a proper guardian of children ' s health. this is where the activist evolves into educator, support system and collector of personal accounts - sometimes appalling - of families and individuals who have suffered from unnecessary, unsuccessful or excessive chemical treatments. the activist must do what disinterested experts will not do : investigate the origin, nature, methods and limits of knowledge in pediculosis and its management. the activist must also seek allies - often the school nurses, occasionally the press, and sometimes ( in cases where a child has suffered grievous harm ), the lawyers - when there is no mechanism in place to exchange insights, experience and research. with the exception of an occasional accolade for all the hard work that goes into being an activist, i generally find myself resenting the term. perhaps it is because of what other think an activist should be. activists are do - gooders working " on the outside " - people whose commitment to their cause keeps them from pursuing a " real job ". here are some common perceptions : - activists have information - academics possess knowledge - activists have points of view - scientists have hypotheses - activists have anecdotal evidence - researchers have reports to the literature - activists provide outreach - specialists give consultations no matter what the cause, such perceptions can alienate the activist as a key player in providing society with what it requires in the way of a unified effort to deliver the truth - on pediculosis - related issues or on other important matters affecting the public ' s health. meanwhile, families must be enabled to make informed decisions and seek safer alternatives before using potentially harmful but readily available chemicals for lice and scabies. the age - old disease of pediculosis isn ' t going away. it is the activist ' s particular challenge to educate the public in spite of the relative indifference to this issue on the part of the professional communities the public turns to for advice. ultimately, the task will be accomplished when we successfully teach the " experts " what the " experts " need to be taught. that it ' s not about lice - it ' s about kids. deborah z. altschuler national pediculosis association the national pediculosis association ( npa ) is a 501 ( c ) 3 non - profit organization dedicated to the mission of setting the highest possible public health standards for children as it relates to the communicability and treatment of children with head lice. the npa is a volunteer organization. as part of its


what is a kidney biopsy? the word biopsy comes from the greek words bios ( life ) and opsis ( vision ) and it involves the examination of tissues removed from a living organism. a kidney ( or renal ) biopsy is where a small piece of tissue is taken from the kidney to be examined under a microscope. why is kidney biopsy performed? it is performed when there are symptoms and signs of kidney disease, but it is impossible to make a precise diagnosis with the help of blood tests, x - rays or other investigations. the usual reasons for doing a renal biopsy are - large amounts of blood and protein in the urine, with impaired kidney function, - when it is uncertain whether a mass ( tumour ) in the kidney is cancer or not, and - to determine if there is rejection of the kidney after renal transplantation. how is a kidney biopsy performed? there are four techniques for renal biopsy : - percutaneous needle - open surgical - laparoscopic, and - transjugular biopsy. the word percutaneous means “ through the skin ”. percutaneous needle biopsy is usually performed with the patient awake, while the skin over the kidney is injected with a painkiller ( local anesthesia, usually lignocaine ). the patient normally lies on his stomach, but in the case of a transplanted kidney he lies on his back. the kidney is visualized with ultrasound ( sonar ) or x - ray imaging ( computerized tomography – ct ) and a biopsy needle 1 - 2 mm in diameter is passed through the skin into the kidney. the needle has a hollow section inside, and triggering the needle takes a core of tissue 1 - 2 mm in diameter and 8 - 10 mm in length. open renal biopsy is performed with the patient asleep ( under general anaesthesia ) and lying on the side opposite to the kidney that is biopsied. a cut about 10 - 15 cm long is made in the flank, and under direct vision a small sliver of tissue about 10 by 5 mm is cut out of the kidney. bleeding is stopped by placing stitches into the kidney, sometimes also using a special type of gauze or glue that promotes blood clotting. laparoscopy is done under general anaesthesia. two small cuts 5 - 10 mm in diameter are made in the flank. through one of these cuts a tubular telescope with a camera is inserted to directly visualize the kidney, and through the other an instrument ( biopsy forceps )


anaesthesia. two small cuts 5 - 10 mm in diameter are made in the flank. through one of these cuts a tubular telescope with a camera is inserted to directly visualize the kidney, and through the other an instrument ( biopsy forceps ) is passed. small pieces of kidney tissue are taken with the forceps, and bleeding is stopped by burning with a laser. transjugular biopsy is where a thin catheter is inserted into the jugular vein in the neck. the catheter is passed down into the renal vein and a biopsy needle is passed through the catheter to obtain tissue cores from the inside of the kidney. a specially trained doctor ( a pathologist ) examines the kidney tissues under a microscope and makes a diagnosis based on the appearance of the cells ( histology ). how should i prepare? the doctor should explain the whole procedure to you, including the risks and possible problems ( complications ), and you should be given an informed consent form to sign. you should tell the doctor if you are taking any medicines because some of them may impair the ability of your blood to clot. the doctor will usually do a blood test to determine if you have any blood clotting disorder. you should not eat or drink anything for about 6 hours before the procedure. if it is done under local anaesthesia, there will be some pain where the local anaesthetic is injected into the skin, but you will usually not feel pain when the biopsy needle is put into the kidney itself. the doctor will ask you to take a deep breath and hold your breath, so that the kidney does not move when the needle is placed into it. this usually takes 10 - 30 seconds, during which time you should not exhale. the doctor may take several biopsy cores, each time asking you to hold your breath. you will usually be kept in hospital for some time after the procedure to see if there are any complications. what are the risks? the main risk is bleeding from the kidney, which has a very rich blood supply. the blood may accumulate around the kidney and not be recognized until a litre or more has been lost, so it is important to have your pulse and blood pressure regularly checked for 24 - 48 hours after the procedure. the blood may also go down the kidney tube ( ureter ) to the bladder, so you may see blood in your urine. if the bleeding is severe, blood transfusion may be necessary. if the bleeding continues, it may be necessary to get special x -


whether it ’ s a dull ache or a sharp stab, back pain is among the most common of all medical problems. in any three - month period, about one - fourth of u. s. adults suffer through at least one day of back pain. many people lump all back aches and pains together as a “ bad back. ” but there are actually many causes for back pain, including muscle spasms, ruptured disks, back sprains, osteoarthritis, infections, and tumors. one possible cause that rarely gets the attention it deserves is ankylosing spondylitis ( as ), a form of arthritis that ’ s associated with long - term inflammation of the joints in the spine. if you ’ ve never heard of as, you ’ re certainly not alone. yet it ’ s more prevalent than you might think. as is head of a family of diseases — also including psoriatic arthritis and reactive arthritis — that cause inflammation in the spine and joints. as many as 2. 4 million u. s. adults have one of these diseases, according to the national arthritis data workgroup. so maybe it ’ s time you got to know as better. ankylosing spondylitis 101 as mainly affects the spine and sacroiliac joints ( places where the spine joins the pelvis ). inflammation in these areas can cause back and hip pain and stiffness. eventually, long - lasting inflammation may lead some bones of the spine, called vertebrae, to fuse together. this makes the spine less flexible and may lead to a stooped - over posture. at times, as also affects other joints, such as those of the knees, ankles, and feet. inflammation in joints where the ribs attach to the spine may stiffen the ribcage. this limits how much the chest can expand, restricting how much air the lungs can hold. occasionally, as affects other organs, too. some people develop inflammation of the eyes or bowel. less often, the largest artery in the body, called the aorta, may become inflamed and enlarged. as a result, heart function may be impaired. how the disease progresses as is a progressive disease, which means that it tends to get worse as time goes by. typically, it starts with pain in the low back and hips. unlike many kinds of back pain, however, the discomfort of as is most severe after a rest or upon rising in the morning. exercise often helps it feel better. typically, the pain comes on


it starts with pain in the low back and hips. unlike many kinds of back pain, however, the discomfort of as is most severe after a rest or upon rising in the morning. exercise often helps it feel better. typically, the pain comes on slowly. once the disease is established, the symptoms may go through good and bad periods. but as the years pass, the inflammation tends to move up the spine. it gradually causes greater pain and more restricted movement. the symptoms of as vary from person to person. here ’ s a look at how they might progress : as your lower spine stiffens and fuses : you can ’ t get close to touching your fingers to the floor when bending over from a standing position. as pain and stiffness increase : you may have trouble sleeping and be bothered by fatigue. if your ribs are affected : you may find it difficult to take a deep breath. if the disease spreads higher up your spine : you may develop a stooped - shoulder posture. if the disease reaches your upper spine : you may find it hard to extend and turn your neck. if inflammation affects your hips, knees, and ankles : you may have pain and stiffness there. if inflammation affects your feet : you may have pain at your heel or the bottom of your foot. if inflammation affects your bowel : you may develop abdominal cramps and diarrhea, sometimes with blood or mucus in the stool. if inflammation affects your eyes : you may suddenly develop eye pain, sensitivity to light, and blurred vision. see your doctor immediately for these symptoms. without prompt treatment, eye inflammation can lead to permanent vision loss. why treatment is important there ’ s still no cure for as. but treatment can ease its symptoms and may possibly keep the disease from getting worse. for most people, treatment involves taking medication, doing exercises and stretches, and practicing good posture. for severe joint damage, surgery is sometimes an option. if you ’ re bothered by long - term pain and stiffness in your low back and hips, don ’ t just write it off to having a bum back or not being 20 anymore. see your doctor. if it turns out to be as, early treatment can make you feel more comfortable now, and it might prevent some serious problems in the future.


