frankly glorified paganism and of course viewed all activities of the church with repugnance and contempt. " the pope is a bandit, " wrote one of the leaders of this movement, " and the church is his army. " about this time a youthful but powerful prince in holy orders, the elector albert of brandenburg, already archbishop of magdeburg and administrator of the see of halberstadt, was made archbishop of mayence. he wished to retain his former sees and after much negotiation with the papal representative he was allowed to do so but on the condition he pay a fee of fourteen thousand ducats besides a special tax of ten thousand of the same coin. it was a shameful transaction but not even yet complete. a banker, jacob fugger, advanced the over - beneficed prince the ready gold and then to enable settlement of the banker ' s loan, albert was given the privilege of proclaiming the grant of st. peter ' s indulgence through his territories on the terms that he should share equally with rome all funds so collected. in an age when bribery and simony were to be found in high places, it is not surprising that the granting of indulgences should sometimes be tainted by mercenary consideration although the doctrine of the church leaves no doubt as to the invalidity of any accepted with the knowledge of such an arrangement. the term indulgence is derived from the latin indulgere meaning to be kind and it is an excellent explanation for, as defined by the church in the xiii century, an indulgence is the remission of temporal punishment due to sin after guilt has been forgiven. it is catholic teaching that even after the guilt of a sin has been forgiven, there may still remain due to the justice of god some measure of punishment ( called temporal to distinguish it from the eternal punishment of sin not forgiven because not repented ). it is with this temporal punishment, and not with the sin or its guilt, that the indulgence is concerned. to earn such a favor the suppliant must, in addition to possessing the habitual intention, be in that state of grace which is achieved by true repentance and sincere confession and by the performance of good works such as prayer and charitable undertakings. there are partial indulgences which remit, as the name implies, only in part and there are plenary indulgences which, given by the pope alone, cancel all temporal punishment due to sin. there are indulgences for the living


indulgences which remit, as the name implies, only in part and there are plenary indulgences which, given by the pope alone, cancel all temporal punishment due to sin. there are indulgences for the living and those for the dead which actually, because departed souls are of course beyond the church ' s jurisdiction, are nothing more than solemn requests for the divine mercy. an indulgence had been proclaimed in the reign of pope julius for those who, in addition to fulfilling the usual requirements of penance and contrition, should contribute to the rebuilding of st. peter ' s. because of the eager and none too scrupulous manner in which the monies were gathered and because of the intense and mounting anti - roman feeling already strong in germany, there were grave and spirited protests from that country when leo x, upon becoming pope, not only renewed the same indulgence but thought by means of it to gather even greater sums for his treasury. the warnings were unheeded and after prolonged bickering the disgraceful arrangement with albert of mayence was concluded. the next step towards disaster came when the latter placed the responsibility of bringing the fateful indulgence to the people in the hands of john tetzel, a dominican orator who had considerable experience in such enterprises and who was well known for his skill in gathering the lucre. it was a reputation not at all popular and even one of his brother dominicans wrote angrily of him that he " devised unheard - of means of making money. he was far too liberal in conferring offices ; he put up far too many public crosses in towns and villages, which causes scandal and breeds complaints among the people. " this man now embarked upon the money raising campaign, for that is what it frankly was, with more zeal than doctrinal authority ; for while he did not err in naming the requirements necessary to obtain indulgences for the living, he did make the mistake of declaring those for the dead could be gained by money alone. his statement was clearly contrary to the doctrines of the church and the leading theologian of the time, the cardinal cajetan, was vehemently positive on the subject of such erroneous teachings. " preachers speak in the name of the church, " said he, " only so long as they proclaim the doctrine of christ and his church ; but if, for purposes of their own, they teach that about which they know nothing, and which is only their own


the name of the church, " said he, " only so long as they proclaim the doctrine of christ and his church ; but if, for purposes of their own, they teach that about which they know nothing, and which is only their own imagination they must not be accepted as mouth pieces of the church. no one must be surprised if such as these fall into error. " tetzel ' s route took him to wittenberg where the district vicar and university lecturer, a thirty - four year old augustinian priest named martin luther, impatiently awaited him with strong opinions and an able pen. luther had once made a journey to rome and although at that time he displayed no symptoms of displeasure he later claimed he had been disillusioned and angered at what he had seen. by nature he was deeply impressionable as well as self confident and strong willed. his adoption of the clerical state had not been the result of long and careful consideration but was because the sudden death of a close friend who had been destined for the priesthood convinced him he should take his place. this was done against the earnest pleas of his father, for the young luther had studied for the law, a process involving hardship and sacrifice both to him and his family who were of humble circumstance. after his reception into monastic life the approval of his superiors encouraged his studies and conduct, and at the age of twenty - five he had become a professor at the new university of wittenberg. any measure of success is apt to be a hazard to the restraints of discipline and the academic triumphs of the young monk proved a dangerous stimulant to a proud and stubborn nature. in many ways he resembled savonarola and even his vocabulary was marked by a similar bitter violence. " knaves, dolts, pigs, asses, infernal blasphemers " were terms he hurled at his opponents with the harsh emphasis akin to that which had stirred the congregations of florence. but where the italian had been content to attack the person of a pope and had not questioned the authority of the church, the german was to take this fatal step and make denial and offer challenge to orthodox dogma. his " ninety - five theses " were nailed to the church door and soon all germany rocked with the altercation which followed. tetzel, unlike many other churchmen, immediately realized the dangers underlying luther ' s attack, and he countered with a carefully prepared work in which he emphasized that the affair was not a matter of indulgences alone but because of it "


tetzel, unlike many other churchmen, immediately realized the dangers underlying luther ' s attack, and he countered with a carefully prepared work in which he emphasized that the affair was not a matter of indulgences alone but because of it " many will be led to despise the authority and supremacy of the pope and the holy [ paragraph continues ] roman see. " his apprehension did not disturb the equanimity of the curia or bring any vigorous action from the hierarchy. luther sent a copy of his theses to the metropolitan who on the advice of his counsellors referred the matter to rome with an accompanying letter which expressed the hope " that his holiness would grasp the situation so as to meet the error at once, as occasion offers and as the exigency requires and not lay the responsibility on us. " the apparatus of correction and discipline moved slowly and ineffectually while the new movement, as yet not organized or recognized as such, spread with the rapidity of a fierce and sudden conflagration. the dislike held for rome and the political and social state of germany all made for the cause of luther. the nobles coveted the properties of the church. the intellectuals, dominated and excited by the humanist movement, were delighted at an opportunity to destroy the conventional religion. and the peasantry, told of roman iniquities in the most inflammatory terms, were given the chimerical hope that the new order would better their miserable lot. in the year following the gesture at wittenberg the pope instructed the vicar general of the augustinians to silence the unruly monk ; but luther disregarded such measures and anticipating excommunication boldly preached that the sentence would be futile because " the real communion of the church was invisible and that no one could be affected by it. " a few months later the emperor maximilian, now thoroughly alarmed by the numbers and attitude of the priest ' s adherents,. wrote to the pope and declared serious measures should be immediately taken to quell him. canonical processes commenced and luther was summoned to rome ; but the only answer was the publication of a series of new pamphlets filled with heresy. a legate, the gentle and learned cardinal cajetan, went to germany where after some difficulty luther consented to meet him but would give no retractation. at intervals there were further negotiations with other emissaries and there were public debates with such skilled theologians as johann eck defending orthodoxy. sometimes it seemed reconciliation might be possible, for often it was luther ' s


would give no retractation. at intervals there were further negotiations with other emissaries and there were public debates with such skilled theologians as johann eck defending orthodoxy. sometimes it seemed reconciliation might be possible, for often it was luther ' s mood that he would not break with rome and at these times he would profess obedience to the pope. but never would he make retractation or express sorrow for his past actions ; and as his words grew fiercer the hope became irretrievably lost and there remained only one road for his proud and stubborn nature to follow. irrevocably he was committed to rebellion and with the full and powerful influence of the humanists strong upon him politics gradually crowded theology to a lesser position in his sermons. liberty and patriotism are the unfailing slogan of the revolutionary and to these inflammatory words was now added the name of the gospel. " liberty! fatherland! gospel! " the battlecry was made. " i have cast the die, " he boasted, " i now despise the rage of the romans as much as i do their favor. i will not reconcile myself to them for all eternity... if a thief is punished by a halter, a murderer by the sword, and a heretic by fire, why should not we, with all our weapons attack these teachers of corruption, these popes, cardinals, and all the rabble of the roman sodom, and wash our hands in their blood. " thirty - two months after the incident at wittenberg a bull was issued by leo condemning forty - one propositions extracted from the writings of luther and excommunicating him unless he retracted within sixty days. but by now the friar was firmly entrenched in germany and had gained the protection of a powerful prince, the elector of saxony. scornfully the claims of discipline were dismissed and with ceremony and to the cheers of the populace he publicly burned the bull and told the students of wittenberg that " it is now full time the pope himself is burned. my meaning is that the papal chair, its false teachings, and its abominations, should be given to the flames. " the parchment burned brightly and the crowd roared lusty approval ; and in the lurid glow of the noisy scene protestantism thus became a fact although it was not until a decade later that the name came into use. this was at the diet of speyer where it was resolved that the new religion was established but that its adherents must not


