on this day in 1863, union general ulysses s. grant breaks the siege of chattanooga, tennessee, in stunning fashion by routing the confederates under general braxton bragg at missionary ridge. for two months following the battle of chattanooga, the confederates had kept the union army bottled up inside a tight semicircle around chattanooga. when grant arrived in october, however, he immediately reversed the defensive posture of his army. after opening a supply line by driving the confederates away from the tennessee river in late october, grant prepared for a major offensive in late november. it was launched on november 23 when he sent general george thomas to probe the center of the confederate line. this simple plan turned into a complete victory, and the rebels retreated higher up missionary ridge. on november 24, the yankees captured lookout mountain on the extreme right of the union lines, and this set the stage for the battle of missionary ridge. the attack took place in three parts. on the union left, general william t. sherman attacked troops under patrick cleburne at tunnel hill, an extension of missionary ridge. in difficult fighting, cleburne managed to hold the hill. on the other end of the union lines, general joseph hooker was advancing slowly from lookout mountain, and his force had little impact on the battle. it was at the center that the union achieved its greatest success. the soldiers on both sides received confusing orders. some union troops thought they were only supposed to take the rifle pits at the base of the ridge, while others understood that they were to advance to the top. some of the confederates heard that they were to hold the pits, while others thought they were to retreat to the top of missionary ridge. furthermore, poor placement of confederate trenches on the top of the ridge made it difficult to fire at the advancing union troops without hitting their own men, who were retreating from the rifle pits. the result was that the attack on the confederate center turned into a major union victory. after the center collapsed, the confederate troops retreated on november 26, and bragg pulled his troops away from chattanooga. he resigned shortly thereafter, having lost the confidence of his army. the confederates suffered some 6, 600 men killed, wounded, and missing, and the union lost around 5, 800. grant missed an opportunity to destroy the confederate army when he chose not to pursue the retreating rebels, but chattanooga was secured. sherman resumed the attack in the spring after grant was promoted to general in chief of all federal forces.


in the streets of prague and in the united nations headquarters in new york city, czechs protest against the soviet invasion of their nation. the protests served to highlight the brutality of the soviet action and to rally worldwide condemnation of the soviet union. on august 21, 1968, more than 200, 000 troops of the warsaw pact crossed into czechoslovakia in response to democratic and free market reforms being instituted by czech communist party general secretary alexander dubcek. negotiations between dubcek and soviet bloc leaders failed to convince the czech leader to back away from his reformist platform. the military intervention on august 21 indicated that the soviets believed that dubcek was going too far and needed to be restrained. on august 22, thousands of czechs gathered in central prague to protest the soviet action and demand the withdrawal of foreign troops. although it was designed to be a peaceful protest, violence often flared and several protesters were killed on august 22 and in the days to come. at the united nations, the czech delegation passionately declared that the soviet invasion was illegal and threatened the sovereignty of their nation. they called on the u. n. ' s security council to take action. the council voted 10 to 2 to condemn russia ' s invasion ; predictably, the soviet union vetoed the resolution. the 1968 invasion of czechoslovakia severely damaged the soviet government ' s reputation around the world, and even brought forth condemnation from communist parties in nations such as china and france. nonetheless, dubcek was pushed from power in april 1969 and the czech communist party adopted a tough line toward any dissent. the " prague spring " of 1968, when hopes for reform bloomed, would serve as a symbol for the so - called " velvet revolution " of 1989. in that year, czech dissidents were able to break the communist party ' s stranglehold on their nation ' s politics by electing vaclav havel, the first noncommunist president in 40 years.


an excerpt from www. houseofnames. com archives copyright © 2000 - 2013 where did the italian ciccaroni family come from? what is the italian ciccaroni family crest and coat of arms? when did the ciccaroni family first arrive in the united states? where did the various branches of the family go? what is the ciccaroni family history? the surname ciccaroni came from the personal name cicco, which is found in southern italy and the venetian region as a popular and affectionate form of the name francesco. in comparison with other european surnames, italian surnames have a surprising number of forms. they reflect the regional variations and the many dialects of the italian language, each with its own distinctive features. for example, in northern italy the typical italian surname suffix is " i ", whereas in southern italy it is " o ". additionally, spelling changes frequently occurred because medieval scribes and church officials often spelled names as they sounded rather than according to any specific spelling rules. the spelling variations in the name ciccaroni include cicco, cicchi, de cicco, d ' accico, daccico, cicchello, cicchelli, cicchella, ciccarello, ciccarelli, ciccarella, ciccariello, cicchetto, cicchetti, cicchitto, cicchino, cicchini, ciccolo, ciccolino, ciccolini, coccolone, coccoloni, ciccolella, ciccotto, ciccotti, ciccotta, cicconi, ciccone, ciccaglione, ciccaglioni, ciccalotti, ciccarese, ciccaresi, ciccarino, ciccarini, ciccarone, ciccaroni, cichetti, cicutto, cicala, cicconetti, cicalotti, ciceri, cicero, cicera, cicinelli, cicogna, ciconi and many more. first found in piedmont. earliest records date back to the year 1112, when pompeo cicala was a valiant soldier in the city of genoa. this web page shows only a small excerpt of our ciccaroni research. another 262 words ( 19 lines of text ) covering the years 1493, 1623, 1673, 1686, 1751, 1780, and 1804 are included under the topic early ciccaroni history


one of the most common uses of flash memory is for the basic input / output system of your computer, commonly known as the bios ( pronounced " bye - ose " ). on virtually every computer available, the bios makes sure all the other chips, hard drives, ports and cpu function together. every desktop and laptop computer in common use today contains a microprocessor as its central processing unit. the microprocessor is the hardware component. to get its work done, the microprocessor executes a set of instructions known as software ( see how microprocessors work for details ). you are probably very familiar with two different types of software : - the operating system - the operating system provides a set of services for the applications running on your computer, and it also provides the fundamental user interface for your computer. windows 98 and linux are examples of operating systems. ( see how operating systems work for lots of details. ) - the applications - applications are pieces of software that are programmed to perform specific tasks. on your computer right now you probably have a browser application, a word processing application, an e - mail application and so on. you can also buy new applications and install them. it turns out that the bios is the third type of software your computer needs to operate successfully. in this article, you ' ll learn all about bios - - what it does, how to configure it and what to do if your bios needs updating.


the eduss solution consists of five individual tools that provide you with a complete homeschool curriculum solution covering math, english grammar, comprehension, vocabulary and phonics reading. gap scan technology : the eduss gap scan technology is the intelligent multi - dimensional assessment engine that has the ability to not only identify your child ’ s level of knowledge but also their foundational level of understanding. the engine will also expose your child to various learning styles to facilitate the best learning style for your child. automated differentiated diagnostic assessment : most often, learning gaps only become evident sometime after they occur. the eduss diagnostic assessment is designed to search for and identify these learning gaps by using the gap scan technology, even if they occurred earlier in your child ’ s learning career. this forms the basis for the individualized learning plan for your child. gap recovery plan : on the basis of information gleaned in the comprehensive diagnostic assessment, the solution generates a learning plan that is specifically designed to meet the individual child ’ s needs. it is not a one size fits all. each child begins his / her learning program at the level of proficiency identified in the assessment in each and every strand assessed. personal instructor : the personal instruction module of the solution provides fully narrated step - by - step instruction in any topic of need to the student. because different students learn differently, eduss has been careful to design this instructional module to meet the needs of different learning styles. student management system : the eduss student manager system provides real - time monitoring and mapping through one integrated reporting interface making it easy for you to track and monitor the activity of each of your children individually. real - time information helps you make instructional decisions and / or adjustments. complete reports are available at any time for every component of your child ’ s learning cycle : assessment, tutorial, progress made, practice results, homework results, and quiz / test results.


research study types there are many different types of research studies, and each has distinct strengths and weaknesses. in general, randomized trials and cohort studies provide the best information when looking at the link between a certain factor ( like diet ) and a health outcome ( like heart disease ). these are studies done in laboratories on cells, tissue, or animals. laboratories provide strictly controlled conditions and are often the genesis of scientific ideas that go on to have a broad impact on human health. however, laboratory studies are only a starting point. animals or cells are no substitute for humans. these studies look at the characteristics of one group of people who already have a certain health outcome ( the cases ) and compare them to a similar group of people who do not have the outcome ( the controls ). while case - control studies can be done quickly and relatively cheaply, they aren ’ t ideal for studying diet because they gather information from the past. people with illnesses often recall past behaviors differently from those without illness. this opens such studies to potential inaccuracy and bias in the information they gather. these studies follow large groups of people over a long period of time. researchers regularly gather information from the people in the study on a wide variety of variables ( like meat intake, physical activity level, and weight ). once a specified amount of time has elapsed, the characteristics of people in the group are compared to test specific hypotheses ( like the link between carotenoids and glaucoma, or meat intake and prostate cancer ). though time - consuming and expensive, cohort studies generally provide more reliable information than case - control studies because they don ’ t rely on information from the past. cohort studies gather the information all along and before anyone develops the disease being studied. as a group, these types of studies have provided valuable information about the link between lifestyle factors and disease. two of the largest and longest - running cohort studies of diet are the harvard - based nurses ’ health study and the health professionals follow - up study. like cohort studies, these studies follow a group of people over time. however, with randomized trials, the researchers actually intervene to see how a specific behavior change or treatment, for example, affects a health outcome. they are called “ randomized trials ” because people in the study are randomly assigned either to receive or not receive the intervention. this randomization helps researchers hone in on the true effect the intervention has on the health outcome. however, randomized trials also have drawbacks, especially


