a padawan, padawan learner, or jedi apprentice, referred to a force - sensitive adolescent who had begun one - on - one instruction with a jedi knight or master... the jedi are characters in the fictional star wars universe and the series ' main protagonists. they use a quasi - telekinetic power, known as the force, weapons known as lightsabers, which emit a controlled energy flow in the shape of a sword, to serve and protect their republic and the whole... current grand master - darth _ grave apply to be trained in the ways of the jedi and light side of the force by one of our jedi masters. pm one of our jedi masters for more info. emotion, yet peace. ignorance, yet knowledge. passion, yet serenity. chaos, yet harmony. death, yet the force. there is no emotion, there is peace. there is no ignorance, there is knowledge. there is no passion, there is serenity. there is no chaos, there is harmony. there is no death, there is the force. jedi are the guardians of peace in the galaxy. jedi use their powers to defend and to protect. jedi respect all life, in any form. jedi serve others rather than ruling over them, for the good of the galaxy. jedi seek to improve themselves through knowledge and training. learn this or fail our tests - arielyssou master of the order


this project just makes a wireless fm microphone which looks very simple in its structure. it is a useful device in our day - today life. a wireless microphone, as the name implies, is a microphone without a physical cable connecting it directly to the sound recording or amplifying equipment with which it is associated. more commonly known as a radio microphone, there are many different standards, frequencies and transmission technologies used to replace the microphone ' s cable connection and make it into a wireless microphone. they can transmit, for example, in radio waves using uhf or vhf frequencies, fm, am, or various digital modulation schemes. some low cost models use infrared light. infrared microphones require a direct line of sight between the microphone and the receiver, while costlier radio frequency models do not. some models operate on a single fixed frequency, but the more advanced models operate on a user selectable frequency to avoid interference and allow the use of several microphones at the same time. it can be used in seminar halls, class rooms, for a school or college radio etc. one such piece costs 100 - 300 rupees in the market. the coming sections give the entire idea of making a miniature wireless microphone. we hope that you will find this quite interesting as you go through this particular project. 2. block diagram and its description figure 1 : block diagram above diagram shows the block diagram of the simple wireless fm microphone. it consists of simple audio amplifier, modulated tuned amplifier & a condenser mic. here a microphone ( condenser ) captures the audio signal and a simple audio amplifier amplifies this signal before the modulation is done. a modulated tuned amplifier modulates the signal with self generated carrier frequency. the carrier frequency can be varied by changing the capacitor and inductor value in the tank circuit. then the modulated signal is fed to the antenna. as a trimmer capacitor is used in the l - c circuit, we can vary the transmitting frequency anywhere in the whole fm band. 4. components description a resistor is a two terminal electronic component that opposes an electric current by producing a voltage drop between its terminals in its terminals in proportion to the current, that is in accordance with ohm ' s law : v = ir. the electrical resistance r is equals to the voltage drop v across the resistor divided by the current / through the resistor. resistors are used as part of electrical networks and electronic circuits. an electrical signal can be amplified by using transistors that allows a small current or voltage to


the voltage drop v across the resistor divided by the current / through the resistor. resistors are used as part of electrical networks and electronic circuits. an electrical signal can be amplified by using transistors that allows a small current or voltage to control the flow of a much larger current. in analog circuit transistors are used in oscillator, amplifier and linear regulated power supply. transistors are also used in digital circuits where they function as electronic switches. digital circuits include logic gates, ram and micro processors. here we use 2n3904 transistor. it is a common npn bipolar junction transistor. it is used for general purpose low power amplifying and switching applications. it is designed for low current and power, medium voltage and can operate at moderately high speed. this transistor is of low cost and is widely available. when looking at the flat side, with the base pointed downwards, the three wires emerging from the base are, left to right, the emitter, base and collector leads. the inductor used in the circuit is a handmade coil using 22 swg ( standard wire gauge ) enameled copper wire. the length, inner diameter, number of turns etc are the important parameters to be considered while making the inductor. then only the inductor resonates in the 88 - 108 band fm frequency. for this circuit, the coil radius was selected as 0. 26 inches ( outer diameter ) and 0. 13 inner diameter. coil can be wound around a screw driver ( with same diameter ) to get a 5 turn coil of 0. 2 inch long. remove the coil from the screw driver and use the 5 turn air core coil. remove the enamel from the tips and solder close to the transistor. the inductance of the coil can be calculated using the formula : l = n2r2 / ( 9r + 10 x ) where r is the inner radius of the coil, x is the length of the coil and n, number of turns. the resulting value is in micro henry. an inductor is just a coil of wire and you need to wind one for this circuit. an inductor is characterized by its length, radius and the number of turns of wire in the coil. magnet wire ( radio shack part 278 - 1345 ) was used to build the inductor but you can use standard solid strand 22 awg gauge copper wire. some on - line and printed articles describe winding the wire around