glow of the noisy scene protestantism thus became a fact although it was not until a decade later that the name came into use. this was at the diet of speyer where it was resolved that the new religion was established but that its adherents must not interfere with or hinder catholic worship. the followers of luther protested vigorously at the tolerant decree and hence the term, protestant. leo died after a reign of eight years and before him the emperor maximilian had gone also. he was succeeded by his grandson, charles of spain. henry viii of england had been a candidate for the imperial honor and at the long conclave which proceeded the election of the next pope the name of henry ' s counsellor, the great cardinal wolsey, received serious consideration. however, the medici family was resolved that a cousin of leo should secure the ballots and possibly to avert the evils of deadlock an unexpected name was finally announced, that of the cardinal adrian dedel who in keeping his own name as pope adrian vi was to break a two hundred year old tradition. the fact that he possessed the friendship and respect of the new emperor must have influenced the decision of the cardinals but it was a decision certainly not sought by the man whom it favored. he had not attended the conclave and it was with reluctance that he embarked upon the journey from spain to accept the responsibilities of the tiara. born at utrecht in holland he was the son of a shipwright and by ability and diligence had risen to the position of tutor to the young charles who was impressed by his talents and his honesty and who never had reason to change the opinion. successive and successful stages of advancement had eventually brought the netherlander to the high position of viceroy in spain and now had come the papacy. it was eight months before he was crowned in rome and it was with coldness that the people of the city greeted him for he was in every way utterly unlike the great prince prelates to whom they were accustomed. pomp he detested, flattery too, and those noisy and undisciplined crowds of artists and poets and merchants who had fattened on the generosity of former reigns quickly discovered that papal patronage had ceased to be. no lavish court or costly pageants or feasts and games or chances for easy or dubious riches could be expected during the time of this scrupulous northerner who earnestly desired reform and a united and tranquil christendom. these were his aims, together with plans for a crusade against the turks who had already won the island of


riches could be expected during the time of this scrupulous northerner who earnestly desired reform and a united and tranquil christendom. these were his aims, together with plans for a crusade against the turks who had already won the island of rhodes, but the obstacles he had inherited seemed insurmountable ; he was too late and perhaps it was this realization that hastened his end. he died less than two years after his election. the romans received a pope more suited to their taste in the person of his successor for this time the plans of the medici were triumphant. giulio de medici, cousin of leo x, took his place as clement vii. it was not an easy victory, for the emperor, the kings of france and england, the italian factions, all had their candidates and the conclave lasted fifty days. the struggle for ballots was most lively and for a while it again seemed as though the englishman, wolsey, might win ; but the supporters of the medici redoubled their efforts and enlarged their promises and so won the majority necessary for their candidate. unfortunately he was in no way equal to the responsibilities and burdens of the great position. he was a cultured and handsome man of fifty - six and was possessed of a grace of manner and ability expected of his birth and breeding. but these values were not sufficient to cope with the complex problems, both temporal and spiritual, which now confronted the papacy and disturbed the world. from the beginning misfortune attended his venturings in the intricate and dubious intrigues which constituted the diplomacy of his day. the emperor charles v and king francis i of france were at war and the pope adopted a faltering policy of pseudo - neutrality which under the existing circumstances was neither possible nor sincere and which quickly lost him the respect of both princes. francis repelled a german invasion on his own soil and then marched to enforce his claims in italy ; but at pavia the imperial troops engaged again and this time the french were beaten and their monarch taken prisoner. hopes for a united christendom had been woefully shattered when, before this battle, the french king, made desperate by impending defeat, had tried unsuccessfully to make an alliance with the turks. as a prisoner he concluded a treaty of surrender with charles but the terms were harsh and secretly he plotted to form a new combine. in an effort to escape teutonic dominance the milanese and venetians were susceptible to the arguments of this would - be ally of the turk and so unfortunately was the pope.


the terms were harsh and secretly he plotted to form a new combine. in an effort to escape teutonic dominance the milanese and venetians were susceptible to the arguments of this would - be ally of the turk and so unfortunately was the pope. when the emperor learned of the covert negotiations his rage was kindled and soon his troops, a wild and long unpaid army of german and spanish mercenaries, were unleashed upon the papal states. rome was defended with spirit and the commander of the attacking forces was leo x. reigned 1513 to 1521. click to enlarge pope leo x. machiavelli advised him : luther defied him. see pages 235 to 246. killed but a breach was made in the walls and the city, so rich a prize, was open to a horde of ruffians savagely hungry for loot. all vestiges of discipline disappeared during orgies of killing, burning, sacrilege, and rape which followed. for centuries the sack of rome had been the terror of those who feared the turk. it was now a horrible fact but the despoilers of the churches and defilers of the altars did not carry the insignia of islam. they called themselves christians and their absent master proudly flaunted charlemagne ' s grandiose title, emperor of the holy roman empire. the pope and seven of his cardinals fled to a fortress at orvieto and there remained for many long months ; and when he did return to the city it was a ruined and broken landscape which saddened his eye and spirit. he was forced to a peace with charles and on imperial terms. thus papal dignity was sacrificed when the pope obeyed and travelled to bologna where with the pomp of ancient ceremony he presided at the imperial coronation. another journey made at royal behest and destined to bear great and grave consequences was his voyage to france when his niece married the duke of or - leans. it was an opportunity not neglected for the french monarch to discuss many momentous matters, including the historic demand from across the channel that the marriage of henry viii and his queen be dissolved. francis made plea for the english king and even hinted of the danger to the papacy of incurring a united french and english enmity. the pope listened and was aware of the peril but he also remembered that the unwanted wife was the niece of the emperor charles. henry had married catherine of aragon, the young widow of his sickly elder brother, after special permission had been granted by rome on the grounds that the first marriage


peril but he also remembered that the unwanted wife was the niece of the emperor charles. henry had married catherine of aragon, the young widow of his sickly elder brother, after special permission had been granted by rome on the grounds that the first marriage had never been consummated. five children had been born of this union between spanish princess and english king but only one survived, mary, later to be queen. that the popular and gifted henry had no sympathy for luther is a well known story for with a great flourish he banned the reformer ' s books from england and composed, with the aid of his divines, the famous treatise in latin, a defence of the seven sacraments against martin luther. in return he received violent abuse from the monk but also the gratitude of the pope in the form of a title, defender of the faith, an honor which was not relinquished for henry never considered any deed of his to be protestant in act or intent. seventeen years he had lived with catherine before he developed scruples regarding the validity of their marriage and these stirrings were not the product of a stern conscience or sincere canonical doubt but were born of an illicit if not obscure love affair. it would seem that all any man could desire on earth had been henry ' s inheritance for not only did the favor of exalted birth give him rank and possessions but he was also superbly endowed in physique and mind. it was natural he should receive vast measure of adulation and flattery and perhaps it was equally natural he should fall prey to such subtle poisons. maturity usually remedies the weaknesses of adolescence with that kind of sagacity which is born of time and pain, but on those occasions when the circumstances of life are made too easy the passing of years merely serves to ripen the young fruit to rot. so it was with henry, whose intelligence and body were subjected to temptation in numerous and elaborate forms of enticement and cunning. self - discipline faded away and the noble ideals of youth became dim and distorted before the capricious demands of gluttony and sensual appetite. one of his mistresses had been mary [ paragraph continues ] boleyn and it was her sister anne, who inflamed his fickle passion and distorted his judgment to such a degree that he became determined she should be his queen. eventually he made her so, but not with the sanction of the pope and this fact stands out, cold and clear, from the morass of intrigue and procrastination which accompanied the


that he became determined she should be his queen. eventually he made her so, but not with the sanction of the pope and this fact stands out, cold and clear, from the morass of intrigue and procrastination which accompanied the royal folly. for six years the headstrong monarch tried by all means possible to win the necessary permission and the complicated negotiations which took place leave little credit to either side. proceedings dragged on and papal and royal emissaries travelled busily to and fro, laden with the appurtenances of mystery and plot. hopes were falsely kindled and threats rashly made. universities were bribed to give opinions in favor of the divorce and crowds of servile courtiers masquerading as prelates eagerly and without shame prostituted their faith and their learning to assure the enamoured monarch that his conduct was correct. counsellors of this mould even suggested that a solution of the problem would be for the pope to grant a special dispensation allowing henry to possess two wives! when the infatuated prince finally made anne a marchioness and took her to france where she was presented as the future queen of england the pope was forced to action. he threatened excommunication to both if they did not separate. the new marchioness was pregnant but before her child was born a marriage ceremony was performed and the crown was placed atop her comely head amidst scenes of formal splendour. the time, long dreaded by the timid and procrastinating pope, had arrived and to his honour he remained firm and true to dignity and responsibility. the loss of allegiance to papal authority in europe had been devastating and now england ' s loyalty could be kept at the cost of one divorce. temptation must have been great but with clarity the final decision was pronounced in rome ; catherine was the lawful wife of the english king. persistent and contemptible attempts had been made upon the unfortunate woman by her deluded husband to have her resign her rights, but no argument or humiliation could wring from her an admission that the long years of her married life had been merely a term of concubinage and that their daughter, mary, was illegitimate. king and queen met before a court of bishops and catherine spoke with the calm dignity of a faithful wife and good mother. " i take god and all the world to witness that i have been to you a true, humble, and obedient wife, ever comportable to your will and touch..


