how to create an aerial panorama from google earth peter murphy ( one of the leading lights in the panoramic world ) sent us a email on monday with the thought of creating panoramas from a digital earth. the concept is simple - grab a series of screen shots while rotating above the earth and then stitch the images as if they were normal photographs. a day is a long time in internet based tutorials and this is now an update of the original as a result of gaby, a digital urban reader, writing a kmz tool to dramatically simplify the process of capturing screen shots. the whole process should take approximately 40 minutes. the first step is to go to gabys kmz panorama capture tool and type in the lat / long of the location you want to capture - in our case above the millennium dome in london. to create panoramas it is important to rotate the camera around the nodal point of the lens in order to minimise any parallax error as the scene is captured. previous to gaby ' s tool the best way was to use the ' flight simulator mode ' by clicking ' ctrl - g '. combining this with a ' left mouse click and drag ' action you can look around the scene and thus simulate a panoramic camera. you can now simply load up the kmz file which is output from your lat / long co - ordinates and a series of placemarks are presented in the google earth, each representing camera locations. select each placemark and wait for the streaming in google earth to reach 100 %, now use file - ' save image ' and call your image image1. jpg. go through this for each placemark and you should end up with 28 images, each saved in sequence - ie image 1. jpg to image 29. jpg. once you have your numbered screengrabs you now need to stitch them, we used stitcher from realviz, you can download a trial version from the realviz website. if you are a ptgui user we have created a template to automatically stitch your images. download the template and follow these steps : 1 ) open ptgui and click select source images - navigate to where you saved your screengrabs and select all of them. 2 ) a camera lens dialoge will appear, simply click ' cancel '. your images will then load into ptgui. 3 ) click file ' apply template ' and select the location of the googleearthtemplate. pts saved from above. your images will now


lens dialoge will appear, simply click ' cancel '. your images will then load into ptgui. 3 ) click file ' apply template ' and select the location of the googleearthtemplate. pts saved from above. your images will now automatically align, you can now complete the process by selecting the ' advanced ' button in the top right hand side of ptgui and then ' create panorama '. save your panorama as a tif, we normally output at 6000x3000 pixels. advanced users of ptgui can add their own control points and stitch as normal, lens parameters should be 30mm rectilinear. to stitch the images you can also use the autostitch feature of realviz to simply load in the images and automatically create a panorama. it should be noted that the curve of the earth will not stitch perfectly due to parallax error resulting from the flight simulator mode of google earth, the image left illustrates this ( click for a larger version ). fixing the parallax ' s error is simply a case of slightly cropping off the top of the resulting panorama to give us the image as below, this applies to both ptgui and realviz stitcher outputs : as google earth doesn ' t include clouds we can now add them in as a new layer in photoshop. we used a panoramic image of clouds from turbosquid, these used to be free but are now $ 5 each. if you don ' t have a cloud panorama then you can always create your own using terragen, there is a great tutorial on how to do this here. adding the clouds gives you the final panorama over london ( click for a larger view ) : changing the projection of the resulting image allows a number of views such a hyperbolic image of london from google earth : finally to create a quicktime virtual reality scene from the image - so you can look around the panorama - download pano2qtvr. the resulting qtvr can be viewed here ( 2. 8mb ). of note in the final scene is how the google copyright crops up in various places in the image. this is due to each screengrab containing the google overlay and depending on the overlaps some are automatically blended out in realviz and some remain... * update - using ptgui all copyright seems to be removed, this opens up the question on the legality of creating panoramas? * peter has used nasa ' s worldwind to the same effect, see here for his panorama


it ’ s been two years since rumors of mad cows in texas sank cattle futures at the chicago mercantile exchange when a woman with creutzfeldt - jakob disease ( cjd ), human mad cow disease, was admitted to an amarillo hospital. “ the rumor was started, and it ’ s totally unfounded, that there were cattle with bse in texas, ” ted mccollum, beef cattle specialist with the amarillo office of texas agrilife extension, told the press. of course, it ’ s easy to see how the rumor got started that there were cattle with bse in texas since there were cattle with bse in texas. in 2005, the first “ home grown ” mad cow was found on a texas ranch whose identity authorities protected. a 12 - year - old beef cow used for breeding, she was sent to champion pet food in waco when she became a downer. the ranch was quarantined while authorities searched for the animal ’ s offspring and older animals. now there are two “ mysterious ” cases of cjd in mclennan county, texas says the waco tribune - herald – ” a statistical anomaly considering that only one in 1 million people worldwide is affected by the condition in any given year. ” the statistical abnormality is also visible on the texas department of state health services map on its web site. there have been 144 cases of cjd in texas since 2000 and 42 of them appear in clusters. if cjd is caused for unknown reasons ( sporadic ) or is familial, it would not come in clusters. it has been years since the san francisco chronicle reported that 11 restaurants in nine california counties served meat from the first us mad cow, imported from canada in 2003. a subsequent audit of us slaughterhouses to win back asian exports which were lost over the cow, found 29 more downers slipped into the food supply because some inspectors “ did not believe that they had the authority ” to go into their pens. but then secretary johanns assured the press the cattle were healthy when they arrived at the slaughterhouse but became suddenly unable to walk for one reason or another. authorities also gave up tracing origins of the second homegrown us mad cow, born on an alabama ranch, whose identity authorities also protected. the trail went cold after seven weeks of investigation of more than three dozen farms, said news reports. in addition to food risks, unacknowledged mad cow in us beef could also be a risk in dental implants, made from bo


. the trail went cold after seven weeks of investigation of more than three dozen farms, said news reports. in addition to food risks, unacknowledged mad cow in us beef could also be a risk in dental implants, made from bovine and cadaver sources. and now there is also a cloud over deer and elk which get a mad cow like disease called chronic wasting disease ( cwd ). like mad cow, cwd is caused by a practically indestructible protein called a prion which is not killed by cooking, alcohol, bleach, formaldehyde or radiation. state departments of natural resources thought the disease was under control after directing hunters to kill “ anterless ” deer instead of bucks, thinning the herd. food pantries were beginning to accept venison “ donations ” again after refusing them. ( “ it ’ s perfectly good meat — for someone else to eat, ” the hunters seemed to be saying. ) but now the disease is back with a vengeance, causing hunters to fear the other guy ’ s deer at the processor if not their own, until cwd tests come back, and wives to fear husbands ’ bloody laundry. prions are transmitted in carrier animals ’ urine and in antler velvet says a january article on plos one. worse, they are likely transmitted from mother to offspring says the article, making us authorities ’ failure to find the mad cow progeny — and their progeny – more disquieting. cwd is also taking a toll on deer breeding and hunting lodges, a $ 4 billion a year industry despite state complaints of deer “ overpopulation. ” wisconsin alone has hundreds of state sanctioned deer breeding farms. earlier this year, a deer with cwd was found at heartland wildlife ranches in ethel, mo., 200 miles northwest of st. louis. heartland is an 800 - acre lodge surrounded by 8 - foot fences where hunters “ come from across the country to take aim at trophy animals such as whitetail deer, elk and zebra, ” says the st. louis post - dispatch. think dick cheney. a three - day hunt for water buffalo costs $ 4, 000. in addition to threatening rob brasher of salt lake city, whose family has owned heartland for two decades, cwd threatens david wood, who runs the linn county deer farm 17 miles from heartland and can no longer sell his “ baby deer ” for $ 4, 000 to $ 8, 000. luckily, federal and state governments are on the mad cow and


note : using access ( ) to check if a user is authorized to e. g. open a file before actually doing so using open ( ) creates a security hole, because the user might exploit the short time interval between checking and opening the file to manipulate it. note : i / o operations may fail even when access ( ) indicates that they would succeed, particularly for operations on network filesystems which may have permissions semantics beyond the usual posix permission - bit model. although windows supports chmod ( ), you can only set the file ' s read - only flag with it ( via the s _ iread constants or a corresponding integer value ). all other bits are ignored. | path, uid, gid ) | | path, uid, gid ) | '.. ' even if they are present in the directory. availability : macintosh, unix, windows. changed in version 2. 3 : on windows nt / 2k / xp and unix, if path is a unicode object, the result will be a list of unicode objects. 0666 ( octal ). the current umask value is first masked out from the mode. availability : macintosh, unix. fifos are pipes that can be accessed like regular files. fifos exist until they are deleted ( for example with os. unlink ( ) ). generally, fifos are used as rendezvous between ` ` client ' ' and ` ` server ' ' type processes : the server opens the fifo for reading, and the client opens it for writing. note that mkfifo ( ) doesn ' t open the fifo - - it just creates the rendezvous point. | filename [, mode = 0600, device ] ) | 0777 ( octal ). on some systems, mode is ignored. where it is used, the current umask value is first masked out. availability : macintosh, unix, windows. 0777 ( octal ). on some systems, mode is ignored. where it is used, the current umask value is first masked out. note : makedirs ( ) will become confused if the path elements to create include os. pardir. new in version 1. 5. 2. changed in version 2. 3 : this function now handles unc paths correctly. pathconf _ namesdictionary. for configuration variables not included in that mapping, passing an integer for name is also accepted. availability : macintosh, unix. if name is a string


