salty diets tied to kidney stones, osteoporosis toronto : people eating high salt diets tend to develop kidney stones and osteoporosis, a bone disease that leads to increased risk of fracture, says a study. principal investigator todd alexander from the university of alberta and his team have uncovered an important link between sodium and calcium. they appear to be regulated by the same molecule in the body. when sodium intake becomes too high, the body gets rid of sodium via the urine, taking calcium with it, which depletes calcium stores in the body. high levels of calcium in the urine lead to the development of kidney stones, while inadequate levels of calcium in the body lead to thin bones and osteoporosis, the american journal of physiology - renal physiology reported. " when the body tries to get rid of sodium via the urine, our findings suggest the body also gets rid of calcium at the same time, " said alexander, researcher in the faculty of medicine & dentistry at the university of alberta, according to its statement. " this is significant because we are eating more and more sodium in our diets, which means our bodies are getting rid of more and more calcium. our findings reinforce why it is important to have a low sodium diet and why it is important to have lower sodium levels in processed foods. " " we asked a simple question with our research - could sodium and calcium absorption be linked? and we discovered they are, " said alexander. " we found a molecule that seems to have two jobs - regulating the levels of both calcium and sodium in the body. our findings provide very real biological evidence that this relationship between sodium and calcium is real and linked, " he added. first published : wednesday, july 25, 2012, 11 : 29 post your comments


by gregory mcnamee talk about your worm ’ s - eye view of the world. from time to time, i am pleased in this column to announce the discovery of some hitherto unknown species, or the rediscovery of one thought to have disappeared. an international team of scientists has done this one better, announcing the discovery of an entirely new phylum comprising an ocean - dwelling flatworm called xenoturbella and its kin, collectively the acoelomorphs. interestingly, these creatures seem to be backward - evolving : their ancestors had gill slits and guts, but the current acoelomorphic configuration lacks them. as researcher maximilian telford of university college london puts it, “ we ’ ve got these very simple worms nested right in the middle of the complex animals. how did they end up so simple? they must have lost a lot of complexity. ” * * * if in the course of evolution you decided to lose your ears, you would have good reason. the world is a noisy place, thanks to ever - busy humans, and it ’ s getting noisier. in response, many species of animals are getting noisier themselves in an effort to be heard, a process, notes rose eveleth in scientific american, called the lombard effect. right whales and house finches, for their parts, are calling in at different frequencies to get around shipping and urban noise. as eveleth writes of animals in her provocative piece, “ many of them are doing the vocal equivalent of wandering around asking, ‘ can you hear me now? ’ and increasingly, the answer is no. ” * * * gibbons make a fair amount of noise themselves — and perhaps that stands to reason, given that, next to the great apes, they ’ re our closest living relatives. that noise is more complex than you might think. indeed, report researchers from the german primate center in gottingen, the crested gibbons of southeast asia have distinctive regional accents. these accents suggest both familial typings, as well as the ancient migration of the species from a location to the north of their current range to points farther south. * * * a new phylum is discovered, but a current species declines. that, sadly, is the way of this noisy world. scottish scientists, reports the bbc ’ s highlands and islands service, are documenting the decline of the common scoter, a kind of duck, in the islands to the north of the country. the scientists are now studying the effects of climate


world. scottish scientists, reports the bbc ’ s highlands and islands service, are documenting the decline of the common scoter, a kind of duck, in the islands to the north of the country. the scientists are now studying the effects of climate change, which has implications in predation and in food supply. says one, “ we believe climate change may be a factor because warmer winters and springs could lead to aquatic insects such as mayflies and caddis flies hatching earlier in the season and not being available to the scoter ducklings when they hatch out themselves. and warmer winters may, over time, lead to more predators surviving and that could make an impact. ” * * * homer simpson, his son, bart, their kin, and the good citizens of springfield are odd ducks one and all. they ’ re cartoons, after all, so they ’ re supposed to be goofy. it ’ s worth noting, though, that the homeric lineup lives in the shadow of a nuclear reactor, the river is full of three - headed fish, and the night sky glows unnaturally, all reasons to think that something other than mere cartoonery might be at play. it ’ s also worth observing, then, that researchers at the university of south carolina ’ s chernobyl research initiative have concluded that the offspring of 48 species of birds born in the vicinity of that vast ukrainian accident site have smaller brain size ( by 5 percent, on average ) than birds born elsewhere, and that this correlates with both reduced cognitive ability and heightened mortality. this mutation seems to be occurring at relatively low doses of radiation, further correlating with the widespread difficulties of children born in the northern ukraine since the 1986 disaster, who, the researchers ’ report maintains, “ have higher rates of neural tube defects and related neurological disorders than other children in uncontaminated regions of the ukraine and europe. ” champions of nuclear power, take note.


civic communications specialist 2400 s. scenic ave. springfield, mo 65807 september 14, 2012 packing a healthy lunch means keeping food safety in mind too buffalo, mo. with school back in session, many children will bring a packed lunch from home to school. that makes it important to know how to make lunches nutritious and safe according to christeena haynes, a nutrition and health education specialist with university of missouri extension. " healthy lunches provide energy and nutrients that your children need in order to learn and play at school. it also helps prevent them from eating junk food that isn ' t so good for them, " said haynes. making a healthy and safe lunch requires starting with a clean lunch box. haynes says to wash it with warm soapy water every time it is used. " before you begin making the lunch, wash your hands and make sure the food is prepared on a clean surface, using clean utensils, " said haynes. if you pack perishable foods, take steps to keep it cold. these types of foods should not be held at room temperature for more than two hours. " it is best to pack a lunch with an ice pack in an insulated lunch bag or box. an alternative is to pack your child a shelf stable lunch that does not require refrigeration, " said haynes. examples of non - perishable foods are granola bars, whole fruit, peanut butter, and canned foods. variety is also the spice of lunches. try to pack a lunch that includes most of the food groups : fruits, vegetables, grains, protein, and dairy. a whole wheat tortilla filled with ham and cheese, carrot sticks with dip, and an apple is a well - balanced lunch that contains all of these foods groups. dips and sauces are often a good way to get children to eat their vegetables. try using healthy dips such as hummus, yogurt, or guacamole. another way to make lunches more interesting and introduce your child to new foods is to change simple things like the type of bread for sandwiches ( bagels or pitas ) or the form of cheese ( cubes, slices, strings ). " if you are limited on time in the mornings, you may want to consider packing their lunch the night before and keeping it refrigerated until the next day. then, just add a cold pack and they are ready to go, " said haynes. for more information on nutrition issues, go online to extension. missouri


" the real question is not whether these cities shrink – we ' re all shrinking – but whether we let it happen in a destructive or sustainable way, " said [ dan kildee, treasurer of genesee county, michigan, where flint is located ]. " decline is a fact of life in flint. resisting it is like resisting gravity. "... nobody will be forced to move? people will enjoy living near a forest or meadow? choosing which areas to knock down will be delicate but many of them were already obvious, he said. the city is buying up houses in more affluent areas to offer people in neighbourhoods it wants to demolish. nobody will be forced to move, said mr kildee. " much of the land will be given back to nature. people will enjoy living near a forest or meadow, " he said. mr kildee acknowledged that some fellow americans considered his solution " defeatist " but he insisted it was " no more defeatist than pruning an overgrown tree so it can bear fruit again. " first, i ' m sure people will be forced to move if this thing gets going. second, you can ' t just return to nature by removing the streets and buildings. what will these non - urban buffer zones really look like? even if it is something like a forest — made of very fast - growing trees? — or meadow, what sorts of animals — rodent and human — will run wild there? i don ' t mean to be completely negative. just asking a couple obvious questions.


south carolina, southern georgia, and northern florida, west to southern alabama. ambystoma cingulatum occupies seasonally wet, pine flatwoods, and pine savannas in the southern united states. the flatwoods salamander is typically found under logs near small cypress ponds. traditionally, the flatwoods salamander was found in sandy, seasonally wet, longleaf pine communities. but, due to european settlement these areas have been replaced by slash pine, or destroyed altogether ( petranka 1998 ). adult a. cingulatum are subterranean, living mainly underground in root channels or crayfish burrows ( conant & collins 1998 ). length : 3 1 / 2 - 5 1 / 16 in. the flatwoods salamander is a small highly variable ambystomid, with coloration ranging from specks, to grayish lines that resemble a frosted or lichenlike reticulated pattern. about 5 % of a. cingulatum lack the frosted appearance altogether, with 2 % having light annuli on their dorsum ( petranka 1998 ). costal grooves average at about fifteen. the head is small compared to the shoulder and neck. sexual dimorphism is slight to non - existent, with sexually active males being slightly shorter in length, and having a swollen cloacal region. hatchling a. cingulatum are 7. 5 - 11. 5 mm long, and are pale brown underneath, and dark brown above ( petranka 1998 ). the young develop a yellow stripe that runs the length of the body. older larvae have a paler stripe that may be retained up to one year after metamorphosis. while variations in coloration are often geographic, subspecies are not recognized ( conant & collins 1998 ). the male flatwoods salamander reaches sexual maturity at one year, but often does not breed until the following season. the females are mature and breed during their second year ( petranka 1998 ). breeding populations range from 200 - 400 adults. migration to breeding sites such as ephemeral habitats like ditches, burrow pits, marshy ponds, and swamps is triggered by rainy weather from mid october to early february. the adults move during the heavy rain and cease moving within five hours of the end of rainfall ( petranka 1998 ). the salamanders travel to the breeding sites located at or near pine flatwoods that support long leaf pine, slash pine, and wiregrass. males and females migrate together and emigrate in december and january