census of population and housing [ united states ], 1970 : fifth - count tallies : sample data for school districts ( icpsr 3524 ) principal investigator ( s ) : united states department of commerce. bureau of the census summary : these fifth - count tallies by school district were created from the assembled and edited 20 - percent, 15 - percent, and 5 - percent samples portions of the 1970 census of population and housing. ( more info ) these data are available only to users at icpsr member institutions. because you are not logged in, we cannot verify that you will be able to download the data. u. s. dept. of commerce, bureau of the census. census of population and housing [ united states ], 1970 : fifth - count tallies : sample data for school districts. icpsr version. washington, dc : u. s. dept of commerce, bureau of the census [ producer ], 1970. ann arbor, mi : inter - university consortium for political and social research [ distributor ], 2003. doi : 10. 3886 / icpsr03524. v1 persistent url : http : / / dx. doi. org / 10. 3886 / icpsr03524. v1 scope of study summary : these fifth - count tallies by school district were created from the assembled and edited 20 - percent, 15 - percent, and 5 - percent samples portions of the 1970 census of population and housing. geographic coverage : united states date of collection : universe : all persons and housing units in the united states. data types : census / enumeration data data collection notes : ( 1 ) the logical record for the school district file consists of 120 characters of geographical identification followed by 26 16 - character tally fields and 878 8 - character tally fields followed by 96 characters of padding. the file is sorted within state in ascending sequence of 5 - digit school district codes. where school districts cross county lines, school district total and county component records appear separately. in these cases, the school district total record precedes its county component records, which are sorted by 1970 fips county code. school districts with populations of less than 1, 000 persons are combined in the code category 99999. ( 2 ) the codebook and data collection instrument are provided as a portable document format ( pdf ) file. the pdf file format was developed by adobe systems incorporated and can be accessed using pdf reader software, such as the adobe acrobat reader. information on how to obtain


hyped arsenic bacteria research ' should not have been published ' by brian thomas, m. s. * nasa recently issued a series of press releases and arranged a press conference to promote research claiming that life was possible in outer space. 1, 2 however, the research drew heavy criticism from scientists around the world, and the interest - generating tactics that the space agency employed have been called into question. the study, which appeared in the journal science, focused on microbes found in a california lake, not in materials from space. 3 the study ' s authors concluded that certain bacteria could actually incorporate the element arsenic — a well - known poison — into the structure of their dna molecules. however, critics quickly noted that the testing procedure was flawed. the research results could have come from arsenic that was on or near the dna, but not in it. it would have been quite simple for the researchers to have " washed " the dna and then searched for the arsenic in a clean sample of pure dna — but they didn ' t. in addition, " it turns out the nasa scientists were feeding the bacteria salts which they freely admit were contaminated with a tiny amount of phosphate, " science writer carl zimmer wrote for the online news magazine slate. this could have supplied the phosphorous the bacteria needed, rather than having it completely replaced by arsenic. the university of colorado ' s shelley copley added, " this paper should not have been published. " 4 the report in science did not address the additional conundrum that dna has physical size constraints on its elemental building blocks. arsenic atoms are much larger than those of phosphorus and would undoubtedly yield warped and misshapen dna that would be inaccessible to the many dna - binding proteins upon which cellular life depends. the nasa authors have so far refused to engage these issues, pointing to the more proper scientific procedure of publishing in a peer - reviewed journal. critical letters to science are currently in the mail. 4 in the meantime, other scientists are not staying silent. jonathan eisen, university of california, davis genomicist and academic editor of the online science journal plos biology, called the nasa authors ' lack of response " absurd. " he told slate, " they carried out science by press release and press conference. whether they were right or not in their claims, they are now hypocritical if they say that the only response should be in the scientific literature. " 4 these events have a familiar tone. when media hyped the fossil primate " ida " as a " missing link


their claims, they are now hypocritical if they say that the only response should be in the scientific literature. " 4 these events have a familiar tone. when media hyped the fossil primate " ida " as a " missing link " in human evolution, rebuttals appeared in journals and news stories. analysis of the details showed that the claim had absolutely no substance. ida was merely an extinct variety of lemur. 5, 6, 7 the same can be said of nasa ' s 1996 work - up of a meteorite, which supposedly contained intact fossils of martian bacteria. 8 a subsequent report from earlier this month, not accompanied by a press conference, demonstrated how these kinds of " fossil " markings are made by ozone gas interacting with minerals. 9 icr news has reported that the practice of doing " science " by press release serves an agenda other than presenting scientific data. for instance, since science could not show that the much - hyped " ardi " was a human ancestor, that message was instead broadcast through the press. 10 and since nasa needed federal funding at the time, the agency promoted the martian germs. so, did a press conference substitute for quality science when nasa proclaimed its arsenic bacteria find? perhaps the government agency needs more public support again. at any rate, these cases and others show that the science often does not match the headlines, and it pays for readers to dig a little deeper. - brown, d. and c. weselby. nasa - funded research discovers life built with toxic chemical. nasa feature. posted on nasa. gov december 2, 2010, accessed december 9, 2010. - brown, d. and c. weselby. nasa sets news conference on astrobiology discovery ; science journal has embargoed details until 2 p. m. est on dec. 2. nasa press release, november 29, 2010. - wolfe - simon, f. et al. a bacterium that can grow by using arsenic instead of phosphorus. science. published onlinedecember 2, 2010. - zimmer, c. " this paper should not have been published " ; scientists see fatal flaws in the nasa study of arsenic - based life. slate. posted on slate. com december 7, 2010, accessed december 9, 2010. - thomas, b. new fossil hype fits old pattern. icr news. posted on icr. org may 27, 2009, accessed december 9, 2010. - thomas, b. 2009. the ida fossil : a


first - hand : the foundation of digital television : the origins of the 4 : 2 : 2 component digital standard contributed by stanley baron, ieee life fellow by the late 1970 ' s, the application of digital technology in television production was widespread. a number of digital television products had become available for use in professional television production. these included graphics generators, recursive filters ( noise reducers ), time base correctors and synchronizers, standards converters, amongst others. however, each manufacturer had adopted a unique digital interface, and this meant that these digital devices when formed into a workable production system had to be interfaced at the analog level, thereby forfeiting many of the advantages of digital processing. most broadcasters in europe and asia employed television systems based on 625 / 50 scanning ( 625 lines per picture, repeated 50 fields per second ), with the pal color encoding system used in much of western europe, australia, and asia, while france, the soviet union, eastern europe, and china used variations of the secam color encoding system. there were differences in luminance bandwidth : 5. 0 mhz for b / g pal, 5. 5 mhz for pal in the uk and nominally 6 mhz for secam. there were also legacy monochrome systems, such as 405 / 50 scanning in the uk and the 819 / 50 system in france. the color television system that was dominate in the americas, japan, and south korea was based on 525 / 60 scanning, 4. 2 mhz luminance bandwidth, and the ntsc color standard. ntsc and pal color coding are both linear processes. therefore, analog signals in the nstc format could be mixed and edited during studio processing, provided that color sub carrier phase relationships were maintained. the same was true for production facilities based on the pal system. in analog ntsc and pal studios it was normal to code video to composite form as early as possible in the signal chain so that each signal required only one wire for distribution rather than the three needed for rgb or yuv component signals. the poor stability of analog circuitry meant that matching separate channel rgb or yuv component signals was impractical except in very limited areas. secam employed frequency modulated coding of the color information, which did not allow any processing of composite signals, so the very robust secam composite signal was used only on videotape recorders and point to point links, with decoding to component signals for mixing and editing. some secam broadcasters avoided the problem by operating their studios in


of composite signals, so the very robust secam composite signal was used only on videotape recorders and point to point links, with decoding to component signals for mixing and editing. some secam broadcasters avoided the problem by operating their studios in pal and recoding to secam for transmission. the international community recognized that the world community would be best served if there could be an agreement on a single production or studio digital interface standard regardless of which color standard ( 525 line ntsc, 625 line pal, or 625 line secam ) was employed for transmission. the cost of implementation of digital technology was seen as directly connected to the production volume ; the higher the volume, the lower the cost to the end user, in this case, the broadcasting community. work on determining a suitable standard was organized by the society of motion picture engineers ( smpte ) on behalf of the 525 / 60 broadcasting community and the european broadcasting union ( ebu ) on behalf of the 625 / 50 broadcasting community. in 1982, the international community reached agreement on a common 4 : 2 : 2 component digital television standard. this standard as documented in smpte 125, several ebu recommendations, and itu - r recommendation 601 was the first international standard adopted for interfacing equipment directly in the digital domain avoiding the need to first restore the signal to an analog format. the interface standard was designed so that the basic parameter values provided would work equally well in both 525 line / 60 hz and 625 line / 50 hz television production environments. the standard was developed in a remarkably short time, considering its pioneering scope, as the world wide television community recognized the urgent need for a solid basis for the development of an all digital television production system. a component - based ( y, r - y, b - y ) system based on a luminance ( y ) sampling frequency of 13. 5 mhz was first proposed in february 1980 ; the world television community essentially agreed to proceed on a component based system in september 1980 at the ibc ; a group of manufacturers supplied devices incorporating the proposed interface at a smpte sponsored test demonstration in san francisco in february 1981 ; most parameter values were essentially agreed to by march 1981 ; and the itu - r ( then ccir ) plenary assembly adopted the standard in february 1982. what follows is an overview of this historic achievement, providing a history of the standard ' s origins, explaining how the standard came into being, why various parameter values were chosen, the process that led the world community to an agreement, and how