. 3 : this function now handles unc paths correctly. pathconf _ namesdictionary. for configuration variables not included in that mapping, passing an integer for name is also accepted. availability : macintosh, unix. if name is a string and is not known, valueerror is raised. if a specific value for name is not supported by the host system, even if it is included in oserror is raised with errno. einval for the os. path. join ( os. path. dirname ( path ), result ). availability : macintosh, unix. > > > import os > > > statinfo = os. stat ( ' somefile. txt ' ) > > > statinfo ( 33188, 422511l, 769l, 1, 1032, 100, 926l, 1105022698, 1105022732, 1105022732 ) > > > statinfo. st _ size 926l > > > changed in version 2. 3 : if stat _ float _ times returns true, the time values are floats, measuring seconds. fractions of a second may be reported if the system supports that. on mac os, the times are always floats. see stat _ float _ times for further discussion. on some unix systems ( such as linux ), the following attributes may also be available : st _ blocks ( number of blocks allocated for file ), st _ blksize ( filesystem blocksize ), st _ rdev ( type of device if an inode device ). st _ flags ( user defined flags for file ). on other unix systems ( such as freebsd ), the following attributes may be available ( but may be only filled out if root tries to use them ) : st _ gen ( file generation number ), st _ birthtime ( time of file creation ). on mac os systems, the following attributes may also be available : st _ rsize, st _ creator, st _ type. on riscos systems, the following attributes are also available : st _ ftype ( file type ), st _ attrs ( attributes ), st _ obtype ( object type ). for backward compatibility, the return value of stat ( ) is also accessible as a tuple of at least 10 integers giving the most important ( and portable ) members of the stat structure, in the order st _ mode, st _ ino, st _ dev, st


the return value of stat ( ) is also accessible as a tuple of at least 10 integers giving the most important ( and portable ) members of the stat structure, in the order st _ mode, st _ ino, st _ dev, st _ nlink, st _ uid, st _ gid, st _ size, st _ atime, st _ mtime, st _ ctime. more items may be added at the end by some implementations. the standard module stat defines functions and constants that are useful for extracting information from a stat structure. ( on windows, some items are filled with dummy values. ) note : the exact meaning and resolution of the st _ atime, st _ mtime, and st _ ctime members depends on the operating system and the file system. for example, on windows systems using the fat or fat32 file systems, st _ mtime has 2 - second resolution, and st _ atime has only 1 - day resolution. see your operating system documentation for details. availability : macintosh, unix, windows. changed in version 2. 2 : added access to values as attributes of the returned object. changed in version 2. 5 : added st _ gen, st _ birthtime. true, future calls to stat ( ) return floats, if it is false, future calls return ints. if newvalue is omitted, return the current setting. for compatibility with older python versions, accessing stat _ result as a tuple always returns integers. changed in version 2. 5 : python now returns float values by default. applications which do not work correctly with floating point time stamps can use this function to restore the old behaviour. the resolution of the timestamps ( that is the smallest possible fraction ) depends on the system. some systems only support second resolution ; on these systems, the fraction will always be zero. it is recommended that this setting is only changed at program startup time in the _ _ main _ _ module ; libraries should never change this setting. if an application uses a library that works incorrectly if floating point time stamps are processed, this application should turn the feature off until the library has been corrected. for backward compatibility, the return value is also accessible as a tuple whose values correspond to the attributes, in the order given above. the standard module statvfs defines constants that are useful for extracting information from a statvfs structure when accessing it as a sequence ; this remains useful when writing code that needs to work with versions of python that


the order given above. the standard module statvfs defines constants that are useful for extracting information from a statvfs structure when accessing it as a sequence ; this remains useful when writing code that needs to work with versions of python that don ' t support accessing the fields as attributes. changed in version 2. 2 : added access to values as attributes of the returned object. none. if given and not none, prefix is used to provide a short prefix to the filename. applications are responsible for properly creating and managing files created using paths returned by tempnam ( ) ; no automatic cleanup is provided. on unix, the environment variable tmpdir overrides dir, while on windows the tmp is used. the specific behavior of this function depends on the c library implementation ; some aspects are underspecified in system documentation. warning : use of tempnam ( ) is vulnerable to symlink attacks ; consider using tmpfile ( ) ( section 14. 1. 2 ) instead. availability : macintosh, unix, windows. none, then the file ' s access and modified times are set to the current time. otherwise, times must be a 2 - tuple of numbers, of the form ( atime, mtime ) which is used to set the access and modified times, respectively. whether a directory can be given for path depends on whether the operating system implements directories as files ( for example, windows does not ). note that the exact times you set here may not be returned by a subsequent stat ( ) call, depending on the resolution with which your operating system records access and modification times ; see stat ( ). changed in version 2. 0 : added support for nonefor times. availability : macintosh, unix, windows. ( dirpath, dirnames, filenames ). dirpath is a string, the path to the directory. dirnames is a list of the names of the subdirectories in dirpath '.. ' ). filenames is a list of the names of the non - directory files in dirpath. note that the names in the lists contain no path components. to get a full path ( which begins with top ) to a file or directory in if optional argument topdown is true or not specified, the triple for a directory is generated before the triples for any of its subdirectories ( directories are generated top down ). if topdown is false, the triple for a directory is generated


topdown is true or not specified, the triple for a directory is generated before the triples for any of its subdirectories ( directories are generated top down ). if topdown is false, the triple for a directory is generated after the triples for all of its subdirectories ( directories are generated bottom up ). when topdown is true, the caller can modify the dirnames list in - place ( perhaps using del or slice assignment ), and walk ( ) will only recurse into the subdirectories whose names remain in dirnames ; this can be used to prune the search, impose a specific order of visiting, or even to inform walk ( ) about directories the caller creates or renames before it resumes walk ( ) again. modifying dirnames when topdown is false is ineffective, because in bottom - up mode the directories in dirnames are generated before dirpath itself is generated. by default errors from the os. listdir ( ) call are ignored. if optional argument onerror is specified, it should be a function ; it will be called with one argument, an oserror instance. it can report the error to continue with the walk, or raise the exception to abort the walk. note that the filename is available as the filename attribute of the exception object. os. path. islink ( path ), and invoke walk ( path ) on each directly. this example displays the number of bytes taken by non - directory files in each directory under the starting directory, except that it doesn ' t look under any cvs subdirectory : import os from os. path import join, getsize for root, dirs, files in os. walk ( ' python / lib / email ' ) : print root, " consumes ", print sum ( getsize ( join ( root, name ) ) for name in files ), print " bytes in ", len ( files ), " non - directory files " if ' cvs ' in dirs : dirs. remove ( ' cvs ' ) # don ' t visit cvs directories in the next example, walking the tree bottom up is essential : rmdir ( ) doesn ' t allow deleting a directory before the directory is empty : # delete everything reachable from the directory named in ' top ', # assuming there are no symbolic links. # caution : this is dangerous! for example


( acute bronchitis ; lower respiratory tract infection ) | bronchi of lungs | | copyright © nucleus medical media, inc. | - acute bronchitis — this is a sudden onset of symptoms. it only lasts a short time and lung function is fully recovered. - chronic bronchitis — this is a serious, long - term condition. it causes blockage and damage of the lungs. it is often the result of many years of cigarette smoking. - viral or bacterial infections - irritation from smoke breathing in certain irritants ( usually in a work setting ) such as : - vegetable dusts - increased sputum production - trouble breathing to treat pain and fever - note : aspirin is not recommended for children or teens with a current or recent viral infection. this is because of the risk of reye ' s syndrome. ask your doctor which other medicines are safe for your child. expectorants or cough suppressants - there are some concerns about the safety of over - the - counter cough and cold products in children. the fda recommends that these products not be used in children less than 2 years old. the fda also supports not using them in children less than 4 years old. - albuterol to help open airways if there are signs of breathing difficulty - herbs and supplements — pelargonium sidoides extract may help resolve symptoms in patients with acute bronchitis - increased fluid intake - cool mist humidifier — to ease breathing - avoid contact with people who have respiratory viral or bacterial infections. - stop smoking or never start. - avoid passive smoke. - avoid exposure to irritants in the air. american academy of family physicians family doctor http : / / familydoctor. org american lung association http : / / www. lung. org the canadian lung association http : / / www. lung. ca the college of family physicians of canada http : / / www. cfpc. ca acute bronchitis. american academy of family physicians family doctor website. available at : http : / / familydoctor. org / familydoctor / en / diseases - conditions / acute - bronchitis. html. updated february 2010. accessed march 29, 2013. acute bronchitis. ebsco dynamed website. available at : http : / / www. ebscohost. com / dynamed / what. php. updated february 8, 2013. accessed march 29, 2013. know when antibiotics work : bronchitis. centers for disease control and prevention website. available at :


www. ebscohost. com / dynamed / what. php. updated february 8, 2013. accessed march 29, 2013. know when antibiotics work : bronchitis. centers for disease control and prevention website. available at : http : / / www. cdc. gov / getsmart / antibiotic - use / uri / bronchitis. html. updated may 1, 2012. accessed march 29, 2013. smith s, fahey t, et al. antibiotics for acute bronchitis. cochrane database syst rev. 2009 ; cd000245. nonprescription cough and cold medicine use in children. medwatch : 2007 safety alerts for drugs, biologics, medical devices, and dietary supplements. us food and drug administration website. available at : http : / / www. fda. gov / safety / medwatch / safetyinformation / safetyalertsforhumanmedicalproducts / ucm152691. htm. accessed : march 29, 2013. 1 / 4 / 2011 dynamed ' s systematic literature surveillance http : / / www. ebscohost. com / dynamed / what. php : timmer a, gunther j, rucker g, motschall e, antes g, kern wv. pelargonium sidoides extract for acute respiratory tract infections. cochrane database syst rev. 2008 ; ( 3 ) : cd006323. - reviewer : brian randall, md - review date : 02 / 2013 - - update date : 03 / 29 / 2013 -


dragons are creatures with nearly unlimited life spans. they can survive for long periods of time, and no one has found a dragon that has died of old age. adolescence is usually marked by the growth of a hatchling ’ s wings, although not all breeds of dragons grow wings and some breeds have other traits that indicate the beginning of maturation. once they hit adolescence, hatchlings change quickly, maturing to their full forms in only 2 years. dragons don ’ t communicate with each other verbally, but they will growl to scare off predators and frighten prey. young dragons will emit an extremely high - pitched squeal when they are frightened. to communicate, they use telepathy with each other and to speak to other creatures. pygmy dragons are the smallest breed of true dragons, being the size of a small cat. they are often found around concentrated populations of dragons, relying on their larger brethren to ward away potential predators and to leave generous scraps. as such, the majority of a pygmy ’ s diet is scavenged, though they do hunt songbirds and small mammals when the pickings are slim. due to their tiny size, pygmies do not breed with other varieties of dragons, but select mates within their breed.