end of rainfall ( petranka 1998 ). the salamanders travel to the breeding sites located at or near pine flatwoods that support long leaf pine, slash pine, and wiregrass. males and females migrate together and emigrate in december and january, after spending approximately thirty eight days at the breeding site. they return to their home range, females weighing 37 % less after ovipositing. a. cingulatum is one of the only ambystoma species, other than a. opacum, that courts terrestrially ( petranka 1998 ). females lay 1 - 34 eggs in linear or clumped fashion beneath logs, leaf litter, sphagnum mats, bare soil, bases of bushes, and at the entrances of crayfish burrows ( conant & collins 1998 ). the female abandons the eggs and leaves them where they will hatch in about two weeks, triggered by heavy rains that raise the water level. hatching becomes staggered when it requires multiple rains to fill the pond. the larval period lasts from three to five months ( petranka 1998 ). courtship occurs after arriving at the breeding sites, although it has never been witnessed. other than migration and emigration to and from the sites, the flatwoods salamander is a solitary species. they live underground and are only triggered to emerge by heavy rain. a. cingulatum has a defense posture where they roll their tails. because a majority of these salamanders have tail damage due to attacks by invertebrates, it is likely that this is a life saving response ( petranka 1998 ). hatchlings begin feeding immediately on invertebrates and zooplankton, which aids them in growing at a rapid pace. as a. cingulatum becomes juveniles and adults, they remain carnivorous, feeding primarily on earthworms and other insects ( petranka 1998 ). other than preservation of biodiversity and treasuring a native species to maintain ecosystem equilibrium, there is little economic importance to humans. it could however be hypothesized that salamanders keep insect populations under control the flatwoods salamander is a small, rare ambystomid with widely distributed populations. clearing of land, creating ditches, filling wetlands, and conservation of native longleaf pine forests to create managed tree farms, have destroyed and reduced populations. a. cingulatum is a candidate for federal concern because populations seem to be declining throughout the range ( petranka 1998 ). it is endangered in south carolina, rare in alabama,


to create managed tree farms, have destroyed and reduced populations. a. cingulatum is a candidate for federal concern because populations seem to be declining throughout the range ( petranka 1998 ). it is endangered in south carolina, rare in alabama, georgia, and florida. management is complicated, involving both aquatic and terrestrial preservation ( conant 1998 ). it should be noted that a. cingulatum is one of the only terrestrial breeding salamanders that abandons its eggs in north america. ( conat & collins, 1998 ) it is also interesting to consider that up to 77 - 84 % of older larvae have damaged tails due to attacks from invertebrates. ( petranka, 1998 ) cara seely ( author ), michigan state university, james harding ( editor ), michigan state university. living in the nearctic biogeographic province, the northern part of the new world. this includes greenland, the canadian arctic islands, and all of the north american as far south as the highlands of central mexico. having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves. animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. synapomorphy of the bilateria. animals which must use heat acquired from the environment and behavioral adaptations to regulate body temperature forest biomes are dominated by trees, otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality. a large change in the shape or structure of an animal that happens as the animal grows. in insects, " incomplete metamorphosis " is when young animals are similar to adults and change gradually into the adult form, and " complete metamorphosis " is when there is a profound change between larval and adult forms. butterflies have complete metamorphosis, grasshoppers have incomplete metamorphosis. having the capacity to move from one place to another. the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic. conant, r., collins. 1998. reptiles and amphibians of eastern central north america. ny : houghton miflin co. petranka, j. 1998. salamanders of the us and canada. wa : smithsonian institution press.


chronometric techniques – part ii most of the chronometric dating methods in use today are radiometric. that is to say, they are based on knowledge of the rate at which certain radioactive isotopes within dating samples decay or the rate of other cumulative changes in atoms resulting from radioactivity. isotopes are specific forms of elements. the various isotopes of the same element differ in terms of atomic mass but have the same atomic number. in other words, they differ in the number of neutrons in their nuclei but have the same number of protons. the spontaneous decay of radioactive elements occurs at different rates, depending on the specific isotope. these rates are stated in terms of half - lives. one half - life is the amount of time required for ½ of the original atoms in a sample to decay. over the second half - life, ½ of the atoms remaining decay, which leaves ¼ of the original quantity, and so on. in other words, the change in numbers of atoms follows a geometric scale as illustrated by the graph below. the red curve line shows the of atomic decay the decay of atomic nuclei provides us with a reliable clock that is unaffected by normal forces in nature. the rate will not be changed by intense heat, cold, pressure, or moisture. the most commonly used radiometric dating method is radiocarbon dating. it is also called carbon - 14 and c - 14 dating. this technique is used to date the remains of organic materials. dating samples are usually charcoal, wood, bone, or shell, but any tissue that was ever alive can be dated. radiocarbon dating is based on the fact that cosmic radiation from space constantly bombards our planet. as cosmic rays pass through the atmosphere, they occasionally collide with gas atoms resulting in the release of neutrons. when the nucleus of a nitrogen ( 14n ) atom in the atmosphere captures one of these neutrons, the atom subsequently changes into carbon - 14 ( 14c ) after the release of a proton. the carbon - 14 quickly bonds chemically with atmospheric oxygen to form carbon dioxide gas. carbon - 14 is a rare, unstable form of carbon. only one in a trillion carbon atoms in the atmosphere is carbon - 14. the majority are carbon - 12 ( 98. 99 % ) and carbon - 13 ( 1. 1 % ). from a chemical standpoint, all of these isotopes of carbon behave exactly the same. carbon dioxide in the atmosphere drifts down to the earth ' s surface where much of it is taken in by green growing plants, and


. 1 % ). from a chemical standpoint, all of these isotopes of carbon behave exactly the same. carbon dioxide in the atmosphere drifts down to the earth ' s surface where much of it is taken in by green growing plants, and the carbon is used to build new cells by photosynthesis. animals eat plants or other animals that have eaten them. through this process, a small amount of carbon - 14 spreads through all living things and is incorporated into their proteins and other organic molecules. of carbon - 14 in the atmosphere and its entrance into the as long as an organism is alive, it takes in carbon - 14 and the other carbon isotopes in the same ratio as exists in the atmosphere. following death, however, no new carbon is consumed. progressively through time, the carbon - 14 atoms decay and once again become nitrogen - 14. as a result, there is a changing ratio of carbon - 14 to the more atomically stable carbon - 12 and carbon - 13 in the dead tissue. that rate of change is determined by the half - life of carbon - 14, which is 5730 ± 40 years. because of this relatively rapid half - life, there is only about 3 % of the original carbon - 14 in a sample remaining after 30, 000 years. beyond 40 - 50, 000 years, there usually is not enough left to measure with conventional laboratory methods. radioactive decay rate for carbon - 14 ( n = the number of atoms ) half - lives years past c - 14 atoms c - 12 atoms 0 0 1 n 1 n 1 5, 730 1 / 2 n 1 n 2 11, 460 1 / 4 n 1 n 3 17, 190 1 / 8 n 1 n 4 22, 920 1 / 16 n 1 n 5 28, 650 1 / 32 n 1 n 6 34, 380 1 / 64 n 1 n 7 40, 110 1 / 128 n 1 n the conventional radiocarbon dating method involves burning a sample in a closed tube containing oxygen. the carbon containing gas that is produced is then cooled to a liquid state and placed in a lead shielded box with a sensitive geiger counter. this instrument registers the radioactivity of the carbon - 14 atoms. specifically, it detects the relatively weak beta particles released when carbon - 14 nuclei decay. the age of a sample is determined by the number of decays recorded over a set period of time. older samples have less carbon - 14 remaining and, consequentially, less frequent decays. knowing the half - life of carbon - 14


age of a sample is determined by the number of decays recorded over a set period of time. older samples have less carbon - 14 remaining and, consequentially, less frequent decays. knowing the half - life of carbon - 14 allows the calculation of a sample ' s age. a radiocarbon sample being prepared for dating with the ams technique a relatively new variation of the radiocarbon dating method utilizes an accelerator mass spectrometer, which is a device usually used by physicists to measure the abundance of very rare radioactive isotopes. when used for dating, this ams method involves actually counting individual carbon - 14 atoms. this allows the dating of much older and smaller samples but at a far higher cost. although, organic materials as old as 100, 000 years potentially can be dated with ams, dates older than 60, 000 years are still rare. radiocarbon and tree - ring date comparisons made by hans suess provide needed data to make radiocarbon dates more reliable paleoanthropologists and archaeologists must always be aware of possible radiocarbon sample contamination that could result in inaccurate dates. such contamination can occur if a sample is exposed to carbon compounds in exhaust gasses produced by factories and motor vehicles burning fossil fuels such as coal or gasoline. the result is radiocarbon dates that are too old. this has been called the autobahn effect, named after the german high speed roadway system. archaeologists in that country first noted this source of contamination when samples found near the autobahn were dated. the effect of global burning of fossil fuels on radiocarbon dates was verified and calibrated by hans suess of the university of california, san diego when he radiocarbon dated bristlecone pine tree growth rings that were of known chronometric ages. subsequently, it is also called the suess effect. other kinds of sample contamination can cause carbon - 14 dates to be too young. this can occur if the sample is impregnated with tobacco smoke or oils from a careless researcher ' s hands. this is now well known and is easily avoided during excavation. still another potential source of error in radiocarbon dating that is adjusted for stems from the assumption that cosmic radiation enters our planet ' s atmosphere at a constant rate. in fact, the rate changes slightly through time, resulting in varying amounts of carbon - 14 being created. this has become known as the de vries effect because of its discovery by the dutch physicist hessel de vries. all of these potential sources of error in radiocarbon dating are now well understood and