folic acid and birth defects for at least three decades researchers have suggested that low folic acid intake during pregnancy is related to birth defects such as spina bifida and anencephaly. two more recent studies, one in hungary and another in england, are even more convincing that supplementing a pregnant woman ' s diet with this b vitamin dramatically decreases her baby ' s chance of birth defects. hungarian researchers worked with almost 5000 pregnant women. every day half of the women received a multi vitamin and mineral tablet containing 800 micrograms of folic acid. the rest took a tablet with a minimum of nutrients and no folic acid. all the women took their tablets one month before conception and continued through their first trimester. the folic acid group had 40 percent less birth defects than the women given none of this vitamin and none of their babies with neural tube problems. there were six cases of neural tube defects among the newborns whose mothers who didn ' t take folic acid ( 13 ). when english investigators gave four milligrams of folic acid each day to women who had given birth to a child with a neural tube defect in the past, the results were even more pronounced. almost three - quarters of these supplemented women delivered children free from this birth defect ( 14 ). as of last september, health officials at the centers for disease control recommended that all women of childbearing age should take folic acid as a preventive measure ( 15 ). - needleman hl, gatsonis ca. low - level lead exposure and the iq of children. journal of the american medical association 1990 ; 263 ( 5 ) : 673 - 78. - anon. fatal pediatric poisoning from leaded paint - - wisconsin, 1990. journal of the american medical association 1991 ; 265 ( 16 ) : 2050 - 51. - jaroff l. controlling a childhood menace. time 1991, february 25 : 68 - 69. - sibbison jb. usa : lead in soil. the lancet 1992 ; 339 : 921 - 22. - anon. is aluminum a dementing ion? the lancet 1992 ; 339 : 713 - 14. - sherrard dj. aluminum - - much ado about something. the new england journal of medicine 1991 ; 324 ( 8 ) : 558 - 9. - farrar g et al. defective gallium - transferrin binding in alzheimer disease and down syndrome : possible mechanism for accumulation of aluminum in brain. the lancet 1990 ; 335 : 747 - 50


324 ( 8 ) : 558 - 9. - farrar g et al. defective gallium - transferrin binding in alzheimer disease and down syndrome : possible mechanism for accumulation of aluminum in brain. the lancet 1990 ; 335 : 747 - 50. - rosenberg ih, miller jw. nutritional factors in physical and cognitive functions of elderly people. american journal of clinical nutrition 1992 ; 55 : 1237s - 43s. - jenner fa. vitamins in schizophrenia. the lancet 1973, october 6 : 787 - 88. - foster hd. the geography of schizophrenia : possible links with selenium and calcium deficiencies, inadequate exposure to sunlight and industrialization. journal of orthomolecular medicine 1988 ; 3 ( 3 ) : 135 - 40. - nielsen fh. nutritional requirements for boron, silicon, vanadium, nickel, and arsenic : currently knowledge and speculation. federation of american societies for experimental biology 1991 ; 5 : 2661 - 2667. - mcbride j. the making of an essential element? agricultural research 1989, april : 12 - 13. - czeizel ae, dudas i. prevention of the first occurrence of neural - tube defects by periconceptional vitamin supplementation. the new england journal of medicine 1992 ; 327 ( 26 ) : 1832 - 35. - mrc vitamin study research group. prevention of neural tube defects : results of the medical research council vitamin study 1991 ; 338 ( 8760 ) : 131 - 37. - cimons m. us advises folic acid use to reduce birth defects. los angeles times 1992, september 15 : a1 & a17.


for women with bleeding disorders ( including carriers ), pregnancy can be a time of heightened worry and confusion. in this issue of hemaware, we conducted e - mail interviews of two experts in the field and members of the national hemophilia foundation ’ s medical and scientific advisory council : andra james, md, co - director of duke university ’ s comprehensive thrombosis and hemostasis center, and amy shapiro, md, director of the indiana hemophilia and thrombosis center. we discussed some of the issues that most concern pregnant women with bleeding disorders. [ steps for living : family planning for the next generation ] all women with a known diagnosis should have contact with their hemophilia treatment center ( htc ) during pregnancy to ensure coordinated prenatal and postpartum care. are there any blood products or medications taken during pregnancy that might pose a risk to the baby ’ s health? dr. andra james : von willebrand factor concentrates are derived from purified human plasma and carry the risk of virus transmission. while a small risk of virus transmission exists, no transmission of human immunodeficiency virus ( hiv ), hepatitis b or hepatitis c has occurred with any von willebrand factor concentrates currently marketed in the united states. parvovirus b19, however, is very difficult to eradicate despite the purification process. parvovirus b19 can cause a mild disease ( fever, rash, aches and pains ) in adults, but can cause severe, life - threatening anemia in unborn babies. there is a risk that this virus could be transmitted with purified factor products and potentially harm an unborn baby. there are, however, no reports of this actually happening. blood products such as fresh frozen plasma and cryoprecipitate are tested for known viruses, but are not purified, and may allow unknown, but potentially harmful viruses to be transmitted. ddavp, a synthetic version of the hormone vasopressin, if required prior to a procedure, is generally thought to be safe for mother and fetus. tranexamic acid ( cyklokapron ) crosses the placenta, but has been used to treat bleeding during pregnancy in a limited number of cases without adverse fetal effects. there are limited data about aminocaproic acid ( amicar ) in pregnancy, but it was not found to cause birth defects in rabbits. in one case of its use during pregnancy, there were no adverse fetal effects. dr.


fetal effects. there are limited data about aminocaproic acid ( amicar ) in pregnancy, but it was not found to cause birth defects in rabbits. in one case of its use during pregnancy, there were no adverse fetal effects. dr. amy shapiro : since the data are so limited, amicar should only be used in circumstances in which it is thought essential, and any issues should be reported to widen our knowledge base. women with von willebrand disease ( vwd ) have a tenfold greater risk of antipartum bleeding ( bleeding during pregnancy ). what can be done to decrease this risk? dr. shapiro : we usually ask patients to maintain careful observation and provide us with early notification of bleeding. in cases where there have been previous problems, or in specific types of vwd, some form of treatment may be considered. should a woman with a bleeding disorder assume that her baby will also have a bleeding disorder? if so, what precautions should be taken during delivery? dr. shapiro : the inheritance of bleeding disorders depends on the specific disorder with which the woman is affected. based upon the specific diagnosis and the mode of inheritance, the risk to the fetus can be predicted. these issues are best addressed by a knowledgeable genetic counselor ( associated with some htcs or hospitals ). are there any concerns about using epidural anesthesia? dr. james : an epidural anesthetic provides pain relief during labor. to administer this medication, a catheter ( thin tube ) is placed into the epidural space, which is just outside of the dura, or wrapping, around the spinal cord ; repeated or continuous doses of a local anesthetic or narcotic pain reliever are then delivered through this catheter. in contrast, a spinal anesthetic provides anesthesia for cesarean delivery. its administration involves a single injection of a local anesthetic into the spinal fluid, which is located beneath the dura and surrounds the spinal cord. because bleeding in the epidural space or spinal fluid could compress the spine and cause paralysis, anesthesiologists usually refrain from giving a patient with a bleeding disorder an epidural or spinal anesthetic unless her factor levels are continuously higher than 50 iu / dl. if a woman needs pain relief while in labor and does not have levels that are continuously higher than 50 iu / dl, narcotic pain relievers can be used instead of an epidural. if she requires a cesarean delivery, a


if a woman needs pain relief while in labor and does not have levels that are continuously higher than 50 iu / dl, narcotic pain relievers can be used instead of an epidural. if she requires a cesarean delivery, a general anesthetic can be used instead of a spinal. is there a risk for head bleeds in newborns? is that risk increased if the baby has certain factor deficiencies? what can be done to decrease this risk? dr. shapiro : there is a risk with hemophilia a and b that is increased in infants who are born to women who are unaware of their carrier status, or when delivery requires use of instrumentation ( like forceps ) or vacuum extraction. there are specific disorders in which intracranial hemorrhage ( head bleeds ) risk is increased, but these disorders are ones in which the mother is not affected, such as factor xiii deficiency. bleeding disorders affecting women, such as vwd type 1, are not associated with a significant rate of intracranial bleeding in newborns, but this information is largely based upon general information rather than prospectively gathered study data. having a premature baby is associated with an increased risk of intracranial hemorrhage — the more premature the baby, the higher the risk of head bleeds. regular prenatal care and avoidance of risk factors known to be associated with prematurity are especially important for pregnant women with bleeding disorders and for women who will deliver an infant with a bleeding disorder. women with vwd are five times more likely to have postpartum hemorrhage ( excessive bleeding in the mother after delivery ). how would a woman recognize her postpartum bleeding as abnormal? what can she do to try to decrease the risks? dr. james : “ abnormal ” bleeding is soaking through a pad in an hour and continuing for more than an hour. during pregnancy, a woman ’ s von willebrand factor levels increase. women with mild type 1 may achieve levels above 50 iu / dl, the lower limit of the normal range outside of pregnancy, and may be able to be safely managed by their obstetrician / gynecologist at their local hospital. women with type 3 vwd, type 2 vwd, type 1 vwd with factor levels less than 50 iu / dl or a history of severe bleeding should be referred for prenatal care and delivery to a center where, in addition to access to specialists in high - risk obstetrics, there also is an