the concept of disability has changed significantly through history. at one point, disability was seen as the result of sin, either by the person with the disability or his or her parents. disability was associated with guilt and shame, and people with disabilities were hidden away. merriam - websteris definition of disability : limitation in the ability to pursue an occupation because of a physical or mental impairment ; lack of legal qualification to do something ; or a disqualification, restriction or disadvantage. most of the time, we apply these definitions to a person who dhase a disability. what if it is society that has the disability, not the individual? with the advent of modern medicine, a medical understanding of disability developed. in a medical model of disability, the person with a disability is seen as having an illness, which presumably should be cured. the person with a disability, as someone who is sick or diseased, is excused from normal life and responsibilities such as working, family obligations and household maintenance. the approach of the social security administration supports the idea of disability as something that excludes one from a normal life. to fit the administrationis definition of disability, a person must be able to prove that he or she is incapable of gainful employment. the inference is that by having a disability, one remains outside mainstream society. yet there is another way to view disability. this view considers disability as a normal part of life. after all, most of us will have a disability, whether temporary or permanent, at some time in our life. as many people with disabilities will attest, their disabilities are integral to what makes them who they are. it isnit the disability that needs to be changed. the physical and attitudinal barriers people with disabilities face are what need to change. for example, people who are unable to walk may still be able to move around as much as anyone with the use of wheelchairs and other assistive technology. the inability to use their limbs may be less of a limitation than heavy doors that donit open automatically or stairs that keep them from a building. similarly, culture and environment can dictate whether something is a disability. in a culture where healers and shamans regularly interact with a spirit world, hearing voices isnit a disability. only in societies where reading is essential to daily functioning is a learning disability recognized. in our society, a vision impairment that necessitates wearing glasses isnit considered a disability, but a mobility impairment that requires a person to use a walker is. disability is defined by context. it follows


16 jun 2008 : report the limits of climate modeling as the public seeks answers about the future impacts of climate change, some climatologists are growing increasingly uneasy about the localized predictions they are being asked to make. now that the world largely accepts our climate is changing, and that humans are to blame, we all want to know what the future holds for our own backyard. how bad will it get? flood or drought? feast or famine? super - hurricane or mediterranean balm? the statisticians and climatologists who brought us the big picture are now under huge pressure to get local. but they are growing increasingly concerned about whether their existing models and computers are up to the job. they organized a summit in reading, england, in may to discuss their concerns. as brian hoskins of reading university, one of the british government ’ s top climate advisers, put it : “ we ’ ve worked out the global scale. but that ’ s the easy problem. we don ’ t yet understand the smaller scale. the pressure is on for answers, and we can ’ t wait around for decades. ” already, policymakers are starting to take at face value model predictions of — to take a few examples — warming of 18 degrees fahrenheit ( 7. 8 degrees celsius ) or more in alaska, and super - droughts in the southwestern united states, but little warming at all in central states. but is the task doable? some climate modelers say that even with the extraordinary supercomputing power now available, the answer is no. that, by being lured into offering local forecasts for decades ahead, they are setting themselves up for a fall that could undermine the credibility of the climate models. lenny smith, an american statistician now working on climate modeling at the london school of economics in the united kingdom, is fearful. “ our models are being over - interpreted and misinterpreted, ” he says. “ they are getting better ; i don ' t want to trash them. but policy - makers think we know much more than we actually know. we need to drop the pretense that they are nearly perfect. ” there are two areas of concern. first, how accurate are the global models at mimicking atmospheric processes? and second, are they capable of zooming in on particular areas to give reliable pictures of the future where you live? nobody much doubts that greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide accumulating in the atmosphere will cause warming. it would be a contradiction of 200 years


second, are they capable of zooming in on particular areas to give reliable pictures of the future where you live? nobody much doubts that greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide accumulating in the atmosphere will cause warming. it would be a contradiction of 200 years of physics if they did not. but exactly how much warming will occur — and how it will be distributed across the globe and impact other climatic features like rainfall — depends on feedbacks in the climate system, the oceans, and the natural carbon cycle. the influence of some of these feedbacks is much less clear. one big issue is the influence of clouds. the models are pretty hopeless at predicting future cloud cover. and we can ’ t even be sure whether, overall, extra clouds would warm or cool the planet. ( clouds may cool us in the day, but will usually keep us warm at night. ) in the language of donald rumsfeld, we would call this problem a “ known unknown. ” and there may also be “ unknown unknowns. ” for instance, a paper in earth and planetary science letters in march reported finding fossilized ferns in central siberia that suggest that in the late cretaceous era, temperatures there were like modern - day florida. yet current climate models predict that the area should have had average temperatures around zero celsius. the british climate modeler involved in the study, paul valdes of bristol university, says this snapshot from the era of the dinosaurs could mean that “ the internal physics of our climate models are wrong. ” that the models may also be drastically underestimating likely warming in the 21st century. this uncertainty at the heart of the models seems surprising when the predictions of most global climate models seem to be in agreement. for more than a decade they have estimated that a doubling of carbon dioxide in the air will warm the world by between 1. 5 and 4. 5 degrees celsius. some experts think the consensus of the models is bogus. “ the modelers tend to tweak them to align them. the process is very incestuous, ” one leading british analyst on uncertainty in models told me. another, jerry ravetz, fellow at oxford university ’ s james martin institute for science and civilisation, says : “ the modelers are trained to be very myopic, and not to understand the uncertainty within their models. they become very skilled at solving the little problems and ignoring the big ones. ” these are serious charges. but the custodians of the big models say this is really a communications problem between them


and not to understand the uncertainty within their models. they become very skilled at solving the little problems and ignoring the big ones. ” these are serious charges. but the custodians of the big models say this is really a communications problem between them and the outside world. gavin schmidt of nasa ’ s goddard institute for space studies, which runs one of the world ’ s top climate models, says modelers themselves have a “ tacit knowledge ” of the uncertainties inherent in their work. but this knowledge rarely surfaces in public discussions, resulting in “ an aura of exactitude that can be misleading. ” steve rayner, director of the james martin institute, says, “ what climate models do well is give a broad picture. what they are absolutely lousy at is giving specific forecasts for particular places or times. ” and yet that is what modelers are increasingly doing. at a meeting at cambridge university in britain last summer, larry smith singled out for criticism the british government ' s met office hadley centre for climate prediction and research, which runs another of the world ’ s premier climate models. he accuses the centre of making detailed climate projections for regions of britain, when global climate models disagree strongly about how climate change will affect the islands. james murphy, hadley ’ s head of climate prediction, says : “ i find it far - fetched that a planner is going to rush off with a climate scientist ’ s probability distribution and make an erroneous decision because they assumed they could trust some percentile of the distribution to its second decimal point. ” but some say the hadley centre invites just such a response in some of its leaflets. one of its reports, “ new science for managing climate risks, ” distributed to policymakers at the bali climate conference last december, included “ climate model predictions ” forecasting that by 2030 the river orinoco ’ s flow will have declined by 18. 7 percent, the zambezi by 34. 9 percent, and the amazon by 13. 4 percent. many in the modeling community are growing wary of such spurious certainty. last year, a panel on climate modeling assembled by the un ’ s world climate research program under the chairmanship of jagadish shukla of the george mason university at calverton, maryland, concluded that current models “ have serious limitations in simulating regional features, for example rainfall, mid - latitude storms, organized tropical convection, ocean mixing, and ecosystem dynamics. ” regional projections, the panel said, “ are sufficiently uncertain to compromise the goal of providing society


models “ have serious limitations in simulating regional features, for example rainfall, mid - latitude storms, organized tropical convection, ocean mixing, and ecosystem dynamics. ” regional projections, the panel said, “ are sufficiently uncertain to compromise the goal of providing society with reliable predictions of regional climate change. ” many of the predictions were “ laughable, ” according to the panel. concern is greatest about predicting climate in the tropics, including hurricane formation. this seriously undermines the credence that can be placed on a headline - grabbing prediction in may that the future might see fewer atlantic hurricanes ( albeit sometimes more intense ). this might not matter too much if politicians and policymakers had a healthily skeptical view of climate models. but most do not, a meeting of modelers held in oxford heard in february. policymakers often hide behind models and modelers, using them to claim scientific probity for their actions. one speaker likened modern climate modelers to the ancient oracles. “ they are part of the tradition of goats ’ entrails and tea leaves. they are a way of objectifying advice, cloaking sensible ideas in a false aura of scientific certainty. ” we saw that when european governments at the recent bali climate conference cited the un ’ s intergovernmental panel on climate change as reporting that keeping carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere below 450 parts per million would prevent warming above 2 degrees celsius. and that that was a “ safe ” level of warming. neither statement is in any ipcc reports, and its scientists have repeatedly stated that what might be regarded as a safe degree of warming is ultimately a political and not a scientific question. none of this should be taken to suggest either that climate models are not valuable tools, or that they are exaggerating the significance of man - made climate change. in fact, they may well inadvertently be under - estimating the pace of change. most models suggest that climate change in the coming decades will be gradual — a smooth line on a graph. but our growing knowledge of the history of natural climate change suggests that change often happens in sudden leaps. for instance, there was a huge step - change in the world ’ s climate 4, 200 years ago. catastrophic droughts simultaneously shattered human societies across the middle east, india, china, and the interior of north america. “ models have great difficulty in predicting such sudden events, and in explaining them, ” says euan nisbet of royal holloway, the university of london. “ but geology tells us that catastrophe has happened