1982. what follows is an overview of this historic achievement, providing a history of the standard ' s origins, explaining how the standard came into being, why various parameter values were chosen, the process that led the world community to an agreement, and how the 4 : 2 : 2 standard led to today ' s digital high definition production standards and digital broadcasting standards. it is understood that digital processing of any signal requires that the sample locations be clearly defined in time and space and, for television, processing is simplified if the samples are aligned so that they are line, field, and frame position repetitive yielding an orthogonal ( rectangular grid ) sampling pattern. while the ntsc system color sub carrier frequency ( fsc ) was an integer sub multiple of the horizontal line frequency ( fh ) [ fsc = ( m / n ) x fh ] lending itself to orthogonal sampling, the pal system color sub carrier employed a field frequency off set and the secam color system employed frequency modulation of the color subcarrier, which made sampling the color information, contained within those systems a more difficult challenge. further, since some european nations had adopted various forms of the pal 625 line / 50hz composite color television standard as their broadcast standard and other european nations had adopted various forms of the secam 625 line / 50hz composite color television standard, the european community ' s search for a common digital interface standard implied that a system that was independent of the color coding technique used for transmission would be required. developments within the european community in september 1972, the european broadcasting union ( ebu ) formed working party c, chaired by peter rainger to investigate the subject of coding television systems. in 1977, based on the work of working party c, the ebu issued a document recommending that the european community consider a component television production standard, since a component signal could be encoded as either a pal or secam composite signal just prior to transmission. at a meeting in montreux, switzerland in the spring of 1979, the ebu reached agreement with production equipment manufacturers that the future of digital program production in europe would be best served by component coding rather than composite coding, and the ebu established a research and development program among its members to determine appropriate parameter values. this launched an extensive program of work within the ebu on digital video coding for program production. the work was conducted within a handful of research laboratories across europe and within a reorganized ebu committee structure including : working party v on new systems and services chaired by peter rainger ; subgroup v1 chaired by yves


on digital video coding for program production. the work was conducted within a handful of research laboratories across europe and within a reorganized ebu committee structure including : working party v on new systems and services chaired by peter rainger ; subgroup v1 chaired by yves guinet, which assumed the tasks originally assigned to working party c ; and a specialist supporting committee v1 vid ( vision ) chaired by howard jones. david wood, representing the ebu technical center, served as the secretariat of all of the ebu committees concerned with digital video coding. in 1979, ebu vi vid proposed a single three channel ( y, r - y, b - y ) component standard. the system stipulated a 12. 0 mhz luminance ( y ) channel sampling frequency and provided for each of the color difference signals ( r - y and b - y ) to be sampled at 4. 0 mhz. the relationship between the luminance and color difference signals was noted sometimes as ( 12 : 4 : 4 ) and sometimes as ( 3 : 1 : 1 ). the proposal, based on the results of subjective quality evaluations, suggested these values were adequate to transparently deliver 625 / 50i picture quality. the ebu technical committee endorsed this conclusion at a meeting in april 1980, and instructed its technical groups : v, v1, and v1 vid to support this effort. smpte organized for the task at hand three smpte committees were charged with addressing various aspects of world wide digital standards. the first group, organized in late 1974, was the digital study group chaired by charles ginsburg. the study group was charged with investigating all issues concerning the application of digital technology to television. the second group was a task force on component digital coding with frank davidoff as chairman. this task force, which began work in february 1980, was charged with developing a recommendation for a single worldwide digital interface standard. while membership in smpte committees is generally open to any interested and affected party, the membership of the task force had been limited to recognized experts in the field. the third group was the working group on digital video standards. this working group was charged with documenting recommendations developed by the study group or the task force and generating appropriate standards, recommended practices, and engineering guidelines. in march 1977, the society of motion picture and television engineers ( smpte ) began development of a digital television interface standard. the work was assigned by smpte ' s committee on new technology chaired by fred remley to the working group on digital video standards


the society of motion picture and television engineers ( smpte ) began development of a digital television interface standard. the work was assigned by smpte ' s committee on new technology chaired by fred remley to the working group on digital video standards chaired by dr. robert hopkins. by 1979, the working group on digital video standards was completing development of a digital interface standard for ntsc television production. given the state of the art at the time and the desire to develop a standard based on the most efficient mechanism, the working group created a standard that allowed the ntsc television video signal to be sampled as a single composite color television signal. it was agreed after a long debate on the merits of three times sub carrier ( 3fsc ) versus four times sub carrier ( 4fsc ) sampling that the composite digital television standard would require the composite television signal with its luminance channel and color sub carrier to be sampled at four times the color sub carrier frequency ( 4fsc ) or 14. 31818... mhz. during the last quarter of 1979, agreement was reached on a set of parameter values, and the drafting of the composite digital television standard was considered completed. it defined a signal sampled at 4fsc with 8 bit samples. this standard seemed to resolve the problem of providing a direct digital interface for production facilities utilizing the ntsc standard. by 1980, the committee on new technology was being chaired by hopkins and the working group on digital video standards was being chaired by ken davies. responding to communications with the ebu and so as not to prejudice the efforts being made to reach agreement on a world wide component standard, in january 1980, hopkins put the finished work on the ntsc composite digital television standard temporarily aside so that any minor modifications to the document that would serve to meet possible world wide applications could be incorporated before final approval. since copies of the document were bound in red binders, the standard was referred to as the " red book ". seeking a common reference the agenda of the january 1980 meeting of smpte ' s digital study group included a discussion on a world wide digital television interface standard. at that meeting, the study group considered the report of the european community, and members of the ebu working parties had been invited to attend. although i was not a member of the study group, i was also invited to attend the meeting. it was recognized that while a three color representation of the television signal using red, blue, and green ( r, g, b ) was the simplest three component representation, a


member of the study group, i was also invited to attend the meeting. it was recognized that while a three color representation of the television signal using red, blue, and green ( r, g, b ) was the simplest three component representation, a more efficient component representation, but one that is more complex, is to provide a luminance or gray scale channel ( y ) and two color difference signals ( r - y and b - y ). the r - y and b - y components take advantage of the characteristics of the human visual system which is less sensitive to high resolution information for color than for luminance. this allows for the use of a lower number of samples to represent the color difference signals without observable losses in the restored images. color difference components ( noted as i, q or u, v or dr, db ) were already in use in the ntsc, pal, and secam systems to reduce the bandwidth required to support color information. members of the ntsc community present at the january 1980 study group meeting believed that the ebu v1 vid proposed 12. 0 mhz, ( 3 : 1 : 1 ) set of parameters would not meet the needs for ntsc television post production particularly with respect to chroma keying, then becoming an important tool. in addition, it was argued that : ( 1 ) the sampling frequency was too low ( too close to the nyquist point ) for use in a production environment where multiple generations of edits were required to accommodate special effects, chroma keying, etc., and ( 2 ) a 12. 0 mhz sampling system would not produce an orthogonal array of samples in ntsc ( at 12. 0 mhz, there would be 762. 666... pixels per line ). the ntsc community offered for consideration a single three channel component standard based on ( y, r - y, b - y ). this system stipulated a 4fsc ( 14. 318 mhz ) luminance sampling frequency equal to 910 x fh525, where fh525 is the ntsc horizontal line frequency. the proposal further provided for each of the color difference components to be sampled at 2fsc or 7. 159 mhz. this relationship between the luminance and color difference signals was noted as ( 4 : 2 : 2 ). adopting 4fsc as the luminance sampling frequency would facilitate trans coding of video recorded using the “ single wire ” ntsc composite standard with studio mixers and editing equipment based on a


signals was noted as ( 4 : 2 : 2 ). adopting 4fsc as the luminance sampling frequency would facilitate trans coding of video recorded using the “ single wire ” ntsc composite standard with studio mixers and editing equipment based on a component video standard. representatives of the european television community present at the january 1980 study group meeting pointed to some potential difficulties with this proposal. the objections included : ( 1 ) that the sampling frequency was too high for use in practical digital recording at the time, and ( 2 ) a 14. 318 mhz sampling system would not produce an orthogonal array of samples in a 625 line system ( at 14. 318 mhz, there would be 916. 36... pixels per line ). during the january 1980 study group meeting discussion, i asked why the parties involved had not considered a sampling frequency that was a multiple of the 4. 5 mhz sound carrier, since the horizontal line frequencies of both the 525 line and 625 line systems had an integer relationship to 4. 5 mhz. the original definition of the ntsc color system established a relationship between the sound carrier frequency ( fs ) and the horizontal line frequency ( fh525 ) as fh525 = fs / 286 = 15734. 265... hz, had further defined the vertical field rate fv525 = ( fh525 x 2 ) / 525 = 59. 94006 hz, and defined the color sub carrier ( fsc ) = ( fh525 x 455 ) / 2 = 3. 579545.... mhz. therefore, all the frequency components of the ntsc system could be derived as integer sub multiples of the sound carrier. the 625 line system defined the horizontal line frequency ( fh625 ) = 15625 hz and the vertical field rate fv625 = ( fh625 x 2 ) / 625 = 50 hz. it was noted from the beginning that the relationship between fs and the horizontal line frequency ( fh625 ) could be expressed as fh625 = fs / 288. therefore, any sampling frequency that was an integer multiple of 4. 5 mhz ( fs ) would produce samples in either the 525 line or 625 line systems that were orthogonal. i was asked to submit a paper to the study group and the task force describing the relationship. the assignment was to cover two topics. the first topic was how the 625 line / 50hz community might arrive at a sampling frequency close to 14. 318


