instead. i am a marvelous builder. behold these plans and models, specimens of my skill and handiwork. " from beneath the folds of his ample robes, the arab produced a scroll and a box and held them out to ibrahim. the latter took them, wonderingly. on the scroll were traced designs of stately buildings. within the box was an exquisite model of a palace, a marvelous piece of work, perfect in detail and workmanship. ibrahim examined it with great care. " i have never seen anything so beautiful, " he admitted. " it is wrought and fashioned with exceeding good taste. it is in itself a work of art. you must indeed be a wondrous craftsman. whence come you? " " what matters that? " replied the arab. " i am thy slave. is there not in this city some rich merchant or nobleman who needs the services of such talents as i possess? seek him out and dispose of me to him. to thee he will give ear ; to me he will not listen. " ibrahim pondered over this strange request for a while. " agreed! " he said, at length. together they returned to the city. there ibrahim made inquiries in the bazaar where the wealthy traders met to discuss their affairs, and soon learned of a rich dealer in precious stones, a man of a multitude of charitable deeds, who was anxious to erect an imposing residence. he called upon the jeweler. " noble sir, " he said, " i hear that it is thy intention to erect a palace the like of which this city has not yet seen, an edifice that will be an everlasting joy to its possessor, a delight to all who gaze upon it, and which will bring renown to this city. " " that is so, " said the merchant. " you


seen, an edifice that will be an everlasting joy to its possessor, a delight to all who gaze upon it, and which will bring renown to this city. " " that is so, " said the merchant. " you have interpreted the desire of my heart as if you had read its secret. i would fain dedicate to the uses of the ruler of this city a palace that will shed luster on his name. " " it is well, " returned ibrahim. " i have brought thee an architect and builder of genius. examine his plans and designs. if they please thee, as assuredly they will, purchase the man from me, for he is my slave. " the jeweler could not understand the plans on the scroll, but on the model in the box he feasted his eyes for several minutes in speechless amazement. " it is indeed remarkable, " he said at last. " i will give thee eighty thousand gold pieces for thy slave, who must build for me just such a palace. " ibrahim immediately informed the arab, who at once consented to perform the task, and then the pious man hastened home to his wife and children with the good news and the money, which made him rich for the rest of his days. to the arab the jeweler said, " thou wilt regain thy liberty if thou wilt succeed in thy under - taking. begin at once. i will forthwith engage the workmen. " " i need no workmen, " was the arab ' s singular reply. " take me to the land whereon i must build, and to - morrow thy palace shall be complete. " " even as i say, " answered the arab. the sun was setting in golden glory when they reached the ground, and pointing to the sky the arab said : " tomorrow, when the great orb of light rises above the distant hills, its rays will strike the minarets and domes and towers of thy palace, noble sir. leave me now. i must pray. " in perfect bewilderment, the merchant left the stranger. from a distance he watched the man devoutly praying. he had made up his mind to watch all the night ; but when the moon rose, deep sleep overcame him and he dreamed. he dreamed that he saw myriads of men swarming about strange machines and scaffolding which grew higher and higher, hiding a vast structure. ibrahim dreamed, too, but in his vision one figure, that of the arab, stood out above


. he dreamed that he saw myriads of men swarming about strange machines and scaffolding which grew higher and higher, hiding a vast structure. ibrahim dreamed, too, but in his vision one figure, that of the arab, stood out above all other things. ibrahim scanned the features of the stranger closely ; he followed, as it were, the man ' s every movement. he noticed how all the workmen and particularly the supervisors did the stranger great honor, showing him the deference due to one of the highest position. and with grave and dignified mien, the arab responded kindly. from the heavens a bright light shone upon the scene, the radiance being softest wherever the arab stood. in his dream, it so appeared to ibrahim, he rose from his bed, went out into the night, and approached the palace magically rising from the waste ground beyond the city. nearer and nearer his footsteps took him, until he stood beside the arab again. one of the chief workmen approached and addressed the stranger - - by name! then it was ibrahim understood - - and he awoke. the sun was streaming in through the lattice of his bedroom. he sprang from his bed and looked out upon a magnificent spectacle. beyond the city the sun ' s rays were reflected by a dazzling array of gilded cupolas and glittering spires, the towers of the palace of marble that he had seen builded in his dream. instantly he went out and made haste to the palace to assure himself that his dream was really over. ibrahim and the jeweler arrived before the gates at the same moment. they stood speechless with amazement and admiration before the model of the arab grown to immense proportions. almost at the same moment, the gates, ornamented with beaten gold, opened from within and the arab stood before them. ibrahim bent low his head. the arab addressed the merchant. " have i fulfilled my promise and earned my freedom? " he asked. " verily thou hast, " answered the merchant. " then farewell, and may blessings rest on thee and the good ibrahim and on all your works. " thus spoke the arab, raising his hands in benediction. then he disappeared within the golden doors. the jeweler and ibrahim followed quickly, but though they hastened through the halls and corridors of many colored marbles, in and out of rooms lighted by windows of clearest crystal, and up and down staircases of burnished metal, they could find no one. emerging into the open again, they saw a huge