the curandera ' s garden it is not uncommon for a mexican to consult a curandera for spiritual healing while under a medical doctor ' s care. e - mail this page to your friendsx a link to % this page % was e - mailed in the 15th century florentine codex of aztec physicians, the healer is " well versed in herbs, who knows, through experience the roots, the trees, the stones. she keeps her secrets and traditions. " the healer is clearly female. but where the codex covers aztec physicians, the text indicates this role applies to the male gender. today the role of healer or " curandera " still exists in hispanic culture. it is not uncommon for a mexican to consult a curandera for spiritual healing while under a medical doctor ' s care. for the very poor with no access to modern medicine, the curandera serves both roles, blending the art of healing the mind with the administration of botanical medicines. in the mexican neighborhoods of most southwestern cities you ' ll find botanicas, which are herb stores that carry dried traditional plant cures of the curandera ' s trade. if she is fortunate enough to have a plot of land, the curandera would tend a garden of useful plants for her own fresh harvest. some of these plants are quite toxic poisons, but in her training she learned the proper dosage and preparation. many, such as morning glory and peyote, would be divination plants handed down to her from the aztec nahuatl traditions. the most common of these potent medicines is called ' tlapatl ' in nahuatl or ' toloache ' in spanish. it is the wild datura of the desert and mexico. this nightshade contains serious medicine and may be the single most powerful plant in this garden. the curandera ' s garden would also contain new world natives and some european herbs introduced by the spanish early on. maguey agave is perhaps the most ubiquitous plant in mexico because of its use in the fermentation of an alcoholic beverage known as " pulque. " its fiber is utilized for everything from scrub brushes to weaving cloth. the agave leaf was scraped and boiled to treat assorted venereal diseases the many benefits of " nopal " or prickly pear, opuntia ficus indica, are just now coming to light in the alternative medicine community. flat paddle - shaped stems of this plant are chopped and simmered down to a potent brew.


of " nopal " or prickly pear, opuntia ficus indica, are just now coming to light in the alternative medicine community. flat paddle - shaped stems of this plant are chopped and simmered down to a potent brew. it is the main component of treating maladies of the heart such as angina and edema. the mix is drunk on a daily basis as a preventative. the many forms of sagebrush, genus artemisia, are known as ' ajenjo. ' they include both native and european species, all of which are strongly bitter and potentially toxic. the herbs have been used in the old world and the new to treat intestinal parasites. they also can make up a powerful antibacterial for treating infected wounds. some very long - lived woody shrubs also fall into this curandera garden pharmacoepia. bushy apache plume, fallugia paradoxa, is a desert shrub known as ' ponil. ' aspirin - like qualities are found in its inner bark, much like that of aspen and willow. a strong tea of the root and bark is also used for hair - loss treatment. bright red ocotillo blossoms from the woody ' oqueria splendens ' are boiled, and the tea used to treat sore throat and tonsillitis. the leaves of a bright yellow trumpet flowered shrubby vine, tecoma stans, known as " tronadora, " are used to treat adult diabetes. it is important to remember that these uses of plants are not medical advice or recommendations. the way each is gathered, prepared and administered can range considerably. this is folk medicine handed down verbally from curandera to apprentice, and all are combined with a strong dose of love and personal attention. the curandera ' s garden is beautiful because it reflects how people have helped one another for centuries. and no one can deny that when the ocotillo turns to fire and datura perfumes the night air, the aztec gods are pleased that nahuatl ways live on in the 21st century. find an excellent compendium of plants and their uses in : los remedios, by michael moore traditional herbal remedies of the southwest red crane books maureen gilmer is a horticulturist and host of weekend gardening on diy - do it yourself network. for more information, visit www. moplants. com or diynetwork. com. distributed by scripps howard news service. on


some workers claimed they found it after they exploded the rock. no actual proof that it was imbedded. now that we have ways to test the thing, it ' s gone. the dorchester pot was a metal vase, which was recovered in two pieces after an explosion used to break up rock at meeting house hill, in dorchester, massachusetts in 1852. according to text reprinted by anonymous ( 1852 ) from the " boston transcript ", a local paper, in the june 5, 1852 scientific american, the two pieces of the dorchester pot were found, not in situ within local bedrock, but loose among debris thrown out by the explosion. apparently, it was inferred from the locations of the two pieces of this pot among the explosion debris that this pot had been blasted from solid puddingstone ( conglomerate ), which is part of the roxbury conglomerate, from about 15 feet below the surface of meeting house hill ( anonymous 1852 ). the bell - shaped vessel about was described as being about 4. 5 inches ( 11. 5 cm ) high, 6. 5 inches ( 16. 5 cm ) in diameter as the base and 2. 5 inches ( 6. 4 cm ) in diameter at the top. the body of this object was said to resemble zinc alloyed with silver in color. it reportedly exhibited floral designs on its side and a wreath or vine design around its lower part, which were both inlaid with silver ( anonymous 1852 ). pureinsight ( 2006 ) also provides, without any attribution, a picture of an unknown object from an unknown source, which is used to illustrate what they apparently believe the dorchester pot looked like, as well as an age of 100, 000 years. anonymous ( 1852 ), the primary source of information about this object, provides neither any picture of nor age estimate for the dorchester pot. a web page created by archaeologists keith fitzpatrick - matthews and james doeser with the stated goal of examining fringe archaeology identifies the object as " clearly a candlestick of obviously victorian style " [ http : / / www. badarchaeology. net / data / o... orchester. php ] ; they presumably base this identification on the unsourced photograph of the dorchester pot mentioned above.


by roy f. nichols mr. nichols, professor of history emeritus at the university of pennsylvania, delivered this presidential address at the hilton hotel at rockefeller center, new york city, december 29, 1966. american historical review 72 : 2 ( january 1967 ) : 411 - 424. forty - six years ago tonight the american historical association held a session such as this in the city of washington. upon that occasion the late edward channing delivered the address. as a young man he had been present at the first meeting of the association in 1884, and, presumably, he had heard the speech delivered by andrew d. white, the first president. as a graduate student attending my first meeting of this organization i listened to channing in 1920. ( this represents a cycle of sorts. ) when president white spoke, the world, in sharp contrast to the present, seems to have been relatively quiet. england was engrossed in the victorian age, secure in the midst of great possessions. the unification of germany and italy had been accomplished. the french republic had achieved stability. russia had recovered somewhat from the recent shock of the assassination of an autocratic tsar, and along the danube an ausgleich had produced a conglomerate dual monarchy. at home reconstruction had been officially accomplished, and the grant scandals were a thing of the past. to some the only cloud on the horizon was the possibility of the election of grover cleveland and the return of the democrats to power. white reflected to some extent this comparative calm when he urged his associates to contrive a philosophical synthesis of human affairs in a large, truth - loving, justice - loving spirit. he reminded his hearers in terms familiar today that, unless historians engaged in the study of general history and the d research would be barren and often worthless. when channing spoke to his post - world war i audience, much had happened since the days of president white. the united states had become a recognized world power, the home of hitherto almost undreamed of wealth and progress. the nation had gone to war to make the world safe for democracy, and wreaths of victory bedecked the allied standards. channing himself was just completing his fifth volume dealing with the history of the united states from 1815 to 1848 and was deep in thought about volumes and years to come. he was particularly conscious that his native massachusetts was beginning the commemoration of the third century of its experience, for the mayflower had arrived just three hundred years before. never a man of contagious optimism, channing seemed somewhat dubious that night


come. he was particularly conscious that his native massachusetts was beginning the commemoration of the third century of its experience, for the mayflower had arrived just three hundred years before. never a man of contagious optimism, channing seemed somewhat dubious that night. he outlined the great progress that the nation had made in the last hundred years, but concluded with the question : in all this, in the evolution of the greatest industrial society that the world has ever seen, have we gained or have we lost? are men and women to - day happier and better off, politically, spiritually, mentally, morally, and physically, than our ancestors were in the days of james monroe, john quincy adams, john c. calhoun, henry clay, daniel webster, and andrew jackson? 1 i cannot recall that there was much evidence that the american historical association shared in these doubts and regrets ; certainly channing did not arouse any observable overt response save the hope that he might live to finish his great work. tonight we meet not in the nation ' s capital, but in its great metropolis, as we again confront the task of recording, analyzing, and interpreting an age, this time nearly half a century removed from that just alluded to. as these words are written in 1966, the task of recording, analyzing, and, interpreting this different age has become a much more demanding one. when channing spoke in 1920 we were approaching the end, had we but known it, of the progressive age. this age had dedicated itself to the dogma that man by taking thought could perform miracles. disease and misgovernment seemed to be on the way to being vanquished. a great war had been brought to a triumphant conclusion, a war not only to make the world safe for democracy but to end war itself. a great league of nations had been created to maintain all these vaunted ends. the lion and the lamb were to lie down together, and peace was to reign for a thousand years. but even in december 1920 it was evident that the lion and the lamb were not too compatible. whether the somewhat florid warren harding could carry the banner of the broken woodrow wilson could be, and was, doubted. perhaps channing himself reflected something of the malaise that was increasingly apparent. he had only finished his fifth volume, and for him, too, time was running out. at the time of channing ' s address the historical interest that had long prevailed in the profession was in the process of change. the long - time pre