was asked to submit a paper to the study group and the task force describing the relationship. the assignment was to cover two topics. the first topic was how the 625 line / 50hz community might arrive at a sampling frequency close to 14. 318 mhz. the second topic was to explain the relationship between the horizontal frequencies of the 525 line and 625 line systems and 4. 5 mhz. this resulted in my authoring a series of papers written between february and april 1980 addressed to the smpte task force explaining why 13. 5 mhz should be considered the choice for a common luminance sampling frequency. the series of papers was intended to serve as a tutorial with each of the papers expanding on the points previously raised. a few weeks after i submitted the first paper, i was invited to be a member of the smpte task force. during the next few months, i responded to questions about the proposal, and i was asked to draft a standards document. crunching the numbers the first paper i addressed to the task force was dated 11 february 1980. this paper pointed to the fact that since the horizontal line frequency of the 525 line system ( fh525 had been defined as 4. 5 mhz / 286 ( or 2. 25 mhz / 143 ), and the horizontal line frequency of the 625 line system ( fh625 ) was equal to 4. 5 mhz / 288 ( or 2. 25 mhz / 144 ), any sampling frequency that was a multiple of 4. 5 mhz / 2 could be synchronized to both systems. since it would be desirable to sample color difference signals at less than the sampling rate of the luminance signal, then a sampling frequency that was a multiple of 2. 25 mhz would be appropriate for use with the color difference components ( r - y, b - y ) while a sampling frequency that was a multiple of 4. 5 mhz would be appropriate for use with the luminance component ( y ). since the european community had argued that the ( y ) sampling frequency must be lower than 14. 318 mhz and the ntsc countries had argued that the ( y ) sampling frequency must be higher than 12. 00 mhz, my paper and cover letter dated 11 february 1980 suggested consideration of 3 x 4. 5 mhz or 13. 5 mhz as the common luminance ( y ) channel sampling frequency ( 858 times the 525 line horizontal line frequency rate and 864 times the 625 line rate both equal 13. 5 mhz ). my series of papers suggested adoption of a component color system


as the common luminance ( y ) channel sampling frequency ( 858 times the 525 line horizontal line frequency rate and 864 times the 625 line rate both equal 13. 5 mhz ). my series of papers suggested adoption of a component color system based on ( y, r - y, b - y ) and a luminance / color sampling relationship of ( 4 : 2 : 2 ), with the color signals sampled at 6. 75 mhz. in order for the system to facilitate standards conversion and picture manipulation ( such as that used in electronic special effects and graphics generators ), both the luminance and color difference samples should be orthogonal. the desire to be able to trans code between component and composite digital systems implied a number of samples per active line that was divisible by four. the february 1980 note further suggested that the number of samples per active line period should be greater than 715. 5 to accommodate all of the world wide community standards active line periods. while the number of pixels per active line equal to 720 samples per line was not suggested until my next note, ( 720 is the number found in rec. 601 and smpte 125 ), 720 is the first value that “ works. ” 716 is the first number greater than 715. 5 that is divisible by 4 ( 716 = 4 x 179 ), but does not lend itself to standards conversion between 525 line component and composite color systems or provide sufficiently small pixel groupings to facilitate special effects or data compression algorithms. < / p > additional arguments in support of 720 were provided in notes i generated prior to ibc ' 80 in september. note that 720 equals 6! [ 6! ( 6 factorial ) = 6x5x4x3x2x1 ] = 24 x 32 x 5. this allows for many small factors, important for finding an economical solution to conversion between the 525 line component and composite color standards and for image manipulation in special effects and analysis of blocks of pixels for data compression. the composite 525 line digital standard had provided for 768 samples per active line. 768 = 28 x 3. the relationship between 768 and 720 can be described as 768 / 720 = ( 28 x 3 ) / ( 24 x 32 x 5 ) = ( 24 ) / ( 3 x 5 ) = 16 / 15. a set of 16 samples in the ntsc composite standard could be used to calculate a set of 15 samples in the ntsc component standard. proof of performance at the september 1980 ibc conference


) / ( 3 x 5 ) = 16 / 15. a set of 16 samples in the ntsc composite standard could be used to calculate a set of 15 samples in the ntsc component standard. proof of performance at the september 1980 ibc conference, international consensus became focused on the 13. 5 mhz, ( 4 : 2 : 2 ) system. however, both the 12. 0 mhz and 14. 318 mhz systems retained some support for a variety of practical considerations. discussions within the working group on digital video standards indicated that consensus could not be achieved without the introduction of convincing evidence. smpte proposed to hold a “ component coded digital video demonstration ” in san francisco in february 1981 organized by and under the direction of the working group on digital video standards to evaluate component coded systems. a series of practical tests / demonstrations were organized to examine the merits of various proposals with respect to picture quality, production effects, recording capability and practical interfacing, and to establish an informed basis for decision making. the ebu had scheduled a series of demonstrations in january 1981 for the same purpose. smpte invited the ebu to hold its february meeting of the bureau of the ebu technical committee in san francisco to be followed by a joint meeting to discuss the results of the tests. it was agreed that demonstrations would be conducted at three different sampling frequencies ( near 12. 0 mhz, 13. 5 mhz, and 14. 318 mhz ) and at various levels of performance. from 2nd through the 6th of february 1981 ( approximately, one year from the date of the original 13. 5 mhz proposal ), smpte conducted demonstrations at kpix television, studio n facilities in san francisco in which a number of companies participated. each participating sponsor developed equipment with the digital interface built to the specifications provided. the demonstration was intended to provide proof of performance and to allow the international community to come to an agreement. ' the demonstration organizing committee had to improvise many special interfaces and interconnections, as well as create a range of test objects, test signals, critical observation criteria, and a scoring and analysis system and methodology. the demonstrations were supported with equipment and personnel by many of the companies that were pioneers in the development of digital television and included : abc television, ampex corporation, barco, canadian broadcasting corporation, cbs technology center, digital video systems, dynair, inc., kpix westinghouse broadcasting, leitch video ltd., marconi electronics, rca corporation and rca laboratories, sony corporation, tektronix


canadian broadcasting corporation, cbs technology center, digital video systems, dynair, inc., kpix westinghouse broadcasting, leitch video ltd., marconi electronics, rca corporation and rca laboratories, sony corporation, tektronix inc., thomson csf, vg electronics ltd., and vgr corporation. i participated in the demonstrations as a member of smpte ' s working group on digital video standards, providing a vidifont electronic graphics generator whose interface conformed to the new standard. developing an agreement the san francisco demonstrations proved the viability of the 13. 5 mhz, ( 4 : 2 : 2 ) proposal. at a meeting in january 1981, the ebu had considered a set of parameters based on a 13. 0 mhz ( 4 : 2 : 2 ) system. additional research conducted by ebu members had shown that a ( 4 : 2 : 2 ) arrangement was needed in order to cope with picture processing requirements, such as chroma key, and the ebu members believed a 13. 0 mhz system appeared to be the most economic system that provided adequate picture processing. members of the ebu and smpte committees met at a joint meeting chaired by peter rainger in march 1981 and agreed to propose the 13. 5 mhz, ( 4 : 2 : 2 ) standard as the world wide standard. by autumn 1981, nhk in japan led by mr. tadokoro, had performed its own independent evaluations and concurred that the 13. 5 mhz, ( 4 : 2 : 2 ) standard offered the optimum solution. a number of points were generally agreed upon and formed the basis of a new world wide standard. they included : - the existing colorimetry of ebu ( for pal and secam ) and of ntsc would be retained for 625 line and 525 line signals respectively, as matrixing to a common colorimetry was considered overly burdensome ; - an 8 bit per sample representation would be defined initially, being within the state of the art, but a 10 bit per sample representation would also be specified since it was required for many production applications ; - the range of the signal to be included should include head room ( above white level ) and foot room ( below black level ) to allow for production overshoots ; - the line length to be sampled should be somewhat wider than those of the analog systems ( ntsc, pal, and secam ) under consideration to faithfully preserve picture edges and to avoid picture cropping ; - a bit parallel