in varying amounts of carbon - 14 being created. this has become known as the de vries effect because of its discovery by the dutch physicist hessel de vries. all of these potential sources of error in radiocarbon dating are now well understood and compensating corrections are made so that the dates are reliable. there are a number of other radiometric dating systems in use today that can provide dates for much older sites than those datable by radiocarbon dating. potassium - argon ( k - ar ) dating is one of them. it is based on the fact that potassium - 40 ( 40k ) decays into the gas argon - 40 ( 40ar ) and calcium - 40 ( 40ca ) at a known rate. the half - life of potassium - 40 is approximately 1. 25 billion years. measurement of the amount of argon - 40 in a sample is the basis for age determination. dating samples for this technique are geological strata of volcanic origin. while potassium is a very common element in the earth ' s crust, potassium - 40 is a relatively rare isotope of it. however, potassium - 40 is usually found in significant amounts in volcanic rock and ash. in addition, any argon that existed prior to the last time the rock was molten will have been driven off by the intense heat. as a result, all of the argon - 40 in a volcanic rock sample is assumed to date from that time. when a fossil is sandwiched between two such volcanic deposits, their potassium - argon dates provide a minimum and maximum age. in the example below, the bone must date to sometime between 1. 75 and 1. 5 million years ago. using the potassium - argon method to date volcanic ash strata above and below a bone sample in order to determine a minimum and a maximum age potassium - argon dates usually have comparatively large statistical plus or minus factors. they can be on the order of plus or minus 1 / 4 million years for a 2 million year old date. this is still acceptable because these dates help us narrow down the time range for a fossil. the use of additional dating methods at the same site allow us to refine it even more. note : the plus or minus number following radiometric dates is not an error factor. rather, it is a probability statement. for instance, a date of 100, 000 ± 5, 000 years ago means that there is a high probability the date is in the range of 95, 000 and 105, 000 years ago and most likely is around 100, 000.


probability statement. for instance, a date of 100, 000 ± 5, 000 years ago means that there is a high probability the date is in the range of 95, 000 and 105, 000 years ago and most likely is around 100, 000. radiometric dates, like all measurements in science, are close statistical approximations rather than absolutes. this will always be true due to the finite limits of measuring equipment. this does not mean that radiometric dates or any other scientific measurements are unreliable. potassium - argon dating has become a valuable tool for human fossil hunters, especially those working in east africa. theoretically it can be used for samples that date from the beginning of the earth ( 4. 54 billion years ) down to 100, 000 years ago or even more recently. paleoanthropologists use it mostly to date sites in the 1 to 5 million year old range. this is the critical time period during which humans evolved from their ape ancestors. a relatively new technique related to potassium - argon dating compares the ratios of argon - 40 to argon - 39 in volcanic rock. this provides more accurate dates for volcanic deposits and allows the use of smaller samples. fission track dating another radiometric method that is used for samples from early human sites is fission track dating. this is based on the fact that a number of crystalline or glass - like minerals, such as obsidian, mica, and zircon crystals, contain trace amounts of uranium - 238 ( 238u ), which is an unstable isotope. when atoms of uranium - 238 decay, there is a release of energy - charged alpha particles which burn narrow fission tracks, or damage trails, through the glassy material. these can be seen and counted with an optical microscope. fission tracks in obsidian as they would appear with an optical microscope the number of fission tracks is directly proportional to the amount of time since the glassy material cooled from a molten state. since the half - life of uranium - 238 is known to be approximately 4. 5 billion years, the chronometric age of a sample can be calculated. this dating method can be used with samples that are as young as a few decades to as old as the earth and beyond. however, paleoanthropologists rarely use it to date sites more than several million years old. with the exception of early historic human made glass artifacts, the fission track method is usually only employed to date geological strata. artifacts made out of obsidian and mica are not fission track dated because it would only tell us when the rocks cooled


years old. with the exception of early historic human made glass artifacts, the fission track method is usually only employed to date geological strata. artifacts made out of obsidian and mica are not fission track dated because it would only tell us when the rocks cooled from a molten state, not when they were made into artifacts by our early human ancestors. thermoluminescence ( tl ) dating is a radiometric method based on the fact that trace amounts of radioactive atoms, such as uranium and thorium, in some kinds of rock, soil, and clay produce constant low amounts of background ionizing radiation. the atoms of crystalline solids, such as pottery and rock, can be altered by this radiation. specifically, the electrons of quartz, feldspar, diamond, or calcite crystals can become displaced from their normal positions in atoms and trapped in imperfections in the crystal lattice of the rock or clay molecules. these energy charged electrons progressively accumulate over time. when a sample is heated to high temperatures in a laboratory, the trapped electrons are released and return to their normal positions in their atoms. this causes them to give off their stored energy in the form of light impulses ( photons ). this light is referred to as thermoluminescence ( literally " heat light " ). a similar effect can be brought about by stimulating the sample with infrared light. the intensity of thermoluminescence is directly related to the amount of accumulated changes produced by background radiation, which, in turn, varies with the age of the sample and the amount of trace radioactive elements it contains. a ground up placed in a heat is raised in an energy from the sample thermoluminescence release resulting from rapidly heating a crushed clay sample what is actually determined is the amount of elapsed time since the sample had previously been exposed to high temperatures. in the case of a pottery vessel, usually it is the time since it was fired in a kiln. for the clay or rock lining of a hearth or oven, it is the time since the last intense fire burned there. for burned flint, it is the time since it had been heated in a fire to improve its flaking qualities for stone tool making. the effective time range for tl dating is from a few decades back to about 300, 000 years, but it is most often used to date things from the last 100, 000 years. theoretically, this technique could date samples as old as the solar system if we could find them. however, the accuracy of tl dating is


300, 000 years, but it is most often used to date things from the last 100, 000 years. theoretically, this technique could date samples as old as the solar system if we could find them. however, the accuracy of tl dating is generally lower than most other radiometric techniques. electron spin resonance dating another relatively new radiometric dating method related to thermoluminescence is electron spin resonance ( esr ). it is also based on the fact that background radiation causes electrons to dislodge from their normal positions in atoms and become trapped in the crystalline lattice of the material. when odd numbers of electrons are separated, there is a measurable change in the magnetic field ( or spin ) of the atoms. since the magnetic field progressively changes with time in a predictable way as a result of this process, it provides another atomic clock, or calendar, that can be used for dating purposes. unlike thermoluminescence dating, however, the sample is not destroyed with the esr method. this allows samples to be dated more than once. esr is used mostly to date calcium carbonate in limestone, coral, fossil teeth, mollusks, and egg shells. it also can date quartz and flint. paleoanthropologists have used esr mostly to date samples from the last 300, 000 years. however, it potentially could be used for much older samples. comparison of the time ranges for dating methods whenever possible, paleoanthropologists collect as many dating samples from an ancient human occupation site as possible and employ a variety of chronometric dating methods. in this way, the confidence level of the dating is significantly increased. the methods that are used depend on the presumed age of the site from which they were excavated. for instance, if a site is believed to be over 100, 000 years old, dendrochronology and radiocarbon dating could not be used. however, potassium - argon, fission track, amino acid racemization, thermoluminescence, electron spin resonance, and paleomagnetic dating methods would be considered. effective time range of the major chronometric dating methods in addition to the likely time range, paleoanthropologists must select dating techniques based on the kinds of datable materials available. dendrochronology can only date tree - rings. any organic substances can be used for radiocarbon and amino acid racemization dating. calcium rich parts of animals such as coral, bones, teeth, mollusks, and egg shells can


discover the cosmos! each day a different image or photograph of our fascinating universe is featured, along with a brief explanation written by a professional astronomer. march 11, 1996 hubble telescope maps pluto credit : a. stern ( swri ), m. buie ( lowell observatory ), nasa, esa, explanation : no spacecraft from earth has yet explored pluto but astronomers have found ways of mapping its surface. a stunning map of this distant, diminutive planet, the first based on direct images, was revealed late last week in a hubble space telescope press release. above are two opposite hemisphere views of the computer constructed map of pluto ' s surface ( north is up ). the grid pattern is due to the computer technique used where each grid element is over 100 miles across. the map is based on hubble images made when pluto was a mere 3 billion miles distant. it shows strong brightness variations - confirming and substantially improving upon ground based observations. while the brightness variations may be due to surface features like craters and basins they are more likely caused by regions of nitrogen and methane frost. the frost regions should show " seasonal " changes which can be tracked in future hubble observations. yes, pluto is a planet even though it is only 2 / 3 the size of earth ' s moon! authors & editors : nasa technical rep. : sherri calvo. specific rights apply. a service of : lhea at nasa / gsfc