and german socialism written by : hanna c. sanchez rosa luxemburg was the youngest daughter of a middle class family in poland. although she learned about politics from her father who often read from the newspaper and discussed politics with his family, her commitment to socialism emerged only from herself. originally from poland, rosa greatly influenced the socialist movement in germany through her writings, ideals, and actions. her views of a revolutionary party differed from the classic leninist beliefs and she is often referred to as the democratic alternative to the authoritarian party. however, rosa was not an advocate of democracy ; rather, she saw democracy as a stepping stone on the path to her socialist revolution. she is the best known revolutionary theorist to actually experience a western revolution, even though the german revolution of 1918 - 19 ultimately failed. rosa was an orthodox marxist and believed the revolution would occur by the working class taking and exercising political power. furthermore, the workers would have to be educated and possess class - consciousness in order to execute successfully a revolution, and this education would result from their experiences with the government. according to rosa, the revolution would occur as a series of events in which the forces of capitalism gradually weakened as the workers gained power. rosa also disagreed with revisionists such as bernstein in that she felt reforms would serve to educate the proletariat, which in turn would lead to the revolution. she initially became involved with movements in high school in warsaw, and continued her involvement in the polish social movement after she graduated. her work was so extensive that in 1889, she heard that the russian authorities that controlled most of poland might arrest her. as a result, rosa decided to leave the country and was smuggled across the border by a catholic priest. she went to zurich, switzerland, which was the center for many eastern european emigres. at the university in zurich, rosa earned her degree of doctor of law in 1897 and wrote a thesis on the industrial development of poland. her educational background in history and political economics served as the foundation for work after her schooling. while in zurich, rosa became even more involved in the socialist movement. with leo jogiches, who became her lover, she co - founded the polish social democratic party ( sdkp ). although the sdkp was not very successful during the 1890s, rosa became well known throughout the international socialist movement. members of the nationalistic polish socialist party criticized rosa for her position that socialist parties were not interested in poland ’ s struggle for independence, and this attracted much attention to her. in 1898, she married gustav


became well known throughout the international socialist movement. members of the nationalistic polish socialist party criticized rosa for her position that socialist parties were not interested in poland ’ s struggle for independence, and this attracted much attention to her. in 1898, she married gustav lubeck and moved to berlin. her marriage was not one of love, as her relationship with jogiches continued. rosa ’ s primary goal was to gain german citizenship through the marriage in order to prevent her deportation as an undesirable alien. in germany, she became involved with the german socialist party ( spd ) mainly as an expert on polish affairs. she was particularly valuable to the spd since it aimed to establish itself in polish areas under german control. from the start of her work with the spd, rosa made it clear that she did not want to be limited in her work and she maintained a position in the mainstream of german socialist politics. rosa achieved a prominent position in the spd and was widely published. her main argument during the period of 1899 to 1904 was the necessity of a connection between the daily activity of the trade union movement and the socialist party and the long - term aim of revolution. however, she had no concrete plans on how to accomplish this. furthermore, she did not have specific suggestions on how to speed up the path to a revolution nor did she know what form the revolution would take. the russian revolution of 1905 led rosa to believe that it would radicalize the socialist movement all over europe and not just in russia. in her explanations of the russian revolution, she mentioned for the first time that bloodshed would be encountered in the revolution. although she was excited by the russian revolution, she was also frustrated by the fact that it was taking place just east of poland while she was in germany. despite her work as a link between russian and western european socialists, she would have preferred to be in the middle of the revolution that was already taking place. in march 1906, rosa was arrested along with jogiches. her health worsened while in prison, and her state helped persuade the government to release her on a bail of 3000 rubles. after her release, she received permission to leave germany and in august went to finland, stopping by st. petersburg where she visited trotsky and parvus. in finland, rosa visited lenin and wrote the mass strike, in which she interpreted the 1905 russian revolution and demonstrated how the lessons of the events were applicable to all of europe. unfortunately, her writings did not have its intended effect since it was presented at a time when most socialists were


and wrote the mass strike, in which she interpreted the 1905 russian revolution and demonstrated how the lessons of the events were applicable to all of europe. unfortunately, her writings did not have its intended effect since it was presented at a time when most socialists were no longer willing to discuss a revolution. rosa returned to germany in 1906 and was disappointed to discover that there was little enthusiasm over the russian revolution. the party congress in 1906 stated that while there may have been possibilities for a revolution, they no longer were present. furthermore, she found herself increasingly alone in her opinions in the party. although the spd agreed with her that the revolution was not likely to be just one big event, it would not go along with her belief that the revolution would be a series of events. as a result of the 1905 revolution, she had refined her beliefs of the revolution. she felt that the economic structure around her was becoming increasingly contradictory and more serious strikes would break out because of the economic situation. these strikes would be countered by governmental opposition and repression, which would educate the workers politically. this would lead to the gradual politicization of the entire strike movement, although the workers ’ strategy would still be to economically paralyze the whole country. although the government would subdue each strike, each strike would reemerge stronger and more determined than the previous one. the series of mass strikes would ultimately undermine the capitalist order as well as educate the proletariat of the course that history was taking. however, most socialist parties disagreed with rosa ’ s view of the revolution and the role of mass strikes. they believed that the voters would bring them political power and the trade union movement would provide some economic power. rosa ’ s appeal and popularity reached a pinnacle at the start of 1914. she went on trial for a statement she made the previous year in which she renounced fighting against the french and was subsequently sentenced to one year in prison. not only did she gain attention through this episode, but rosa also came to represent the spd persecuted by the government. the first world war broke out while she was in prison, and she was surprised by it. the brutality of the war horrified her and she worked with some groups to end the war, even though she did help pass a resolution for those who wanted to use the war to further the revolution. she spent most of wwi in prison and accomplished a great deal of work. among her writings, rosa referred to the russian revolution as the mightiest event of the world war, but felt that its ultimate effects depended on what western


further the revolution. she spent most of wwi in prison and accomplished a great deal of work. among her writings, rosa referred to the russian revolution as the mightiest event of the world war, but felt that its ultimate effects depended on what western nations afterwards. she criticized the lack of political freedom in the russian revolution and the german socialists who would have to incite their own revolution in order for the one in russia to be effective and prolonged. rosa acknowledged the possibility of the failure of the revolution and further believed that failure would be better if success would be accomplished with the compromise of principles. her own group, the spartacist league, was almost insignificant in the german revolution of 1918. the revolution took place in berlin on november 9, the day that rosa was released from prison. in january 1919, the independent socialists, communists, and other radicals joined to protest against the government. however, it became apparent that the government would not fall and all groups except the communists consequently separated themselves from the protest. rosa led the spartacist league with karl liebknecht and together they became the leaders of the spartacist rebellion. they were later arrested after a resistance to the government was suppressed. rosa was interrogated, beaten, shot, and then thrown into the landwehr canal in berlin. rosa became a martyr of socialism as a result of her death at the hands of the government. even while some of her works were criticized, she was still remembered by both the socialists and communists. bradley, michael e. “ rosa luxemburg ’ s theory of the growth of the capitalist economy. ” social science quarterly. vol. 52 ( 2 ), 1971. pgs. 318 - 330. reynolds, david b. “ rediscovering western marxism ’ s heritage : rosa luxemburg and the role of the party. ” research and society. vol. 3, 1990. pgs. 1 - 34. richards, michael d. “ rosa luxemburg - heroine of the left. ” history today. vol. 22 ( 2 ), 1972. pgs. 103 - 110. weitz, eric d. “ ’ rosa luxemburg belongs to us! ’ german communism and the luxemburg legacy. ” central european history. vol. 27 ( 1 ), 1994. pgs. 27 - 64.