overshoots ; - the line length to be sampled should be somewhat wider than those of the analog systems ( ntsc, pal, and secam ) under consideration to faithfully preserve picture edges and to avoid picture cropping ; - a bit parallel, sample multiplexed interface ( e. g. transmitting r - y, y, b - y, y, r - y,... ) was practical, but in the long term, a fully bit and word serial system would be desirable ; - the gross data rate should be recordable within the capacity of digital tape recorders then in the development stages by ampex, bosch, rca, and sony. the standard, as documented, provided for each digital sample to consist of at least 8 bits, with 10 allowed. the values for the black and white levels were defined, as was the range of the color signal. ( r - y ) and ( b - y ) became cr [ = 0. 713 ( r - y ) ] and cb [ = 0. 564 ( b - y ) ]. while the original note dated february 1980 addressed to the task force proposed a code of 252 ( base10 ) = ( 1111 1100 ) for ‘ white ’ at 100 ire and a code of 72 ( base10 ) = ( 0100 1000 ) for ‘ black ’ at 0 ire to allow capture of the sync levels, agreement was reached to better utilize the range of codes to capture the grey scale values with more precision and provide more overhead. ‘ white ’ was to be represented by an eight bit code of 240 ( base10 ) = ( 1111 0000 ) and ‘ black ’ was to be represented by an eight bit code 16 ( base10 ) = ( 0001 0000 ). the original codes for defining the beginning and the end of picture lines and picture area were discussed, modified, and agreed upon, as well as synchronizing coding for line, field, and frame, each coding sequence being unique and not occurring in the video signal. smpte and ebu organized an effort over the next few months to familiarize the remainder of the world wide television community with the advantages offered by the 13. 5 mhz, ( 4 : 2 : 2 ) system and the reasoning behind its set of parameters. members of the smpte task force traveled to europe and to the far east. members of the ebu committees traveled to the, then, eastern european block nations and to the members of the oti, the organization of the south


of parameters. members of the smpte task force traveled to europe and to the far east. members of the ebu committees traveled to the, then, eastern european block nations and to the members of the oti, the organization of the south american broadcasters. the objective of these tours was to build a consensus prior to the upcoming discussion at the itu in the autumn of 1981. the success of this effort could serve as a model to be followed in developing future agreements. i was asked to draft a smpte standard document that listed the parameter values for a 13. 5 mhz system for consideration by the smpte working group. since copies of the document were bound in a green binder prior to final acceptance by smpte, the standard was referred to as the “ green book ”. in april 1981, the draft of the standard titled “ coding parameters for a digital video interface between studio equipment for 525 line, 60 field operation ” was distributed to a wider audience for comment. this updated draft reflected the status of the standard after the tests in san francisco and agreements reached at the joint ebu / smpte meeting in march 1981. the ebu community later requested a subtle change to the value of ‘ white ’ in the luminance channel, and it assumed the value of 235 ( base10 ). this change was approved in august 1981. after review and some modification as noted above to accommodate european concerns, the “ green book ” was adopted as smpte standard 125. itu / r recommendation 601 the european broadcasting union ( ebu ) generated an ebu standard containing a companion set of parameter values. the smpte 125 and ebu documents were then submitted to the international telecommunications union ( itu ). the itu, a treaty organization within the united nations, is responsible for international agreements on communications. the itu radio communications bureau ( itu - r / ccir ) is concerned with wireless communications, including allocation and use of the radio frequency spectrum. the itu also provides technical standards, which are called “ recommendations. ” within the itu, the development of the recommendation defining the parameter values of the 13. 5 mhz ( 4 : 2 : 2 ) system fell under the responsibility of itu - r study group 11 on television. the chair of study group 11, prof. mark i. krivocheev, assigned the drafting of the document to a special committee established for that purpose and chaired by david wood of the ebu. the document describing the digital parameters contained in the


chair of study group 11, prof. mark i. krivocheev, assigned the drafting of the document to a special committee established for that purpose and chaired by david wood of the ebu. the document describing the digital parameters contained in the 13. 5 mhz, ( 4 : 2 : 2 ) system was approved for adoption as document 11 / 1027 at itu - r / ccir meetings in geneva in september and october 1981. a revised version, document 11 / 1027 rev. 1, dated 17 february 1982, and titled “ draft rec. aa / 11 ( mod f ) : encoding parameters of digital television for studios ” was adopted by the itu - r / ccir plenary assembly in february 1982. it described the digital interface standard for transfer of video information between equipment designed for use in either 525 line or 625 line conventional color television facilities. upon approval by the plenary assembly, document 11 / 1027 rev. 1 became ccir recommendation 601. the foundation for hdtv and digital television broadcasting services the 4 : 2 : 2 component digital television standard allowed for a scale of economy and reliability that was unprecedented by providing a standard that enabled the design and manufacture of equipment that could operate in both 525 line / 60hz and 625 line / 50hz production environments. the 4 : 2 : 2 component digital television standard permitted equipment supplied by different manufacturers to exchange video and embedded audio and data streams and / or to record and playback those streams directly in the digital domain without having to be restored to an analog signal. this meant that the number of different processes and / or generations of recordings could be increased without the noticeable degradation of the information experienced with equipment based on analog technology. a few years after the adoption of the 4 : 2 : 2 component digital television standard, all digital production facilities were shown to be practical. a few years later when the itu defined “ hdtv, ” the recommendation stipulated : “ the horizontal resolution for hdtv as being twice that of conventional television systems ” described in rec. 601and a picture aspect ratio of 16 : 9. a 16 : 9 aspect ratio picture requires one - third more pixels per active line than a 4 : 3 aspect ratio picture. rec. 601 provided 720 samples per active line for the luminance channel and 360 samples for each of the color difference signals. starting with 720, doubling the resolution to 1440, and adjusting the count for a 16 : 9 aspect ratio leads to the 1920 samples per active line defined as the basis for hdtv.


channel and 360 samples for each of the color difference signals. starting with 720, doubling the resolution to 1440, and adjusting the count for a 16 : 9 aspect ratio leads to the 1920 samples per active line defined as the basis for hdtv. accommodating the hollywood and computer communities ' request for “ square pixels ” meant that the number of lines should be 1920 x ( 9 / 16 ) = 1080. progressive scan systems at 1280 pixels per line and 720 lines per frame are also a member of the “ 720 pixel ” family. 720 pixels x 4 / 3 ( resolution improvement ) x 4 / 3 ( 16 : 9 aspect ratio adjustment ) = 1280. accommodating the hollywood and computer communities ' request for square pixels meant that the number of lines should be 1280 x ( 9 / 16 ) = 720. the original 720 pixel per active line structure became the basis of a family of structures ( the 720 pixel family ) that was adopted for mpeg based systems including both conventional television and hdtv systems. therefore, most digital television systems, including digital video tape systems and dvd recordings are derived from the format described in the original 4 : 2 : 2 standard. the existence of a common digital component standard for both 50 hz and 60 hz environments as documented in smpte 125 and itu recommendation 601 provided a path for television production facilities to migrate to the digital domain. the appearance of high quality, fully digital production facilities providing digital video, audio, and metadata streams and the successful development of digital compression and modulation schemes allowed for the introduction of digital television broadcast services. in its 1982 - 1983 award cycle, the national academy of television arts and sciences recognized the 4 : 2 : 2 component digital standard based on 13. 5 mhz ( y ) sampling with 720 samples per line with three emmy awards : the european broadcasting union ( ebu ) was recognized : “ for achieving a european agreement on a component digital video studio specification based on demonstrated quality studies and their willingness to subsequently compromise on a world wide standard. ” the international telecommunications union ( itu ) was recognized : “ for providing the international forum to achieve a compromise of national committee positions on a digital video standard and to achieve agreement within the 1978 - 1982 period. ” the society of motion picture and television engineers ( smpte ) was recognized : “ for their early recognition of the need for a digital video standard, their acceptance of the ebu proposed component requirement, and for the development of the hierarchy and line lock 13. 5 mhz demonstrated specification, which provided the


frank b. jewett frank b. jewett : biography born : 5 september 1879 died : 18 november 1949 frank b. jewett was born on 5 september 1879 in pasadena, ca, and graduated from the throop institute of technology ( later known as the california institute of technology ) in 1898. he did graduate work at the university of chicago, il, where he received the doctoral degree in physics in 1902. he then accepted a teaching position at the massachusetts institute of technology, cambridge, where he remained until 1904, when he joined the mechanical department of the american telephone and telegraph company ( at & t ) in boston, ma. initially, he assisted george a. campbell in research related to telephonic transmission. he then succeeded campbell as director of the transmission research group in 1906. in 1907, the mechanical department merged with the engineering department of western electric, located in new york city, as part of a corporate reorganization. jewett moved to new york, where he became a research manager under j. j. carty, the chief engineer of at & t. by 1912, at & t was diversifying its research to include radio communication and electronic tubes. jewett was among the at & t engineers who witnessed a demonstration of the triode amplifier early in 1912, and he was instrumental in recruiting h. d. arnold and others to develop the vacuum tube and its applications to telecommunications. jewett led the engineering effort at at & t that resulted in completion of the first transcontinental telephone line in time for the panama - pacific exposition in san francisco, ca, in 1915. that same year, at & t engineers under jewett demonstrated transatlantic radio telephony using a vacuum - tube transmitter. he was given a commission with the rank of major in the u. s. army signal corps during world war i. in october 1917, jewett presented a paper on the subject of industrial research at an aiee meeting in philadelphia, pa. he stated that the war already was " exerting an enormous, stimulating influence on the extension of industrial research. " he discussed some differences and some connections between the research done in an industrial environment and the " pure science " research at universities. he observed that contemporary industrial researchers had progressed beyond " the era of the cut and try method. " jewett argued that industrial and academic research laboratories were " very closely associated and must grow together and with the same relative vigor if the best interests of civilization are to be served. " he cautioned, however, that schools should not " attempt