© mamoun sakkal 2000 / 2008 there have been many attempts to modify the arabic script in the 20th century. the purposes of these attempts were usually stated to be : 1. to make reading arabic easier by fixing in the written text all vowels and sounds of the spoken language. 2. to make writing arabic easier by reducing the number of letter form variations. this always referred to letter form variations based on the letter position in the word, but also referred sometimes to the different styles of arabic calligraphy. 3. to make typesetting arabic easier by reducing the number of letter form variations. different solutions were sought for different technologies. 4. to make arabic more responsive to expressing new words resulting from inventions, products, and technologies. 5. to make arabic more contemporary and modern. this usually included vague notions of what is modern or contemporary, and in many cases did not include any notions of these concepts at all, as if they were defined and accepted in the minds of the writers and readers of such proposals. some of the early attempts were initiated by the academy of arabic language in egypt ( majmaa al - lughah al - arabiyyah, cairo ) in 1938 in its desire to solve the problem of typesetting arabic in an efficient way, that would also allow for accurate rendering and reading of the language. proposals by ali al - jarem, mahmoud taimour, and elias akkawi, among others, focused on devising a method to incorporate the tashkeel vowel marks into the writing of the words on a consistent basis, and reducing the number of letter forms to a minimum, which meant getting rid of the different forms of each letter based on its location in the word. abdul aziz fahmi suggested replacing the arabic script with the latin script as was done in turkey a few years earlier. this proposal to use the latin script to write arabic has been already advanced in egypt in 1880 by wilhelm spitta [ an egyptian 2 ], in 1890 by karl vollers, both directors of the egyptian national library ( dar al - kutub al - misriyya ). in 1947 the lebanese - born architect and artist nasri khattar designed a simplified script for printing he named the unified arabic ( al abjadiah al muwahhadah ). his work on this project for more than thirty years was supported by a ford foundation grant to promote his proposal. khattar described his project as follows : unified alphabet is not a new alphabet. it may be described as a new style, which as


his work on this project for more than thirty years was supported by a ford foundation grant to promote his proposal. khattar described his project as follows : unified alphabet is not a new alphabet. it may be described as a new style, which as such does not exhibit any greater differences than those found among the traditional and current arabic styles in use... it does not alter or replace, but complements the styles of handwriting and the beautiful art of calligraphy, which remain in their present form. arabic, like english, will now have a method of writing in which the letters of a word are attached to each other, and a different method for printing in which the letters of a word appear disconnected... for the non - arab, as well as for the child or the illiterate, the greatest obstacle in learning arabic has been the complicated script. the work of ahmad lakhdar ghazal also started in the 1950s in morocco. with the support of the moroccan government he developed a standard alphabet where each letter has one form that can be modified by simple endings, but remained very close to the forms of traditional naskh used for typesetting arabic books and magazines. lakhdar ghazal believes that part of the problems of arabic stem from misunderstanding the printing requirements, and the difference between written and typeset text. his work in adapting the arabic script to printing demands was based on four principles : 1. no major changes to the form of traditional arabic letters. 2. use of only one shape for each letter in the different positions of the word. 3. allowing tashkeel ( vocalization ) marks to be an essential part of the typeset text. 4. adapting this reform to all printing technologies from typesetting, to typing, to wire transfers. [ tarabieh 77 ]. a somewhat similar approach was proposed by roberto hamm in 1975 where the letters have two forms each instead of the typical four, and connected to each other with kashida extensions to allow for the presentation of connected text. these connections also carry the tashkeel vowel marks and are used as tails to indicate final or isolated letter forms. [ hamm ]. however, the font designs proposed by hamm were foreign looking and not very successful, consequently his proposal did not did not have a lasting impact. mohammrd said al saggar from baghdad and my own work in aleppo, syria, in the 1970s also aimed at producing simplified typefaces with a limited number of letter forms. saggars work