wire in the coil. magnet wire ( radio shack part 278 - 1345 ) was used to build the inductor but you can use standard solid strand 22 awg gauge copper wire. some on - line and printed articles describe winding the wire around a pencil. unfortunately, pencils come in different diameters and hence a mcdonald ’ s soda straw was used ; the yellow - red - white striped straw, found in every mcdonalds in the world, is the same size. the straw ’ s radius is exactly 0. 1325 inches ( diameter = 0. 2650 inches ) and 1 / 4 inches was snipped off the straw. 4. 4 condenser mic the condenser mic is used to pick up the sound signals. the diaphragm inside the mic vibrates according to the air pressure changes and generates ac signals. variable resistor vr1 adjusts the current through the mic and thus determines the sensitivity of mic. the condenser mic should be directly soldered on the pcb to get maximum sensitivity. sleeving the mic inside plastic tubing can increase its sensitivity error. a capacitor is an electrical / electronic device that can store energy in the electric field between a pair of conductors ( called " plates " ). the process of storing energy in the capacitor is known as " charging ", and involves electric charges of equal magnitude, but opposite polarity, building up on each plate. capacitors are often used in electric and electronic circuits as energy - storage devices. they can also be used to differentiate between high - frequency and low - frequency signals. this property makes them useful in electronic filters. practical capacitors have series resistance, internal leakage of charge, series inductance and other non - ideal properties not found in a theoretical, ideal, capacitor. 4. 6 trimmer capacitor a small button type variable capacitor with a value of 40 pf can be used to adjust the resonant frequency of the tank circuit. the variable capacitor and the inductor coil form the tank circuit ( lc circuit ) that resonates in the 88 - 108 mhz. in the tank circuit, the capacitor stores electrical energy between its plates while the inductor stores magnetic energy induced by the windings of the coil. the resonant frequency can be calculated using the formula : f = 1 / 2 π √lc = hz where f is the frequency in hertz, x is the coil length, c is the cap


induced by the windings of the coil. the resonant frequency can be calculated using the formula : f = 1 / 2 π √lc = hz where f is the frequency in hertz, x is the coil length, c is the capacitance of trimmer in farads, and l is the inductance of coil in henry. 4. 7 tank circuit every fm transmitter needs an oscillator to generate the radio frequency ( rf ) carrier waves. the name ‘ tank ’ circuit comes from the ability of the lc circuit to store energy for oscillations. the purely reactive elements, the c and the l simply store energy to be returned to the system. in the tank ( lc ) circuit, the 2n3904 transistor and the feedback 4. 7 pf capacitor are the oscillating components. the feedback signal makes the base - emitter current of the transistor vary at the resonant frequency. this causes the emitter - collector current to vary at the same frequency. this signal fed to the aerial and radiated as radio waves. a plastic wire or telescopic aerial can be used as antenna. the length of the antenna is very important to transmit the signals in the suitable range. as a rule, the length of the antenna should be ¼ of the fm wave length. to determine the length of antenna, use the following equation. by multiplying the wave frequency and wave length will give the speed of light. speed of light = frequency of oscillation x wavelength = in kms / sec wave length = speed of light / frequency = in meters antenna length = 0. 25 x wavelength = in meters antenna length = 0. 25 x wavelength = in meters by using this formula it is easy to select the antennal length. for the circuit mentioned above, a 25 - 27inches long antenna is sufficient. 5. fm ( frequency modulation ) in telecommunications and signal processing, frequency modulation ( fm ) conveys information over a carrier wave by varying its instantaneous frequency. this is in contrast with amplitude modulation, in which the amplitude of the carrier is varied while its frequency remains constant. in analog applications, the difference between the instantaneous and the base frequency of the carrier is directly proportional to the instantaneous value of the input signal amplitude. digital data can be sent by shifting the carrier ' s frequency among a set of discrete values, a technique known as frequency - shift keying. frequency modulation can be regarded as phase modulation where the carrier phase