he had only finished his fifth volume, and for him, too, time was running out. at the time of channing ' s address the historical interest that had long prevailed in the profession was in the process of change. the long - time preoccupation with political and constitutional history was challenged by scholars holding a concept of social history represented by the editors and authors of the " history of american life series, " and this was being reflected in a growing number of courses and dissertations in the graduate schools. those at work in political history were aware of a novel interest displayed by some of their fellows plowing new furrows. several varieties of specialization in fields such as economic, social, and intellectual history grew increasingly attractive, and the process of fragmentation moved on apace. the capacity to generalize suffered, and the aphorism that graduate students were learning more and more about less and less was oft repeated. certainly political history bad lost some of its general interest. this fragmentation demonstrated a weakness and a need which, unless they were met, were bound to impair the capacity of american historians to synthesize and thus to interpret. as a political historian i was conscious both of the decline of activity in this field and of the growing lack of comprehension to which the fragmentation was contributing. could not some unifying tendency be developed, some counterinfluence in the way of interpretation and generalization be discovered and encouraged? but fragmentation was not the only, nor was it perhaps the major, influence on a changing historiography. it was at this time that an interest in biography was attracting historians. popularly this often included a taste for debunking, but professionally it caused scholars to become more interested in the psychiatric approach and in a more analytical study of the human beings whom they examined and portrayed. a greater realism marked the writing of the day. a third influence grew apace. the so - called behavioral disciplines were burgeoning among the social sciences, and this association was included in the social science research council in the early days of its development. social anthropology, social psychology, and sociology were developing interests and concepts that the historians slowly began to appreciate. this appreciation, undoubtedly hindered by semantic complications caused by the efforts of these scholars to invent a new terminology, led to what some historians might consider outlandish neologisms. interest was developed in group dynamics, in the behavior of small groups, in mass psychology, in competition and cooperation, and in other forms of human behavior with which the historian must on occasion


to what some historians might consider outlandish neologisms. interest was developed in group dynamics, in the behavior of small groups, in mass psychology, in competition and cooperation, and in other forms of human behavior with which the historian must on occasion be concerned. the use of scientific analogies likewise continued. certain patterns of thought developed by the natural scientists had attracted or repelled social scientists and humanists since the days of isaac newton and john locke. within the memories of many of us, historians had been looking for law, for dynamic interpretation. edward p. cheyney developed a concept of law in history. henry adams professed to see in the physicists ' second law of thermodynamics the doom of man ' s intellect. others pondered over concepts of relativity, uncertainty, and the immaterial nature of matter. historians in some instances were no longer so confident that they could discover just how eigentlich things might have gewesen. during this period of fragmentation, however, the tradition of synthesis was by no means forgotten. there was a deliberate interest in continuing it and, incidentally, in arresting the chaotic influence of specialization and fragmentation upon the historian ' s capacity to generalize. various efforts were made in the early years of the twentieth century to restore the desire and the power to scan wider horizons. one of these was the use of a civilization concept such as employed in different ways by arnold toynbee, charles and mary beard, and later by william mcneill. another very significant instrument for this purpose was the culture concept borrowed not from scholars in belles - lettres, but adopted in broader terms from social anthropologists. as i have found this cultural concept one of the most useful aids available to historians in developing the synthesis, which is one of their main responsibilities, i propose to dwell upon some of its implications for members of this association. the term " culture " used in this sense is all - inclusive, embracing as it does all the behavior patterns employed by any given society. it also supplies the concept of a unity greater than even the sum of its definable parts. into such a synthesis can be fitted any specialized, any personal, or any national experience. each of us can relate his interest to any such concept of image, national character, or gestalt that appeals to the individual ' s sense of the all - embracing. viewing any specific problems in the light of such over - all interpretation supplies whatever each of us may do with a maximum of significance and interpretive meaning. there


, or gestalt that appeals to the individual ' s sense of the all - embracing. viewing any specific problems in the light of such over - all interpretation supplies whatever each of us may do with a maximum of significance and interpretive meaning. there are various types of cultural definitions, but one in particular can be especially useful : namely, i believe, the design most indicative of the nature and the identity of any society. this is its plan of operation, the force or influence that organizes it and keeps within it a semblance of recognizable structure and order. in highly complicated societies this plan takes the form of government, the customs of rule, of the exercise of authority, of the structure of power. a culture therefore may be known as a democracy, an empire, a totalitarian state. any such designation is not merely derived from constitutional institutions, but it embraces attitudes, ideas of community identification, and social as well as political relationships. the distinguishing characteristic of the society known as the united states of america is the fact that it is a democratic culture dedicated to a self - government in which all are technically involved and in which this interest is demonstrably central to the self - identification of the people. it can be used as the hallmark of the culture. this use is appropriate likewise because a basic, if not the basic, historical problem in this culture is how a society expanding so quickly in so large an area became and has remained self - governing. the study of this problem has involved me and many others in working out the process of the evolution and the operation of this culture and has also concentrated much interest on a particular phase of it, namely the stresses and strains that eventually led to the destructive social war of 1861 - 1865, which nearly destroyed it. this culture concept, which has dominated and determined the history of the united states, is broader and older than the boundaries of the united states would imply. it has involved consideration of the european origin of folkways and institutions. the proper definition of this broader field of analysis is the anglo - american culture, including much that evolved in the british isles and was transported to america. there it was transplanted and eventually matured in a new society. the employment of this very broad culture concept is extremely useful not only in overcoming the disadvantages of fragmentation but in quickening the capacity for synthesis. likewise, it has sharpened our understanding of historical process by giving greater opportunity for more sophisticated conceptualization of certain of our historical responsibilities. setting significant chronological limits to the study of the evolution of the anglo - american


but in quickening the capacity for synthesis. likewise, it has sharpened our understanding of historical process by giving greater opportunity for more sophisticated conceptualization of certain of our historical responsibilities. setting significant chronological limits to the study of the evolution of the anglo - american cultural patterns shows how old many of these patterns actually are. customs of local self - government and representative lawgiving and lawmaking processes involving the beginning of election procedures go back into the " good customs of the realm " of england, some of which originated among the british tribes and antedate history. folkways deriving from the various invasions of britain and from phases of the religious transformation of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries stimulated popular interest in participation in government and produced the beginnings of something like political parties. in other words, the basic patterns of community organization and self - consciousness, together with an operating power structure of self - government, were created and developed in england. during the period of the folk migration across the atlantic ocean that resulted in the establishment of the american colonies, these cultural patterns were transported across the sea. consequently, much of the time there was little invention involved : the migrants took what they knew, imported it when they could, and used it with a minimum of adjustment. this process of adaptation therefore emphasized the sense of age that characterized the customs of even those in a new world. the american phase of the anglo - american cultural evolution was separated by both time and space from the parent culture in a fashion difficult to understand in this age of television and jet propulsion. this distance and the difficulty of communication meant that the same qualities of intrepidity and enterprise that brought colonists across the sea would stimulate their long - accustomed habits of self - government to the point where they would employ another cultural pattern long in use. not only had the british developed a habit of community self - rule and a search for consensus, but there was also a pattern of violent change in government. regicide and revolution in some form had occurred in england about once a century from the days of the norman conquest, and in the seventeenth century two full - fledged revolutions, the puritan and the glorious revolution, had occurred, the latter with an interesting american phase that indicated a growing jealousy of american self - governing autonomy and promised that perhaps a light weight would be assigned to european authority. the possibly inevitable rupture came at the end of the eighteenth century when, in the interesting years of the age of reason, american colonial leaders, impatient at certain limits imposed on their cherished autonomy, found themselves involved in violence just about a