with the calm dignity of a faithful wife and good mother. " i take god and all the world to witness that i have been to you a true, humble, and obedient wife, ever comportable to your will and touch... " only once did she pause and then her voice became lower. " this twenty years or more i have been your true wife, and by me ye have had divers children, although it hath pleased god to call them from this world... and when he had me at the first, i take god to be my judge, i was a true maid, without touch of man. and whether this be true or no, i put it to your conscience. " pressure was exerted to have her enter a convent and take vows but despite her great piety the cloisters were also rejected. anne might occupy the royal bed but catherine knew she was wife and queen and no act of henry could change the fact. this was the attitude firmly maintained to her death when with superb charity she wrote to her " dear husband and king " and gave him her forgiveness. " for the rest, i commend unto you our daughter mary, beseeching you to be a good father unto her, as i have heretofore desired. i entreat you also, on behalf of my maids, to give them marriage portions, which is not much, they being but three. for all my other servants i solicit the wages due them and a year more, lest they be improvided for. lastly, i make this vow, that my eyes desire you above all things. " because of the failure of the divorce proceedings in rome the mighty wolsey lost the favor of his master and after a rapid series of degradations was charged with high treason. a natural death intervened to save him from a shameful end and before he expired he uttered the pathetic words which were long to be remembered. " if i had served god as diligently as i have done my king, he would not now have given me over in my grey hairs. " with the aid of evil thomas cromwell, master architect of terror, henry made himself supreme head of the church in england and with bloody prodigality the block and the gallows were invoked against the many who would not admit of this presumption. england ' s greatest chancellor, the scholar who held the esteem of all europe, joined the march to the scaffold. " i die, " thomas more said,


loyola, better known to history as ignatius of loyola, banded together a small number of similar - minded friends and communicated to them his enthusiasm and plans. thus, in paris, was commenced the disciplined organization which from then on has ever been an important influence in the story of the church. the society of jesus was on the march. an astonishingly rapid election brought success and fulfillment to the plans and ambitions of alexander farnese, paul iii, who had been a cardinal for forty years. he was sixty - six years old and was of an ancient roman family which, in adherence to the obnoxious custom, was now to be deluged with riches and honors. his sons and daughtersfor these, true child of the renaissance that he was, he possessedwere favored in every way possible and two of his nephews, aged fourteen and sixteen, were promptly made cardinals at the commencement of his reign. he had been a cardinal during the reign of alexander vi and in some respects his life followed the borgia pattern ; yet he often was to display a majesty of purpose akin to that possessed by julius ii and at other times it would seem as though he were moved by the same high motives which had guided the austere adrian. that he had enjoyed the favour of these popes, so varying in character, and of the medici too, is proof enough of his skill in diplomacy, apropos of which an ambassador to his court complained that an annoying and typical trait of the pope was a " scrupulous avoidance " of ever uttering a positive " yes " or " no. " save for his extravagant nepotism he was an extremely cautious and sagacious man and he embarked upon a policy of wily neutrality between the ever clashing schemes of the french king and the emperor. it was a difficult policy to maintain but for the first years of his pontificate it was to have a certain if uneasy degree of success. it was unforgivable that he should have bestowed the red hat upon his young relatives but most other cardinals of his creation were noted for their worthiness. the english bishop, john fisher, languishing in prison and soon to lose his head on the block was thus honored and so too was another deserving englishman, reginald pole, a cousin of henry viii, who was in italy and so safe from the ire of his vindictive kinsman. the menace of turkish attack was seldom absent from the cares of paul iii. rakish craft, their lateen sails emblazoned with


viii, who was in italy and so safe from the ire of his vindictive kinsman. the menace of turkish attack was seldom absent from the cares of paul iii. rakish craft, their lateen sails emblazoned with the crescent, their decks crammed with blood - hungry warriors, had become a terror to shipping in the mediterranean until the emperor, at the behest of the pope and with money and galleys from the same source, stormed the piratical stronghold at tunis and administered a thorough and salutary defeat. but when war, despite the urgent entreaties of the pontiff, broke out again between france and spain and the emperor ' s troops became occupied in that direction, barbarossa, daring chief of the mohammedan buccaneers, recommenced his depredations upon the italian coast and it became the boast of the turkish sultan that his seraglio would be moved to rome. there were signs of panic in the eternal city at this news for the potentate ' s announcement had strong chances of realization ; but by the exercise of great and desperate ingenuity paul caused an armistice to be declared between the emperor and the french monarch and together they joined him in the formation of a holy league. the venetians, who held a treaty with the turks, were persuaded that such a pact was wrong and they too became partners in the new alliance, and thus rome remained unscarred by the scimitar. notwithstanding his own weaknesses paul was acutely aware of other and less tangible evils which were besieging the papacy and with acrimony the more worldly of his cardinals were told " they should set an example to others by reforming themselves. " to introduce peace and authority into the babel of contemporary theological dispute and to muster a united strength against the onslaughts of the papacy ' s antagonists paul iii made careful plans for the convocation of a general council, for he was of the opinion that the voice of a council was needed to reaffirm and clarify ancient dogma and to endorse authority. the scheme was commendable and simple in thought but in actual execution fraught with difficulty and danger. his own temporal strength was negligible and he had no wish, and there was the danger, for any one sovereign or nation to exert influence upon the decision of so important a body under the guise of patronage or protection. prejudice and patronage must be avoided and the judgments of the [ paragraph continues ] fathers left unhindered.


danger, for any one sovereign or nation to exert influence upon the decision of so important a body under the guise of patronage or protection. prejudice and patronage must be avoided and the judgments of the [ paragraph continues ] fathers left unhindered. with all the genius of his diplomatic talent he fought desperately to have it so. the idea of the council was received with enthusiasm, even by some of the protestant princes, but as the pope had anticipated there were many who saw the convention as an avenue for their own designs and innovations. the support of the emperor was necessary, indeed the approval of all christians was desired, and unwearyingly the pope toiled to gain the good will of all and the interference of none. the emperor was sincerely enthusiastic for he readily perceived that under such auspices the empire might be strengthened ; but the pope, with wider horizons beckoning, regarded the imperial zeal with apprehension and even despair and many conflicts arose between the two regarding the policies, the procedure, and even the location of the council. usually it was the patient pontiff who was victorious but not without the penalties of strife. charles was of the opinion that ecclesiastical discipline should be the first concern of the meeting but the pope held to his plan that questions appertaining to doctrine should be settled before the discussion of a workable policy of discipline. after many vexations and delays the council assembled at trent, in the austrian tyrol, on the 13th december, 1543, the eleventh year of paul ' s reign. ten times it was to meet during the remaining four years of his life and it was not to be formally dissolved, although on several occasions it suffered interruptions and a change of scene, until 1563. the decisions made and decrees issued, defining catholic doctrine, provided splendid support for the champions of the counter reformation. by this time the reformation was rapidly flowering to full development but the council of trent was, by a program of practical reform and definition, able to restore vigor to orthodoxy and bring strength and hope to the faithful again. the storms of altercation following luther ' s outburst, the long theological arguments, the many and confusing interpretations of the gospels, the admitted need for clerical reform, had brought perplexity to many a simple priest and layman. but now all was to be made clear and the road illuminated. the dogmas of original sin, justification, the sacraments, were explained with exactitude and so too were many other subjects of attack and dispute such as the veneration of saints and the granting of ind


be made clear and the road illuminated. the dogmas of original sin, justification, the sacraments, were explained with exactitude and so too were many other subjects of attack and dispute such as the veneration of saints and the granting of indulgences. errors in clerical conduct were not merely censured but were exhaustively examined and practical measures for removing abuses were promulgated and adopted. a system of reform was founded which could survive and indeed grow in strength. precise in its condemnations, constructive in its suggestions, grand in its scope, the council of trent can rightfully be regarded as one of the great bulwarks of catholicity. " thus the council, " wrote the protestant historian ranke, " that had been so vehemently demanded, and so long evaded, that had been twice dissolved, had been shaken by so many political storms, and whose third convocation, even, had been beset with danger, closed amid the general harmony of the catholic world... henceforth catholicism confronted the protestant world in renovated collected vigor. " paul iii lived with all the gaudy and benevolent luxury of a renaissance prince and rome benefited in many ways from his generosity and his appreciation of the arts. new streets were built, churches restored, great bastions were erected, engineers worked diligently on new schemes of fortifications, and scholars toiled over the long catalogues of the vatican library. titian, like many a lesser colleague, was subsidized and the classic beauty of st. peter ' s dome, superb symbol of the supreme authority, was raised by [ paragraph continues ] michael angelo. paul iii had done well and should have died content but the fruits of his nepotism made his end miserable and unhappy. an ungrateful and predatory grandson, with clamor and with violence, was claiming the duchy of parma as his personal property. " my sin is ever before me, " grieved the dying pope. " if they had not the mastery over me, then i should have been without great offence. " it took the cardinals ten weeks to select a successor, giovanni ciocchi del monte, who took the name of julius iii. for a time, at this conclave, it seemed as though the votes would go to reginald pole but the conscientious englishman refused to bargain or make promises and his moment passed. later, when mary became queen, pope julius sent him to his native country as legate and there he officiated as archbishop of canterbury