. " jewett argued that industrial and academic research laboratories were " very closely associated and must grow together and with the same relative vigor if the best interests of civilization are to be served. " he cautioned, however, that schools should not " attempt to enter too largely into the realm of industrial research " or they would run the risk of creating " an atmosphere highly prejudicial to the broad training of men or to pure scientific research. " conversely, he noted that " the industrial research organization is not equipped to undertake the general work of the university either in the training of men or the conduction of pure research, nor can it afford to do so. " he concluded that industrial research was " destined to grow enormously, provided an adequate supply of capable and highly trained investigators can be secured. " as part of an effort to make the industrial research environment more attractive to college - educated people he recruited, jewett implemented a change in policy by encouraging his research staff to present and publish professional papers about their work. he assigned one individual to digest and report on the latest developments in science to the research engineers at bell. as an example of the new policy, jewett and a colleague, b. gherardi, presented a joint paper on " telephone repeaters " at a joint meeting of the aiee and the institute of radio engineers in october 1919. in the paper, they reviewed the history of research and development on telephone amplifiers and asserted that " a complete solution of the problem was made possible only by the existence of a great unified engineering and research department, such as that maintained by the bell system. " they concluded that the successful application of the electron tube as a telephone repeater amounted to a " revolution in the entire scheme of telephone transmission. " the bell telephone laboratories were established in 1925 with a staff of approximately 3600 and with jewett as president, a position he held until 1940. his style of research management has been characterized by historian g. wise as " endothermic, " in contrast to the " exothermic " management style of w. r. whitney of the general electric research laboratory. the exothermic manager was " like a chemical reaction that gives off energy to its surroundings, " whereas the endothermic research managers " could draw energy from their institutional surroundings. " as an endothermic prototype, jewett seemed more comfortable in the committee room, on the telephone, or behind the desk than on the lecture platform or roaming the halls of the laboratory. jewett was president


important research issues in west africa are consistent with ilri ’ s global livestock development challenges especially the overarching issues of sustainable intensification of crop livestock systems and sustainability / vulnerability in pastoral areas, with other challenges – market opportunities, use and conservation of animal genetic resources, ( re - ) emerging diseases and animal health related to these. local as well as regional policy dimensions impact on a number of these aspects, targeting and innovation approaches play a critical supporting role in the region. climate change – both targeting ( identifying hotspots ) and adaptation – will be important in west africa especially in arid areas. major outcomes to be addressed in west africa are summarized here : the major significance of mixed crop livestock systems in the region, in terms of numbers of people ( an estimated 454 million by 2050! ) and animals means that issues of sustainable intensification are critical here. for sustainable intensification of mixed crop - livestock systems research will focus on : - ( 1 ) feed ( especially interface with crop production ) and natural resource management and - 2 ) market opportunities – addressing specific value chains and covering institutional and food safety dimensions ( 1 ) addressing institutional, feed and environmental management dimensions of new market opportunities ; ( 2 ) institutional, measurement and incentive issues related to new opportunities for ecosystem stewardship the market dimensions of intensifying crop livestock systems are significant and there is a lot of scope for research on market chains, potentially linked to specialized production aspects in different ecological zones, in feed systems and crop - livestock intensification and in institutional arrangements. there is a lot of regional interest in markets, including issues such as harmonizing policies and regulations. as markets develop, issues of sps and risk assessment become important. animal health is a priority, both for mixed and agropastoral systems. recent work on emerging diseases includes usaid and world bank engagement with ilri in implementing artificial insemination ( ai ) surveillance and response studies in nigeria and ghana. there is currently no research on vaccines in west africa but we recognize that this is an area in which west african priorities and institutions could be engaged, taking advantage of the biosciences eastern and central africa ( beca ) hub platform. in that regard, the work being done ilri biotechnology theme on the development of cbpp and ppr could of interest to partners such as african agricultural technology foundation ( coraf ) and commonwealth scientific & industrial research organization ( csiro ). assessments that provide information on land and water requirements in relation to feed needs are also beginning as is work on trade


##r could of interest to partners such as african agricultural technology foundation ( coraf ) and commonwealth scientific & industrial research organization ( csiro ). assessments that provide information on land and water requirements in relation to feed needs are also beginning as is work on trade offs in biomass use. a cornerstone of ilri research efforts in west africa over the next several years will be a broad - based program on endemic livestock funded by global environment facility ( gef ) and linked to a livestock development program funded by the african development bank, regional project on sustainable management of endemic ruminant livestock ( progebe ). the project addresses simultaneously genetics and breeding, market development, natural resource management and policy and knowledge management. with the advent of the global environment facility project, present research in west africa focuses around two “ hubs ” one in nigeria and one in mali. as a result, ilri is now well positioned to systematically develop its priorities, partners and research funding needs in a coordinated way that allows the integration of different research components to deliver practical development solutions. the two hubs in nigeria and mali are ideally suited to address the priority outcomes, with both in good proximity to crop - livestock and pastoral systems but presenting different institutional settings. now is an opportune time to approach the region ’ s challenges in a systematic way and ilri can contribute towards the current vacuum in the region with regard to agenda setting, particularly in the livestock sector in collaboration with key partners such as coraf. in this respect, ilri proposes to initiate a process along the lines of the “ champions model ” used in southern africa that will enable consultations with national, regional and international partners to understand and respond to the priorities.


now, as to this nonsense about secession, let me quote an impeccable authority : “ as an american citizen, i take great pride in my country, her prosperity and her institutions, and would defend any state if her rights were invaded. but i can anticipate no greater calamity for the country than the dissolution of the union. it would be an accumulation of all the evils we complain of, and i am willing to sacrifice everything but honor for its preservation. i hope, therefore, that all constitutional means will be exhausted before there is a resort to force. secession is nothing but revolution. ” the letter was written on jan. 23, 1861, from an army officer in fort mason, texas, to his son. the recipient was custis lee. his father was col. robert e. lee. before the year had ended, col. lee became gen. robert e. lee, commander of the redoubtable army of northern virginia, which he led in an epic struggle aimed at dismembering the union. yet, he believed that secession was unconstitutional. “ the framers of our constitution never exhausted so much labor, wisdom and forbearance in its formation, and surrounded it with so many guards and securities, if it were intended to be broken by every member of the confederacy at will, ” he wrote to his son. “ it is intended for perpetual union, so expressed in the preamble, and for the establishment of a government ( not a compact ) which can only be dissolved by revolution or by the consent of all the people in convention assembled. ” lee could conscientiously take up arms in behalf of secession only by appealing to the principles outlined in the declaration of independence, which appealed, not to statutory law but to “ the laws of nature and of nature ’ s god. ” it referred to “ unalienable rights ” under these higher laws, and declared that “... whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or abolish it, and to institute new government. ” the declaration of independence was written to justify secession from the british empire. it was an extra - legal declaration, since the laws of the british empire did not permit british colonies to leave the empire unilaterally. in declaring the right of secession under “ the laws of nature and of nature ’ s god, ” the authors of the declaration issued a caveat : “ prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments


leave the empire unilaterally. in declaring the right of secession under “ the laws of nature and of nature ’ s god, ” the authors of the declaration issued a caveat : “ prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes ; and accordingly all experience hath shewn, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. ” the south of lee ’ s generation concluded that the cause of preserving its way of life, including the institution of slavery, was more than “ light and transient, ” and therefore justified the expenditure of 650, 000 lives in a civil war. the trigger for that bloodbath was the election of abraham lincoln as 16th president of the united states. the re - election of barack obama in 2012 has apparently convinced a minority of those who voted against him that the cause of opposing him is worth plunging the nation into another secessionist crisis. or maybe they ’ re just being frivolous. the white house issued an invitation to petition the administration for action on whatever issues they desired and promised to consider the proposals if enough signatures were acquired. last time i checked, secessionist petitions were being circulated in 20 states. if you ’ re worried about the dissolution of the union, let me provide a measure of comfort : wofford stands a better chance of making it to the finals in college football ’ s bowl championship series than those petitions have of delivering their respective states from the union. the simple truth is that secession is beyond the gift of the obama administration. the u. s. constitution just does not allow for secession. i ’ ve heard all the arguments to the contrary, but they were all answered pretty conclusively at appomattox court house, on april 9, 1865. modern - day secessionists claim that states have a right to secede under the 10th amendment, which guarantees to states all rights not delegated to the federal government. but the 10th amendment was adopted several years after the constitution went into effect. that document prescribed a clear - cut procedure for admitting new states to enter the union, but none for their withdrawal. the framers obviously decided against providing a way out of the union. when new yorkers, in their ratification convention, proposed a provision allowing for secession, virginia ’ s james madison — often called the father of the constitution — asserted that “ the constitution requires an adoption in toto, and for ever.