. the possibly inevitable rupture came at the end of the eighteenth century when, in the interesting years of the age of reason, american colonial leaders, impatient at certain limits imposed on their cherished autonomy, found themselves involved in violence just about a century after the glorious revolution of 1688. their experience with the responsibilities and confusions of complete autonomy subsequent to 1783 led the erstwhile colonies to seek a new surrogate in place of the crown and empire. they constructed a curiously wrought instrument that they invented probably at the only time and place where such a feat, up to this point, could have been contrived. they created a federal system in which the power structure was divided and modified by a series of checks and balances described in an unprecedented document, the constitution of the united states. despite their care, however, its authors did not foresee the problems involved in the choice and conduct of those exercising power, particularly executive power. the new federal republic was to have its capacity for order and definition of identity complicated by its ecology. its area was so great, its population so scattered, and its wealth and variety so fabulous that the question began to concern the thoughtful few : could such a people so situated practice the art of self - government? was the surrogate that was substituted for the crown adequate? the size of the republic and the variety of the ecological characteristics soon demonstrated that the so - called political federalism described in the constitution was much more intricate than a mere political federalism. the american society was a cultural federalism, not so much a federation of political units fused into a republic as a federation of varying groups identified by attitudes, customs, and community associations and combined in a society. this variety of elements produced differences of views that in turn could be used as points of dispute and debate in the periodic elections required to determine the exercise of power decreed by the constitutions, federal and state. as the decades of the nineteenth century wore on, it became apparent that this product of the age of reason was not too successful in dealing with all the confusions of this rapidly growing state, and the question began to arise as to whether the confusion was not reaching a point at which it would no longer be possible for even the capacity of this self - governing society to control it and to maintain orderly self - government. had conditions tending to disorder reached a degree at which it was no longer possible for men to control them? in 1861 - 1865 the outbreak of the social war seemed to indicate that such was the case - - just about one century after


self - government. had conditions tending to disorder reached a degree at which it was no longer possible for men to control them? in 1861 - 1865 the outbreak of the social war seemed to indicate that such was the case - - just about one century after the last appreciable outbreak of violence, the american revolution. at the moment we happen to know much about this last episode because we have just passed through a four - year period of centennial commemoration in which many of the historical guild actively participated. and from this four - year period we have learned much about the nature of this anglo - american culture pattern, particularly its now predominantly american phase. we have learned, or we should have learned, a great deal about the antecedents of violence and the phenomena that accompanied its outbreak. perhaps in 1966 it may be well to make reference to some of these attendant circumstances. in the first place it is appropriate to point out what may not appear to be a truism to all of us : that we are too prone to think backward in history and to shape conclusions by what we find in the past. to use the example of 1861 - 1865, when the bitter war between the union and the confederacy was fought, it was easy to assume that this conflict between two well - defined forces must have been inevitable and have been inexorably building up during a long range of time variously defined. but the closest kind of study of the outbreak of the conflict and the antecedent years presents evidence that the dominant situation was confusion. there was not one south but several, and in the end the south presented by no means a united front in the confederacy. and it can hardly be said that there was any north until sumter. in fact, so great was the confusion that there were not just two alternatives, war or peace, but several. it is convenient to characterize this situation as the operation of a third force, for wherever there seems to be a convergence of two forces there are probably one or more others at work that may at any time intervene and produce a different combination. in the past this third force had on occasion been some form of compromise, and so usual had been this intervention that many in 1860 felt sure it would operate again. the confusion was too great, however, and until the last minute a variety of alternatives might have taken over. in the end i feel that a series of accidents rather than destiny, or great forces, or any deus ex machina decided the issue. eventually, after bitter and expensive conflict, the republic right


minute a variety of alternatives might have taken over. in the end i feel that a series of accidents rather than destiny, or great forces, or any deus ex machina decided the issue. eventually, after bitter and expensive conflict, the republic righted itself - - but that was a century ago. this description of the concept of american self - governing culture, which we have used in our search to overcome fragmentation and to re - establish synthesis, and of the observable tendency to periodic resorts to violence to change our patterns of self - government, not only indicates an interesting paradox, but also gives us food for thought as we ponder certain problems which today ' s necessities call upon us to face and which we may illustrate by asking ourselves certain questions in this year of 1966. since that holiday season when channing asked his questions, nearly a half century ago, many more things have changed than the fashions of history writing about which we have just been thinking. many new conditions of life have appeared and have added much to the complexity of our task and thus to our responsibility. now wars seem never to end, and where there is no war there may be racial tension, for a world - wide reorientation of peoples is in process. the energy of the atom has been released ; population is exploding. time and space seem no longer to be limiting concepts ; man not only stands on the verge of outer space, but on occasions walks in its vastness. a mechanism is replacing the human brain in some forms of computation. we are told that the genetic code has been broken and that the universe has lost its parity and is lopsided. we are reminded that upon occasion when some basic irregularity, operating contrary to the accepted laws of the universe, has been discovered, such observation can be the prelude to significant new knowledge. a drift in the perihelion of the orbit of the planet mercury was eventually accounted for when the general theory of relativity was formulated. with all these aberrations and incongruities may we not be on the eve of certain discoveries in human knowledge? at any rate this wide variety of new circumstances carries us far away from the days of white and channing, and certainly into a period of new responsibility. in the light of this possible new experience we are justified in asking questions, even as channing asked them - - though they will be of a different nature. the main question that we raise is this : if we are on the verge or in the midst of certain basic changes, not only


we are justified in asking questions, even as channing asked them - - though they will be of a different nature. the main question that we raise is this : if we are on the verge or in the midst of certain basic changes, not only within our culture but within the cultural structure of the world, what should be the centers of our scholarly interests? further, if we grant that there are few questions more significant than whether self - government can be maintained in the world in general and in the united states in particular, we have a closely correlated series of queries. among today ' s circumstances most vigorously suggesting questions of this character are a number connected with the power situation in our self - governing culture. the desire for power has intensified in the lives of so many people. rivalries, conflicts, tensions are everywhere and seemingly increasing. despite our pride in our capacity for self - government, we may at times wonder whether we are keeping up. there are signs that we have a confidence in our political capacity that may have been more adequate in other times, and that we may be depending upon a changing power and status. for our security ' s sake do we know enough about the history of this american self - governing culture of ours, of the nature and the location of the power that is operated within it? many calls are made upon us for the use of our power from within and without our society. and there is no certainty as to our answers to these calls. much in fact is at stake. for if we exert too little power, we may become anarchic ; if we contrive too much, we could become totalitarian. in either case we would be abandoning our basic culture pattern. do we know enough about the evolution of our power of self - government? can political institutions defined in the age of reason remain adequate in an age when reason is more in the background? do we know enough about and do we understand the process of power choice and power change as revealed in our history? do we understand our changing techniques of choice and decision making, of our attitudes toward the responsibilities of self - government, of the dynamics of our political emotions? do we have adequate information about the types of people who seek political power and how they achieve it? do we realize sufficiently the dangers involved in operating self - government in times of increasing change? do we understand the changes and the rhythms in the exercise of the powers of self - government? are we aware of the implications of the rhythm of our power distribution, caused by our custom of inducing


in operating self - government in times of increasing change? do we understand the changes and the rhythms in the exercise of the powers of self - government? are we aware of the implications of the rhythm of our power distribution, caused by our custom of inducing an artificial crisis every four years by putting the executive and legislative power up for possible change? do we realize that every so often confusion can increase to the point where it threatens men ' s understanding of and capacity to handle it, as in 1861 - 1865? what within the historian ' s range of recognition of events and behavior trends can he identify and interpret for society ' s benefit, because of his capacity to think in time? our experience in 1861 - 1865 was that in those times there were so many signs pointing in so many directions that the observers and the analysts of that day were quite beyond their depth. do we not have a greater capacity for observation and analysis today, and are we using it? in times such as these when there are signs of shifts in the power structure that could prove drastic, is it not essential to know the nature of the relationship between prevailing custom and the power structure? it does little good to any society to think that it is behaving as though it were independent and self - governing and then to wake up to find it is not. finally and most important, as political change is generally determined by cultural change, have we command of sufficient skill in directing human mechanisms to make certain that we calculate and operate an efficient adjustment of political to social change so that self - government can proceed with safety? when channing asked his questions in 1920 they were phrased in terms of achieving and maintaining human welfare and happiness. the questions we ask today are rather expressed in terms concerned about continuing efficient self - government and ensuring its survival. having asked these questions, how well equipped are we to answer them? to do so, we need more than a skill at simple narrative. these complex times demand sophisticated analyses that will place new obligations upon us to develop our intellectual potential. do we have it at our command? we have a much more formidable foundation of fact at our disposal upon which to erect a structure of interpretation and synthesis. so many more historical facts are now available. we know about many more individuals and types of individuals. much more information has been collected by statistical techniques. the behavioral sciences have mobilized much knowledge about human behavior. advances in the natural sciences are again tempting the historian into the alluring realms of geisteswissenschaft as he dreams of discovering genetic codes shaping the destiny of


been collected by statistical techniques. the behavioral sciences have mobilized much knowledge about human behavior. advances in the natural sciences are again tempting the historian into the alluring realms of geisteswissenschaft as he dreams of discovering genetic codes shaping the destiny of societies and wonders about the effects of living in a universe that has lost its parity, in an age sometimes called absurd. not only have we many more facts at our command, real or fancied, but there is new equipment in the realm of gadgets. we are entering the years of the computer. now million - dollar machines are housed in computer centers and tended by programmers. it is too soon to be very dogmatic about how useful this type of automation may be, but historians are so far behind in their reporting and analysis that we must investigate to the best of our ability its potential as an instrument of historical retrieval and conceptual discovery. we are so frustrated for want of a break - through that no device should go untried. meanwhile, we must not forget that we can experiment with certain fresh concepts, new patterns of thought. individual scholars should be concerned with much greater spans of time. evolution is an extremely slow process. its slow - moving changes involve much more of adaptation than innovation. there are much less orderly process and much more haphazard confusion in human behavior. there is a greater variety of alternative action possible in even the simplest program set by determining forces. in fact, there are much less determinism and a higher frequency of accident in the processes of change. historians, fortunately, not only have these data, these instruments, and these concepts, but a growing number of scholars are using them. within the last few years there has been a veritable renaissance in the study of this principal element in the american self - governing culture, namely the power structure and its fluctuation. numerous studies encouraged by the social science research council and its committees, supported by foundation grants, are being carried out at the harvard center for the study of the history of liberty in america, at the university of michigan consortium, at california, at illinois, at rutgers, and at the university of pennsylvania, and elsewhere. these projects are much more comprehensive in type than the more narrowly defined political and constitutional history studies current at the beginning of the century. much attention is paid to the manifold influences and subtle character of the determinants of this basic behavior. research of this type is contributing much to our ability to answer the questions we are raising in 1966. while we enjoy advantages such as these