instantaneous value of the input signal amplitude. digital data can be sent by shifting the carrier ' s frequency among a set of discrete values, a technique known as frequency - shift keying. frequency modulation can be regarded as phase modulation where the carrier phase modulation is the time integral of the fm modulating signal. fm is widely used for broadcasting of music and speech, and in two - way radio systems, in magnetic tape recording systems, and certain video transmission systems. in radio systems, frequency modulation with sufficient bandwidth provides an advantage in cancelling naturally - occurring noise. frequency - shift keying ( digital fm ) is widely used in data and fax modems. suppose the baseband data signal ( the message ) to be transmitted is xm ( t ) and the sinusoidal carrier is, where fc is the carrier ' s base frequency and ac is the carrier ' s amplitude. the modulator combines the carrier with the baseband data signal to get the transmitted signal : in this equation, is the instantaneous frequency of the oscillator and is the frequency deviation, which represents the maximum shift away from fc in one direction, assuming xm ( t ) is limited to the range ±1. although it may seem that this limits the frequencies in use to fc ± fδ, this neglects the distinction between instantaneous frequency and spectral frequency. the frequency spectrum of an actual fm signal has components extending out to infinite frequency, although they become negligibly small beyond a point. 5. 1. 1 sinusoidal baseband signal while it is an over - simplification, a baseband modulated signal may be approximated by a sinusoidal continuous wave signal with a frequency fm. the integral of such a signal is, thus, in this specific case, equation ( 1 ) above simplifies to : where the amplitude of the modulating sinusoid, is represented by the peak deviation ( see frequency deviation. the harmonic distribution of a sine wave carrier modulated by such a sinusoidal signal can be represented with bessel functions - this provides a basis for a mathematical understanding of frequency modulation in the frequency domain. 5. 2 modulation index as with other modulation indices, this quantity indicates by how much the modulated variable varies around its un - modulated level. it relates to the variations in the frequency of the carrier signal : where is the highest frequency component present in the modulating signal xm ( t ), and is the peak frequency - deviation, i. e. the maximum deviation of the


level. it relates to the variations in the frequency of the carrier signal : where is the highest frequency component present in the modulating signal xm ( t ), and is the peak frequency - deviation, i. e. the maximum deviation of the instantaneous frequency from the carrier frequency. if, the modulation is called narrowband fm, and its bandwidth is approximately. if, the modulation is called wideband fm and its bandwidth is approximately. while wideband fm uses more bandwidth, it can improve signal - to - noise ratio significantly. for example, doubling the value of while keeping fm constant, results in an eight - fold improvement in the signal to noise ratio. compare with chirp spread spectrum, which uses extremely wide frequency deviations to achieve processing gains comparable to more traditional, better - known spread spectrum modes. with a tone - modulated fm wave, if the modulation frequency is held constant and the modulation index is increased, the ( non - negligible ) bandwidth of the fm signal increases, but the spacing between spectra stays the same ; some spectral components decrease in strength as others increase. if the frequency deviation is held constant and the modulation frequency increased, the spacing between spectra increases. frequency modulation can be classified as narrow band if the change in the carrier frequency is about the same as the signal frequency, or as wide - band if the change in the carrier frequency is much higher ( modulation index > 1 ) than the signal frequency. for example, narrowband fm is used for two way radio systems such as family radio service where the carrier is allowed to deviate only 2. 5 khz above and below the center frequency, carrying speech signals of no more than 3. 5 khz bandwidth. wide - band fm is used for fm broadcasting where music and speech is transmitted with up to 75 khz deviation from the center frequency, carrying audio with up to 20 khz bandwidth. 5. 3 carson ' s rule a rule of thumb, carson ' s rule states that nearly all ( ~ 98 % ) of the power of a frequency - modulated signal lies within a bandwidth of where, as defined above, is the peak deviation of the instantaneous frequency from the center carrier frequency. the noise power decreases as the signal power increases ; therefore the snr goes up significantly. fm signals can be generated using either direct or indirect frequency modulation. · direct fm modulation can be achieved by directly feeding the message into the input of a vco. · for indirect fm modulation, the message signal is integrated to generate a phase modulated signal. this is used