cavendish, henry, 1731 – 1810, english physicist and chemist, b. nice. he was the son of lord charles cavendish and grandson of the 2d duke of devonshire. he was a recluse, and most of his writings were published posthumously. his great contributions to science resulted from his many accurate experiments in various fields. his conclusions were remarkably original. his chief researches were on heat, in which he determined the specific heats for a number of substances ( although these heat constants were not recognized or so called until later ) ; on the composition of air ; on the nature and properties of a gas that he isolated and described as " inflammable air " and that lavoisier later named hydrogen ; and on the composition of water, which he demonstrated to consist of oxygen and his " inflammable air. " in his electrical researches ( 1879 ) he anticipated some of the discoveries of coulomb and faraday. his experiments to determine the density of the earth led him to state it as 5. 48 times that of water. his scientific papers were collected in two volumes ( electrical researches and chemical and dynamical ) in 1921. see biography by a. j. berry ( 1960 ) ; j. g. crowther, scientists of the industrial revolution ( 1963 ). the columbia electronic encyclopedia, 6th ed. copyright © 2012, columbia university press. all rights reserved. more on henry cavendish from infoplease : see more encyclopedia articles on : physics : biographies


mars has a striking red appearance, and in its most favorable position for viewing, when it is opposite the sun, it is twice as bright as sirius, the brightest star. mars has a diameter of 4, 200 mi ( 6, 800 km ), just over half the diameter of the earth, and its mass is only 11 % of the earth ' s mass. the planet has a very thin atmosphere consisting mainly of carbon dioxide ( 95 % ) with some nitrogen, argon, oxygen, and other gases. mars has an extreme day - to - night temperature range, resulting from its thin atmosphere, from about 80°f ( 27°c ) at noon to about - 100°f ( - 73°c ) at midnight ; however, the high daytime temperatures are confined to less than 3 ft ( 1 m ) above the surface. surface features a network of linelike markings first studied in detail ( 1877 ) by g. v. schiaparelli was referred to by him as canali, the italian word meaning " channels " or " grooves. " percival lowell, then a leading authority on mars, created a long - lasting controversy by accepting these " canals " to be the work of intelligent beings. under the best viewing conditions, however, these features are seen to be smaller, unconnected features. the greater part of the surface area of mars appears to be a vast desert, dull red or orange in color. this color may be due to various oxides in the surface composition, particularly those of iron. about one fourth to one third of the surface is composed of darker areas whose nature is still uncertain. shortly after its perihelion mars has planetwide dust storms that can obscure all its surface details. photographs sent back by the mariner 4 space probe show the surface of mars to be pitted with a number of large craters, much like the surface of earth ' s moon. in 1971 the mariner 9 space probe discovered a huge canyon, valles marineris. completely dwarfing the grand canyon in arizona, this canyon stretches for 2, 500 mi ( 4, 000 km ) and at some places is 125 mi ( 200 km ) across and 2 mi ( 3 km ) deep. mars also has numerous enormous volcanoes — including olympus mons ( c. 370 mi / 600 km in diameter and 16 mi / 26 km tall ), the largest in the solar system — and lava plains. in 1976 the viking spacecraft landed on mars and studied sites at chryse and utopia. they recorded a desert environment with a reddish surface and


in diameter and 16 mi / 26 km tall ), the largest in the solar system — and lava plains. in 1976 the viking spacecraft landed on mars and studied sites at chryse and utopia. they recorded a desert environment with a reddish surface and a reddish atmosphere. experiments analyzed soil samples for evidence of microorganisms or other forms of life ; none was found, but a reinterpretation ( 2010 ) of the results in light of data collected later suggests that organic compounds may have been present. in 1997, mars pathfinder landed on mars and sent a small rover, sojourner, to take soil samples and pictures. among the data returned were more than 16, 000 images from the lander and 550 images from the rover, as well as more than 15 chemical analyses of rocks and extensive data on winds and other weather factors. mars global surveyor, which also reached mars in 1997 and remained operational until 2006, returned images produced by its systematic mapping of the surface. the european space agency ' s mars express space probe went into orbit around mars in late 2003 and sent the beagle 2 lander to the surface, but contact was not established with the lander. in addition to studying mars itself, the orbiter has also studied mars ' s moons. the american rovers spirit and opportunity landed successfully in early 2004 and have explored the martian landscape ( spirit ' s last transmission was in 2010 ). in 2008 nasa ' s phoenix lander touched down in the planet ' s north polar region ; it conducted studies for five months. curiosity, another nasa rover, landed on mars near its equator in 2012. analysis of space probes ' data indicates that mars appears to lack active plate tectonics at present ; there is no evidence of recent lateral motion of the surface. with no plate motion, hot spots under the crust stay in a fixed position relative to the surface ; this, along with the lower surface gravity, may be the explanation for the giant volcanoes. however, there is no evidence of current volcanic activity. there is evidence of erosion caused by floods and small river systems as well as evidence of ancient lakebeds. the possible identification of rounded pebbles and cobbles on the ground, and sockets and pebbles in some rocks, suggests conglomerates that formed in running water during a warmer past some 2 – 4 billion years ago, when liquid water was stable and there was water on the surface, possibly even large lakes or oceans. rovers have identified minerals believed to have formed in the presence of liquid water. there is also evidence of flooding that occurred


2 – 4 billion years ago, when liquid water was stable and there was water on the surface, possibly even large lakes or oceans. rovers have identified minerals believed to have formed in the presence of liquid water. there is also evidence of flooding that occurred less than several million years ago, most likely as the result of the release of water from aquifers deep underground or the melting of ice. however, other evidence suggests that the water would have been extremely salty and acidic. data received beginning in 2002 from the mars odyssey space probe suggests that there is water in sand dunes found in the northern hemisphere, and the mars reconnaissance orbiter, which went into orbit around the planet in 2006, collected radar data that indicates the presence of large subsurface ice deposits in the mid - northern latitudes of mars. most of the known water on mars, however, lies in a frozen layer under the planet ' s large polar ice caps, which themselves consist of water ice and dry ice ( frozen carbon dioxide ) ; the lander phoenix found and observed frozen water beneath the soil surface in the north polar region in 2008. because the axis of rotation is tilted about 25° to the plane of revolution, mars experiences seasons somewhat similar to those of the earth. one of the most apparent seasonal changes is the growing or shrinking of white areas near the poles known as polar caps. these polar caps, which are are composed of water ice and dry ice ( frozen carbon dioxide ). during the martian summer the polar cap in that hemisphere shrinks and the dark regions grow darker ; in winter the polar cap grows again and the dark regions become paler. the seasonal portion of the ice cap is dry ice. when the ice cap is seasonally warmed, geyserlike jets of carbon dioxide gas mixed with dust and sand erupt from the ice. sections in this article : the columbia electronic encyclopedia, 6th ed. copyright © 2012, columbia university press. all rights reserved. see more encyclopedia articles on : astronomy : general


recreating the wright stuff a full - scale replica of the historic 1903 wright flyer was constructed and delivered to nasa ' s ames research center at moffett field, calif., for wind - tunnel testing during the spring of 1999. during the tests, engineers studied the biplane ' s stability, control, and handling at speeds up to 27 knots ( 30 mph ) in the wind tunnel. the data obtained was used to build a second wright flyer, which was to be flown flown at kitty hawk, n. c., on dec. 17, 2003, on the 100th anniversary of the first flight. bad weather prevented pilot kevin kochersberger from completing the reenactment. constructed by a team of volunteers from the los angeles section of the american institute of aeronautics and astronautics ( aiaa ), using plans provided by the smithsonian, the replica features a 40 - foot, 4 - inch wingspan reinforced with piano wire, cotton wing coverings, spruce propellers, and a double rudder. the second flyer, with some modifications for safety, was built by the team of volunteers from the aiaa. although others had created “ flying machines ” before them that could barely lift off the ground and were incapable of true flight, the wright brothers painstakingly worked four years to construct the first power - driven, human - carrying craft that was heavier than air and capable of controlled, sustained flight. after many trials and setbacks, the former bicycle mechanics from dayton, ohio, flew into history in their double - winged craft on dec. 17, 1903, with orville at the controls and wilbur running alongside him. the era of the air age began, and the world was never the same. their invention would create a new industry and revolutionize transportation, commerce, and communication throughout the globe. in december 1998, president clinton signed into law the centennial of flight commemoration act, which established a commission to coordinate the celebration in 2003 of the 100th anniversary of the wright brothers ' first flight. information please® database, © 2007 pearson education, inc. all rights reserved. more on recreating the wright stuff from infoplease :


ideally, everyone should be able to study kabbalah. kabbalah is the inner wisdom of creation revealed to us by god in order to bring us closer to him. clearly, god desires that all human beings come as close to him as possible. thus, kabbalah is important for all people. that said, it is important to clarify that each of us has to study kabbalah at his own individual level, which, contrary to common misconceptions, may have nothing to do with age, gender, or any other imagined limitation. since kabbalah is part of jewish tradition, it is often mistakenly assumed that it has no pertinence to non - jews. however, much of kabbalah is pertinent to all human beings, since the study of kabbalah arouses in all students the desire to worship one god, as commanded in the torah to all mankind. the torah anticipates that every human being become a righteous servant of the one god of israel, exclusively. for a non - jew, this means to become a righteous gentile, unless he desires to proceed even further and to convert to judaism. much of the kabbalah is pertinent to the consciousness of righteous gentiles. kabbalah and chassidut arouse one to the true worship of god, a commandment relevant to all mankind. in order to worship, one has to be conscious of and to experience the emotions of love and fear of god, two of the six constant commandments of the heart. in order to experience these emotions, one has to have meditative content and input. chassidut teaches that non - jews should also meditate on those truths and depths of reality of divine providence in the world that will arouse their hearts to serve the one god of israel. these sections of the kabbalah are prerequisites for non jews to come close to god. the levels of divine light that are pertinent for non - jews to study are the explicitly immanent levels of divinity. this is the influx of divine energy that is present in the creative process. god ' s infinite light is absolutely transcendent. the ultimate purpose of chassidut is to bring transcendence into the perspective of immanence. until mashiach comes, though, this is still relatively a state of jewish consciousness. thus, a non - jew should learn in kabbalah those secrets of creation that help him to appreciate and become aware of god ' s