century. much attention is paid to the manifold influences and subtle character of the determinants of this basic behavior. research of this type is contributing much to our ability to answer the questions we are raising in 1966. while we enjoy advantages such as these to aid us in answering the questions we are now raising, we should, nevertheless, be aware that we are not doing all that we should to prepare the next generation to use such advantage in the quest. we may advisedly give more thought to the educational policies and programs of our graduate schools, particularly at a time when so many new such schools seem to be springing into being. more than a century ago we took over the ph. d. program from the german university system almost without thought and with little adaptation, and we have too long avoided its reconsideration. our current ph. d. training often falls between two stools. it might be a degree in course, such as a law school degree, or it might be an adventure in freedom, wherein, after an experience of discovery, the student presents his results for evaluation and judgment. the program that we usually follow, however, can well be a tertium quid. herein a certain number of requirements are set, exercises prescribed, and examinations administered. undue emphasis is placed on the learning process - - learning under observation, and surveillance if you will. there is too little opportunity to fashion concepts of the history of human behavior in the form of problems that must be formulated, analyzed, and understood. in these days of increasing enrollments in graduate schools, numbers seem to enforce a formalized program that can be administered almost by tabulation without very much individual attention. to the gifted this often means a degree that provides less than it should ; to a considerable number it may mean a degree more prestigious than they deserve. graduate faculties may well ask themselves if there should not be two degrees so that in one of them there may be real opportunity to develop more elements of sophisticated analysis, such as are suggested by these questions, while the other should concentrate upon methodology and practice both in teaching and research. also i think graduate faculties may well expand their thinking into the realms of postdoctoral facilities in universities. there should be more opportunities available to scholars who have been teaching for a while to come back to the university for a few weeks or for a term or two to study intensively new techniques and new findings and to engage in colloquia on current problems in historiography. here there would be new acquaintances and new ideas, new dialogues


to the university for a few weeks or for a term or two to study intensively new techniques and new findings and to engage in colloquia on current problems in historiography. here there would be new acquaintances and new ideas, new dialogues designed to disseminate the fruits of wider experience and increased maturity in a university environment. the use of these various instruments just considered in our efforts to answer the questions we have raised should give us a sense of our increased intellectual capacity developed during the life of this association. we are peers in the realm of the mind. we have a discipline and a series of unique functions of our own. these instruments of analysis, these forms of thought are our own, and we owe them to none but ourselves. other scholars have neither devised them nor used them with any common degree of frequency. an interesting commentary is the observation that historians themselves do not use them as they might. they fail often to recognize their own philosophic strength or to achieve their intellectual potential. they have a tendency to depend upon their colleagues in other disciplines for instruments and patterns of thought. yet they have their own intellectual birthright, an autonomy they should never forget. our too common dependence upon others we may ascribe to our folklore about history. to so many history is just a story of the good and the bad, of the great and the small. in school it is something to be learned at the expense of loss of interest in the story. in graduate years it becomes an exercise in the higher criticism of sources, a carefully organized narrative based upon tested facts. and for so many that is all that it ever is, and life may be spent in producing a series of doctoral dissertations, each more careful and perhaps more specialized in a narrow field than the last. to a certain extent this is highly commendable, for the historian who can put a good narrative in literary form based upon a comprehensive survey of the sources and an accurate recording of facts has indeed done much. but we can and should do more, and it is unfortunate that we do not. simple, specialized narratives of limited national experience, though they produce much of interest, do not give the historian free play for the wide use of his mind or the development of his intellectual potential. the historian often stops too soon. his life can be, and i believe should be, one of growing capacity to discover, understand, and communicate satisfying analyses of human behavior, and not, as too often happens, a temptation to abdicate his most meaningful function. the historian should furthermore


his life can be, and i believe should be, one of growing capacity to discover, understand, and communicate satisfying analyses of human behavior, and not, as too often happens, a temptation to abdicate his most meaningful function. the historian should furthermore use his wisdom and his imagination to advance hypotheses, to project himself beyond his tested data and conclusions based thereon, and to establish advanced positions in the world of research, even at the risk of having to admit on occasion that he may be wrong. as in so much of prime significance for human existence, ingenuity, daring, and cultivated strength are major essentials. as we seek the answers to these questions of 1966, we as historians are dependent on no one for our philosophical instruments ; as we think in time we devise our own, and by their use we can experience the past, reconstructed and relived in our own consciousness. we owe it to ourselves, therefore, to use these instruments of our own invention in an original fashion, confident that thereby we can discover truth perhaps obscure to others. if we do this to the extent of which we are capable, we may provide the knowledge indispensable for the successful continuance of our culture. a half century ago channing asked his troubled questions in terms of the possibility of progress ; today we ask them in terms of the possibility of survival. if we are to answer these questions with any degree of success, we must recognize that we have an intellectual capacity of our own, not fully realized, which we can develop. to do so we must declare our philosophical independence and raise the standard of our own intellectual identity. roy f. nichols 1. edward channing, " an historical retrospect, " american historical review, xxvi ( jan. 1921 ), 202. [ back to text ] text scanning : jstor text proofing and correction : liz townsend 8 / 1 / 00 text encoding and annotation : robert townsend 1 / 15 / 01 version © 2001, american historical association


johns hopkins medicine office of communications and public affairs media contact : joanna downer april 22, 2004 genome - wide screen reveals new tricks of old genes process shows how mounds of data can be effectively managed johns hopkins scientists have successfully used new techniques to search the yeast genome for genes that help keep copied chromosomes together, protecting the integrity of the organism ' s genetic material during cell division. by combining two genome - wide screens, the researchers were able to narrow down the dozens of genes identified by the first screen to just 17 that made both cut - offs - - a number small enough to be cost - and time - efficient to consider in some detail. their report appears in the april issue of molecular biology of the cell. " data created from new genome - scanning techniques can be overwhelming. reading all there is to know about 50 genes to figure out what new knowledge may be lurking in the haystack is very difficult, " says forrest spencer, ph. d., associate professor in hopkins ' mckusick - nathans institute of genetic medicine. " but by overlapping information from two screens, we were able to figure out what mother nature was trying to tell us that wasn ' t too complicated for us to understand. " while the researchers had hoped their screens would reveal new genes and their functions, they instead identified genes previously linked to two other aspects of shepherding genetic material during cell division. fifteen of the highlighted genes were already known to help ensure the accuracy of copied dna and two help move chromosomes to opposite ends of the dividing cell. but the researchers ' results give these " old " genes new jobs, associating them with cohesion, the little - understood process of keeping a chromosome and its copy together until the cell is ready to split in two. if the " sister " chromosomes aren ' t kept together, both copies could end up on one side of the dividing cell. another problem is that the copies could undergo extra rearrangements, risking loss of important genes. " if there ' s no cohesion, the cell will die, " says spencer. " however, if the process sometimes works and sometimes doesn ' t, some cells survive but their genetic material gets scrambled. " it ' s that sometimes - yes - sometimes - no problem that spencer and her team are trying to figure out, in part because it ' s interesting biology, but also because genetic instability plays such a big role in the development of cancer in humans. no one knows exactly at what point errors enter the genetic material and aren ' t fixed, but the intricacies


in part because it ' s interesting biology, but also because genetic instability plays such a big role in the development of cancer in humans. no one knows exactly at what point errors enter the genetic material and aren ' t fixed, but the intricacies of chromosomes ' manipulation during cell division seem a good place to start. postdoctoral fellow cheryl warren, ph. d., started the search by screening 5, 916 yeast genes - - all at once - - for ones needed for survival in the absence of a gene called ctf4, already known to be a critical component of cohesion. twenty - six genes popped out of this screen, a type known as " synthetic lethal " since the yeast survive the loss of either one, but not both, genes. however, the synthetic lethal effect of some, if not many, of the genes from this screen would be due to problems other than faulty cohesion, the researchers knew. " we had to do something else to get a manageable starting point, " says warren. so, using a technique she developed to identify whether a gene ' s loss causes the genetic material to become scrambled, warren tested those 26 genes to see which of them seemed most likely to contribute to genetic instability through their involvement in cohesion. in these experiments, markers were scattered throughout the yeast ' s genetic material so she could easily tell if pieces of the genome moved or went missing when a gene was knocked out. only 17 of the 26 identified genes caused genetic instability when missing from the yeast genome. fifteen of those genes are involved in double - checking whether newly formed strands of dna matched the cell ' s original genetic material and calling in " repairmen " as needed ( a process called the " s - phase checkpoint " ). the other two genes are part of the machinery previously known to help move the two sets of chromosomes to opposite sides of the dividing cell. " by using both screens, we got a number that was small enough to follow - up on, and yet large enough to reveal a trend, " says warren. " this is the first evidence that proteins involved in checking the dna sequence are also involved in keeping sister chromosomes together, and it ' s a great starting point for understanding more. " the research was funded by the national human genome research institute, the national institute for general medical sciences, and the national heart, lung, and blood institute, all components of the national institutes of health. authors on the report are warren, spencer, mark eckley, marina lee, joseph hanna, adam hughes, brian pe