did not have a lasting impact. mohammrd said al saggar from baghdad and my own work in aleppo, syria, in the 1970s also aimed at producing simplified typefaces with a limited number of letter forms. saggars work retained many qualities of the traditional scripts both in kufi and naskhi, and continued to develop his typeface designs until the 1990s with diwan of london. my own work started in a minimalist way where all the letters have uniform shapes, the same height, large x - height, separate rather than connected letters. this work developed into my typeface shilia which is more traditional. murad boutros published an article about his arabic simplified typeface in apple magazine in nov. 1993. again using one form for each letter, and allowing for either connecting or separating the letters when typeset. his font has a traditional naskhi character. in recent years, a number of proposals connected one way or another with computers have also been advanced. abdelmalek bouhadjera, an algerian engineer, used square kufi to design a printing alphabet with separate letters he named el - abdjadia el - mouwahada which means standardised or unified alphabet. although his early work deviated substantially from traditional forms, his later proposal comes very close to the typical shapes of letters in square kufi calligraphy used mostly to decorate buildings. other proposals include dawud chalabis invitation to use separated letters in iraq in 1885, a book published using separated letters in london in 1890 by the ambassador of iran to england, and ibrahim al yaziji and kamel marwas work on simplifying letter shapes. albashir bin salamah presented a proposal in his book arabic language and writing problems in 1971, afif bahnasi presented another proposal in his book arabic calligraphy : its origins, rise, and spread in 1984, still another proposal was made in a book titled arabic calligraphy. other work related to simplification of arabic script include : a proposal to use the latin script by the lebanese sa ' eed aql in his book yara published in beirut in 1961. he published his book " al - khumasiyyat " using his proposal, qadmus publishing, beirut, 1978. a proposal to write vowels as letters included always in written text by abdul almajeed al - taji al - farouki published in his book " tatawuru dabti al - kitabati al - arabiyati " (


. a proposal to write vowels as letters included always in written text by abdul almajeed al - taji al - farouki published in his book " tatawuru dabti al - kitabati al - arabiyati " ( the evolution of regulating arabic writing ), newcastle upon tyne, england, 1962. the same author published another book on the same proposal in 1959 mentioned in sabri book below. a proposal to use latin script by uthman sabri published in his book " nahwa abjadiyaten jadida " ( towards a new alphabet ), 1964. proceedings of 8th conference for standards in the middle east, cairo 1 / 30 / 1961. reference from zain al din, naji : badaii al - khatt al - arabi ( the beauties of arabic calligraphy ), baghdad 1971. final report on the experiment to simplify arabic writing by the arab league educational, cultural, and scientific organization published in october, 1978 in cairo. " the mutamathil script " a proposal by saad abulhab for symmetrical arabic letters that can be typed from right to left of left to right. 1998. http : / / arabetics. com / mutamathil / although the list above may give the impression that arabic typography indeed needs reform, the fact that most of the proposals above did not meet with users ' acceptance for the past seventy years clearly indicates that none produced a better way of writing than the system already in place. some simplification of the script is adapted in various modern printing and computer fonts, however, much of the arguments about the technical difficulties of typesetting arabic are now irrelevant due to the developments in contemporary type technology including the adaptation of opentype standards. most of the above proposals are reviewed and critiqued by imil ya ' qub in his excellent book : " al - khatt al - arabi : nash ' atuhu, tatawuruhu, mushkilatutu, da ' awat islahihi " ( arabic script : origin, development, problems, and solutions ), jarus press, tripoli, lebanon, 1986. for relevant articles please see : modern arabic typography : challenges and opportunities opentype for fine arabic typography | bibliography | | arabic calligraphy | dr. mamoun sakkal is a calligrapher and type designer. he lived and worked in aleppo, syria, and now resides in the state of washington, usa. he taught