go to reginald pole but the conscientious englishman refused to bargain or make promises and his moment passed. later, when mary became queen, pope julius sent him to his native country as legate and there he officiated as archbishop of canterbury, the last of his faith to take that ancient title. the new pope was friendly with the emperor, soon to be fighting the french again, but neither alliance with that forceful ruler nor the great responsibilities of his own position gave him the confidence or strength of purpose which had characterized the previous reign. when the protestant allies of france invaded the tyrol and caused an adjournment of the council of trent, resignation to circumstances was the attitude of the pope. he seemed overwhelmed by the number and magnitude of his problems, and frankly abandoning all pretence of active policy he retired to the peace of his gardens. fortunately such indolence was not reflected in the toiling body of the church for this was the time of such men as the indefatigable jesuit, francis xavier, who before embarking for hostile and unknown shores cheerfully told his fellow adventurers, " the greatest trials you have until now endured are small in comparison with those you will experience in japan. prepare yourself for difficulties, by setting aside all consideration for your own interests. " and later the pen of the same brave man inscribed : " i am journeying, deprived of all human protection, to the island of canton, in the hope that a friendly heathen will take me over to the continent of china. " the pontificate of julius iii lasted five years. the next pope was marcellus ii of whom much was expected, for as a cardinal and as a priest marcello pervino had earned an enviable reputation. immediately after his enthronement he enthusiastically turned to the subject of reform and one of his first acts was to prohibit any member of his family from coming to rome. luxury was banned from his household and the customary elaborate ceremonies of coronation were avoided. in every way the hopes of the pious were fulfilled in the person of this pontiff but unfortunately their jubilance was brief for he was of delicate health and his reign ended abruptly, to the sorrow of all, after a mere twenty - two days. the name of reginald pole was mentioned again at the following conclave but he was absent in england and the spanish influence which favored him was not strong enough to achieve its purpose. elected instead, and after considerable balloting, was the seventy - nine - year - old giovanni pietro caraffa whose advanced


the following conclave but he was absent in england and the spanish influence which favored him was not strong enough to achieve its purpose. elected instead, and after considerable balloting, was the seventy - nine - year - old giovanni pietro caraffa whose advanced age showed no traces of senilitybut neither had it brought that mellowness of thought and judgment which usually comes with the years. paul iv was a severe and bad tempered old man, somewhat eccentric in manner, who often times affected the simplicity of a monk but on other occasions could formidably play the despot. he was of the reform school and was a founder of the first congregation of clerks regular yet he was not exempt from the disease of nepotism and one of his first actions as pope was to bestow the red hat upon the head of his undeserving nephew, carlo caraffa. his support went to the french in the war with spain ; and guided by his nephew this policy brought matters to such a deplorable state that it was found necessary to employ protestant mercenaries from germany to protect the papal provinces from the invading army of the duke of alva. meanwhile the french were defeated elsewhere and the pope was forced to sue for peace, a costly and humiliating process for one so proud. his reign was characterized by the unbending severities of the true martinet and the punishments which came to those who crossed his will or broke the laws were as heavy as they were prompt. eventually rumors came to him of the base conduct of his nephew and for once the ties of blood were spurned and the ungrateful and unfit wearer of the purple was expelled from rome. paul iv was an ardent supporter of the inquisition, which as a cardinal he had reorganized, and wide use of its dreaded powers was made during his term. even the cardinal morone, a highly respected member of the sacred college, became enmeshed in the web of terrible accusation and to prison he went on the grounds of heresy. " even if my own father were a heretic, " said this pope, refusing a petition for clemency, " i would gather the wood to burn him. " reginald pole was another object of his pessimism and suspicion but pole was in england and had the wisdom to keep from rome. clergy of lesser rank looked nervously to their conduct when at one sweep a hundred vagrant monks were despatched to the galleys or to the dungeons. mercy was a quality lacking in this stern old man and when he died, after


from rome. clergy of lesser rank looked nervously to their conduct when at one sweep a hundred vagrant monks were despatched to the galleys or to the dungeons. mercy was a quality lacking in this stern old man and when he died, after being pope four years, the mobs rioted to show their pleasure and to hurl hatred upon his memory. down toppled his statue to be broken and defiled and with similar demonstrations of insult and delight the gates of the prison of the inquisition were swept open and the inmates released. nearly four months dragged by before the next conclave was concluded and devious and ugly were the intrigues which hindered the cardinals from making a quick decision. " it is not of the least consequence, " wrote the obnoxious cardinal - nephew of paul iv, " who will be pope, the only thing of importance is that he who is chosen should realize that he owes the dignity to the caraffa. this house does not enjoy any favor with the spanish or french kings, and everything therefore depends on securing the favor of the future pope, as otherwise the ruin of the family is assured. " other italian clans had similar ideas and in addition to their dark activities there were the schemes of the various ambassadors, all determined to secure the election of a pope who would favor their particular national interests. in such an atmosphere the most extravagant promises were made and cunning plots formulated ; the audacious ambassador of spain even went so far as to gain, by window or secret door, access to the quarters of cardinals, supposedly shut off from the world, and there in the dim night hours whisper his bribes and subtly phrased threats. finally, out of the tangle of discussion, the name of the cardinal giovanni angelo medici was proclaimed and this despite the fact that but a short time previously he had disturbed the conclave by remarking during a conversation with another cardinal that, " as regards the germans, we should have to summon a council to see if some concessions could not be made to them with regard to the marriage of priests and communion under both kinds. " that the startling statement did not prevent him from becoming pius iv is indicative of the understanding his colleagues had of an expansive nature which was tolerant and easy going to a fault. in all ways he was unlike his dour predecessor and he was famous for his disregard of formality and ceremony, and the conduct of his private life was continually marked by homely incidents which endeared him to the public. he was a fat man and long appreciation of the pleasures of the table


and he was famous for his disregard of formality and ceremony, and the conduct of his private life was continually marked by homely incidents which endeared him to the public. he was a fat man and long appreciation of the pleasures of the table had brought the gout. thinking to reduce his corpulence and nullify the encroachments of his sickness it became his habit to take long walks. these perambulations, much to the disgust of his court, were conducted at a rapid pace and for considerable distances. " exercise, " he affirmed, " maintains good health and keeps away illness, and i do not wish to die in bed. " the traditional geniality which is ascribed to rotundity was indisputably his and the clouds of gloom and suspicion which had hung over rome during the previous pontificate now disappeared. he displayed no ill - will to the arrogant nephews of paul iv after his reception of the tiara, but their crimes were many and foul and their enemies so powerful and determined for revenge that retribution was inevitable. a particularly horrible murder within the hated family began the forces of its destruction. the duke of paliano, brother of the cardinal carlo caraffa, believed his wife unfaithful, and governed by extravagant ideas of honor he ordered her unfortunate supposed paramour dragged before him and then with shouts of rage he plunged his dagger again and again into the bound body of the wretch until he was dead. the drama became more horrible when the wretched duchess, pregnant and crying her innocence, was strangled by her own brother, the count dalife. that the cardinal carlo caraffa was a party, by knowledge and condonement, to the bloody wickedness could not be denied and with no alternative possible the pope reluctantly set the processes of accusation and judgment in motion. " if only to secure order, " he said, " i have no choice but to bring the haughty nephews of paul iv to submission. " a long list of charges was prepared, varying from murder and high treason to heresy, and brought to justice was the cardinal carlo, his brother the duke of paliano, the brother - in - law the count d ' alife, and a younger relative, the cardinal alphonso caraffa. after a long trial the latter was pardoned but the others, despite their rank, were given the supreme penalty. all three faced the executioner with dignity, and a letter to his son by the fierce dukewho was comforted by


a better existence. therewith i die, but you shall live, bear no one ill - will of my death. " conciliatory measures were employed with the rulers of europe by pius iv, and ably representing him in many important conferences north of the alps was the cardinal morone who had suffered imprisonment because of the delusions of the late pope. nepotism was not absent from rome for this pope had his nephews too, but for once the custom brought glory instead of disgrace : one of these relatives was the cardinal charles borromeo, a truly devout and talented character devoted to reform and good works who was, under the dispassionate scrutiny of a later generation, to be judged worthy of canonization. the goodness and ability of the young cardinal was responsible for the resumption of the labors of the council of trent and in several sessions many important and historic decrees were formulated and in turn confirmed and strengthened by papal bull. the influence of cardinal borromeo did not wane with the death of his uncle for happily the next pope, pius v, a true and zealous churchman, was of a similar mind and purpose and the work of reform swept on. the new pope was the former cardinal michele ghislieri. he was born of poor parents and had been a member of the dominican order since his early youth. as a friar he had taught and preached for twenty - eight years, then episcopal responsibilities had been given him and later had come the red hat and the stern duties of inquisitor general under paul iv. he had been well liked by that severe ruler and when he was given the supreme honor the people feared a return to the harsh discipline of the hated regime. there was, it is true, an immediate tightening of the laws, and justice was to move more swiftly than hitherto, but unlike his patron pius v tempered strictness with mercy and understanding. he was determined rome should be the model capital of christendom and a courtier, sighing for the riotousness of former days, complained that the entire city was taking on the air of a monastery. the courts were purged of bribery, the streets of prostitutes and thieves, and a ruthless war was made on corrupt officials and unjust taxes. the finances of the papal states were subjected to critical and profound examination and many changes were made. when an enthusiastic official suggested a new scheme for bringing added revenues to the treasury, the pope chided him and remarked that instead of amassing monies more thought should