lawrenceville, georgia ( cnn ) - - you might recognize prominent primatologist frans de waal from lectures he has given about his research on primate behavior, which have been popularized on youtube. his face is familiar to chimpanzees, too ; some chimps that he knew as babies still recognize him even after decades apart, he said. " chimpanzees have the advantage that you cannot ask them questions, so you have to watch ( their ) behavior to see what they do, " says de waal, director of emory university ' s living links center, in his dutch - accented voice that is both gentle and authoritative. he adds, with dry humor : " with humans, you can ask questions and you get all sorts of answers i don ' t trust, so i prefer to work with chimpanzees for that reason. " living links is part of the oldest and largest primate center in the united states : the yerkes national primate research center, a secluded grassy area in suburban atlanta where humans work in office trailers and other animals play in open - air compounds. de waal, who has been at the center for more than 20 years, has made a career out of finding links between primate and human behavior, particularly in the areas of morality and empathy. you might think of " morality " as special for humans, but there are elements of it that are found in the animal kingdom, says de waal - - namely, fairness and reciprocity. his latest study, published this week in the journal proceedings of the national academy of sciences, suggests that chimpanzees may show some of the same sensibility about fairness that humans do. the popular belief that the natural world is based on competition is a simplification, de waal says. the strength of one ' s immune system, and the ability to find food, are also crucial. and many animals survive by cooperating. " the struggle for life is not necessarily literally a struggle, " he said. " humans are a highly cooperative species, and we can see in our close relatives where that comes from. " mammals such as wolves, orcas and elephants need their groups to survive, and empathy and cooperation are survival mechanisms. de waal discusses these mechanisms in his 2009 book " the age of empathy : nature ' s lessons for a kinder society. " " we think that empathy evolved to take care of others that you need to take care of, especially, of course, between mother and offspring, which is universal


book " the age of empathy : nature ' s lessons for a kinder society. " " we think that empathy evolved to take care of others that you need to take care of, especially, of course, between mother and offspring, which is universal in all the mammals, " de waal said. what it means to be fair de waal isn ' t sure that his monkeys have what a philosopher would call a " concept of justice " in an intellectual sense. but the emotional reactions researchers have observed indicates that there is, at a more basic level, a sense of justice among them. among the questions he investigates : if an animal gets more than another, is there is a feeling that this is somehow unjust? and if one shares food with another, is there an expectation of returning the favor? in a 2008 study, de waal and colleagues put two capuchin monkeys side by side and gave them a simple task to complete : giving a rock to the experimenter. they were given cucumbers as a reward for executing the task, and the monkeys obliged. but if one of the monkeys was given grapes, something interesting happened : as observed in a popular video that de waal showed in his ted talk, after receiving the first piece of cucumber, the capuchin monkey gives the experimenter a rock as expected. but upon seeing that the other monkey has grapes, the capuchin monkey throws the next piece of cucumber that it is given back at the researcher. like children, the monkeys feel they " need to get the same thing as somebody else, " de waal said. based on experiments such as these, de waal came to believe that the sense of fairness observed in monkeys is egocentric. the capuchin monkeys were upset, selfishly, when they didn ' t get the grapes that their neighbors received. de waal believed this model of fairness would apply to chimpanzees also. chimpanzees are so closely related to us that they share 99 % of their dna with humans. but the new study, which compares chimpanzees to young children, makes de waal rethink that view. " now with this experiment, we are thinking that they have a higher level, where they worry about reward division in general, " he said, " and it ' s now unclear how they differ from humans. " the new study : a human sense of fairness? in the new study, de waal and colleagues had chimpanzees and


reward division in general, " he said, " and it ' s now unclear how they differ from humans. " the new study : a human sense of fairness? in the new study, de waal and colleagues had chimpanzees and, separately, young children, play an " ultimatum game. " this is " the gold standard of fairness for humans " because it has been played all over the world, by people in different cultures, to show that, universally, humans appear to have a sense of fairness. the basic structure of an ultimatum game is that there are rewards that can be divided between two individuals. one proposes how to divide them and the other accepts or rejects this offer. if the receiver rejects, no rewards are given out. human trials have shown that people usually propose a generous division of the goodies, such as half and half or 60 % and 40 %, de waal said. in the version used in the new experiment, six adult chimpanzees and 20 human children, between ages 2 and 7, participated. the setup was such that a token could be traded for equal rewards for both partners, and a token that would give more goodies to the partner who made the choice. in some trials, one partner proposes a reward division to the other via a token, and the receiver must accept the token in order for both parties to get rewards. in others, the partner ' s acceptance is not required. the researchers found that chimpanzees and children both tended to make decisions about splitting rewards similarly to adult humans. in the situation where the responder could accept or reject the division of rewards, both chimpanzees and children tended to split the rewards with their partners. but when the partner was not given the opportunity to reject the proposal, chimps and kids tended to choose the selfish arrangement - - a token that favored the chooser. so, does this mean that chimpanzees show the same sense of fairness as humans? keith jensen of the university of manchester, who has conducted similar experiments in the past, isn ' t so sure. his results did not show that chimpanzees have a sense of fairness. jensen is concerned about the results of this new study because it ' s not clear that the responders knew that they could reject offers. none of the participants, human or chimp, ever rejected the offers of their partners. " the fact that responders never rejected nonzero offers suggests that they were not sensitive to unfairness but were only


italics. their logo of the anchor and dolphin is represented today in the symbols and names used by some modern publishers such as doubleday. selected aldine editions - 1495 – 1498 aristotle - 1499 hypnerotomachia poliphili - 1501 francesco petrarca, le cose volgari - 1502 dante - 1502 herodotus - 1502 sophocles - 1503 florilegium diversorum epigrammatum in septem libros - 1504 and 1517 homer - 1513 plato - 1513 pindar ( editio princeps ), callimachus ' hymns, dionysius periegetes, lycophron ( editio princeps ) - 1514 institutionum grammaticarum libri quatuor - 1514 virgil ( the first of the italic type pocket octavo editions ) - 1528 baldassare castiglione, the book of the courtier ( first printing ) one of the more substantial collections of aldine press books and aldine imitations in north america is at the harold b. lee library on the campus of brigham young university in provo, utah. - " hand bookbindings ". princeton university library. 2004. archived from the original on 27 november 2009. retrieved 12 january 2010. - eisenstein, e. ( 1979 ). the printing press as an agent of change. cambridge, uk : cambridge university press. - a guide to special collections ( 1999 ) - see this link : http : / / net. lib. byu. edu / aldine / aldwel. html. further reading - renouard, a. a. ( 1834 ) annales de l ' imprimerie des aldes, ou l ' histoire des trois manuce et de leurs editions ; 3eme edition. paris ( the standard bibliography ) - fletcher, h. g., iii ( 1988 ) new aldine studies : documentary essays on the life and work of aldus manutius. san francisco - lowry, martin ( 1984 ) il mondo di aldo manuzio – affari e cultura della venezia del rinascimento. roma : il veltro, pp. 441 ( translated from : the world of aldus manutius : business and scholarship in renaissance venice, basil blackwell, oxford, 1979 ). ii edizione, con aggiornamento bibliografico, roma 2000. -


temporal range : 0ma recent | range of chinchilla lanigera and chinchilla chinchilla. chinchillas are crepuscular rodents, slightly larger and more robust than ground squirrels, native to the andes mountains in south america. they live in colonies at high altitudes ( up to 15, 000 ft / 4, 270 m ). historically, they lived in the andes of bolivia, chile, and peru, but today colonies in the wild remain only in peru and chile. along with their relatives, viscachas, they make up the family chinchillidae. the animal ( whose name literally means " little chincha " ) is named after the chincha people of the andes, who once wore its dense, velvet - like fur. by the end of the 19th century, chinchillas had become quite rare due to hunting for their ultra - soft fur. most chinchillas currently used by the fur industry for clothing and other accessories are farm - raised. the two living species of chinchilla are chinchilla chinchilla ( formerly known as chinchilla brevicaudata ) and chinchilla lanigera. there is little noticeable difference between the species, except c. chinchilla has a shorter tail, a thicker neck and shoulders, and shorter ears than c. lanigera. the former species is currently facing extinction ; the latter, though rare, can be found in the wild. domesticated chinchillas are thought to have come from the c. lanigera species. in their native habitats, chinchillas live in burrows or crevices in rocks. they are agile jumpers and can jump up to 6 ft ( 1. 8 m ). predators in the wild include birds of prey, skunks, felines, snakes and canines. chinchillas have a variety of defensive tactics, including spraying urine and releasing fur if bitten. in the wild, chinchillas have been observed eating plant leaves, fruits, seeds, and small insects. in nature, chinchillas live in social groups that resemble colonies, but are properly called herds. they can breed any time of the year. their gestation period is 111 days, longer than most rodents. due to this long pregnancy, chinchillas are born fully furred and with eyes open. litters are usually small in number, predominantly two. roles with humans the international trade in chinchilla fur goes back to the 16th century. their fur is popular in the fur trade due to its extremely


born fully furred and with eyes open. litters are usually small in number, predominantly two. roles with humans the international trade in chinchilla fur goes back to the 16th century. their fur is popular in the fur trade due to its extremely soft feel, which is caused by the sprouting of 60 hairs from each hair follicle, on average. the color is usually very even, which makes it ideal for small garments or the lining of large garments, though some large garments can be made entirely from the fur. a single, full - length coat made from chinchilla fur may require as many as 150 pelts, as chinchillas are relatively small. their use for fur led to the extinction of one species, and put serious pressure on the other two. though it is illegal to hunt wild chinchillas, the wild animals are now on the verge of becoming extinct because of continued illegal hunting. domesticated chinchillas are still bred for this use. chinchillas as pets chinchillas require extensive exercise. their teeth need to be worn down, as they grow continuously and can prevent them from eating if they become overgrown. wooden sticks, pumice stone and chew toys are good options, but conifer and citrus woods ( such as cedar or orange ) should be avoided because of the high content of resins, oils and phenols that are toxic for chinchillas. birch, willow, apple, manzanita or kiln - dried pine woods are all safe for chinchillas to chew. chinchillas lack the ability to sweat ; therefore, if temperatures get above 25°c ( 80°f ), they could get overheated and may suffer from heat stroke. chinchillas dissipate heat by routing blood to their large ears, so red ears signal overheating. chinchillas can be found in a variety of colors. the only color found in nature is standard gray. the most common other colors are white, black velvet, beige, ebony, violet, and sapphire, and blends of these. the animals instinctively clean their fur by taking dust baths, in which they roll around in special dust made of fine pumice. in the wild, the dust is formed from fine, ground volcanic rocks. the dust gets into their fur and absorbs oil and dirt. these baths are needed a few times a week. chinchillas do not bathe in water because the dense fur prevents air - drying, retaining moisture close to the skin, which can cause fungus