the " generale verenigde geoktrooijeerde nedelandse oos - indiese compagnie " later called the " v o c " ( verenigde oos - indiese compagnie ) was formed in amsterdam in 1602. it was managed by 17 directors known as here xvii. their achieved aim was the gain of political, cultural and economic influence in the indian ocean areas from the cape to japan. they were very successful and gathered enormous riches. during 1651, the voc decided to start an outpost at the kaap de goeie hoop resulting in jan van riebeeck arriving at table bay on 6 april 1652, with his three sail ships - dromedaris, de rijger and de goede hoop. the outpost was successful and they became aware of the mineral riches of africa and subsequently decided to extend their domain. on 25 july 1719, a decision was made in amsterdam to take occupation of delagoa bay. two ships the gouda and zeelandia were sent of and arrived at the now maputo bay on 21 march 1721, loaded with whatever they thought that may be required for establishing a base at monomotapa for the treasure trade, of gold and ivory. a suitable site was selected and the building of a earth and wood fort commenced. fort de lagoa later renamed to fort lijdzaamheid was completed within a few months, in the meantime treaties were agreed upon and signed with the local native leaders. with the fort completed, the gardens flourishing, the plans for an inland expedition started taking shape. the first group to move inland was under the leadership of sergeant j. c. steffler and 19 other soldiers. they moved to the lebombo mountains bordering swaziland. while crossing, the group was attacked by a swazi impi and in the skirmish steffler and another nco were killed. the survivors withdrew to fort de lagoa. the de cuiper expedition - part 1 jan van de capelle was appointed comander of the fort de lagoa base in 1725, being ambitious and very patriotic he made plans for an expedition into the interior which was put to the here xvii, to investigate the mineral riches of monomotapa. the proposal was accepted and preparations commenced, 31 men were selected, the expedition under comand of frans de cuiper, set off on 27 june 1725. the supplies packed onto oxen. eight natives who would act as interpreters


the history of the area before the park ’ s inception. of the first black tribes to penetrate the northern kalahari were the kgalagadi who lived in comparative peace with the san. they were eventually out but the name gave the area was to remain. ( kalahari is derived from the kgalagadi work makgadikgadi, meaning saltpans or the great thirstland ). the first white people entering the area came to trade with the kalahari people, usually paying for their goods with livestock. in 1891, the park area as well as the area to the southwest presently known as the mier, was annexed to british bechuanaland. approximately ten years later, just across the border, the hottentots rebelled against the german colonial rule in south west africa ( present - day namibia ). although well inside british territory, german troops had set up a station at groot kolk to transmit messages to south west africa. an enormous camel thorn tree served as an ideal lookout post but despite the hottentots, under leader captain dirk filander, attacked at daybreak killing the germans as they rose from their beds. unfortunately, the tree, still bearing horseshoes, which the germans nailed to the trunk as a ladder, burnt down in a large veldfire in 1976. after world war 1 was over, scottish born rodger “ malkop ” jackson surveyed the region and a theoretical subdivision was made into farms of 10 200 and 12 800 hectares. jackson named many of the farms after landmarks in homeland scotland, most of which are still in use today as boreholes in the park. several white farmers settled as borehole caretakers along the auob river and they stayed rent - free as long as the boreholes were kept in good repair. additional farms were allocated to more white farmers along the auob and along the nossob river. however, this is a harsh environment and neither these farmers nor their coloured counterparts, to whom the land was eventually given, could make a comfortable living. if not for the tsama melons, an essential plant in this semi - arid ecosystem, which in dry times are the principle source of water, many would not have survived. under very dry conditions, even the tsamas disappear and only animals that are well adapted to the harsh conditions survive. they therefore took to hunting and they, and biltong hunters from further a field, gradually denuded the game. only in the more remote reaches of the upper nossob river was the balance


that are well adapted to the harsh conditions survive. they therefore took to hunting and they, and biltong hunters from further a field, gradually denuded the game. only in the more remote reaches of the upper nossob river was the balance of nature maintained, for here the san lived in harmony with animals and plants. if this remarkable eco - system was to survive a conservation plan of action had to come into play … … a short history of the park a short history would give some perspective on the sequence of events that relate to the history of the farms. it is necessary to briefly underline the historic events and dates leading up to the proclamation of the park ( in 1931 ) and the events that happened after the park ’ s proclamation. these events had bearing on time frames and may suggest the origins of the structures along the auob river, artefacts and ruins in the park. before white settlements, or exploitation, of the area now included in the park, the land was part of the san people ’ s domain for hunting and gathering food. during the 19th century, explorers discovered that the riverbeds of the auob and nossob were easier to follow by wagon, than trying to cross the sand dunes. for years, no government claimed the land and the san were the only people residing here. one of the last and oldest sources on the times relating to that era is regopstaan kruiper who died in 1996 at the age of 96. eventually the land became attached to the cape colony. the government, from 1897, began to survey the land and subdividing it into farms for white settlers. in 1904, the authorities in german south west africa ( namibia ) sent soldiers to blockade the water holes in the nossob and force khoikhoi rebels into submission. unfortunately for them, at grootkolk, an entire german patrol was slaughtered. the white settlers were slow to take advantage of the newly surveyed farms and the cape government decided to give them to coloured ( “ basters ” ) farmers instead. the farms had names like koko, kameelsleep, kaspers draai en kwang. in 1884, the germans occupied south west africa and it was during these years that stoffel ( christoffel ) le riche first ventured into the kalahari. in 1899, he and his wife martie moved from rietfontein, just south of the existing park. in 1899 there first son johannes and in 1904 their second son joseph ( later known