using either direct or indirect frequency modulation. · direct fm modulation can be achieved by directly feeding the message into the input of a vco. · for indirect fm modulation, the message signal is integrated to generate a phase modulated signal. this is used to modulate a crystal controlled oscillator, and the result is passed through a frequency multiplier to give an fm signal. many fm detector circuits exist. one common method for recovering the information signal is through a foster - seeley discriminator. a phase - locked loop can be used as an fm demodulator. slope detection demodulates an fm signal by using a tuned circuit, which has its resonant frequency slightly offset from the carrier frequency. as the frequency rises and falls, the tuned circuit provides a changing amplitude of response, converting fm to am. am receivers may detect some fm transmissions by this means, though it does not provide an efficient method of detection for fm broadcasts. fm is also used at audio frequencies to synthesize sound. this technique, known as fm synthesis, was popularized by early digital synthesizers and became a standard feature for several generations of personal computer sound cards. edwin howard armstrong ( 1890 – 1954 ) was an american electrical engineer who invented wideband frequency modulation ( fm ) radio. he patented the regenerative circuit in 1914, the super - heterodyne receiver in 1918 and the super - regenerative circuit in 1922. he presented his paper : " a method of reducing disturbances in radio signaling by a system of frequency modulation ", which first described fm radio, before the new york section of the institute of radio engineers on november 6, 1935. the paper was published in 1936. as the name implies, wideband fm ( wfm ) requires a wider signal bandwidth than amplitude modulation by an equivalent modulating signal, but this also makes the signal more robust against noise and interference. frequency modulation is also more robust against simple signal amplitude fading phenomena. as a result, fm was chosen as the modulation standard for high frequency, high fidelity radio transmission : hence the term " fm radio " ( although for many years the bbc called it " vhf radio ", because commercial fm broadcasting uses a well - known part of the vhf band — the fm broadcast band ). fm receivers employ a special detector for fm signals and exhibit a phenomenon called capture effect, where the tuner is able to clearly receive the stronger of two stations being broadcast on the same frequency. problematically however, frequency drift or lack of selectivity may cause one station or signal


detector for fm signals and exhibit a phenomenon called capture effect, where the tuner is able to clearly receive the stronger of two stations being broadcast on the same frequency. problematically however, frequency drift or lack of selectivity may cause one station or signal to be suddenly overtaken by another on an adjacent channel. frequency drift typically constituted a problem on very old or inexpensive receivers, while inadequate selectivity may plague any tuner. an fm signal can also be used to carry a stereo signal : see fm stereo. however, this is done by using multiplexing and de - multiplexing before and after the fm process. the rest of this article ignores the stereo multiplexing and de - multiplexing process used in " stereo fm ", and concentrates on the fm modulation and demodulation process, which is identical in stereo and mono processes. a high - efficiency radio - frequency switching amplifier can be used to transmit fm signals ( and other constant - amplitude signals ). for a given signal strength ( measured at the receiver antenna ), switching amplifiers use less battery power and typically cost less than a linear amplifier. this gives fm another advantage over other modulation schemes that require linear amplifiers, such as am and qam. frequency - shift keying is the frequency modulation using only a discrete number of frequencies. morse code transmission has been implemented this way, as were most early telephone - line modems radio teletype also use fsk. fm modulation is also used in telemetry applications, radar, seismic prospecting and newborn eeg seizures modeling. 5. 9 super heterodyne reciever in electronics, a super heterodyne receiver ( sometimes shortened to superhets ) uses frequency mixing or heterodyning to convert a received signal to a fixed intermediate frequency, which can be more conveniently processed than the original radio carrier frequency. virtually all modern radio and television receivers use the super heterodyne principle. the diagram at right shows the minimum requirements for a single - conversion super heterodyne receiver design. the following essential elements are common to all superhet circuits : [ a receiving antenna, a tuned stage which may optionally contain amplification ( rf amplifier ), a variable frequency local oscillator, a frequency mixer, a band pass filter and intermediate frequency ( if ) amplifier, and a demodulator plus additional circuitry to amplify or process the original audio signal ( or other transmitted information ). figure : block diagram of super heterodyne receiver 5. 10 circuit description to receive a