immanence. until mashiach comes, though, this is still relatively a state of jewish consciousness. thus, a non - jew should learn in kabbalah those secrets of creation that help him to appreciate and become aware of god ' s immanent light in creation. this draws him closer to god and augments his desire to serve him. clearly, in order for non - jews to study kabbalah - - which, after all, is an intrinsic expression of jewish faith - - they have to identify with receiving this wisdom through the channel of the torah and the jewish people, and commit themselves to worship the one god of israel and live in accordance with the seven commandments given by him to noah for all peoples. please refer to our section on the seven noahide commandments and kabbalah for non - jews. even though there is an opinion that one should not begin to study kabbalah until the age of 40, the great masters of kabbalah and chassidut did not agree with this opinion. some of the greatest teachers of kabbalah - - including the ari, rabbi moshe chaim luzzatto ( also known as the ramchal ), and rebbe nachman of breslov - - did not live to the age of 40! from an early age they began to study kabbalah. in the zohar we find that a sign of the coming of the mashiach is when children will study and discuss kabbalah. chassidut reveals to us the drama of god ’ s creation of the universe. it is like a game of hide - and - seek. in this divinely inspired game, god conceals himself, but he desires that we seek him. he promises us that if we seek him with all our heart and soul, we will ultimately find him. the seeking is the study of kabbalah. it can begin from the first moment that a person realizes that there is more to this world than what meets the eye, and this can be at a very early stage of life. the reason that some authorities have warned against studying kabbalah at too early an age was that there were instances in jewish history, even relatively recently, when most negative phenomena resulted from the misrepresentation and misuse of kabbalah. for example, approximately 350 years ago, a misguided jew, shabbetai tzvi, proclaimed himself the messiah, basing himself on misinterpretations of kabbalah. before he was


a slender boy of 14 moves slowly across the room. his full head of long red hair bounces as he walks. his mind is racing. he sits at the oak table near the window of the vast room. on the table is a box ; a box that glows with flashing lights and a screen. printed on the screen is less than 100 words. at the top of the box is a single word printed in a playful font. under the word is another box ready for the boy ’ s command. the boy smiles as he realizes that before him is all the knowledge of the world. sitting before him is almost every idea and thought that mankind has ever put onto paper, stone, papyrus, film, video, or in bytes. he is about to use google. we all have amazing access to amazing knowledge. the trick is to find what you want in the billions of pages indexed and cataloged by google. forget the haystack. the search for information is like looking for a particular needle in four states, given the available data. finding stuff on the web is a skill that we can all gain from. i pick on google here as it is, by far, the most popular search engine. other search tools have similar functionality. the google search box is much more than a place to enter the subject of your search. here are some of the non - traditional search features of the google box : calculator – type 8 * 12 in the box and hit the enter key. up comes the answer. the box is a powerful financial and scientific calculator. currency conversion – type 3, 500 euros to dollars to learn the premium your client ’ s french office is being charged. conversion of measures – enter 4 cups to oz. the answer will be at the top of the results page. dictionary – unsure of the definition of a word? type define : pontification. spell checker – just type the word as close as you can get it, and let google provide you with options. package tracking – you can track packages by typing the tracking number for your ups, fedex, or usps package into the search box. weather reporter – type the word weather, then a city name, and up comes the latest weather report. zip code look up – enter zip and the city name to learn the various zip codes in a city. airline flight tracker – enter the airline and the flight number to learn the current arrival and departure times of the flight. world clock – type what time is it in detroit to learn the current time at


name to learn the various zip codes in a city. airline flight tracker – enter the airline and the flight number to learn the current arrival and departure times of the flight. world clock – type what time is it in detroit to learn the current time at any location. fact provider – try albert einstein was born in *. the asterisk is a wildcard and lets google fill in the blank. refining a search is the best way to get what you want from your google search. typing “ insurance ” will get you 348, 000, 000 results. typing auto insurance brings it down to 82 million. auto insurance boston ma gets you a list of agents in boston. using auto insurance boston ma - nationwide gives you all the results where the word “ nationwide ” does not appear. ( sorry nationwide ). the dash followed by a word tells google to remove results with that word on the page. perhaps more useful for this audience would be a search for a microsoft compatible application forms for directors ’ and officers ’ insurance. google directors ’ officers ’ application filetype : doc. the inclusion of the term “ filetype : ” followed by the file extension, “ doc ” tells google to only search for files stored on the internet that end in the extension “. doc. ” putting a search phrase in quotation marks tells google to only search for that exact phrase. “ business income insurance exclusions ” will only return results where those four words are placed in the exact phrase. “ business income insurance ” exclusions will result in all documents where the phrase business income insurance is included with the word exclusions someplace in the text. google has an advanced search feature that can be useful in narrowing search. just click the phrase “ advanced search ” on the google home page. google has a separate section for book searches. google google books and you will be brought to the page. here you can do text searches within the 10, 000, 000 books google has indexed ( so far ). searching “ standard fire policy ” in google book search brings up insurance history from books written in the 1890s, 1900s, and current times. have you found a site on the topic you like? enter related : www. site. com and you will see sites that google thinks are similar to the site you entered. want to search the site you are on? enter site : www. site. com the phrase you want searched and google will search only that site. how about learning who has linked to your web site? enter linked : www. yoursitenamehere. com and


| | | minding your mind | | | psychiatric treatment for preschoolers last reviewed and revised on june 17, 2011 by michael craig miller, m. d. harvard medical school the number of medications prescribed to children ages two to four to treat psychiatric disorders increased dramatically after the early 1990s. a delicate balance as any parent can attest, the preschool years are a time of tremendous brain development. between the ages of two and five, children learn to talk, develop hand and eye coordination, and learn how to interact with others. brain changes underlie these developments. the number of synapses ( connections between brain cells ) and neurotransmitter receptors reach their peak at age three, while the brain ' s metabolic rate peaks between ages three and four. clinicians and parents thus face a delicate balancing act when it comes to treating psychiatric disorders, especially in the youngest children. there are risks associated with giving medications, because we don ' t know exactly what effects psychiatric drugs may have on the developing brain. but there can also be significant risk from not giving medications, because mental disorders also have a negative effect on brain development. mental disorders can lead to impaired peer and family relationships and poor school performance. untreated childhood problems may give way to continuing mental health problems when the child when he or she grows up. and there is evidence that many lifelong psychiatric disorders begin early. a harvard study published in 2005 estimated that half of all disorders that meet standard criteria for a diagnosis start by age 14. there is no simple way to tell normal variations in temperament or development from the beginnings of a mental health problem. in practical terms, a child ' s problems may require medication to ease suffering and help him or her develop normally. medications may be worth trying especially if non - drug treatments haven ' t been effective. but it is worth emphasizing that these decisions are almost always very difficult to make in the youngest children. back to top guidance for three disorders attention deficit hyperactivity disorder experts recommend a thorough evaluation to define the problem. this requires reports from parents, teachers and child care providers so that the clinician can assess the child ' s symptoms in multiple settings. parents can be taught the best ways to help their children. whether a child needs medication or not, he or she will probably do better if the parents become comfortable with skills for setting limits and rewarding positive behavior. if parent guidance and psychotherapy are not sufficient to control symptoms, a trial of methylphenidate ( ritalin ) or another related drug for six months may be considered.


the parents become comfortable with skills for setting limits and rewarding positive behavior. if parent guidance and psychotherapy are not sufficient to control symptoms, a trial of methylphenidate ( ritalin ) or another related drug for six months may be considered. after six months, the doctor can stop the medication to see if the child still needs it, either for controlling symptoms or improving functioning in school. numerous other medications are available if methylphenidate does not work. anxiety disorders ( separation anxiety, selective mutism, specific phobia ) in addition to making their own observations, clinicians will have an easier time defining the problem if they can get information from parents, teachers and other caregivers. sometimes formal rating scales and questionnaires are used during the evaluation. the clinician should also remain alert to co - existing problems, like depression or behavior problems. available research suggests that psychotherapy may teach a child to better control behavior while also improving self - esteem. so, a course of at least 12 weeks is usually the first intervention to try. if psychotherapy does not provide relief and anxiety symptoms continue to impair the child ' s functioning, a low dose of fluoxetine ( prozac ) or a similar drug can be considered. after six to nine months, the clinician may be able to taper and then stop medication. developmental disorders, such as autism these children should have formal intelligence tests, plus tests of hearing and language skills. useful evaluation instruments are the childhood autism rating scale and the aberrant behavior checklist. before thinking about medication, a team of helpers may be necessary to coach a child to improve language skills, enhance social development, and reduce repetitive behavior and aggression. medication may eventually be necessary for children who have severe behavioral problems that interfere with functioning. as with anxiety disorders, the clinician can assess if medication is still needed after six to nine months. back to top maximize help and minimize harm here are some useful principles to guide the evaluation and treatment of any problem that comes up in a young child. - address diagnostic challenges. preschoolers vary in terms of development, personality, and communication skills. diagnostic criteria for adults and older children may not be relevant to preschoolers. when possible, a diagnosis should be made after several visits with the child and only after multiple sources have provided information about the child ' s progress ( the child, parents, teachers, other clinicians ). - track symptoms and impairment. before starting any treatment, the clinician and family should work together to define symptoms and