le riche first ventured into the kalahari. in 1899, he and his wife martie moved from rietfontein, just south of the existing park. in 1899 there first son johannes and in 1904 their second son joseph ( later known as joep ) was born. with the outbreak of world war 1 in 1914, the ( union of ) south africa ( n ) government drilled a series of boreholes along the auob to provide their troops with water in case south africa wanted to use corridor to invade south west africa. guards were recruited mainly from the local community and hired to protect and maintain the boreholes. they were permitted to settle next to the holes with their families and livestock. it was expected that they would live of the veld ( with dire consequences to the environment ). because of lack of firewood and appropriate clay to make bricks they erected timber frame structures as dwellings and stock shelters. dwellings that are more permanent were erected with the locally abundant calcrete stone. none of the timber frame shelters were recorded and nothing remained. the only evidence of these times are the calcrete walls of circular cattle kraals, the foundations of square and rectangular huts and some larger multi roomed dwellings. this corridor was never used to invade south west africa and the borehole guards stayed on, largely forgotten by the authorities. instead, the government appointed a scottish land surveyor rodger “ malkop ” duke jackson to survey the area and divide it into farms. about this time, six farms were purchased by the south african government, but were not occupied before the government decided that coloured people should rather settle the region. the british government, then already in control of bechuanaland, had already settled coulred people on the east bank of the nossob between rooiputs and its confluence with the auob river ( the ruins of an old dwelling is still located at rooiputs ). biltong hunters penetrated the area and by the late 1920s, several species were in danger of becoming extinct. two conservationists invited the then minister of lands, piet grobler to inspect the region. grobler piloted the national parks act through parliament and played a major role in the proclamation of kruger national park in 1926. by 1931, piet grobler had decided to proclaim the area between the nossob river and the auob river and the swa border a national park. land was purchased south of the park to resettle “ coloured ” people and the borehole structures were abandoned


goldfield, nev. — the esmeralda county school district has adopted a policy that allows students to speak spanish while riding the school bus, revoking a ban that was approved by its school board in october. the prohibition on speaking spanish had affected about a dozen students from a farming and ranching community in esmeralda county, who are bused by the district to a high school in neighboring nye county. the district implemented the new policy — which states, “ there is no general rule prohibiting spanish on any of our buses ” — after it received a letter from the american civil liberties union ( aclu ). “ the school district understands that students have a constitutional right to free speech, ” said gary peck, executive director of the aclu of nevada. “ once the superintendent was informed that prohibiting students from speaking spanish violated their rights, the school district was very willing to work out a policy that both encourages students to practice their english skills and allows them to speak their native language. ” on the bus ride that the students take to return to esmeralda county, there is an academic period for the first 45 minutes in which the students are required to do homework, study or read. during this period, the district asks that all students practice their english skills. students who are more proficient in english may speak spanish while assisting those whose english is more limited. students who are developing their english skills will work with a tutor who rides with them. the second 45 - minute period of the evening ride is considered free time, and students may speak to one another in any language they choose. students may also speak to each other in the language of their choice during the morning bus ride. when communicating with the bus driver and tutors, the district asks that students speak in english or ask another student to interpret if necessary, because the bus driver and the tutors don ' t speak spanish.