inner city kids meet outdoor life december 24, 2009 by : laurie johnson " ok get your helpers to open your reagent... " about 30 fifth - graders bundled in sweatshirts and gloves are huddled around naturalist teri macarthur as she demonstrates a water quality testing experiment. " one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight... whoa! gee whiz! what happened? it turned black. actually it turned blue. " the kids are spending the morning studying spring creek on the montgomery county preserve. they ' re here through the no child left inside program, run by legacy land trust. executive director jennifer lorenz says legacy land trust has preserved more than 8, 000 acres of green space in this region. and someone needs to be around in the future to conserve those wilderness areas. that ' s one of the reasons they ' re reaching out to middle schoolers. " we want to raise the next generation of conservationists. if they don ' t get outside, like you and i may have when we were kids, then they can ' t have any affinity — they can ' t say that they enjoy nature if they ' re never in it. so our goal is to get them out into the wilderness areas that we protect and hopefully later, when they ' re adults, they ' ll want to help us permanently protect them. " of course the program is more than just a self - serving interest. research indicates when kids apply classroom learning in the field, their grades are better. " this helps science scores. all across the country many, many scientists have studied kids out in the wilderness and those who are able to get out and do real - world applications of things like water quality testing from streams, their science scores are higher. so that ' s a great immediate output of this. " but eleven - year - old monica day isn ' t really thinking about test scores. " we ' ve been studying how pollution affects waters and how just the tiniest bit of something can change the ph level in water. whenever we first got the water it looked a little disgusting, actually. and then we added some colored water or something to it and then we tested it to see what the color was and the color had a rating, like 7. 0. and i think it tested the acid in the water from acidic to basic to neutral. " day is from the honor roll school, a private school in sugarland. but for urban students in inner city schools it can be difficult to get here.


in an age of advanced technology, our generation is the key to helping society advance. how are we being prepared for the future? the key to the doors of opportunity and success is an experience of the real world at an early age. this would include responsibilities of a higher level - - mastering time, managing money, entering the work force and driving. all this lies in the hands of the ability to drive as a young adult. driving has benefits, and also consequences that teenagers can learn from, which are vital to decision - making. states decide at which age to grant the privilege to drive. in some states, incuding florida, teenagers can begin driving at 16 after having a permit for six months. in other states, teens must wait an extra two years until they can obtain their driver ' s license and get a job without the hassle of parent transportation to and from school, work and home. do you think this is fair? while some teens get a head start on life once they ' ve acquired their license, others must wait. teenagers must learn to be independent from their parents as early as possible, with college only a few years away. statistics involving teen drunken driving and automobile accidents are frightening, but can we allow this to stop teenagers from driving? rather, this should be motivation to improve and educate teenagers about the consequences and precautions that must be considered while driving. as children grow, they must be prepared for what the future might throw at them. driving is a way to prepare for the future, and also for the responsibilities of adulthood and being independent.


the library provides a wide array of resources and services to help you assist the student in your life with their exciting education journey. you may need an orange county library card to access some of the resources. get yours today! when it ' s time to think about heading back to school, this virtual gallery should be at the top of your list. got fcat? no problem! you can ace the test when you prepare using the math, science, and reading material found in this virtual gallery. view our fcat tutorial to learn more about the fcat and the test preparation resources the library provides. designed for middle school and high school students, this gallery contains manuals, dvds, fiction, online resources, and websites aimed at providing guidance and inspiration for the science fair. explore the exciting interactive lab for science project ideas! this resource aimed at educators contains a wealth of information on early childhood education, fcat preparation, kindergarten readiness, classroom management, lesson plans, and more. this gallery shows you all the steps of the research paper writing process including brainstorming, researching, and citing your work. you ' ll find materials, databases, and websites to help you get the job done. these online guides provide quick access to a variety of library and external resources. subjects include history and culture, finance, holidays and observances, technology, and so much more. sunshine state books are required reading for many students. read or listen to one of these fantastic stories on your ereader or other mobile device after you check it out for free from overdrive! uh oh! the novel you need to read for class is checked out! no problem, just download it from the library. overdrive offers over 150 classics and other titles commonly found on school reading lists. they ' re available to listen to on your computer or mp3 player, or to read on your laptop. crisis averted! if you ' d like to add some excitement to your life, the library offers entertaining and educational programs for children and teens, from birth through 18 years of age. check out library programs for children or events for teens ages 13 - 18. come join the coolest new tech club! join whiz kids, the club that creates comics, animates images, mixes music, makes movies, and much more. in one easy step you can access your school ' s accelerated reader™ / reading counts! ™ lists online and check to see if the library has the book you need. then, order the books for home delivery or pick them up!


much more. in one easy step you can access your school ' s accelerated reader™ / reading counts! ™ lists online and check to see if the library has the book you need. then, order the books for home delivery or pick them up! read the books offers great book suggestions and ideas for kids of all ages. find titles by selecting fiction or non - fiction and grade level. read the book. love it. repeat. browse booklists created from the recommendations of people like you! enjoy books on a variety of topics like dinosaurs, football, friendship, weather, and more. there are even booklists based upon grade and age levels. take an alphabet tour! preschoolers will learn school skills and get their wheels turning with interactive reading activities. if you ' re thinking about going to college but don ' t know where to start, we have resources that will show you the way! chapters include topics like getting into college, college life, where and what to study, graduate school, and more. don ' t let homework get you down ; run it out of town when you take advantage of our live tutoring, resources on how to write a research paper, test preparation assistance, and fcat help. start your kids off on the right foot by instilling principles and characteristics everyone values. parents who need help developing their child ' s curriculum will love this eguide. explore subject sections on language arts, math, science, social studies, fine arts, foreign language, and health. resources are also grouped by student age to help you easily find the right resource for your child. if you ' ve been asking yourself what you and your child need to know to better prepare for entering kindergarten, this step - by - step guide is for you!


beinecke library construction photographs, 1961 - 1963 documenting the construction of the beinecke rare book and manuscript library, this collection of photographs captures the transient stages of a massive, three year project. one of the largest buildings in the world devoted entirely to rare books and manuscripts, the library was designed to have room in the central tower for 180, 000 volumes and in the underground book stacks for over 600, 000 volumes ; it now contains well over 500, 000 volumes and several million manuscripts. the building, of vermont marble and granite, bronze and glass, was designed by gordon bunshaft, of the firm of skidmore, owings and merrill ; the george a. fuller construction company of hamden, connecticut was the general contractor. work began on the building in 1960 and was completed in 1963. the white, gray - veined marble panes of the exterior are one and one - quarter inches thick and are framed by light gray vermont granite. these marble panels filter light so that rare materials can be displayed without damage from harmful ultraviolet light. from the exterior, however, the building ' s powerful stone geometry serves to dominate the space it occupies in hewitt university quadrangle, amidst neo - classical and neo - gothic neighbors. the building and its endowment are the gift of edwin j. beinecke, yale 1907 ; frederick w. beinecke, yale 1909 ; walter beinecke, yale 1910 ; and their families. over 500 photographs by c. t. alburtus and unknown photographers, varying in size, 20. 7 x 25. 5 cm. and smaller, in color and black and white


[ updated ] the “ object ” that was found in bermuda waters yesterday [ aug 12 ] is a scientific glider used to collect marine data which was recently deployed by scientists from the bermuda institute of ocean sciences [ bios ]. the harbour radio duty officer said, “ bermuda radio can confirm that the suspected missile spotted on the crown of challenger bank is in fact a scientific glider used to collect marine data. the unit was recently deployed by scientists from bios in conjunction with woods hole oceanographic institution. “ the instrument stopped transmitting data around 48 hours ago and was considered lost. bios and woods hole are keen to recover the unit. any sighting of the glider should be reported to bermuda radio so that retrieval can be arranged, ” concluded the duty officer. the glider had caused great interest last night, with many people trying their hand and guessing what it might be. some people did guess correctly that it was a scientific object used by bios, while many others thought it may have been some form of missile / drone / torpedo / bomb. update 9. 15am : larry george from the woods hole oceanographic institution in massachusetts [ website ] confirmed that the object is a spray glider / autonomous underwater vehicle which is used to collect information about the ocean and is controlled remotely. the glider was deployed in bermuda waters on august 10th, and they lost all contact with it on august 11th, and assumed it was lost until they received a phone call late last night. the glider was deployed to record data such as fine ocean currents, with dr jong jin park and dr breck owens from woods hole the scientists in charge of the research. asked how many of these gliders are in our waters, mr george confirmed that this is the only one. he explained the glider was marked, however it was upside down in the water hence the marking was not visible. he also the fact the glider was upside down indicated that something had gone wrong with it. as of this writing the glider is still in the waters, but a team from bios is heading out this morning to try and recover it. - bios appoints interim director - ocean rendezvous rescues research project - bios research : impacts of ocean acidification - bios study : climate change, ocean bacteria - the search for bermuda ’ s deep water caves - bios scientist part of global ocean study articles that link to this one : - unidentified floating object in bermuda ’ s waters | bernews. com | august 13, 2012


bicycles are inherently stable because of their geometry. the geometry causes the bicycle to always turn into the direction it begins to lean, which keeps it upright. the reason is best illustrated through a concept known as counter - steering. counter steering is how all two wheel vehicles turn. when you want to turn towards the left, you turn the handlebars a little to the right. the friction of the wheels pulls the bottom of the bike towards the right, which initiates a lean towards the left. the handle bars then begin to swing towards the left to track through the turn. when it ' s time to stop the turn, you turn the handlebars a little more to the left. that pulls the bottom of the bike further towards the left, which brings the bottom of the bike directly under the center of gravity and thus stopping the turn. on many bikes and at low speeds, the counter steering effect can be unnoticed by many riders. however, at high speeds, or with heavier vehicles such as motor cycles it is more significant. so, how does this work where there is no rider? it is because of the rake in the fork and the rail it causes. if you trace an imaginary line through the axis of your fork to the ground, it will hit the ground ahead of where the wheel contacts the ground. because the wheel contacts the ground behind the steering axis, the wheel will always feel a force from the road trying to bring it to center, pointing straight ahead. when the bike is tipped to one side, the forces begin to push the wheel to the side that the bike is tipped. so all these forces add up. the rake in the fork makes the bike want to go straight forward. and when it feels a bump in one direction or the other, the counter steering will tend to bring the bike the other direction. then the fork rake will begin pushing the front wheel further away, which will then straighten the bike out, because of the counter steering.