of the papal states were subjected to critical and profound examination and many changes were made. when an enthusiastic official suggested a new scheme for bringing added revenues to the treasury, the pope chided him and remarked that instead of amassing monies more thought should be given to collecting the allegiance of those nations which had broken away from the church. the papal army was reduced to a few companies, for he was averse to becoming embroiled in martial adventures ; although his belief in the wide authority of the holy see over the conduct of secular princes was unwavering. this belief was responsible for the issuance of a bull which excommunicated elizabeth of england and released her subjects from their allegiance to her. the pronouncement was a mistake which only served to bring further resentment against rome and misery to the english catholics for the power of england was mounting, new triumphs were being won on and across the seas, and the queen ' s name was tightly woven into the cloth of national honor and patriotism. a few years after the papal sentence sturdy seamen, protestant and catholic alike, cheered for their good queen bess and merry england when they turned their small craft to meet the armada. the vast array of great ships was laden with the flower of spanish chivalry and carried the papal benediction but was doomed to an utter and terrible destruction. ambition had not brought the tiara to pius v and he had wept when informed of the decision of the cardinals. but once elected he worked at the great duties with unflagging energy and scrupulous honesty. it was fortunate that such a man should occupy the papacy so soon after the conclusion of the council of trent. the value of his administration to the decrees and decisions of the council can be likened to the worth of a good cannon to the proper ammunition. drastic changes were made in rome. the curia was reformed, the conduct of the cardinals examined and criticized, and stern measures were undertaken to make bishops reside in their sees. such important works as the catechism and the new breviary and the new missal were published, the value of seminaries was emphasized, and a vigilant eye was turned upon both the secular clergy and the orders. one cardinal, an irresponsible creature who owed his hat to the laxity of a previous reign, was confined in a monastery and placed under the conscientious care of jesuit chaplains. indeed no great fondness was held for the majority of the cardinals and once when the pope was ill he was heard


the laxity of a previous reign, was confined in a monastery and placed under the conscientious care of jesuit chaplains. indeed no great fondness was held for the majority of the cardinals and once when the pope was ill he was heard to remark that he was sorry death was approaching, not because he was afraid to face his maker, but because he was leaving on earth a sacred college filled with conniving and undeserving men. the acquisition of his high rank had brought no great change in the lowly circumstances of his family, most of whom were forbidden to enter [ paragraph continues ] rome. " god has called me to be what i am, in order that i may serve the church, " he said, " and not that the church might serve me. " it is true that two nephews received his favor, if such a word can be applied to his austere patronage, but this was only because of his mistrust of the cardinals and the ceaseless intrigues kept in motion by the various ambassadors and faction leaders. in order to find a confidential secretary whose loyalty was beyond all doubt he turned to his family and thus his nephew michele bonelli who was also a dominican became a cardinal. the pope never quite forgave himself for this action and consequently made life miserable for his relative by a constant inquisitiveness as to his way of living and an equally constant criticism. the unfortunate prelate was seldom at ease and at any hour his larder, his table, his conduct, was liable to a surprise inspection from his uncle. his income was kept at a minimum, he was not allowed silver on his table, and he was even denied the consolation of his parents visiting him. his cousin, a soldier by profession, was made a captain of the papal guard but from the beginning of his service he was in trouble with the pope who expected his soldiery to live like monks. finally the warrior, who had far different ideas, was arrested and hauled before the civil court where in the presence of his forbidding kinsman he heard that he was " to forfeit all his goods and revenues, and under pain of death to leave the vatican within two days, the borgo within three, and the papal states within ten. " it was a drastic sentence and nothing could induce the pontiff to extend leniency. little escaped his stern eye, and the devotees of the bull fight learnt that " these spectacles, where bulls and wild beasts are baited in a circus or amphithea


drastic sentence and nothing could induce the pontiff to extend leniency. little escaped his stern eye, and the devotees of the bull fight learnt that " these spectacles, where bulls and wild beasts are baited in a circus or amphitheatre, are contrary to christian mercy and charity, suitable to demons rather than men. we forbid all clerics, regular and secular, to be present.... " his dislike of war did not prevent him from sending ships and men to malta where the knights were besieged by the turks and later his encouragement helped mould a christian alliance which was able to inflict a shattering and decisive defeat upon the turkish fleet at lepanto. throughout his entire reign he suffered from a painful disease which was finally the cause of his death. pain was seldom absent from his tortured body but he never complained. " increase, o lord, my pains, " he once cried, " so long as thou wilt increase my patience also. " he was not the kind of man to court popularity and when he had been elected there had been little rejoicing. but when he died there were true tears and the streets of rome were silent with respect. it was as he would have wished, and so passed pius v, the last of the popes whose memory has been honored by canonization. in less than two weeks his successor was named, the seventy - year - old cardinal ugo buoncompagni, pope gregory xiii, who as a youth had fully enjoyed renaissance pleasures but who had with the progress of time turned to the sterner delights of duty and reform. as prelate and papal official he had served for many years with distinction and had won considerable renown as a jurist, but neither the course of righteousness nor the possession of judicial talent prevented him on becoming pope from lavishing favors upon two nephews and a son whom he frankly acknowledged. this son was made governor of st. angelo while his cousins were invested with the purple. easy - going to a fault gregory was inferior to his predecessor ; nevertheless the good works begun in the earlier reign did not cease and they continued on before an impetus steadily supplied by individual churchmen and the orders. the great and main attack of protestantism had been halted and a vigorous and purified [ paragraph continues ] catholicism was on the increase. gregory ' s chief accomplishments were in the field of education and no fewer than twenty - three new colleges opened their doors during his pontificate. over two million roman scudi were expended to help des


continues ] catholicism was on the increase. gregory ' s chief accomplishments were in the field of education and no fewer than twenty - three new colleges opened their doors during his pontificate. over two million roman scudi were expended to help deserving but needy students and besides founding the english, german, greek, and maronite colleges in rome the institution, later to be called the gregorian college, which owed its existence to st. ignatius was enlarged to accommodate scholars of all nations. another inauguration to carry his name through the centuries was the calendar which supplanted the julian calendar. neither his relations with other sovereigns nor his temporal rule of the papal states were blessed by good fortune and when he died after a three years ' reign there were difficult problems of government and diplomacy both within and without the papal boundaries to greet his successor, sixtus v. the former cardinal felice peretti, who as a boy had been a swineherd, was the son of a vineyard laborer and had entered the franciscan order in his early adolescence. in nature and bent he resembled his patrons paul iv and pius v rather than his immediate predecessor and from the beginning of his reign these stern traits were revealed. the brigandage and disorder which were disturbing the papal territories at the close of the former reign were stamped out by ruthless methods and by the end of his rule his temporal domain had become the most orderly in europe and an empty treasury had become filled with gold. imposition of new taxes accomplished this latter feat and it was not a way for him to win the cheers of either the nobles or the merchants ; but he cared little for the applause of men and his only interest was his mission. the former swineherd was pope and he was resolved to exercise without fear and with dignity the majesty and authority of his office in all spheres. in support of the catholic league he excommunicated the king of navarre, heir presumptive to the french throne, in order to prevent a protestant from ruling a catholic nation. it was not a popular decision in france and later the monarch, after becoming a catholic, was as henry iv, to make peace with another pope. sixtus also supported spain in that country ' s disastrous war with england, but despite the utmost pressure he would not endorse the spanish king ' s designs upon france. grandiose schemes were propounded by him for the complete overthrow of the turkish empire and he dreamed of joining the red sea with the mediterranean and " thus restoring the commerce of the ancient world


endorse the spanish king ' s designs upon france. grandiose schemes were propounded by him for the complete overthrow of the turkish empire and he dreamed of joining the red sea with the mediterranean and " thus restoring the commerce of the ancient world. " preservation of the historic beauty of rome and additional architectural projects were tasks he assumed with enthusiasm and an ingenious system, both practical and ornamental, of nobler and wider avenues in the city was devised and commenced. the important decree was issued in this reign which limited the membership of the sacred college to a maximum number of seventy cardinals and these were ranked in three divisions, six bishops, fifty priests, and fourteen deacons. the rule was to stand and equalling it in importance was the bull immensa issued by the same pope which systemized the centralized government of the church by forming fifteen congregations, each consisting of churchmen and officials of varying rank, to assume in specialized departments the burden of detailed administration. thus, with no diminution of his authority, an immense amount of routine work was lifted from the person of the pope. the five years in which sixtus occupied the throne of st. peter were crowded with wise and good works but there were some blemishes to mar the recordhis severity and his nepotism. for he too succumbed to what by this time appeared to be a papal tradition and a fourteen year old relative was elevated to the cardinalate. there can be no justification for such an act ; but the contemporary mind was neither surprised nor shocked, and as with former and later reigns the hateful practice was accepted by the majority of both clergy and people with that equanimity which is the due of precedent and tradition. after the death of sixtus three worthy but ancient prelates in rapid succession and within sixteen months were elected to the papal throne. no grave mistake or scandal can assault their reputations but neither can any of the three be credited with the deeds that are born of exceptional leadership or great initiative. the same pope, gregory xiii, had made them cardinals on the same day and they were all of an equal age, past seventy. the first to follow sixtus was giovanni batista castagna, urban vii, noted for his charities and diplomatic skill. he reigned thirteen days and then came nicolo sfondrato of cremona who in honor of his patron took the name of gregory xiv. the policies of preceding pontificates remained unchanged during his term which did not last a year and then called was the cardinal giovanni fa