oct. 30, 1997 dallas, oct. 21 - if more people would take an aspirin when they experience chest pain or other symptoms of a severe heart attack, 5, 000 to 10, 000 lives could be saved in the united states each year, according to an american heart association scientific statement published today in the association ' s journal circulation. " there is clear and conclusive evidence of the benefits of aspirin, " says charles hennekens, m. d., one of three internationally recognized medical leaders on heart disease and stroke who authored the statement titled, " aspirin as a therapeutic agent in cardiovascular disease. " " it doesn ' t matter what brand, just as long as aspirin is used, " says hennekens, chief of preventive medicine at brigham and women ' s hospital and professor of medicine at harvard medical school. individuals undergoing a heart attack should take a full tablet ( 325 milligrams ) of aspirin to obtain a " rapid clinical effect, " he adds. for those who have had a heart attack and want to prevent another one, " it appears that 50 to 100 milligrams a day or a commercial baby aspirin is sufficient. " aspirin prevents blood platelets from sticking together and forming blood clot masses. by blocking blood vessels, these clots can cause heart attacks and strokes. the american heart association issued the statement, also authored by mark l. dyken, m. d., and valentin fuster, m. d., to guide physicians on the use of aspirin in the treatment and prevention of cardiovascular disease, the nation ' s no. 1 killer. it also encourages more doctors to recommend aspirin to patients whom research studies have shown could benefit from this relatively inexpensive over - the - counter drug. the association ' s statement calls for a wider use of aspirin than does the food and drug administration. while the fda has approved package labeling that points out that aspirin can help prevent another heart attack in individuals who have already survived one, the aha recommends that aspirin be taken by anyone with atherosclerosis, regardless of whether he or she has had a heart attack. atherosclerosis is the disease process that creates the obstructions in the blood vessels that can impair blood flow to the heart and brain, thus causing a heart attack or stroke. blood vessels in the limbs, as well as to the heart and brain, are vulnerable to atheroscle


creates the obstructions in the blood vessels that can impair blood flow to the heart and brain, thus causing a heart attack or stroke. blood vessels in the limbs, as well as to the heart and brain, are vulnerable to atherosclerosis. along with several other health organizations, the aha has asked the fda to expand its approved uses of aspirin. two studies in the past decade have revealed that 23 to 39 percent of heart attack survivors did not receive aspirin, despite its proven benefits. " we have a challenge to increase the use of aspirin in individuals having a heart attack as well as those who have a wide range of blood vessel, or vascular, diseases, " says hennekens. the american heart association recommends that aspirin be taken when a heart attack occurs and to prevent repeat heart attack in survivors. since heart attack survivors are at risk for stroke, taking an aspirin daily also can lower risk for suffering a " brain attack, " the no. 1 cause of major disability in the united states. research studies have not clearly demonstrated aspirin ' s value in preventing heart attack and stroke in healthy people without cardiovascular disease. " additional data are needed for complete assessment of aspirin ' s benefit - to - risk ratio in apparently healthy persons, " says hennekens. in deciding whether to recommend aspirin to a patient, physicians should consider the patient ' s risk for cardiovascular disease, the benefits of aspirin and side effects. however, no one should regard aspirin as a substitute for a heart - healthy lifestyle that includes a low saturated - fat diet, regular physical activity and no cigarette smoking. " unfortunately in the united states people would rather pop a pill, than change their unhealthy lifestyles, " says hennekens. " individuals should check with their doctors to determine whether they are candidates for aspirin and the dose they should take, " he says. " aspirin has the best benefit - to - risk ratio as well as benefit - to - cost ratio of any drug therapy for heart disease. " the american heart association does recommend that people who have not suffered a heart attack or stroke but who have experienced repeated episodes of unstable chest pain or mini - strokes ( transient ischemic attacks ) should take aspirin to reduce their risk for having a heart attack or stroke. individuals whose coronary arteries are obstructed by atherosclerosis and who undergo angioplasty and coronary


transient ischemic attacks ) should take aspirin to reduce their risk for having a heart attack or stroke. individuals whose coronary arteries are obstructed by atherosclerosis and who undergo angioplasty and coronary bypass surgery to restore blood flow to the heart also should take aspirin, according to the statement. in writing the scientific statement, drs. hennekens, dyken and fuster reviewed studies on the role of aspirin therapy. one such study, the antiplatelet trial collaboration overview, which analyzed results of randomized trials of therapy to prevent platelets from accumulating in 54, 000 individuals who were at high risk for heart disease, found aspirin therapy reduced by one - fourth the risk of subsequent non - fatal heart attacks and strokes. other studies, comparing other antiplatelet agents to aspirin showed that use of ticlopidine resulted in a 21 percent decrease in stroke over aspirin at three years. however, ticlopidine is more expensive and causes more side effects than aspirin. another study showed that clopidogrel used in people with heart attack, stroke and peripheral vascular disease produced a slightly lower rate of death with no major differences in side effects than aspirin. but the use of aspirin to prevent heart or stroke in those who are healthy remains less clear. in the u. s. physician ' s health study, 22, 071 physicians were given an alternate day dose of 325 milligrams of aspirin, resulting in a 44 percent reduction in the risk of first heart attack. the findings for stroke and overall heart and stroke death rates were inconclusive, but raised the possibility of small increased risk of stroke caused by bleeding in the brain, says hennekens. a british trial among male physicians found no significant effects of aspirin, but the trial had only one - fourth the number of physicians as the u. s. trial. combined, the two trials report a 32 percent reduction in the risk of heart attack by taking aspirin. an ongoing trial of low dose 50 milligrams aspirin in 40, 000 u. s. female health - care professionals - - the women ' s health study - - will provide further information to develop a rational policy for recommending aspirin use in healthy people to prevent first heart attacks. dyken is professor of neurology, indiana university ; and fuster, president - elect of the