gets into their fur and absorbs oil and dirt. these baths are needed a few times a week. chinchillas do not bathe in water because the dense fur prevents air - drying, retaining moisture close to the skin, which can cause fungus growth or fur rot. a wet chinchilla must be dried immediately with towels and a no - heat hair dryer. the thick fur resists parasites, such as fleas, and reduces loose dander, making chinchillas hypoallergenic. chinchillas eat and drink in very small amounts. in the wild, they eat and digest desert grasses, so cannot efficiently process fatty or high protein foods, or too many green plants. a high quality, hay - based pellet and a constant supply of loose timothy hay will meet all of their dietary needs. chinchillas ' very sensitive gastrointestinal tracts can be easily disrupted, so a healthy diet is important. in a mixed ration, chinchillas may avoid the healthy, high - fiber pellets in favor of items such as raisins and seeds. fresh vegetables and fruit ( with high moisture content ) should be avoided, as these can cause bloat, which can be fatal. sweets and dried fruit treats should be limited to one per day, at the very most. this can lead to diarrhea, or in the long term, diabetes. nuts should be avoided due to their high fat content. high protein foods and alfalfa hay can cause liver problems and should be limited. in scientific research the chinchilla is often used as an animal model in researching the auditory system, because the chinchilla ' s range of hearing ( 20 hz to 30 khz ) and cochlear size is close to that of a human, and the chinchilla cochlea is fairly easy to access. other research fields in which chinchillas are used as an animal model include the study of chagas disease, gastrointestinal diseases, pneumonia, and listeriosis, as well as of yersinia and pseudomonas infections. the first scientific study on chinchilla sounds in their social environment was conducted by dr. bartl dvm in germany. - viscacha, a rodent similar to a chinchilla - woods, c. a. and kilpatrick, c. w. ( 2005 ). infraorder hystricognathi. in : d. e. wilson and d. m. reeder ( eds )


s. 3rd street in german village | added to nrhp : | | december 30, 1974 | german village ( boundary increase ) | architectural style : | | no style listed | | added to nrhp : | | november 28, 1980 | german village is a historic neighborhood in columbus, ohio, just south of downtown. it was settled in the early - to - mid - 19th century by a large number of german immigrants, who at one time comprised as much as a third of the city ' s entire population. it was added to the national register of historic places on december 30, 1974, becoming the largest privately funded preservation district on the list, and in 2007, was made a preserve america community by the white house. on november 28, 1980, its boundaries were increased and today it is one of the premier historic restorations in the world. in 1796, congress appropriated the refugee lands for individuals who had supported the colonial cause in the american revolution. by 1802, an american revolution veteran named john mcgowan claimed 328 acres ( 1. 33 km2 ), most of what would become the german village. as german immigrants arrived, mcgowan sold tracts of land to them. by 1814, a settlement had grown up, originally called " die alte sud ende " ( the old south end ), and german immigrants contributed to building the first statehouse. by 1830, massive german immigration to the city had occurred. the most influential german newspaper in 1843 was der westbote. many would serve in the american civil war, thus gaining the universal respect of the local citizens. by 1865, one - third of columbus ' s population was german and the community was flourishing. they built up the local neighborhood, including many businesses, such as hessenauer jewelers and lazarus department stores, schools, and churches, such as the ohio - historic st. mary ' s catholic church, built in 1865 and adorned with a 197 - foot ( 60 m ) steeple in 1893. german - american george karb became mayor of the city, twice, at the end of the 19th century and again in the early 20th century. the local schools the german immigrants constructed and managed were so superior that english - speaking residents of columbus chose to attend them, such as one that once stood at fulton street east of s. fourth street. in 1831, the german evangelical lutheran seminary secured 14 acres ( 57, 000 m2 ) in the south end, founded by william schmidt, a graduate of the university of halle in germany. the school would go on to become what


s. fourth street. in 1831, the german evangelical lutheran seminary secured 14 acres ( 57, 000 m2 ) in the south end, founded by william schmidt, a graduate of the university of halle in germany. the school would go on to become what is known today as capital university, still under the leadership of the lutheran church and now located in nearby bexley. the arts and athletics the german immigrants brought with them a vibrant athletic and artistic heritage, which was reflected in their social establishments. the columbus maennerchor, a singing group, was established in 1848, and as early as 1852, won a ribbon for their talent at the north american sangerfest. in 1866, the group won the silver pokal at a festival held in louisville. in the late 19th century, another singing group called the columbus liederkranz was formed by the germans, but was forced to cease during world war i because of heavy anti - german pressure. many of its members joined the maennerchor, which survived. in the 1860s and 1870s the maennerchor formed a drama division called the " dramatischen sektion. " they would produce operas, dramas, and comedies until disbanding in the 1930s. one of their notable performances was their 1927 production of friedrich von schiller ' s die rauber. another social group was the schiller club, founded in 1900. the columbus turn verein was a social and athletic ( tumbling ) association that dated back to 1866, and was a main organization from which the german immigrants drew mutual support. in the late 19th century the turners merged with the germania gesang verein, which hosted a maennerchor and a damenchor. another merger enlarged the germania in the late 1920s. the germania merged with the kicker ’ s soccer club, which for many years was a very active part of the organization. the club also now includes a fahrrad verein ( bicycle club ), which goes on weekend outings to bike trails throughout central ohio. the club ' s official name is now the germania gesang und sport verein ( singing and sports club ). the germania club itself was located in a residence on kossuth street, but outgrew its first facility. in 1927 it purchased the present location at 543 south front street from the estate of nicolaus schlee, one of the prestigious brewmasters of the neighborhood. the society is now located in the neighborhood known as the brewery district


its first facility. in 1927 it purchased the present location at 543 south front street from the estate of nicolaus schlee, one of the prestigious brewmasters of the neighborhood. the society is now located in the neighborhood known as the brewery district of columbus, which is the northernmost section of the german village. over the years the germania club has made it its mission to retain, promote and disseminate all that is good about german culture. a major component of this mission is the practice and performance of german song. their choruses participate and support public events throughout ohio during the year in appreciation for the community ’ s support. the germania club will celebrate its 147th anniversary in 2013 with an oktoberfest that will feature its choruses. in 1890, the ohio state buckeyesl football team played their first - ever home game in the south end, at a location just west of present - day schiller park between jaeger, ebner, and whittier ( then called schiller ) streets. german brewery district a prosperous industry for the german immigrants was the brewing industry. today, the brewery district, part of the greater german village neighborhood, still partially resembles its notable past. during the 19th century, the area was found largely along both sides of s. front street from livingston avenue to sycamore street. notable breweries during this period included the bavarian brewery, started in 1849 by george schlegel, which ultimately became the shlegel bavarian brewery in 1860 when bavarian nicholas schlee immigrated and took over. schlee was president of the company that eventually constructed the great southern hotel downtown. schlee also owned the lyceum theater and served as vice president of the central bank. conrad born opened the capital brewery in 1859 and was also president of the century discount company. the industry flourished during the early 20th century. one of the last major brewers of the city before prohibition was august wagner, who immigrated from bavaria in the late 19th century and worked as the brewmaster at the city brewery before becoming president and general manager of the gambrinus brewing company. by 1919, he had purchased all of the stock for the company to become the sole owner, and in 1938 he changed the name to august wagner breweries, inc. he was known to parade around on a horse costumed as gambrinus, the patron saint of beer. a statue of gambrinus is located at 605 s. front street. twenty - nine breweries have existed in and around


he was known to parade around on a horse costumed as gambrinus, the patron saint of beer. a statue of gambrinus is located at 605 s. front street. twenty - nine breweries have existed in and around the village throughout its history. hoster brewing dynasty while english breweries were found originally in the city, as german immigrants moved in, their brewing techniques were universally embraced and became the dominant methods for producing beer. louis hoster, an immigrant from rheinpfalz, germany, is notably credited for this transformation when he opened the city brewery in the 1830s. he would go on to serve on the city council between 1846 and 1854 while establishing the city ' s first wollen mill in 1852. in 1864, he established the louis hoster & sons brewery, which became the hoster columbus associated breweries in 1904. he would also serve on the board of education and was a unionist democrat. later members of louis hoster ' s brewing dynasty included his son louis philip hoster, president of the columbus structural steel company, and herman hoster, son of louis ' s son george, a graduate of yale university, treasurer of hoster columbus associated breweries, and founder of the columbus envelope company. another son of george was carl j. hoster, graduate of cornell university, who was president of the hoster columbus associated breweries as well as the director of the hayden clinton national bank and columbus driving park association, president of the u. s. brewer ' s association, 32nd degree of the scottish rite, and great - great uncle of former u. s. president george w. bush. hoster street in the german village stretches six blocks between lazelle and s. front streets. dr. herman a. hoster, jr. dr. herman a. hoster, jr. was the son of herman hoster, and name - bearer of the herman a. hoster research laboratory of the department of medicine and the department of zoology at the ohio state university. he was a graduate of yale university and johns hopkins university who would suffer from hodgkin ' s disease. after learning of his illness, dr. hoster resigned his medical position with yale to return home to columbus. there he focused on research of the disease at ohio state university. he became a professor of medicine and eventually an associate director of research at the college of medicine, where he performed experiments on himself related to his illness, including some at henry ford hospital in detroit. he published several leading research papers