anatomy and function of the heart ' s electrical system click image to enlarge the heart ' s electrical system the heart is, in the simplest terms, a pump made up of muscle tissue. like all pumps, the heart requires a source of energy and oxygen in order to function. the heart ' s pumping action is regulated by an electrical conduction system that coordinates the contraction of the various chambers of the heart. how does the heart beat? an electrical stimulus is generated by the sinus node ( also called the sinoatrial node, or sa node ). this is a small mass of specialized tissue located in the right atrium ( right upper chamber ) of the heart. the sinus node generates an electrical stimulus regularly ( 60 to 100 times per minute under normal conditions ). the atria are then activated. the electrical stimulus travels down through the conduction pathways ( similar to the way electricity flows through power lines from the power plant to your house ) and causes the heart ' s ventricles to contract and pump out blood. the right and left atria ( the two upper chambers of the heart ) are stimulated first and contract for a short period of time before the right and left ventricles ( the two lower chambers of the heart ). the electrical impulse travels from the sinus node to the atrioventricular node ( also called av node ). there, impulses are slowed down for a very short period, then continue down the conduction pathway via the bundle of his into the ventricles. the bundle of his divides into right and left pathways to provide electrical stimulation to the right and left ventricles. normally at rest, as the electrical impulse moves through the heart, the heart contracts about 60 to 100 times a minute, depending on a person ' s age. each contraction of the ventricles represents one heartbeat. the atria contract a fraction of a second before the ventricles so their blood empties into the ventricles before the ventricles contract.


the student ' s eyes drift to the classroom window and the teacher ' s voice fades from consciousness. the daydream begins. it ' s a familiar scene, one we have likely both experienced as students and struggled against in our students as teachers. but daydreaming is not what it might seem. recent research in both psychology and neuroscience makes clear that daydreaming is an essential part of mental processing, reasoning and, yes, even learning. 1. daydreaming is the mind ' s natural state the most common view of the human mind assumes that our normal way of thinking consists of concentrated focus upon immediate tasks at hand. but researchers have found that this is not the case. daydreaming is now considered to be the normal state of our minds, with focus appearing as a break from the more common mind wandering. a recent study has found that our mind wanders forty seven percent of the time we are awake with very few activities not equally peppered with natural periods of daydreaming. another study has shown that the parts of the brain stimulated during daydreaming consist of the " default network " regions of the brain that are associated with most higher level mental activity. this suggests that we have evolved specifically to be a daydreaming species. it is even more telling that those who suffer injuries to the region of the brain in which daydreaming occurs suffer from a lack of spontaneous speech and thought. the fact that daydreaming is the natural state of the human brain suggests that those who take most naturally to daydreaming will best exhibit the skills necessary for successfully navigating the human world. far from representing a lack of discipline, daydreaming is a hallmark of a healthy and active human mind. 2. critical thinking and intelligence aside from the " default network ", one of the main regions of brain used during daydreaming consists of the " executive network ", the region of the brain associated with complex problem solving. before this was revealed, for example through the 2009 study at the university of british columbia, it was commonly thought that the " executive network " was only active during focused problem solving. as this study suggests, a healthy amount of daydreaming is connected to improved critical thinking capabilities, an invaluable characteristic in successful learners. it has also been shown that daydreaming is dramatically more present in those considered to be of superior intelligence when compared with learners of average intelligence. one study suggests that the improved integration of the default and executive


##valuable characteristic in successful learners. it has also been shown that daydreaming is dramatically more present in those considered to be of superior intelligence when compared with learners of average intelligence. one study suggests that the improved integration of the default and executive networks developed through their continual exercise through daydreaming significantly contributes to the formation of increased intelligence. it ' s a truism that our " dreams ", by which we usually mean our goals and desires, provide motivation in life. what is less recognized, however, is the central role played by the process of daydreaming in envisioning and imaginatively experiencing the lives we wish to lead and people we want to become. our goals and desires are what they are because we have spent time freely living through our daydreams what it would be like to achieve them. for these reasons, daydreaming in learners is related to higher levels of ambition and a deeper sense of motivation. freely imagining " what you would do if... " is far from idle. having envisioned scenarios and played out possible events gives us an increasing sense that we can handle them. in this way the imaginative anticipation that often occurs in daydreaming contributes as much to a robust sense of confidence as it does to a healthy motivation. think about it this way, daydreaming is a training ground for your mind where it plays through and sometimes struggles with scenarios it has not experienced or wants to react differently to in the future. though successful training certainly doesn ' t guarantee success during the real event, it does provide a mental preparedness and a firm sense that no matter what may occur we can deal with it. for this reason some of the most confident learners are also those with the healthiest daydreaming lives. 5. increased insight did you ever wonder what causes that moment of insight when something suddenly clicks or a solution becomes clear? the answer is a lot of hard work on the part of your brain that goes unnoticed. moments of insight, those sudden revelations that seem to come from nowhere, are long prepared for through the brain ' s ongoing hidden organizing and processing. daydreaming, as a mental state activating both the default and executive networks of the brain, plays an important role in that organizing and processing. what you may think is just your mind drifting is actually your mind actively forming connections between information, synthesizing what was previously only chaos, and preparing the ground for the moment when things suddenly fit into place. once we appreciate this we see that daydreami


may think is just your mind drifting is actually your mind actively forming connections between information, synthesizing what was previously only chaos, and preparing the ground for the moment when things suddenly fit into place. once we appreciate this we see that daydreaming is just as productive as spending an hour working on a difficult math problem. recent work has shown that spending less time on the problem and more time letting our mind wander could contribute to getting the answer faster. benjamin baird and jonathan schooler at the university of california at santa barbara have shown, as discussed in an article in the new yorker, that spending time daydreaming after first being given a task leads to more insightful responses to the task than focus and concentration do. in his book blink : the power of thinking without thinking, malcolm gladwell discusses the phenomenon of " thin - slicing ", the mind ' s jumping to conclusions based on surprisingly little information. despite what we tend to assume, gladwell demonstrates that jumping to conclusions based on limited information is often statistically the most reliable way to arrive at the right decision. for example, cook county hospital changed the way it diagnoses heart attacks to focus on less information. here is how gladwell describes this part of the book on his website : " they instructed their doctors to gather less information on their patients : they encouraged them to zero in on just a few critical pieces of information about patients suffering from chest pain - like blood pressure and the ecg - while ignoring everything else, like the patient ' s age and weight and medical history. and what happened? cook county is now one of the best places in the united states at diagnosing chest pain. " the key point about thin - slicing is that its effectiveness depends upon two factors. knowledge, especially when derived from experience, and mental integration that allows for swift access to the knowledge and experience we have gained. if we return to our image of daydreaming as the training ground of the mind, the increased integration it imposes on knowledge and experience we have collected improves our ability to successfully jump to conclusions based on little information. it makes us more successful thin - slicers and improves our split - second decision making. 7. improved problem solving what is problem solving? from what we have already said we might suggest it is an effective use of the default and executive networks of the brain resulting in increased intelligence, critical thinking, insight and thin - slicing. the argument that the integration of default and executive networks results in improved problem solving is offered by the author of daydre


is an effective use of the default and executive networks of the brain resulting in increased intelligence, critical thinking, insight and thin - slicing. the argument that the integration of default and executive networks results in improved problem solving is offered by the author of daydreams at work : wake up your creative powers, amy fries, in an article at psychology today : "... your mind - wandering capacity is like that computer program - it can get to solutions that your conscious mind just can ' t see. " in general daydreaming makes us better thinkers. being better thinkers makes us better learners. the traditional view of daydreaming understands it as a form of escapism. we are unhappy or uninterested in where we are and so imagine we are somewhere else. it is important, this view assumes, to resist this escapist urge and instead cope with the world as it is. it turns out, however, that daydreaming is itself a central element of our mental coping mechanisms. as already mentioned, daydreaming provides the brain with the exercise course where it can secretly play out different solutions to problems. more than this, however, those precious daydreaming moments allow us the conscious rest necessary to face difficult tasks or situations with a fresh mind. yet, during these seeming moments of rest, the brain is still hard at work beneath the surface organizing potential responses without the generally awkward interference of conscious thought. researchers such as eric klinger have shown that children who weave an imaginative story around their play are likely to be happier at play and to play longer. it is easy to generalize this point to adults as well, the ability to tell ourselves imaginative stories about the world and our own lives through daydreaming makes even the tedious or downright painful parts of our life more enjoyable. in learning the ability to cope with challenging, frustrating or boring tasks is a key ingredient for success. 9. mental elasticity coping is a key element of mental elasticity, the ability to shift our thought and behavior smoothly in response to changing situations and information. daydreaming, as the practice ground for mental processing, greatly increases the mind ' s ability to smoothly shift in the face of unanticipated events and situations. so while daydreaming clearly contributes to organizing information and experience we have already learned, making the learned material more useful by improving our ability to apply it, it also enhances our response time in the face of the unexpected. recent research has shown that children with a