nov. 30, 2000 pittsburgh, nov. 27 – using sophisticated techniques, university of pittsburgh scientists have engineered perhaps the best gene therapy to date for duchenne muscular dystrophy ( dmd ), the catastrophic muscle wasting disease that strikes thousands of boys in the united states each year. the research, conducted in animals and reported in the nov. 28 issue of the proceedings of the national academy of sciences, is remarkable on several fronts. the pittsburgh team managed to whittle down the largest gene ever found ( 14 kilobases ) and packaged its most important components ( less than 4. 2 kilobases ) into the smallest – and arguably the safest – viral vector ever used for gene therapy. with this work, the investigators demonstrated, for the first time, the minimal amount of the dystrophin gene needed to achieve functional muscle. the gene vector used was a genetically engineered form of adeno - associated virus, or aav. when injected into the calf muscles of mice unable to naturally produce the dystrophin protein, the “ mini - gene ” construct resulted in the expression of functional dystrophin protein in almost 90 percent of the muscle tissue treated. the dystrophin expression lasted at least one year – the duration of the experiments. “ our research showed that we could introduce functional dystrophin into muscle tissue with aav. this gives us great hope that we can use this gene therapy strategy in a larger animal model of dmd and eventually treat patients within several years, ” said xiao xiao, ph. d., assistant professor in the department of molecular genetics and biochemistry at the university of pittsburgh. “ we were excited to see that mice treated with the mini - dystrophin gene did not show evidence of muscle breakdown many months after treatment, and even after the treated mice exercised, as was seen in untreated mice that lack dystrophin. ” “ with this work, dr. xiao and his laboratory have really taken the aav vector to a new level in its application to the treatment of dmd, ” said joseph glorioso, ph. d., chairman of the department of molecular biochemistry and genetics at the university of pittsburgh and vice president of the american society of gene therapy. “ at the same time, he has shown exactly what components of the dystrophin gene product are necessary for its localization and functional activity in muscle cell membranes. his design of a novel dystrophin mini - gene that both fits into this aav and


time, he has shown exactly what components of the dystrophin gene product are necessary for its localization and functional activity in muscle cell membranes. his design of a novel dystrophin mini - gene that both fits into this aav and which corrects the dystrophin deficiency in the dmd mouse model is a significant achievement. ” the mini - gene aav and a new technology recently developed in dr. xiao ’ s laboratory may also be applicable to other genetic disorders involving unusually large genes, according to the pitt researchers. considered the most common genetic ailment, duchenne muscular dystrophy, or dmd, is an x - linked disorder that strikes one of every 3, 500 boys worldwide. it causes progressive muscle weakening and death, usually before age 20. no effective therapy exists for the disease. in boys lacking dystrophin, muscles function abnormally, at first enlarging, then degenerating so that fat and scar tissue take over. boys with dmd lose muscle function throughout their bodies, until either the heart or the muscles that control breathing are compromised to the point where they no longer sustain life. “ this news moves us one step closer to a cure and for now provides real hope to further help these boys, ” said ms. pat furlong, president of the parent project for muscular dystrophy inc., which provided partial funding for this research. central to this research accomplishment was the work of bing wang, m. d., ph. d., research associate, and juan li, m. d., senior research associate. drs. wang and li treated dmd mice with one of three mini - gene constructs. each mini - gene construct contained a truncated version of the full dystrophin gene. based on investigations performed previously in other university laboratories, dr. xiao ’ s group selected certain sections of the dystrophin gene known to produce regions of the protein essential to its function. dmd mice treated with the mini - gene constructs showed evidence of stable, functional dystrophin, and their muscles did not degenerate, as typically is the case. although all three mini - gene constructs were effective in terms of reducing signs of muscle regeneration, one mini - gene in particular was best at entering the greatest number of muscle cells. dystrophin plays a critical role in maintaining the integrity of muscles located throughout the body. within each muscle cell are bundles of actin and myosin filaments. stacked