at ohio state university. he became a professor of medicine and eventually an associate director of research at the college of medicine, where he performed experiments on himself related to his illness, including some at henry ford hospital in detroit. he published several leading research papers, including support of radiation therapy to treat the disease. dr. hoster became a charter member of the hodgkin ' s disease research foundation in new york city, serving as the original president between 1947 and 1951. the first headquarters of the foundation was established at st. vincent ' s hospital and included as board members dr. robert chambers of new york university, dr. antonio rottino, vice president of st. vincent ' s hospital, dr. harry rolnick of philadelphia, and john finn, vice president of fordham university. the area was in serious decline throughout the first half of the 20th century, partly due to anti - german sentiment during world war i. this was sparked by the sinking of the lusitania by germany, in which innocent women and children lost their lives. the media used this to demonize germany and german - americans. the germans claimed the ship was transporting weapons in a war zone, which the british and american governments denied. however, in 2008, millions of rounds of ammunition were found at the wreckage of the ship. during that time, the teaching of german in public schools was banned and german textbooks were burned. german street names were changed, such as germania street becoming the present - day stewart avenue, and schiller park was temporarily renamed washington park. the anti - german sentiment fueled by the media was so bad that in 1918, german books were burned on broad street and at the foot of the schiller statue. german canine breeds were taken from their owners and slaughtered, including german shepherds and dachshunds. despite the hatred, the columbus german american community would produce one of america ' s finest heroes from the war, captain eddie rickenbacker, for whom rickenbacker international airport in southern columbus is named. further decline occurred later due to the closing of the local breweries during prohibition. after the war, the south end was zoned for manufacturing, leading to the erosion of the area ' s residential feel. in world war ii, the streetcar tracks and wrought - iron fences were confiscated for the war effort. by the 1950s, the area had become a slum and the city decided to demolish one - third of the neighborhood. nearing complete destruction, frank fetch defied the common wisdom and purchased a house on


iron fences were confiscated for the war effort. by the 1950s, the area had become a slum and the city decided to demolish one - third of the neighborhood. nearing complete destruction, frank fetch defied the common wisdom and purchased a house on s. wall street, determined to rebuild the neighborhood. fetch would create the german village society. in june 1960, the society hosted the first haus und garten tour, which attracted visitors and the local media to eight restored homes and two gardens. today, the tour is one of the city ' s most popular events. frank fetch park was named after him. concerned citizens managed to save its historic architecture from demolition in the 1960s by successfully lobbying for a local commission, the german village commission, to have power over external changes made to buildings, and by getting the area listed on the national register of historic places in 1975. as of 2009 [ update ], the german village society has over 1, 000 preservationists dedicated to maintaining the historic quality of the buildings and neighborhood and german village is considered one of the most desirable areas to live in the city. more than 1, 600 buildings have been restored since 1960 and it is credited as one of the premiere restoration districts in the world. by the 1980s, the restoration was nearly complete. today, it is the largest privately funded historic district on the national register of historic places. residential real estate the area is mostly a residential neighborhood of sturdy, red - brick homes with wrought iron fences along tree - lined, brick - paved streets. the average home price is $ 377, 450. several homes in the neighborhood are priced at over $ 1 million, including a 5, 200 - square - foot ( 480 m2 ) home that sold in august 2007 for $ 1. 5 million. another home, which was purchased for $ 1. 4 million in 2006, boasts an underground tunnel linking the main house with the garage, which also serves as an art and wine cellar. german village has a commercial strip mainly centered along s. third street, with mostly locally owned restaurants — such as katzinger ' s delicatessen — and the 32 - room book loft bookstore. the neighborhood is home to one of the world ' s largest producers of stained glass, the franklin art glass studios inc., as well as several art galleries including the archive gallery, hawk galleries, keny gallery, kight studio 551, and metroscap. shops catering to european - imported retail include caterina ltd. and t. david collection. numerous neighborhood restaurants won 2010 thisweek community


galleries including the archive gallery, hawk galleries, keny gallery, kight studio 551, and metroscap. shops catering to european - imported retail include caterina ltd. and t. david collection. numerous neighborhood restaurants won 2010 thisweek community papers awards, including skillet as the best new restaurant in the city, and thurman cafe for best burgers. barcelona, noted for its spanish cuisine, won for best patio and is a consistent columbus dispatch best city restaurant. lindey ' s was runner - up for the same award that year and was voted one of columbus ' s top 10 restaurants for 18 years straight. it has appeared previously in the new york times, washington post, usa today, and gourmet magazine. in 2010, max and erma ' s was runner up for best casual restaurant and best soups, pistacia vera runner - up for best desserts, and roosters won best wings. german village is the home of the first restaurant in the max & erma ' s chain. in 1972, the restaurant was opened by barry zacks. the name was adopted from the original tavern, started in 1958 by max and erma visocnik, which the new owners converted into the popular theme restaurant. the german village guest house has been recognized as one of the best in the midwest by the new york post, the plain dealer, and the st. louis post dispatch, and positively reviewed by the washington post and the tennessean. it was rated as the " best columbus hotel 2010 " by city search. in 2006, local media personality andrea cambern, in collaboration with the german village society and wbns, narrated a 10 - minute documentary short on the neighborhood, which won an ohio historic preservation office award. schiller park schiller park, named after friedrich von schiller, which was once a community meeting ground for the german settlement, is now the site of recreational facilities, gardens, and an amphitheater that hosts free live performances of shakespearean plays during the summer months courtesy of actors theatre of columbus. it is bounded by jaeger street and city park, reinhard, and deshler avenues. it has been the area ' s center for festivals and neighborhood activities since the 1800s. the main entrance of the 23 - acre park, along city park avenue, greets visitors with the huntington gardens, sponsored by huntington national bank and maintained by volunteers, and the schiller statue. the statue was presented to the park by local residents in 1891. it is


23 - acre park, along city park avenue, greets visitors with the huntington gardens, sponsored by huntington national bank and maintained by volunteers, and the schiller statue. the statue was presented to the park by local residents in 1891. it is a second casting of the statue in munich, germany, designed and executed by max von widnmann and unveiled on may 9, 1863. the columbus statue was transported free of charge across the atlantic. the park is also home to the umbrella girl fountain, dedicated to the citizens of german village in october 1996 to replace the missing original sculpture. preserve america community german tradition has long reigned in the community in the form of an annual oktoberfest festival. it originally took place in schiller park and has been held at various locations within the german village neighborhood. due to new development in the area, it now takes place at the ohio state fairgrounds / ohio expo center. the festival was voted to be canceled in 2009, but the schmidt ( owners and operators of schmidt ' s sausage haus ) and cox families stepped in to keep it running. a smaller oktoberfest still goes on in the german village itself, at the germania gesang und sport verein ( singing and sports club ) at 543 south front street in the old schlee brewmaster ' s house and outdoor garden. although german village is an eclectic community, the area is particularly known as a columbus " gayborhood. " while no gay establishments are located within the german village limits, several gay - friendly bars are located in the neighboring brewery district and merion village. the 2010 gay softball world series was held at nearby lou berliner park. america ' s great places in 2011, german village was named as one of america ' s great places in the neighborhoods category by the american planning association. their description reads, " unpretentious, renovated houses and cottages stand shoulder to shoulder. small, meticulously maintained front yards front tree - lined streets with brick sidewalks and cultivated village planters. small businesses and storefronts with eye - catching displays and the aroma of culinary delights draw in passing pedestrians. german village has remained true to its mid - 19th century history, architecture, and character despite periods of disinvestment, decline, and near ruin. ". see also - " national register information system ". national register of historic places. national park service. 2008 - 04 - 15. - insider ' s guide to columbus, shawnie kelley. globe pequot,


, and near ruin. ". see also - " national register information system ". national register of historic places. national park service. 2008 - 04 - 15. - insider ' s guide to columbus, shawnie kelley. globe pequot, 2006. isbn 0 - 7627 - 3542 - 2, isbn 978 - 0 - 7627 - 3542 - 6. p. 269. - " st. mary church ", j. j. prats. historical marker database. 4 july 2009. retrieved 7 september 2010. - german village society history retrieved 15 sept 2012. - german columbus, jeffrey t. darbee, nancy a. recchie. arcadia publishing, 2005. isbn 0 - 7385 - 3396 - 3, isbn 978 - 0 - 7385 - 3396 - 4. pp. 7, 17. - darbee and recchie, p. 26. - darbee and recchie, p. 18. - educational history of ohio, james jesse burns. historical pub. co., 1905. p. 349. - " capital university ", u. s. news and world report. 2010. retrieved 7 september 2010. - german columbus, jeffrey t. darbee, nancy a. recchie. arcadia publishing, 2005. isbn 0 - 7385 - 3396 - 3, isbn 978 - 0 - 7385 - 3396 - 4. - darbee and recchie, p. 19. - darbee and recchie, p. 21. - darbee and recchie, p. 24. - darbee and recchie, p. 25. - darbee and recchie, pp. 60, 68. - " site of first ohio state home football game / the ohio state university first football team 1890 ", william fischer, jr. 13 oct 2008. retrieved 7 september 2010. - darbee and recchie, p. 60. - darbee and recchie, p. 68. - " columbus in historic photographs ", columbus metropolitan library. retrieved 7 september 2010. - " brewery district ", touring ohio. 2010. retrieved 7 september 2010. - darbee and recchie, p. 27. - " the l. hoster brewing company ", ohiobreweriana. retrieved 7 september 2010. - centennial history of columbus and franklin county, ohio, volume 2, william alexander taylor, s. j. clarke publishing co., 1909. p. 731. - obituary record of graduates of