newsflash : “ you should be taking a fish oil for good health! ” how many times have you heard the terms “ fish oil, ” “ omega 3, ” or “ omega 3 fatty acid ” being plastered in health bulletins or recommendations lately? if you are paying any attention, it ’ s everywhere! why? because there is so much excitement over the prospect of these ‘ good fats ’ in helping prevent and treat the # 1 killer of americans today - heart disease. here are some quick tips on understanding what you might read about these little oily pearls and drops of goodness! 1. omega 3 fatty acids are protective to your body because they help reduce inflammation. ( inflammatory diseases are those that end in ‘ - itis. ’ if you have arthritis, sinusitis, or heart as it should be called, omega 3 ′ s can help. ) 2. all omega 3 ′ s are not created equal. for example, fish oil and flax oil are sources of omega 3 fatty acids. fish oil is 8 - 10x more potent than flax oil in terms of its ability to reduce inflammation. 3. a quick way to know if your supplement is a potent source of omega 3 ′ s - calculate how much epa and dha is in each capsule. epa and dha ( short for very long chemical names you don ’ t need to know ) are the strongest of the omega 3 ′ s. the more in your supplement, the better in today ’ s culture of inflammation. if you are taking a 1000 mg capsule of fish oil, but only 400 mg of it is in the form of epa and dha, that ’ s how much you can likely bank on in terms of helping to 4. studies show 1000mg of fish oil ( remember, i would say epa + dha ) can help most adults prevent heart disease risks and 2000 mg - 4000 mg of good omega 3 ′ s could be prescribed for others with riskier 5. all fish oil is not created equal. even if it has the same amount of epa + dha, if the manufacturer of your fish oil has not purified out the bad stuff like mercury, pcb and dioxin, you might get other problems in the process. remember, fish are a product of the water they live in and the water these days is not as clean as it used to be. look for a product that uses a distillation process that takes out the bad chemicals and saturated fat that you don ’ t need in your supplement regimen. this


the internet can be thought of as the world ’ s largest database. this is so, because it is comprised of inter - connected databases, files, and computer systems. by simply typing in some keywords, one can access hundreds to millions of websites containing treasure troves of facts, statistics, and other formats of information on an endless array of topics. because the internet is such a valuable resource, we should seek new and innovative ways to mine the data using ethical means. the goal of scraping websites is to access information, but the uses of that information can vary. users may wish to store the information in their own databases or manipulate the data within a spreadsheet. other users may utilize data extraction techniques as means of obtaining the most recent data possible, particularly when working with information subject to frequent changes. investors analyzing stock prices, realtors researching home listings, meteorologists studying weather, or insurance salespeople following insurance prices are a few individuals who might fit this category of users of frequently updated data. access to certain information may also provide users with strategic advantage in business. attorneys might wish to scrape arrest records from county courthouses in search of potential clients. businesses, such as restaurants or video - rental stores that know the locations of competitors can make better decisions about where to focus further growth. companies that provide complementary ( not to be confused with complimentary ) products, like software, may wish to know the make, model, cost, and market share of hardware that are compatible with their software. another common, but controversial use of information taken from websites is reposting scraped data to other sites. scrapers may wish to consolidate data from a myriad of websites and then create a new website containing all of the information in one convenient location. in some cases, the new site ’ s owner may benefit from ads placed on his or her site or from fees charged to access the site. companies usually go to great lengths to disseminate information about their products or services. so, why would a website owner not wish to have his or her website ’ s information scraped? several reasons exist for why website owners may not wish to have their site ’ s scraped by others ( excluding search engines ). some people feel that data that is reposted to other sites is plagiarized, if not stolen. these individuals may feel that they made the effort to gather information and make it available on their websites only to have it copied to other sites. are individuals justified in feeling that they have been taken advantage of, even if their websites are posted


not stolen. these individuals may feel that they made the effort to gather information and make it available on their websites only to have it copied to other sites. are individuals justified in feeling that they have been taken advantage of, even if their websites are posted publicly? interpretation of what exactly “ republish ” means is widely disputed. one of the most authoritative explanations may be found in the 1991 supreme - court case of feist publications v. rural telephone service. this case involved rural telephone service suing feist publications for copyright infringement when feist copied telephone listings after rural denied feist ’ s request to license the information. while information has never been copyrightable under u. s. law, a collection of information, defined mostly in terms of creative arrangement or original ideas, can be copyrighted. the supreme court ’ s ruling in feist publications v. rural telephone service stated that “ information contained in rural ’ s phone directory was not copyrightable, and that therefore no infringement existed. ” justice o ’ conner focused on the need for information to have a “ creative ” element in order to be termed a “ collection ” ( 1 ). similarly, information, taken from publicly available websites should not be considered plagiarism or even theft if only the information ( numbers, statistics, etc. ) is reposted to new sites or used for other purposes. scraped websites also experience an increase in used bandwidth as a result of being scraped. some scrapes take place once, but many scrapes must be performed over and over to achieve the desired results. in such cases, the servers that host the pages being scraped inevitably experience an increased load. site owners may not wish to have the increased bandwidth, but more importantly, excessive page requests can cause a web server to function slowly or even fail. rarely, however, do most scrapes cause such strain on a server on their own. accessing a page through scraping is no different from visiting a page manually, except that scraping allows more pages to be visited over a shorter period. additionally, scrapes can be adjusted to run more slowly, so as to minimize the strain on the server. scraping is usually slowed when more than a few scraping sessions are being run against a single server at one time. interestingly, having one ’ s website scraped can have positive effects. of course the recipient of the scraped data is pleased to have desired data, but owners of scraped sites may also benefit. think of the case mentioned above in which home listings are scraped from a site. whether the information is repost


have positive effects. of course the recipient of the scraped data is pleased to have desired data, but owners of scraped sites may also benefit. think of the case mentioned above in which home listings are scraped from a site. whether the information is reposted or stored in a database for later querying to match homebuyer ’ s needs, the purpose of the original site is met — to get the home - listing information into the hands of potential buyers. individuals who scrape websites can do so, while still following guidelines for ethical data extraction. perhaps it would be helpful to review a list of tips for maintaining ethical scraping. one website i consulted gave the following suggestions : · obey robots. txt. · don ’ t flood a site. · don ’ t republish, especially not anything that might be copyrighted. · abide by the site terms of service ( 2 ). occasionally, individuals who scrape websites have paid for access to the material being scraped. many job - and resume - posting websites fall into this category. employers must pay a monthly fee for an account which provides access to the resumes of potential new hirers. certainly, the fact that employers pay for the service entitles them to use whatever means are necessary to sort through and record the desired data. the only exception would be where the site ’ s terms of service specifically prohibit scraping. while republishing images, artwork, and other original content without permission is unethical and in many cases illegal, using scraped data for personal purposes is certainly within the limits of ethical behavior. nevertheless, page scrapers should always avoid taking copyrighted materials. use of bandwidth is no more deserved by any one person than another. even making scraped data available to others online can be argued as ethical, especially when the scraped website is posted on public space and the data taken doesn ’ t include any creative content. after all, the purpose of hosting a website in the first place is to provide information.