in particular was best at entering the greatest number of muscle cells. dystrophin plays a critical role in maintaining the integrity of muscles located throughout the body. within each muscle cell are bundles of actin and myosin filaments. stacked on one another, the actin and myosin proteins move back and forth in a plane, thereby effecting muscle contraction. dystrophin forms a bridge between the muscle cell membrane and each of these contractile bundles of actin and myosin. like a spring, each dystrophin protein allows the actin and myosin to move smoothly and effectively, while they remain anchored to the cell ’ s interior. by maintaining the muscle cells ’ integrity, dystrophin also prevents muscle cells from becoming “ leaky ” to surrounding molecules. muscle cells from dmd mice – and patients – show this increased “ leakiness, ” which eventually contributes to their demise and replacement with fat and scar tissue. dr. xiao ’ s group truncated the dystrophin genetic sequence that codes for a long series of repeat units in the middle of the dystrophin protein. dr. xiao ’ s mini - gene construct effectively shortened the “ spring ” by removing some of the repeats within it. even with much fewer repeat units, the protein ’ s function was nonetheless remarkably preserved. the “ spring ” apparently remained flexible enough to perform its function. the mini - dystrophin gene also contained structures for this series of repeats to remain anchored effectively on one end to the muscle cell membrane and on the other end to an actin filament. for many years, adeno - associated viruses were virtually ignored by researchers because they mistakenly thought these tiny microbes failed to infect non - dividing cells and because they could only carry a small genetic payload. yet, scientists are now quite excited by the biological properties of aav, according to dr. xiao. the aav vector is considered ideal for clinical gene therapy for many reasons, according to dr. xiao. the virus from which the aav vector is produced does not cause any diseases and is disabled so that it cannot reproduce. the aav vector is easily manufactured and stable. it can be targeted to specific tissues and produces long - lasting gene expression. moreover, it does not provoke an immune response against cells that it enters. this type of immune response has been seen in gene therapies using other virus types. in a next step, dr. xiao ’ s laboratory will collaborate with other investigators in testing the aav mini


may 24, 2004 providence, r. i. - - male bullfrogs communicate with other bullfrogs through calls made up of a series of croaks, some of which contain stutters, according to a new brown university study which describes a pattern not previously identified in scientific literature. researchers recorded 2, 536 calls from 32 male bullfrogs in natural chorus and analyzed the number of croaks in each call and the number of stutters in each croak. it is known that the male bullfrog ' s call attracts females for mating, maintains territorial boundaries with other males, and indicates that the frog is healthy and aggressive. " some animals have evolved large, complex vocabularies to communicate, while others say a lot with very limited numbers of calls, " said andrea simmons, professor of psychology, who presented the findings at 75th meeting of the acoustical society of america monday, may 24, 2004. " a fundamental question in the study of communication by sound is ' how much information can a sender convey in a single sound '? " within a single vocalization, the frogs exhibited a pattern of croaks with and without stutters that appeared to have a communication function and did not simply represent that a male was getting tired, simmons said. an acoustic analysis showed the stutters followed certain rules : 100 percent of the recorded calls began with a croak containing no stutters ; when the frogs started stuttering they generally did so within a croak that contained one stutter only ; when they increased or decreased stutters from croak - to - croak, they did so by only a single stutter. stuttering did not occur because a frog was " running out of breath, " said the researchers. if that were the case, a less structured pattern of stutters would occur. more likely, the frog inserted stutters in the call to extend the length of his individual calls while reducing the amount of air exchange needed, similar to what occurs when opera singers insert vibrato in extended notes. to determine how the frog ' s calls were perceived, researchers played pre - recorded stuttering and non - stuttering calls through a loudspeaker to individual males. the frogs appeared to use non - stuttered calls for aggressive or territorial purposes. males produced the stuttered calls more frequently at certain points during the breeding season, indicating the stuttering may be involved in attracting a mate. simmons conducted the study with dianne suggs, a graduating senior in psychology