ohiobreweriana. retrieved 7 september 2010. - centennial history of columbus and franklin county, ohio, volume 2, william alexander taylor, s. j. clarke publishing co., 1909. p. 731. - obituary record of graduates of yale university, yale university, 1915. p. 897. - centennial history of columbus and franklin county, ohio, volume 1, william alexander taylor, s. j. clarke publishing co., 1909. pp. 608 – 09. - " feature articles in grandview thisweek newspaper weekly moment in time column ", the grandview heights marble cliff historical society. 2006 – 2007. retrieved 7 september 2008. - " a tireless determination : herman a. hoster, m. d. ", house call. medical heritage center of ohio state university. winter 2003. retrieved 7 september 2010. - journal of the american medical association, volume 133, number 10, march 8, 1947 ( subscription required ). - " hodgkin ' s disease and other lymphomas ". republished by the national center for biotechnology information. original december 1972. retrieved 7 september 2010. - the national cyclopaedia of american biography, james terry white. university microfilms, 1967. p. 358. - " secret of the lusitania : arms find challenges allied claims it was solely a passenger ship ", daily mail december 20, 2008. - darbee and recchie, p. 13. - german village society, 1914 - 1920 retrieved 26 july 2009. - german village society, 1920 - 1960 retrieved 26 july 2009. - german village society, 1960 - 1990 retrieved 26 july 2009. - german village society, 1960 - 1990 retrieved 26 july 2009 - german village society, history retrieved 26 july 2009. - german village society, 1990 - today retrieved 26 july 2009. - " john mccain does his own german thing ", don frederick. los angeles times. 24 july 2008. retrieved 6 september 2010. - kelley, p. 51. - realtor neighborhoods, " german village ", realtor. retrieved 26 july 2009. - " august real estate news ", columbus homes. september 2007. retrieved 26 july 2009. - " beck st. secrets ", tim feran. columbus dispatch. 29 june 2008. retrieved 28 september 2009. - book loft - " shop ", german village society. retrieved 6 september 2010. - " kudos to gv businesses! ", german village society. 22 august 2010. retrieved 6 september 2010. -


june 2008. retrieved 28 september 2009. - book loft - " shop ", german village society. retrieved 6 september 2010. - " kudos to gv businesses! ", german village society. 22 august 2010. retrieved 6 september 2010. - " barcelona restaurant : traditional spanish cuisine in columbus ", lee ann mullen. hello columbus. 20 dec 2009. retrieved 6 september 2010. - " lindey ' s restaurant & bar ", ivonne rovira. hello metro. 1 may 2010. retrieved 6 september 2010. - " our memories ". max and erma ' s. retrieved nov 13, 2010. - " let ’ s do the tryst ", caitlin barnett. retrieved 6 september 2010. - " “ sweet rooms, and roomy suites... ”, german village guest house. retrieved 6 september 2010. - " german village society and wbns 10tv ", ohio historic preservation office. 2006. retrieved 6 september 2010. - the actor ' s theatre - preserve america retrieved 26 july 2009. - columbus oktoberfest - oktoberfest, germania gesang und sport verein. - travis hoewischer, " why is columbus so gay? how the capital city of a conservative state became the glbt mecca of the midwest ", 614 magazine, june 1, 2011. retrieved march 20, 2013. - german village, columbus, ohio, neighborhoods, great places in america, american planning association, retrieved march 20, 2013. - media related to german village ( columbus, ohio ) at wikimedia commons - the german village society - germania gesang und sport verein - columbus oktoberfest at ohio fairgrounds - oktoberfest held in german village - " german village ' s oktoberfest in columbus ohio at ohio fairgrounds " - " columbus ' german village featured on the today show " - american planning association ' s great places in america - apa great places in america : neighborhoods 2011


| | this article needs additional citations for verification. ( february 2010 ) | opacity is the measure of impenetrability to electromagnetic or other kinds of radiation, especially visible light. in radiative transfer, it describes the absorption and scattering of radiation in a medium, such as a plasma, dielectric, shielding material, glass, etc. an opaque object is neither transparent ( allowing all light to pass through ) nor translucent ( allowing some light to pass through ). when light strikes an interface between two substances, in general some may be reflected, some absorbed, some scattered, and the rest transmitted ( also see refraction ). reflection can be diffuse, for example light reflecting off a white wall, or specular, for example light reflecting off a mirror. an opaque substance transmits no light, and therefore reflects, scatters, or absorbs all of it. both mirrors and carbon black are opaque. opacity depends on the frequency of the light being considered. for instance, some kinds of glass, while transparent in the visual range, are largely opaque to ultraviolet light. more extreme frequency - dependence is visible in the absorption lines of cold gases. opacity can be quantified in many ways ; for example, see the article mathematical descriptions of opacity. quantitative definition the words " opacity " and " opaque " are often used as colloquial terms for objects or media with the properties described above. however, there is also a specific, quantitative definition of " opacity ", used in astronomy, plasma physics, and other fields, given here. in this use, " opacity " is another term for the mass attenuation coefficient ( or, depending on context, mass absorption coefficient, the difference is described here ) at a particular frequency of electromagnetic radiation. more specifically, if a beam of light with frequency travels through a medium with opacity and mass density, both constant, then the intensity will be reduced with distance x according to the formula - x is the distance the light has traveled through the medium - is the intensity of light remaining at distance x - is the initial intensity of light, at for a given medium at a given frequency, the opacity has a numerical value that may range between 0 and infinity, with units of length2 / mass. planck and rosseland opacity it is customary to define the average opacity, calculated using a certain weighting scheme. planck opacity uses normalized planck black body radiation energy density distribution as


public international law public international law concerns the structure and conduct of sovereign states ; analogous entities, such as the holy see ; and intergovernmental organizations. to a lesser degree, international law also may affect multinational corporations and individuals, an impact increasingly evolving beyond domestic legal interpretation and enforcement. public international law has increased in use and importance vastly over the twentieth century, due to the increase in global trade, environmental deterioration on a worldwide scale, awareness of human rights violations, rapid and vast increases in international transportation and a boom in global communications. the field of study combines two main branches : the law of nations ( jus gentium ) and international agreements and conventions ( jus inter gentes ), which have different foundations and should not be confused. public international law should not be confused with " private international law ", which is concerned with the resolution of conflict of laws. in its most general sense, international law " consists of rules and principles of general application dealing with the conduct of states and of intergovernmental organizations and with their relations inter se, as well as with some of their relations with persons, whether natural or juridical. " beginning with the peace of westphalia in 1648, the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries saw the growth of the concept of the sovereign " nation - state ", which consisted of a nation controlled by a centralized system of government. the concept of nationalism became increasingly important as people began to see themselves as citizens of a particular nation with a distinct national identity. until the mid - 19th century, relations between nation - states were dictated by treaty, agreements to behave in a certain way towards another state, unenforceable except by force, and not binding except as matters of honor and faithfulness. but treaties alone became increasingly toothless and wars became increasingly destructive, most markedly towards civilians, and civilized peoples decried their horrors, leading to calls for regulation of the acts of states, especially in times of war. perhaps the first instrument of modern public international law was the lieber code, passed in 1863 by the congress of the united states, to govern the conduct of us forces during the united states civil war and considered to be the first written recitation of the rules and articles of war, adhered to by all civilized nations, the precursor of public international law. part of the code follows : " military necessity, as understood by modern civilized nations, consists in the necessity of those measures which are indispensable for securing the ends of the war, and which are lawful according to the modern law and usages of


of the code follows : " military necessity, as understood by modern civilized nations, consists in the necessity of those measures which are indispensable for securing the ends of the war, and which are lawful according to the modern law and usages of war. military necessity admits of all direct destruction of life or limb of armed enemies, and of other persons whose destruction is incidentally unavoidable in the armed contests of the war ; it allows of the capturing of every armed enemy, and every enemy of importance to the hostile government, or of peculiar danger to the captor ; it allows of all destruction of property, and obstruction of the ways and channels of traffic, travel, or communication, and of all withholding of sustenance or means of life from the enemy ; of the appropriation of whatever an enemy ' s country affords necessary for the subsistence and safety of the army, and of such deception as does not involve the breaking of good faith either positively pledged, regarding agreements entered into during the war, or supposed by the modern law of war to exist. (... but... ) men who take up arms against one another in public war do not cease on this account to be moral beings, responsible to one another and to god. military necessity does not admit of cruelty — that is, the infliction of suffering for the sake of suffering or for revenge, nor of maiming or wounding except in fight, nor of torture to extort confessions. it does not admit of the use of poison in any way, nor of the wanton devastation of a district. it admits of deception, but disclaims acts of perfidy ; and, in general, military necessity does not include any act of hostility which makes the return to peace unnecessarily difficult. " this first statement of the previously uncodified rules and articles of war led to the first prosecution for war crimes — in the case of united states prisoners of war held in cruel and depraved conditions at andersonville, georgia, in which the confederate commandant of that camp was tried and hanged, the only confederate soldier to be punished by death in the aftermath of the entire civil war. in the years that followed, other states subscribed to limitations of their conduct, and numerous other treaties and bodies were created to regulate the conduct of states towards one another in terms of these treaties, including, but not limited to, the permanent court of arbitration in 1899 ; the hague and geneva conventions, the first of which was passed in