shooting sulfur particles into the stratosphere to reflect the sun? dumping iron into the ocean to boost the absorption of carbon dioxide? could these far - fetched and dangerous - sounding schemes help avert potentially catastrophic effects of climate change, or would they exacerbate conditions on our ever warming planet? these strategies, which involve the deliberate and large - scale intervention in our climate system to moderate global warming, are known as geoengineering. fantastical as they seem, billionaires bill gates, sir richard branson and others, are investing millions of dollars into the geoengineering research of a few leading climate scientists like ken caldeira at stanford. at first, caldeira thought geoengineering sounded crazy too, but his research showed that it would basically work. if global warming exceeds c, it would be “ a prescription for disaster, ” said nasa scientist james hansen. to prevent this from happening, we need to cap atmospheric carbon dioxide levels at 350 parts per million ; but in march 2012, we reached almost 394. 5 ppm and global greenhouse gas emissions continue to rise. even if we were able to immediately cut greenhouse gas emissions to zero, however, global warming would continue for the foreseeable future because carbon dioxide remains in the atmosphere for several hundred years. moreover, the international community has failed to reach an agreement that tackles the fundamental problem of controlling carbon emissions and prospects for doing so don ’ t look good. as a result, geoengineering is beginning to sound less like science fiction to some, and more like a possible plan b. geoengineering strategies fall into two main categories : - solar radiation management, which seeks to reduce the amount of sunlight that reaches earth by deflecting it or increasing earth ’ s reflectivity ( albedo ). - carbon dioxide removal, which tries to take carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere. solar radiation management includes efforts like white roofs that deflect sunlight, brightening clouds by shooting seawater into them to increase their albedo ( salt provides the nuclei that seed the clouds ), and controversial strategies based on the cooling effect that can follow major volcanic eruptions. in 1991, mt. pinatubo in the philippines erupted, sending 22 million tons of sulfur dioxide into the stratosphere. the sulfur particles scattered around the globe, deflected sunlight, and cooled earth by 0. 4 to 0. c. solar radiation management would recreate this effect by using balloons, aircraft or cannons to shoot tiny reflective particles like sulfates into


the sulfur particles scattered around the globe, deflected sunlight, and cooled earth by 0. 4 to 0. c. solar radiation management would recreate this effect by using balloons, aircraft or cannons to shoot tiny reflective particles like sulfates into the stratosphere to temporarily block sunlight. the 1992 panel on policy implications of greenhouse warming calculated that this strategy would cost just pennies per ton of carbon dioxide mitigated. it would also be fast - acting, capable of quickly reducing the impacts of heat stress on crops, resulting in increased productivity since carbon dioxide levels, which boost growth, would remain high. other solar radiation management ideas include the use of engineered nanoparticles, which could be constructed to ascend high into the atmosphere and keep their shiny side to the sun, and sunshades in space made of mirrors. solar radiation management would do nothing to address the root cause of global warming — carbon dioxide emissions — or ocean acidification caused by the sea ’ s absorption of excess carbon dioxide. and while stratospheric aerosols could theoretically produce cooling on a local or global level, they might also create regional problems by affecting rain and snowfall patterns and causing drought. according to caldeira, a year or two after mt. pinatubo, when aerosols dropped from the stratosphere, both the amazon river and the ganges had very low flows and droughts occurred. a 2010 study by etc ( erosion, technology and concentration ), an international group that opposes geoengineering, states that solar radiation management climate models show a risk of increased drought over africa, asia and the amazon jungle. putting sulfate particles into the stratosphere could also damage the ozone layer, lead to acid rain and increased ocean acidification, and interfere with solar cells, astronomy and satellites. in addition, solar radiation management techniques carry the risk of a rapid rise in temperature if the program were started then stopped, which would be more dangerous to life on earth than a gradual temperature rise. carbon dioxide removal strategies reduce greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, or attempt to manipulate natural processes to remove greenhouse gases indirectly. while they tackle the fundamental problem of carbon emissions, and address ocean acidification, they would require many years to fully take effect. carbon dioxide removal techniques include tree planting, creating biochar ( charcoal ) and burying it to increase carbon sequestration, carbon capture and storage, adding carbonate to the ocean to increase carbon dioxide uptake, and capturing carbon from the air. klaus lackner, director of the earth institute


creating biochar ( charcoal ) and burying it to increase carbon sequestration, carbon capture and storage, adding carbonate to the ocean to increase carbon dioxide uptake, and capturing carbon from the air. klaus lackner, director of the earth institute ’ s lenfest center for sustainable energy, is developing an “ artificial tree ” that removes carbon dioxide from the air. ocean fertilization is perhaps the most controversial carbon dioxide removal strategy of all. through photosynthesis, phytoplankton in the ocean absorbs half the carbon dioxide taken up annually by all of earth ’ s plants. ocean fertilization involves depositing nutrients ( iron, nitrogen or phosphorus ) into areas of the ocean lacking one of these key nutrients to stimulate the growth of phytoplankton and increase the absorption of carbon dioxide, which is then carried to the ocean floor when the phytoplankton die. critics say ocean fertilization could alter food webs ; deplete oxygen at deeper ocean levels ; produce eutrophication, dead zones and toxic algal blooms ; increase ocean acidification in the deep sea ; and impact coral reefs. while the cost of ocean fertilization would be relatively low, britain ’ s royal society says that none of the various carbon dioxide removal methods assessed have proven to be effective at an affordable cost with acceptable side effects. most geoengineering research today is being done with climate models and mapping ; few field tests have been conducted. the fund for innovative climate and energy research, run by david keith of harvard and ken caldeira and funded by bill gates ’ personal funds, has given out $ 4. 6 million for research on climate modeling, technical feasibility, governance, potential and risks, but it does not support field - testing methods like solar radiation management and ocean fertilization that would actually interfere with the climate system. etc argues that geoengineering cannot be tested because in order to truly assess its effect on the climate, it would need to be deployed on a massive scale, which would likely also have massive repercussions. germany, india, canada, russia and britain are studying geoengineering, and more countries will soon be capable of it as well. in 2009, a german - indian government - sponsored experiment ( lohafex ) dumped 6. 6 tons of iron into 300 square kilometers of the south atlantic. there was a burst of algae growth, but within two weeks, the algae was eaten by small crustaceans, so less carbon dioxide was absorbed


lohafex ) dumped 6. 6 tons of iron into 300 square kilometers of the south atlantic. there was a burst of algae growth, but within two weeks, the algae was eaten by small crustaceans, so less carbon dioxide was absorbed than anticipated. in october 2011, a british project called spice ( stratospheric particle injection for climate engineering ) was scheduled to test a delivery system using a tethered balloon and hose to deliver water one kilometer into the sky. it was put on hold due to opposition from environmental groups. geoengineering opponents cite many risks. strategies could be ineffective or incomplete. the technology could fall prey to mechanical failure, human error, natural disasters or terrorism, and lead to devastating and / or irreversible disruption of the climate system. many want to ban geoengineering research for fear it would reduce the imperative to cut greenhouse gas emissions. scott barrett, lenfest - earth institute professor of natural resource economics at columbia university, takes issue with this point. “ people worry that if we use geoengineering, we wouldn ’ t reduce our greenhouse gas emissions. but we ’ re not reducing them anyway … and given that we have failed to address climate change, i think we ’ re better off having the possibility of geoengineering … however it does raise the question of do we have the wisdom and institutions to use it wisely? ” governance is perhaps the thorniest aspect of geoengineering. because geoengineering is a relatively cheap way to address climate change, it is unilateral — rich countries and billionaires could finance it on their own — yet the consequences would be global. who then should get to control geoengineering, and under what governance? some strategies would benefit certain countries and harm others, so who would have the right to decide whether, when and how to use it? geoengineering would likely create winners and losers — should losers be compensated? could conflicts lead to geoengineering wars? while there are various international treaties, aspects of which could limit some geoengineering experiments, there is no overarching regulatory framework that governs the broad use of geoengineering technology. in october 2010, the u. n. convention on biological diversity adopted a moratorium on geoengineering activities that could threaten biodiversity ( the united states has not ratified the convention ). etc is pushing for a comprehensive test ban on geoengineering at rio + 20, the u. n. conference on sustainable development


moratorium on geoengineering activities that could threaten biodiversity ( the united states has not ratified the convention ). etc is pushing for a comprehensive test ban on geoengineering at rio + 20, the u. n. conference on sustainable development in june. the 2009 geoengineering report by britain ’ s royal society calls for an international body to review mechanisms that could regulate geoengineering, and for scientific organizations to develop guidelines for research and evaluate benefits and environmental effects. “ the central problem for the governance of geoengineering, ” the report says, “ is that while potential problems can be identified with all geoengineering technologies, these can only be resolved through research, development and demonstration … ideally, appropriate safeguards would be put in place during the early stages of the development of any new technology. ” barrett, an expert in international agreements, believes a geoengineering agreement should focus on what countries should do and what they can agree upon. he contends that an agreement should simply require a country intent on engaging in geoengineering, from field research to larger experiments, to let the world know. this would enable other countries to react or discuss the situation beforehand, make deals or participate, and avoid conflicts. it would also encourage collaborative research and development. countries would be willing to sign on because they would know that other nations would also have to declare their intentions. if an agreement were too restrictive, or included a ban or veto power, barrett says, countries that wanted to proceed with geoengineering would simply walk away from the table. despite the risks and uncertainties of geoengineering, many scientists believe we must study the options to ensure that damaging actions are not taken in haste in the future. the royal society recommends that further research and development of geoengineering be undertaken, but that policies also continue to focus on reducing carbon emissions and adaptation. it stresses the importance of placing all concerns about geoengineering in the larger context of climate change impacts that would otherwise be likely to occur anyway and comparing the relative risks and potential benefits. “ imagine some point in the future when things are starting to go very wrong. and turning down the sun would have a good chance of limiting damage. would you really not want to know if the technology worked and what its side effects were? ” barrett asked. “ even if we were to ban geoengineering today, if things get bad in the future, they ’ d do it anyway … would you want the future to be ignorant? ”


august 10, 2012 | 13 money and politics go together like sodium and chloride – an important element ( in the non - chemical sense of the term ) of life that can also be corrosive and deadly. the third question in sciencedebate. org ’ s list of top 14 science questions that president barack obama and presumptive republican nominee mitt romney should address this election year has to do with federal funding of scientific research. unlike climate change, where there is a scientific consensus that warming is happening and that humans are at fault, there can be no scientific answer, i would argue, to the question “ should scientific research be funded with public moneys or private or some mix of both? ” still, given science ’ s role in fueling the economy, i think it makes sense to explore the funding issue more deeply. 3. research and the future. federally funded research has helped to produce america ’ s major postwar economies and to ensure our national security, but today the uk, singapore, china, and korea are making competitive investments in research. given that the next congress will face spending constraints, what priority would you give to investment in research in your upcoming budgets? a few facts to get the conversation started... i look forward to your comments. update ( sept. 5, 2012 ) : click to see the answers to the top 14 science questions from gov. mitt romney and president barack obama. election 2012 button used under creative commons license by 2. 0.