came nicolo sfondrato of cremona who in honor of his patron took the name of gregory xiv. the policies of preceding pontificates remained unchanged during his term which did not last a year and then called was the cardinal giovanni facchinetti who became innocent ix. within a few months he too was in his tomb and the sacred college, after great discussion, decided that the cardinal ippolito aldobrandini should be pope. he took the name of clement vii. the choice was a bitter blow to spanish hopes and indeed the far seeing policies of the new pontiff were to effect a tremendous change in the destiny of that country which was now at the peak of its glory. clement " by peaceful means, little by little, without disturbance or excitement, but with all the more security, " was to strengthen the independence of the papacy by effecting happier relations with france and this circumstance was one of the factors which halted the expansion of spanish power and made way for the decline of a proud and great nation. during the preceding pontificates spanish influence upon the diplomatic course of the papacy had gradually become so strong that when clement took his throne he felt rome was almost the vassal of madrid. this meant that the enemies of spain were automatically on ill terms with the holy see and no great perception was needed by the pontiff to realize the danger of a permanent rupture with france, the most hated foe of spain. henry iv, master of france, had been excommunicated ; but now, seeking the united allegiance of his subjects he was imploring to be readmitted to the communion of the church. was it the gesture of one who was alleged to have remarked " paris is well worth a mass, " or was the prince truly sincere in his repentance? it was a delicate problem for the pope. if he were over - severe, schism would be assured and france surely would go the way of england ; but if he were foolishly lenient then contempt for papal authority would grow everywhere. a constant clamor of both plea and threat came from the nations involved but the cautious and conscientious pope trod the difficult and torturous path of negotiation with extraordinary diplomatic skill and never once was principle or scruple sacrificed. he well realized that independence of the holy see demanded relief from the ever growing dominance of spain and that relief was possible only with france active as a counter balance ; yet the sentence of excommunication could not be lifted lightly, and often the french envoy


well realized that independence of the holy see demanded relief from the ever growing dominance of spain and that relief was possible only with france active as a counter balance ; yet the sentence of excommunication could not be lifted lightly, and often the french envoys were in despair. " would to god, " the pope told an official, " that we could trust henry. but what has he done to deserve absolution?... is it enough that he now once makes the sign of the cross? " at length repeated argument and evidence convinced him that the prince indeed was truly penitent and with a great and solemn ceremony, and much to the consternation of spain, the dreaded sentence was lifted. " i have no words to praise the kindness of your holiness as it deserves, " henry wrote with gratitude. " my life henceforth shall have no other purpose than to glorify god by meritorious obedience.... " the extravagant promise was never to be completely fulfilled but an alliance had been made which brought advantages to both pope and king. france remained a catholic country and the papacy was no longer at the mercy of the pretentious dictates of philip ii of spain who was an absolutist and harbored ambitions of functioning as a kind of pope - emperor. when the duchy of ferrara was left empty of a legitimate heir the spanish king presented a candidate to contest the claims of the pope ; but supported by the new friendship of france, clement was able to remain firm and in the end the duchy was returned to the papal states. in pursuance of the papal dream of a united and tranquil christendom the pope was able on several occasions to act as a peacemaker between the nations : products of his diplomacy were the peace of vervins between spain and france and the treaty of lyons between the latter nation and savoy.


nostradamus [ public domain image ] nostradamus, the man who saw through time by lee mccann interest in nostradamus goes through cycles, usually coinciding with periods of uncertainty and conflict. at the beginning of world war ii people turned to nostradamus for clues as to how and when that conflict would be resolved, and to look for indications that somehow he had prophesized it. some used nostradamus for propaganda, or profit, or publicity. of course, this was also the case after the attacks of september 11th, 2001. this book, published in the early days of world war ii, is partially a biography of nostradamus, partially a historical novelization of incidents in his life, and an attempt to associate his predictions with historical and future events. mccann is at his best in the former parts of the book. he immerses us in the life and times of nostradamus. although many of the episodes are fictionalized, they make pleasant reading and appear to be historically accurate. the attempts to match notradamus ' predictions with historical events of the rennaissance are for the most part very well reasoned, and range from plausible to ' hmmm... '. the book concludes with a rather long section bearing on events of the twentieth century. this part feels tacked on, as if the publisher was eager to get a ' tie in ' to current events. mccann hypothesized that the war would continue until late in the forties, and would end because of the restoration of the french monarchy, specifically that a pretender to the throne would be crowned as henry the fifth. naturally, this falls far short of the mark, but it creates perspective for current and future attempts to make specific predictions based on the cryptic quatrains.


the nursing profession remains overwhelmingly female, but the representation of men has increased as the demand for nurses has grown over the last several decades, according to a u. s. census bureau study released yesterday. the new study shows the proportion of male registered nurses has more than tripled since 1970, from 2. 7 percent to 9. 6 percent, and the proportion of male licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses has more than doubled from 3. 9 percent to 8. 1 percent. the study, men in nursing occupations, presents data from the 2011 american community survey to analyze the percentage of men in each of the detailed nursing occupations : registered nurse, nurse anesthetist, nurse practitioner, and licensed practical and licensed vocational nurse. the study also provide estimates on a wide range of characteristics of men and women in nursing occupations. these include employment status, age, race, hispanic origin, citizenship, educational attainment, work hours, time of departure to work, median earnings, industry and class of worker. “ the aging of our population has fueled an increasing demand for long - term care and end - of - life services, ” said the report ' s author, liana christin landivar, a sociologist in the census bureau ' s industry and occupation statistics branch. “ a predicted shortage has led to recruiting and retraining efforts to increase the pool of nurses. these efforts have included recruiting men into nursing. ” men typically outearn women in nursing fields but not by as much as they do across all occupations. for example, women working as nurses full time, year - round earned 91 cents for every dollar male nurses earned ; in contrast, women earned 77 cents to the dollar men earned across all occupations. because the demand for skilled nursing care is so high, nurses have very low unemployment rates. unemployment was lowest among nurse practitioners and nurse anesthetists ( about 0. 8 percent for both ). for registered nurses and licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses, these rates were a bit higher, but still very low, at 1. 8 percent and 4. 3 percent, respectively. * there were 3. 5 million employed nurses in 2011, about 3. 2 million of whom were female and 330, 000 male. * of the employed nurses ( both sexes ), 78 percent were registered nurses, 19 percent were licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses, 3 percent were nurse practitioners, and 1 percent were nurse anesthetists. * while most registered nurses ( both sexes ) left home for work between 5am and 11 : 59am ( 72 percent


19 percent were licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses, 3 percent were nurse practitioners, and 1 percent were nurse anesthetists. * while most registered nurses ( both sexes ) left home for work between 5am and 11 : 59am ( 72 percent ), a sizable minority ( 19 percent ) worked the evening or night shifts. * the majority of registered nurses ( both sexes ) worked in hospitals ( 64 percent ). the majority of licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses worked in nursing care facilities or hospitals ( about 30 percent each ). the percentages for hospitals and nursing care facilities are not significantly different from each other. * in 2011, 9 percent of all nurses were men while 91 percent were women. men earned, on average, $ 60, 700 per year, while women earned $ 51, 100 per year. * men ' s representation was highest among nurse anesthetists at 41 percent. * male nurse anesthetists earned more than twice as much as the male average for all nursing occupations : $ 162, 900 versus $ 60, 700. the american community survey provides a wide range of important statistics about people and housing for every community across the nation. the results are used by everyone from town and city planners to retailers and homebuilders. the survey is the only source of local estimates for most of the 40 topics it covers, such as education, occupation, language, ancestry and housing costs for even the smallest communities. ever since thomas jefferson directed the first census in 1790, the census has collected detailed characteristics about our nation ' s people. questions about jobs and the economy were added 20 years later under james madison, who said such information would allow congress to “ adapt the public measures to the particular circumstances of the community, ” and over the decades allow america “ an opportunity of marking the progress of the society. ” ( us census )


it ' s pumpkin time - grades : prek – k, 1 – 2, 3 – 5 it ’ s october, fall is here, halloween is near, all of which means — it ’ s pumpkin time! this month we are diving into pumpkins hands first. before my class could fully experience pumpkins, we started out by reading a lot of books. last week i shared a few of my favorite fall books. this week i am sharing one more book, specifically about pumpkins, along with some science activities that relate to all of them. getting in the mood we began our week by reading the story it ' s pumpkin time by zoe hall. later, i will make the book available in the listening center. after reading the story, we made an anchor chart about pumpkins showing what we know about them and what they need to grow. my students were very excited to share their experiences with me. many have even planted their own pumpkins in the past. we followed this discussion up with a short sequence activity of how to grow a pumpkin i brought several pumpkins of different sizes into the classroom for the students to observe. we picked the largest one to determine its circumference. as i passed around a skein of white yarn, the students each cut off a piece hoping it was the exact length to circle the largest part of our pumpkin. after taping their names to their pieces of yarn, we used a separate color for the actual length needed and compared the lengths on our large class graph. we had one student guess exactly! will it sink or float? taking our largest pumpkin and one of our smaller ones, i asked the class to predict whether they would sink or float. some students remembered our coconut experiment and thought that because the pumpkins were bigger than a coconut, they would sink. after everyone made and charted their predictions, it was time to fill the container with water and see what would happen. we put in the small pumpkin, and it floated. the students were very excited, but some were still certain that the big pumpkin would sink. they were surprised when i submerged the large pumpkin in the water and it popped up to the surface. we repeated the experiment the following day using pumpkin seeds and, again, students predicted what would happen. then placing a few seeds in a small container of water, we watched the seeds float to the top. experiencing the pumpkin i posted a note on our parent communication board asking for pumpkins and received a very generous donation of 11. with help from a wonderful parent volunteer,