five - minute break between each segment of work. after four such segments of work and breaks you take a longer break of fifteen minutes. this technique ' s surprising ability to increase productivity depends upon the mind ' s limited power of concentration with moments of daydreaming rest needed between periods of increased mental control. what it suggests is that teachers would do well, not only to appreciate the importance of daydreaming for successful learners, but even to organize lessons so as to actively encourage short breaks for daydreaming. 13. connection to class material learning is nearly impossible if students do not feel connected to the material they are learning. students have to care about what they learn to be the most successful learners. this connection to the material involves imaginatively playing with the material through which students rearrange and experiment while finding ways to connect it to their wider concerns, life, and fantasies. for this reason students who actively daydream, especially when they are encouraged to incorporate class material into their daydreams in whatever way they like, are much more successful learners. 14. increased empathy and emotional intelligence one of the most important skills for people in general, let alone learners, is what we might call the " moral imagination ". the moral imagination is the ability to think oneself into another person ' s shoes, to imagine what it would be like to be them. this skill is necessary if one is to expand one ' s sense of sympathy and empathy, but it is also a key element in problem - solving and reading comprehension. if a student is to understand a text or solve a problem what is required is creatively putting themselves in the place of the characters in the text, or in the sphere of life that most naturally relates to the problem to be solved. for this reason emotional intelligence, the ability to have a varied and complex emotional life through engagement with and response to the emotions of others, is a central if unexpected element of all mental processing and learning. it is just this ability to imagine our way out of our own situation and into that of another that daydreaming develops and encourages. for this reason not only are daydreamers more empathetic and emotionally open people, they are also better at comprehending literary and historical texts. 15. improved self - knowledge since the time of socrates it has been thought that coming to know ourselves is both a major goal and the foundation of all truly successful learning. we can think about daydreaming as carrying out a dialogue with ourselves. in contrast, watching television or playing video


time of socrates it has been thought that coming to know ourselves is both a major goal and the foundation of all truly successful learning. we can think about daydreaming as carrying out a dialogue with ourselves. in contrast, watching television or playing video games primarily involves an external exploration or dialogue, one that can involve learning but doesn ' t often involve reflective self - discovery. if we are to be successful learners we need to have a robust sense of our interests, our goals and the talents or skills we wish to have. this intimately involves the imaginative self - exploration only a healthy daydreaming life can provide. clearing out distractions and allowing time for reflective thought is a great way to tap into your creativity. < a href = " http : / / zenhabits. net / creative - habit / " > being alone with your thoughts < / a > is oftentimes a prerequisite for the kind of outside - the - box that ' s necessary for artistic expression. although loneliness can be a contributing cause of depression, < a href = " http : / / www. jstor. org / discover / 10. 2307 / 1131927? uid = 3739936 & uid = 2 & uid = 4 & uid = 3739256 & sid = 21101521304683 " > studies have found < / a > that time spent in solitude can actually ward off depression in adolescents. a 1997 study found that although teens didn ' t describe solitude as a positive experience, many reported increased feelings of well - being afterwards. when you ' re away from people, technology, work and the myriad distractions of everyday life, you can finally take time to breathe and just be. use your alone time as a chance to clear out your cluttered mind and just get back in touch with yourself. it ' s tough to stop and take stock when you ' re constantly on the go and spending time with friends, family or classmates. taking a little " me " time gives you an opportunity to get away from distractions for long enough to reflect on your relationships and the course of your life so that you can determine what changes, if any, you may want to make. once you become more comfortable with the idea of being alone, doing activities like shopping, seeing a movie, or hiking by yourself can actually be enjoyable. you can do whatever < em > you < / em > want without having to adhere to anyone ' s preferences, schedule or expectations. you might discover


alone, doing activities like shopping, seeing a movie, or hiking by yourself can actually be enjoyable. you can do whatever < em > you < / em > want without having to adhere to anyone ' s preferences, schedule or expectations. you might discover that spending at least one afternoon or evening per week on your own doing something you love can be totally relaxing and liberating. learning to enjoy the time you spend alone can help you to build a better relationship with yourself. voluntary solitude is a great way to get back in touch with your feelings and remember all the things that make you awesome. if you want to feel more confident and self - sufficient, first tackle your fear of being alone. time spent in solitary reflection has been linked to < a href = " http : / / www. psychologytoday. com / blog / high - octane - women / 201201 / 6 - reasons - you - should - spend - more - time - alone " > improved concentration < / a >, as well as higher levels of academic performance. in their book " academically adrift : limited learning on college campuses, " authors and sociology professors richard arum and josipa roksa < a href = " http : / / www. bucknell. edu / x67495. xml " > find that students who study alone < / a > are more apt to succeed and retain knowledge than those who study in groups. follow william koch on twitter : www. twitter. com / inform _ ed


gender distribution of advanced degrees in the humanities note to readers : please include the following reference when citing data from this page : " american academy of arts and sciences, humanities indicators, updated ( 3 / 11 / 2013 ) with data for academic year 2010 ( july 1, 2009 – june 30, 2010 ). note on the data used to construct degree - related indicators note on the definition of advanced degrees. although master ’ s degrees in the humanities were awarded somewhat more often to men than women in the mid - 1960s, by 1970 gender parity had been achieved. women subsequently went on to become the majority of humanities master ’ s recipients, garnering 60 % of all degrees awarded in 2010 ( a slight decline from 2004 ’ s record high of 62 % ; figure ii - 13a ). in 2010, only education / social service professions and the health sciences awarded a substantially greater percentage of master ’ s degrees to women than did the humanities. business, engineering, law, and physical sciences awarded considerably smaller shares. at the master ’ s level, as at the bachelor ' s, the percentage of humanities degrees awarded to women has traditionally been higher than that for all fields combined, although the gap narrowed steadily over time, almost disappearing in the early years of the new century. in the mid - 1960s, the humanities, like all other academic disciplines, awarded only a small minority of doctoral degrees to women. though they fared better in the humanities than in nearly all other fields, women still received only 19 % of humanities doctorates at that time ( figure ii - 13b ). throughout the 1970s, however, this percentage increased steadily, and by the mid - 1980s women represented approximately 45 % of all new humanities doctoral degree recipients. as the 1980s continued, growth of women ’ s share of humanities degrees slowed, and gender parity was not reached until the mid - 1990s. thereafter, doctoral degrees continued to be distributed quite evenly between men and women, in contrast to the lower degree levels where the share of female degree recipients continued to grow. nonetheless, the percentage of humanities doctorates awarded to women has traditionally been greater than that for all fields combined. by the mid - 2000s, however, the situation was similar to that at the master ’ s level : the share of humanities doctorates awarded to women was approximately the same as that for all fields considered together. ( for information regarding the gender distribution of advanced degree completions in particular humanities disciplines, please see part ii, section c, undergraduate and graduate degree information for specific humanities disciplines ). note on the definition


the same as that for all fields considered together. ( for information regarding the gender distribution of advanced degree completions in particular humanities disciplines, please see part ii, section c, undergraduate and graduate degree information for specific humanities disciplines ). note on the definition of advanced degrees according to the national center for education statistics ’ ( nces ) integrated postsecondary education data system ( ipeds ) glossary, master ’ s degrees are “ awards that require the successful completion of a program of study of at least the full - time equivalent of 1 academic year, but not more than 2 academic years of work beyond the bachelor ’ s the nces, which collects the degree completion data presented as part of the humanities indicators, defines first professional degrees as those awards that require completion of a program that meets all the following criteria : ( 1 ) completion of the academic requirements to begin practice in a profession ; ( 2 ) at least two years of college work prior to entering the program ; and ( 3 ) a total of at least six academic years of college work to complete the degree program, including prior required college work plus the length of the professional program itself. according to nces, the following ten fields award first professional degrees : chiropractic ( d. c. or d. c. m. ) although some fields ( e. g., library science, hospital administration, and social work ) require specialized degrees for employment at the professional level, nces does not count degrees in these fields as first professional degrees ; instead, they are treated as master ’ s degrees. dentistry ( d. d. s. or d. m. d. ) law ( ll. b. or j. d. ) osteopathic medicine ( d. o. ) podiatry ( d. p. m., d. p., or pod. d. ) theology ( m. div., m. h. l., b. d., or ordination ) veterinary medicine ( d. v. m. or v. m. d. ) whereas all doctorates had previously been included in a single category, for academic years 2008 – 2009 and 2009 – 2010 nces gave schools the option of employing a new classification system that distinguishes among three types of doctoral degrees : research / scholarship — a ph. d. or other doctoral degree that requires advanced work beyond the master ’ s level, including the preparation and defense of a dissertation based on original research, or the planning and execution of an original project demonstrating scholarly achievement ; schools could