border people : life and society in the us - mexico borderlands while the u. s. - mexico borderlands resemble border regions in other parts of the world, nowhere else do so many millions of people from two dissimilar nations live in such close proximity and interact with each other so intensely. borderlanders are singular in their history, outlook, and behavior, and their lifestyle deviates from the norms of central mexico and the interior united states ; yet these mexicans, mexican - americans, and anglo - americans also differ among themselves, and within each group may be found cross - border consumers, commuters, and people who are inclined or disinclined to embrace both cultures. based on firsthand interviews with individuals from all walks of life, border people presents case histories of transnational interaction and transculturation, and addresses the themes of cross - border migration, interdependence, labor, border management, ethnic confrontation, cultural fusion, and social activism. here migrants and workers, functionaries and activists, and " mixers " who have crossed cultural boundaries recall events in their lives related to life on the border. their stories show how their lives have been shaped by the borderlands milieu and how they have responded to the situations they have faced. border people shows that these borderlanders live in a unique human environment shaped by physical distance from central areas and constant exposure to transnational processes. the oral histories contained here reveal, to a degree that no scholarly analysis can, that borderlanders are indeed people, each with his or her own individual perspective, hopes, and dreams.


formaldehyde is a type of chemical compound that is of essential use to many manufacturing sectors and other industries. when talking of formaldehyde, most people will be more familiar with one of its forms – formalin. formalin is a solution of formaldehyde that is famous for being used as an embalming fluid. formaldehyde is quite toxic and it is known to cause cancer and also other health disorders. formaldehyde is classified as one of the simplest forms of aldehydes, which are chemical compounds that possess a terminal carbonyl group. a carbonyl group is an atom grouping that has, within it, a carbon atom that is double bonded to an oxygen atom. hcho is the chemical formula for this chemical compound. the unique chemical formula of formaldehyde makes it a very versatile foundation or base for creating more complex aldehydes. formaldehyde, in its pure form, is a colorless and gaseous compound. it is also quite reactive. because of these properties, it is usually mixed in with other chemical compounds in order to create a more stable substance. formaldehyde has many industrial and manufacturing applications. it is an important ingredient in the manufacturing of glue, antiseptics, preservatives, resins, paints, embalming and film processing. formaldehyde is actually quite abundant in the atmosphere because it is one of the byproducts of combustion. it is also naturally formed through atmospheric reactions. it is actually a major element that makes up smog. frequent and high exposure to formaldehyde can lead to cancer, as well as respiratory problems. skin problems and inflammation of the mucus membrane are some of the short term effects of formaldehyde exposure.


as broadcast equipment becomes more sophisticated, especially in the digital domains, the speed at which information is transferred, processed, etc., through the equipment itself, becomes a very important factor. with computer processors that drive broadcast equipment today operating in the gigahertz range, what good does it do if the remainder of the infrastructure works considerably slower? superconductors will go a long way in resolving this issue. earlier this year, researchers led by dr. jun akimitsu of aoyama gakuin university in tokyo achieved a significant milestone when they announced that magnesium boride, a readily available metal compound known since the 1950s, has unexpectedly turned into the latest breakthrough in superconductors technology. magnesium boride is commonly used in some chemical reactions, but no one had ever tested its worth as a superconductor at low temperatures, where it demonstrates properties of moving electrons with virtually no resistance. after hearing about dr. akimitsu ' s discovery and working with the substance, dr. paul c. canfield, a professor of physics at iowa state university and a researcher at ames laboratory said : “ it ' s a fantastic discovery! we ' ve been able to do a lot of neat stuff with it in the past month. ” the material is very light and, from reports, is easier to work with as compared with the more complex superconducting materials such as the copper oxides, a so - called high - temperature superconductor. the more complex superconducting materials work at higher temperatures, but magnesium boride is comparatively inexpensive, selling for about $ 175 per 100 - gram bottle. dr. canfield said he and his colleagues at iowa state and ames laboratory have worked extensively investigating magnesium boride and have already fashioned superconducting wires by exposing fibers of boron to magnesium vapors. at present, though, the wires are short ; only couple of inches long, and brittle. dr. canfield said : “ it ' s not something you can curl around your finger. ” but then, who ' d want to curl it around their finger? magnesium boride, as a superconductor, is such only at temperatures up to minus 389 degrees, or about 29 degrees higher than any other simple metallic compound. although not the solution, it is being hailed as a significant step in that direction, so stay tuned. send questions and comments to : firstname. lastname @ example. org


the subject of batteries for field shooters used to be as simple as charging them until the red light went out, slapping them on the camera and shooting until they died. now, the typical eng / efp crew carries a much wider array of battery - operated devices. notebook computers, cell and satellite phones, pdas, belt - clipped radios, micro - mixers and even gps receivers may accompany camcorders and batt - lights. modern field shooters must know their way around battery systems. modern batteries communicate digitally to chargers like the anton - bauer dual 2702 powerchager shown above while talking to the user through an lcd window. batteries are usually defined by the chemistry they use. the three most common types are nickel cadmium ( nicd ), nickel metal hydride ( nimh ), and lithium ion ( li - ion ). each has its strengths and weaknesses. we ’ ll compare their performance later in the article. but first, let ’ s define the specifications we use to judge them. regardless of the battery type involved, there are a few fundamental specifications that field crews will frequently encounter, including energy density, fast - charge time, self - discharge time, maintenance requirement and c - rate. energy density is a measure of how much power the battery will deliver for its weight, and is usually measured in watt - hours per kilogram ( wh / kg ). this is one of the central factors in matching battery type to application. fast - charge time is another factor to consider. usually measured as a fraction of the battery ’ s rated capacity over time, this parameter has seen dramatic advances with the advent of battery - centric charging using smart batteries and chargers. another primary factor in matching batteries to their uses is a spec called “ self - discharge time, ” usually measured as a percentage of capacity per month. this refers to the rate at which the fully charged battery will lose its charge while at rest. self - discharge is an important parameter because this decline in voltage is not linear. this photo shows the two most common camera battery mounts. the camera on the left has the anton - bauer gold mount. the other has the sony v - mount. most battery types tend to lose a significant portion of their charge within the first 24 hours of storage, followed by a slower but steady discharge. storage at higher - than - normal room temperatures will degrade internal resistance and accelerate self - discharge on any battery. a significant specification is the maintenance requirement. this typically refers to how often an equalizing or topping charge should be


slower but steady discharge. storage at higher - than - normal room temperatures will degrade internal resistance and accelerate self - discharge on any battery. a significant specification is the maintenance requirement. this typically refers to how often an equalizing or topping charge should be applied. in the case of nickel - based batteries, the maintenance requirement will include “ exercising ” the battery by running it down to its end - of - discharge voltage and then fully recharging to combat the infamous memory effect in nicd batteries. the c - rate is a measurement of the charge and discharge current of the battery. a discharge of 1c will equal the published current capacity of the battery. a battery rated at 500 mah ( milliamp hours ) will discharge at 1c to deliver that current for one hour. if discharged at 2c, the same battery should provide 1000 milliamps for a half hour. note that the measurement is made from maximum capacity to the end - of - discharge level, not to 0v. on nicds, for instance, the typical end - of - discharge level is 1v per cell. li - ions generally discharge to 3v. while there are many other battery specs, such as load current, cost - per - cycle, overcharge tolerance and cycle life, the specs mentioned above will form the basic stepping stones to a good battery - to - application match. let ’ s see how the various battery chemistries compare on these main specs. despite the emergence of new battery types, the nickel - cadmium or nicd batteries maintain a prominent place in powering professional camcorders, batt - lights and portable comm radios. this is due to their exceptional performance in high - current applications. nicds also accept fast charges quite well compared to the other battery chemistries. typical fast - charge time on nicd units is one hour, while nimh batteries will fast - charge in two to four hours and deliver about one - fourth the load current. cameras have shrunk while lenses and batteries have kept their size and weight, allowing each to balance the other. without rear - mount batteries, smaller cameras would be front - heavy, and on shoulder - mounted cameras, balance rather than weight is the critical factor. nicd batteries will self - discharge slightly faster than nimh and much faster than li - ion types. the big edge that the nimh and li - ion batteries have over nicd is in energy density. in applications that require a high power - to - weight ratio,


slightly faster than nimh and much faster than li - ion types. the big edge that the nimh and li - ion batteries have over nicd is in energy density. in applications that require a high power - to - weight ratio, the li - ion is the king of these beasts, with a typical spec of 100wh / kg to 130wh / kg. by comparison, nimhs offer a power - to - weight ratio ranging from 60wh / kg to 120wh / kg, while nicds range from 45wh / kg to 80wh / kg. the achilles heel of nicd batteries is their maintenance requirement. they must be regularly exercised ( some harried shooters might say exorcised ) to avoid the formation of crystals inside the battery and the resulting tendency to discharge only as far as the minimum voltage level to which they have been frequently run. also, since cadmium is an environmentally toxic metal, nicd batteries are increasingly seen as a liability. some countries now severely limit their use due to disposal problems. memory or mismatch? frequently, what appears to be a memory effect may be a mismatch between the cutoff voltage level of the device and that of the battery. to get the full capacity of the battery, its end - of - discharge voltage must be higher than the cutoff voltage for the camcorder or other device being powered. a mismatch in these values will cause the device to quit while the battery still has power. mimicking the memory effect, this will cause a nickel - based battery to be repeatedly recharged before reaching its own end - of - discharge voltage and eventually develop a real memory. getting simpler again the latest “ smart ” batteries, chargers and cameras can communicate digitally. the battery can control the smart charger for the perfect charge cycle and the cameras can display all the needed power parameters right in the viewfinder. just when the mix of battery chemistries and their characteristics was becoming increasingly complex, the advent of digital communication between the central components promises to make things a good bit easier. bennett liles is a writer and tv production engineer in the atlanta area.