seeds in a small container of water, we watched the seeds float to the top. experiencing the pumpkin i posted a note on our parent communication board asking for pumpkins and received a very generous donation of 11. with help from a wonderful parent volunteer, we cut off the tops of the pumpkins to show the students what was inside. i divided the class into groups of two and let anyone who wanted to stick his or her hand inside to feel around and describe the sensation. after everyone had a chance to feel the " guts, " each pair scooped out the seeds and pulp into containers to observe. as they scraped and pulled out the stringy pulp and seeds, i walked about the classroom observing and listening to their conversations. some students were " grossed - out " by the entire process, others were so excited they could hardly contain their enthusiasm, and for some it was their very first experience. using their fingers, they sifted and sorted through the pulp, pulling out the seeds. once the seeds were separated from the pulp, the students counted them with their partners into groups of tens. we used clear portion cups to hold the seeds. i made sure to pair students who are unable to count objects to ten with more capable students. we also made a chart as we counted the cups. this was a great opportunity to practice counting by tens and a chance to revisit tally marks. we stopped counting the seeds after we had reached 2, 000. we filled a gallon bag with the seeds. i took all of the seeds home to wash and cook. we enjoyed the seeds the following day during our snack time. growing our own pumpkin after reading about using a pumpkin as a planter to grow pumpkins, i decided this would be a great experience and a fun science activity to try with my own class. to start, we cut off the top of a pumpkin. leaving all the seeds and pulp inside, we added some soil and then water. i was afraid to leave the pumpkin outside over the weekend, and this turned out to be a big mistake as the only thing that grew was mold. i wiped off the mold and placed the decaying pumpkin outside our back door and left it. after doing a little research, i decided to try it again with a smaller pumpkin and less water. again, we cut open the pumpkin and added soil, but this time we only added a 1 / 2 - cup of water. we then placed the pumpkin outside our classroom in the sun. each day we are adding just a little water, no more than 1


we cut open the pumpkin and added soil, but this time we only added a 1 / 2 - cup of water. we then placed the pumpkin outside our classroom in the sun. each day we are adding just a little water, no more than 1 / 2 a cup. with any luck we will have a sprout very soon. meanwhile, we thought we would observe the decaying pumpkin i had left outside each day to see what would happen. after only one week of adding the soil, we noticed a sprout! now we are waiting for our smaller pumpkin to sprout as well. pumpkins are everywhere in math we used pumpkins to create patterns. the most popular one was the ab pattern. after students created their pattern strips, we turned them into headbands. we also made a sequence book about the life cycle of the pumpkin. students practiced reading and retelling the story before taking it home to share with their family. another favorite daily activity is our pocket chart poem. this week our poem is about pumpkins, of course. each day students take turns pointing to the words while read along. we finished our week with a pumpkin glyph. the students answered questions about pumpkins to create their glyphs. we have had a lot of fun this week while learning at the same time. we will continue to watch our " pumpkin in a pumpkin " grow. our plan is to transfer it into our new school garden when the garden is complete. i know my students will be talking about these experiences for a long time.


schoolcraft county ’ s history is as deep as the forests and lakes which attracted its original native american settlers, and the generations of pioneers who discovered - - - and continue to discover - - - what this beautiful area has to offer. the first europeans believed to have visited the area were members of french explorer jean nicolet ’ s expedition, who passed through the area in the summer of 1634 in search of a route to the orient ( they got as far as green bay ). in the fall of 1679, rene robert de la salle visited the area abroad the griffen, the first sailing ship to ply the great lakes. the early native american residence, most of whom were members of the ojibwa tribe, settled around indian lake and at the mouth of the french - named manistique river. in 1832, the “ snowshoe bishop ” fredric baraga established a catholic mission on the eastern shore of indian lake. it was also during this time that henry rowe schoolcraft, michigan ’ s first indian agent and the county ’ s namesake, was mapping the area, documenting the lives of tribal residence and negotiate treaties. schoolcraft county was officially organized in 1871, with manistique designated as the county seat. the county ’ s first major industry was lumber. beginning in the early 1880s, logging companies began extracting timber from the vast forests of white pine. the little town of seney, with its rail access to st. ignace and marquette, and river route to manistique, became a center of the logging boom. during its heyday, seney was a bustling town of more than 20 saloons, 10 hotels, several stores and about 3, 000 residents. much of the timber harvested from the county ’ s forests was floated down the river to manistique, where it was milled, loaded on ships and sent to communities around the great lakes and beyond. but by the turn of the century, what had seemed inexhaustible resources was gone : the forests had been stripped, and the reign of “ king pine ” was over. southwest of manistique, on the garden peninsula in delta county, is the site of another major 19th century industry. during the mid - 1800s raw iron ore was being shipped at tremendous expense from the upper peninsula mines to the foundries in the lower great lakes. to make the process more cost - effective, a smelting operation was built at fayette. from 1867 until it closed in 1891, fayette ’ s blast furnaces produced


the upper peninsula mines to the foundries in the lower great lakes. to make the process more cost - effective, a smelting operation was built at fayette. from 1867 until it closed in 1891, fayette ’ s blast furnaces produced more than 229, 000 tons of iron, using local hardwood for fuel and native limestone t purify the iron ore. despite the demise of the timber and iron ore industries, many schoolcraft residents stayed on, supporting their families through fishing, farming, and small business. pulpwood and paper manufacturing, and limestone mining and processing, developed into major industries. the area ’ s abundant wildlife, temperate summers and clear lakes and rivers had long been a favorite vacation retreat from the hustle and bustle of the midwest ’ s cities, and with the increase in winter - related recreation, tourism grew into a major component of the county ’ s economy. residences are proud of their area ’ s rich heritage, and they keep their history alive at a number of museums and historic sites. the bishop baraga mission and indian cemetery, at indian lake, features replicas of the early log mission and surrounding bark dwellings. manistique is a jumping of point to visit four historic upper peninsula lighthouses : the manistique east breakwater light, seul choix point lighthouse and museum, peninsula point lighthouse and sand point lighthouse and museum. the schoolcraft county historical park, in manistique, features a museum and a historic 200 - foot - tall brick water tower which has recently been restored. the 80 - year - old structure, listed on the national and state historic registries, is located near the city ’ s unique siphon bridge. the bridge is part of a concrete flume built in 1919 to channel water to the paper mill. fayette state historic park features a museum, and a ghost town of 19 structures that includes several public and commercial building, residences and the ruins of the blast furnace complex. from ghost towns to lighthouses, schoolcraft county offers fun and education insights into the past for visitors of all ages.


anti gravity : when hippos go bad ; january 2000 ; scientific american magazine ; by mirsky ; 1 page ( s ) imagine a sport - utility vehicle interested in mating. that frightening scenario roughly captures your typical hippopotamus in rut. hippos are big and surprisingly fast, able to reach speeds of 25 miles per hour. unfortunately, anything of that size and speed may do inadvertent damage when in pursuit of an amorous adventure. thus did a tragic death recently befall one jean ducuing, the director of a zoo near bordeaux. ducuing was killed by a charging hippo that may have been seeking intimacy with, or dominance over, nearby farm equipment. the sex life of the hippo is far stranger than this incident illustrates. for one thing, hippos in the wild not only have sex, they host it. back in 1994, researchers publishing in the canadian journal of zoology announced the amazing finding of a species of leech, placobdelloides jaegerskioeldi, for which hippos are a secret love nest. in the researchers ' own words : " evidence suggests that mating in p. jaegerskioeldi is restricted to the rectum of the hippopotamus. " ( restricted being the operative word. )


july 17, 1998 july 15, 1998 : a unique levitation furnace that flew on the space shuttle in 1998 is being eyed for upgrades to fly on future shuttle and international space station missions. " tempus on msl - 1 provided it was operationally reliable, " said dr. ivan egry, the project scientist at the german space agency ( dlr ). " i am really surprised at how much scientific data we are still squeezing out of it. " egry spoke tuesday morning to the third biennial microgravity materials science conference sponsored by nasa. tempus - built by the dlr and used jointly by dlr and nasa - is the german acronym for containerless electromagnetic processing in weightlessness. that, simply put, is what tempus does. an electromagnetic coil inside the tempus facility positions metal samples with about 1 / 1, 000th the force needed on the ground to work against gravity and keep the samples from touching the container walls. a second coil pumps in radio wave energy - a bit like a microwave oven - to melt the sample. this approach is vital in a number of research areas because touching the container walls will instantly cool the sample and levitation on the ground often involve forces great enough to disturb the sample. scientist don ' t want either to happen when they are trying to make precise measurements of fundamental properties that can help them refine manufacturing processes on earth. tempus flew on the microgravity sciences laboratory - 1 mission in 1998, and on the second international microgravity laboratory ( iml - 2 ) in 1994. data are still being analyzed, but egry gave a preview tuesday, including benchmark data that will let scientists correct the surface tension measurements for one type of metal, and make the first - ever reliable viscosity measurements. " many things were surprising, " egry said when asked about the data from tempus. among them were the first experimental measurements of the electrical conductivity of cobalt - palladium in both its liquid and solid states. tempus demonstrated its value by making repeat measurements that matched very closely with one another. consistency is crucial when one is trying to establish basic physical properties. for example, one line of experiments involved cooling metals, such as zirconium, far below their normal freezing point and then recording the point where they froze, how much heat they gave off, and other details. the zirconium sample was put through 120 melt / freeze cycles. " it ' s really amazing to see how