gender - responsive climate change adaptation and egypt neither the impacts of climate change on people, nor the ways in which people respond to climate change are gender - neutral. women usually bear the burden of climate changes because they are the bulk of the egypt ’ s poor and have fewer resources for coping with global warming and the ensuing related disasters already occurring with more frequency and intensity. the mortality rates for women in egypt continue to be higher than men, and climate change will worsen mortality expectancies for women, who are more likely to die in natural disasters and, indirectly because it is women and girls who sacrifice food to eat when it is scarce. gender inequalities and different gender roles, needs and preferences that vary over space and over time, influence the different ways in which young, adult, and elderly males and females experience the impacts of climate change and develop strategies to adapt to or mitigate them. gender equality is both a development goal in itself – reflected, for example, in the third millennium development goal on gender equality and women ’ s empowerment, the beijing platform for action and the convention on the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women ( cedaw ) — and a condition for the achievement of sustainable development. as such, gender equality is also a condition for successful adaptation to climate change, and the successful transition to low - carbon pathways in egypt, because the women livelihoods are more directly threatened, as they make up the majority of the small farmers. their ability to migrate in search of economic opportunities makes it easier for men to deal with crisis, and may result in benefits for the family as a whole. however, male migration to cairo the city capital of egypt often increases women ’ s workload, as they are left behind to manage the household in addition to usual tasks. climate change can also increase women ’ s exposure to other risks, such as gender - based violence and hiv infection. in addition to the challenges described above, climate change has implications for food preparation and storage ( in terms of water for food preparation and the vulnerability of food stores to extreme events, such as cyclones and floods ). harvests may be reduced or even wiped out by floods or droughts. this affects market prices and the availability of surplus to sell, placing pressure on both men and women to identify other sources of income and reduce major expenditures ( e. g. school fees ). in times of food shortage, women are often expected to feed other members of the family before attending to their own needs. the implementation of several elements of any environmental plan will strongly


of income and reduce major expenditures ( e. g. school fees ). in times of food shortage, women are often expected to feed other members of the family before attending to their own needs. the implementation of several elements of any environmental plan will strongly depend on the input of women. this will, in particular, be the case for a successful implementation of measures in the national water resources plan of egypt category of ‘ protecting health and environment ’ but also for some measures in the other categories in the same plan. the governments of arab spring countries should adopt the following policy principles with respect to gender issues in water management : • equal opportunities for men and women with regard to : − involvement in discussion and decision making on water use and resources issues ; − dissemination of information and communication about water resources and water use issues and financial consequences provided by institutions concerned ; − active participation in decision - making bodies dealing with water resources and irrigation management • equal benefits for men and women deriving from effective and efficient water resources management., which means promoting the involvement of women as well as men in consultation and decision - making from the community level to the highest level of organizational management. this will require further efforts to be made in creating space for women in planning and implementation processes, as well as to facilitate their participation through capacity building. gendered water resources management will lead to greater : • effectiveness : the infrastructure, as well as valuable water resources, will be more widely and optimally used and sustained by all user groups ; • efficiency : the presence of limited water resources the sector agency can reach more individuals ; • development : the service and its social process will not only bring water, it will increase consumption, production, income environmental security, health and overall family welfare ; • sustainable use in freshwater ecosystem : women ’ s and men ’ s direct and fair participation in research and project implementation can increase the potential flexibility and creativity in responding to environmental insecurity and changes in resource system ; • equity : burdens and benefits will be shared more equitably between women and men in the community at large, as well as in the household. the importance of involving women as well as men in water resources management is not only to improve women ’ s situation, but also essential element for effective development, is the utilization and management of water resources. there is an increasing urgency in the need to mainstream a gender perspective at the overall water resources level because of the new emerging international perspectives on water resources. the ugly truth we face is that most gender issues being tackled are merely used as “ page filling


. there is an increasing urgency in the need to mainstream a gender perspective at the overall water resources level because of the new emerging international perspectives on water resources. the ugly truth we face is that most gender issues being tackled are merely used as “ page filling ” in a report without real application in real life. this is likely due to the personal note that such strategies for gender equality related to climate change reports in egypt that lack effective strategies for systematic integration of gender in their adaptation and mitigation work. especially with regard to projects funded by donors agencies outside the mena region, experiences of integrating gender in their work on climate change, some level of awareness, policy commitments and efforts or plans to scale up successful pilot projects exist. much work remains for gender to become truly and systematically incorporated into their climate change policies and programs. donors ’ agencies, such as usaid, do not generally lack gender or climate change capacities, but may lack the capacity, resources and clear mandates to connect them. both climate change and gender capacities usually exist within each donor organization, backed in some cases by strong gender policies, but gender integration, particularly in climate change portfolios, is often weak. this is in part due to technical barriers and poor communication between climate change and gender experts. a lack of clear mandates and concepts in mainstreaming processes leads to ‘ mainstreaming fatigue ’, a lack of adequate human and financial resource allocation for gender mainstreaming, and a lack of strategies to identify gender entry points across climate change policy work and program cycles. ayman ramadan mohamed ayad is an engineer and water resources advisor at national water resources plan ( nwrp - cp ), and has been involved in the future vision for alexandria integrated water urban development. he also teaches applied hydraulic at alexandria universities, and serves as the egyptian coordinator for nayd ( network of african youth for development ).


the deeper i get into the history of events in central and western maryland, the more i am convinced that the “ despot ’ s heel ” argument really holds little weight. not only is the state song out of date, it never really reflected the civil war era opinion of the state as a whole. what prompted today ’ s thought was my seeing a comment made elsewhere about why maryland didn ’ t jump in as a seceding state. more or less, the argument was that it was because there were so many federal troops present that the legislature couldn ’ t make the move to secession that they ( maybe i should place emphasis on “ they ”, knowing how some legislators in the deeper south made it clear that “ they ” felt that they often knew better what to do than the citizens ) really wanted. this was just part of a larger discussion and maryland wasn ’ t the focus of it all. in regard to the presence of federal troops suppressing maryland ’ s “ will ”, i think this is exaggerated. true, we have the incident in baltimore with the boys from massachusetts on april 19, 1861 ( but they were just passing through ), and … even from unionists, i ’ ve seen that there was plenty of hub - bub about the control over the legislature ( even in the western part of the state ) and governor t. h. hicks ’ handling of situations. nonetheless, even in the midst of this, there was plenty of pro - union sentiment being expressed by maryland ’ s citizens … especially in the central and western part ( keep in mind that this region is the greater focus of my work and i haven ’ t spent a great deal of time with the eastern part of the state ). there is no doubt that there were plenty who wanted secession, and we can see that more than a fair number of marylanders ended up wearing gray. i ’ m sure most of them felt oppressed, repressed, and depressed by the continual downturn of events against their interests, but, and this is a critical point … was it any different than the feelings of unionists in neighboring virginia? furthermore, in the aftermath of all that took place in the first half of 1861, unionists retained a voice in maryland and it wasn ’ t by any means weak. quite a few expressed their support ( and, perhaps, may have been able to do so because of keeping the secessionists in check ) for the union by enlisting in maryland ’ s union regiments and many continued to express it in other ways. when we realize the numbers


their support ( and, perhaps, may have been able to do so because of keeping the secessionists in check ) for the union by enlisting in maryland ’ s union regiments and many continued to express it in other ways. when we realize the numbers of these people, why is that some still see maryland as a state under the despot ’ s heel? sure, some people felt it, but not the state as a whole. i think there is a lot more to learn from the civil war - era maryland than that presented through the narrow understanding offered through the state song. i especially think that an understanding of maryland ’ s secessionists may help us to better understand the feelings of the unwavering unionists in the secessionists states. in fact, i ’ ve encountered some interesting experiential parallels between the two groups. as i ’ ve mentioned before in other posts, in examining my home county in virginia, i ’ ve discovered stories that reveal a number of heavy - handed methods used by secessionists against anyone who posed a threat to secession and the success of the confederacy. in turn, i ’ ve encountered some instances of mob - rule ( no different than that which i ’ ve seen in virginia ) in washington county, maryland where secessionists have been not only driven out, but beaten down, literally! i ’ ll eventually share a story that i found about one rather vocal secessionists and what he experienced at the hands of mob - rule in williamsport, md. in 1861.