far below their normal freezing point and then recording the point where they froze, how much heat they gave off, and other details. the zirconium sample was put through 120 melt / freeze cycles. " it ' s really amazing to see how one undercooling cycle follows the other, " egry said as he showed a graph showing precise repeatability in the data. all told, the msl - 1 mission hosted 22 experiments comprising 197 hours of test run and 437 melting cycles. spurred by this success, dlr is looking at adapting tempus to fly on spacelab, and to incorporate better sample handling and video capabilities, and a broader temperature range. dlr also is looking at an advanced tempus that would allow scientists to replace samples in orbit - so the furnace would not have to be brought back - and add other improvements to enhance the science. editor ' s note : the original news release, with images and related links, can be found at : http : / / science. msfc. nasa. gov / newhome / headlines / msad15jul98 _ 2. htm other social bookmarking and sharing tools : the above story is reprinted from materials provided by nasa / marshall space flight center - - space sciences laboratory. note : materials may be edited for content and length. for further information, please contact the source cited above. note : if no author is given, the source is cited instead.


sep. 24, 2002 penn state engineers have optimized an energy harvesting circuit so that it transfers four times more electrical power out of vibration – the ordinary shakes and rattles generated by human motion or machine operation. using their laboratory prototype, which was developed from off - the - shelf parts, the penn state researchers can generate 50 milliwatts. although they haven ' t tried it, they believe the motion of a runner could be harnessed to generate enough power to run a portable electronic music device. by comparison, simple, un - optimized energy harvesting circuits, for example the type used to power leds on " smart " skis, can only generate a few milliwatts. the researchers say the new circuit offers an environmentally friendly alternative to disposable batteries for wearable electronic devices or for wireless communication systems. in addition, the circuit could be used in sensor and monitoring networks that manage environmental control in office buildings, robot control and guidance systems for automatic manufacturing, warehouse inventory ; integrated patient monitoring, diagnostics, drug administration in hospitals, interactive toys, smart home security systems, and interactive museums. the new circuit is described in a paper, " adaptive piezoelectric energy harvesting circuit for wireless, remote power supply, " published in the september issue of the journal, ieee transactions on power electronics. the authors are geffrey k. ottman, former penn state master ' s degree student ; dr. heath hofmann, assistant professor of electrical engineering ; archin c. bhatt, former penn state master ' s degree student ; and dr. george a. lesieutre, professor of aerospace engineering and associate director of the penn state center for acoustics and vibration. lesieutre explains that, like other energy harvesting circuits, the new penn state device depends on the fact that when vibrated so that they bend or flex, piezo - electric materials produce an alternating or ac current and voltage. this electrical power has to be converted to direct current or dc by a rectifier before it can be stored in a battery or used. hofmann adds that the magnitude of the piezoelectric material ' s vibration determines the magnitude of the voltage : " since, in operation, the amount of vibrations can vary widely, some way must also be found to adaptively maximize power flow as well as convert it from ac to dc. " using an analytical model, the team derived the theoretical optimal power flow from a rectified piezoelectric device and proposed a circuit that could achieve this


dec. 17, 2009 in a pilot project that could help better manage the planet ' s strained natural resources, space - age technologies are helping a washington state community monitor its water availability. nasa satellites and sensors are providing the information needed to make more accurate river flow predictions on a daily basis. " world leaders are struggling to protect natural resources for future generations, " said jeff ward, a senior research scientist at the department of energy ' s pacific northwest national laboratory, which is managed by battelle. " these tools help us sustainably use natural resources while balancing environmental, cultural and economic concerns. " ward manages a project on behalf of battelle that is helping to better predict the flow of the dungeness river, near sequim, wash., with data collected by nasa instruments. the project started by creating a new model that predicts river flows in the river ' s surrounding valley. it then expanded to help other communities in kansas, maine, oregon and washington state better manage their water and land resources with similar technologies. the project - - called the north olympic peninsula solutions network - - is lead by the north olympic peninsula resource conservation & development council and supported by pnnl and others. lucien cox of nasa will present the project ' s results dec. 16 at the 2009 fall meeting of the american geophysical union in san francisco. the project will help regional natural resource managers assess the abundance - - or lack thereof - - of the dungeness river. the river model was developed to show how nasa technologies like satellites, sensors and computational models could be used to improve short - term stream flow predictions. the river model relies on snowpack and temperature data collected from satellites, as well as real - time snowpack and water data collected by various agencies. the new dungeness river model ' s calculations can tell what kind of flow to expect - - from a trickle to a deluge - - on a daily and monthly basis. before, resource managers primarily relied on either water levels physically measured at gauges or historical data to predict total expected water volume over two to six months. neither method provided flow predictions as frequently as the new model. having more precise river flow predictions is especially important along the dungeness river, where the towering olympic mountains create a drying rain shadow effect and steep slopes prevent above - ground water reservoirs. sequim receives just 15 inches of rain annually. water is so treasured that the agricultural city is home to a 114 - year - old festival that celebrates a historic irrigation system. " improving the accuracy of


slopes prevent above - ground water reservoirs. sequim receives just 15 inches of rain annually. water is so treasured that the agricultural city is home to a 114 - year - old festival that celebrates a historic irrigation system. " improving the accuracy of stream flow predictions is important to a diverse group of water users, including irrigation - dependent farmers, planners making urban growth decisions and those concerned about salmon survival or water quality, " said clea rome, north olympic peninsula rc & d coordinator. " stream flow prediction tools can help us avoid a crisis by alerting us before droughts are in full effect, giving us enough notice to adjust water use. " but the practical use of nasa technologies isn ' t limited just to sequim or river water. the north olympic peninsula solutions network is helping four other resource, conservation and development councils tackle their unique problems. another resource - - soil - - has the solomon valley rc & d in north central kansas concerned about agricultural tilling and erosion. striking a balance between agriculture and forestry is critical for the threshold to maine rc & d in southwest maine. the wy ' east rc & d is looking to better manage water supply and demand in north central oregon. and in okanogan, wash., the possibility of water shortages worries the north central washington rc & d. " space technologies can help us get the best science to the ground, to the decision makers here in the okanogan basin, " said samantha bartling, north central washington rc & d coordinator. " we expect it ' ll help us more precisely predict water availability for a long time to come. " the four councils are working with north olympic peninsula solutions network leaders to determine how nasa technologies can best address their different challenges. the project is funded by a $ 1. 6 million grant from nasa. more information can be found at the north olympic peninsula solutions network website, http : / / pcnasa. ctc. edu /. other project partners include : the department of agriculture ' s natural resources conservation services ; nrcs national water and climate center ; national association of rc & d councils ; idaho national laboratory ; olympic national park ; clallam county ; the dungeness river management team ; the elwha - morse management team ; peninsula college and pacific northwest regional collaboratory. other social bookmarking and sharing tools : note : materials may be edited for content and length. for further information, please contact the source cited above. note : if no author is given, the source is cited instead.


mar. 27, 2011 researchers from the instituto de astrofisica de canarias ( iac ) have discovered the existence of a black hole 5. 4 times greater in mass than that of our sun, located in the x - ray binary system xte j1859 + 226. the observations carried out from the gran telescopio canarias ( gtc ), managing to obtain the first spectroscopic data from this binary system to be published, have been determinant for the discovery. x - ray binaries are stellar systems composed by a compact object ( which may be a neutron star or a black hole ) and a ' normal ' star. the compact object sucks matter out of the star and adds it slowly to its own mass, through a spiral disc formed around it. this process of absorption is known as acretion. only 20 binary systems, out of an estimated population of around 5, 000 within our galaxy, are known to contain a black hole. xte j1859 + 226 is, in particular, a transient x - ray binary located in the vulpecula constellation. it was discovered by satellite rxte during an eruption registered in 1999. " transient x - ray binaries are characterised for spending most of their life in a state of calmness, but occasionally entering eruption stages, during which the rhythm of acretion of matter toward the black hole is triggered, " jesus corral santana explains, an astrophysicist from the iac, who led the work published in the monthly notices of the royal astronomical society ( mnras ). neutron stars as well as black holes are the remains left by a massive star after its death. most of the known neutron stars have a mass around 1. 4 times that of the sun, though in some cases, values up to over twice the mass of the sun have been measured. astronomers believe that when greater than tree times the solar mass, neutron stars are not stable, and end up collapsing and forming a black hole. for corral - santana, " measuring the mass of compact objects is essential to determine what kind of object it may be. if it ' s greater than three times the solar mass, it can only be a black hole. we found that xte j1859 + 226 has a black hole more than 5. 4 times greater than the mass of the sun. it ' s the definitive confirmation of the existence of a black hole in this object. " " with this result we add a new piece to the study of the mass