if ) amplifier, and a demodulator plus additional circuitry to amplify or process the original audio signal ( or other transmitted information ). figure : block diagram of super heterodyne receiver 5. 10 circuit description to receive a radio signal, a suitable antenna is required. this is often built into a receiver, especially in the case of am broadcast band radios. the output of the antenna may be very small, often only a few microvolts. the signal from the antenna is tuned and may be amplified in a so - called radio frequency ( rf ) amplifier, although this stage is often omitted. one or more tuned circuits at this stage block frequencies which are far removed from the intended reception frequency. in order to tune the receiver to a particular station, the frequency of the local oscillator is controlled by the tuning knob ( for instance ). tuning of the local oscillator and the rf stage may use a variable capacitor, or varicap diode. the tuning of one ( or more ) tuned circuits in the rf stage must track the tuning of the local oscillator. 5. 11 mixer stage the signal is then fed into a circuit where it is mixed with a sine wave from a variable frequency oscillator known as the local oscillator ( lo ). the mixer uses a non - linear component to produce both sum and difference beat frequencies signals, each one containing the modulation contained in the desired signal. the output of the mixer may include the original rf signal at fd, the local oscillator signal at flo, and the two new frequencies fd + flo and fd - flo. the mixer may inadvertently produce additional frequencies such as 3rd - and higher - order intermediation products. the undesired signals are removed by the if bandpass filter, leaving only the desired offset if signal at fif which contains the original modulation ( transmitted information ) as the received radio signal had at fd. historically, broadcast am receivers using vacuum tubes would save costs by employing a single tube as a mixer and also as the local oscillator. the pentagrid converter tube would oscillate and also provide signal amplification as well as frequency shifting. 5. 12 intermediate frequency stage the stages of an intermediate frequency amplifier are tuned to a particular frequency not dependent on the receiving frequency ; this greatly simplifies optimization of the circuit. the if amplifier ( or if strip ) can be made highly selective around its center


12 intermediate frequency stage the stages of an intermediate frequency amplifier are tuned to a particular frequency not dependent on the receiving frequency ; this greatly simplifies optimization of the circuit. the if amplifier ( or if strip ) can be made highly selective around its center frequency fif, whereas achieving such a selectivity at a much higher rf frequency would be much more difficult. by tuning the frequency of the local oscillator flo, the resulting difference frequency flo - fd ( or fd - flo when using so - called low - side injection ) will be matched to the if amplifier ' s frequencyfif for the desired reception frequency fd. one section of the tuning capacitor will thus adjust the local oscillator ' s frequency flo to fd + fif ( or. less often, to fd - fif ) while the rf stage is tuned to fd. engineering the multi - section tuning capacitor and coils to fulfill this condition across the tuning range is known as tracking. other signals produced by the mixer ( such as due to stations at nearby frequencies ) can be very well filtered out in the if stage, giving the superheterodyne receiver its superior performance. however, if flo is set to fd + fif, then an incoming radio signal at flo + fif will also produce a heterodyne at fif ; this is called the image frequency and must be rejected by the tuned circuits in the rf stage. the image frequency is 2fif higher ( or lower ) than fd, so employing a higher if frequency fif increases the receiver ' s image rejection without requiring additional selectivity in the rf stage. usually the intermediate frequency is lower than the reception frequency fd, but in some modern receivers ( e. g. scanners and spectrum analyzers ) it is more convenient to first convert an entire band to a much higher intermediate frequency ; this eliminates the problem of image rejection. then a tunable local oscillator and mixer converts that signal to a second much lower intermediate frequency where the selectivity of the receiver is accomplished. in order to avoid interference to receivers, licensing authorities will avoid assigning common if frequencies to transmitting stations. standard intermediate frequencies used are 455 khz for medium - wave am radio, 10. 7 mhz for broadcast fm receivers, 38. 9 mhz ( europe ) or 45 mhz ( us ) for television, and 70 mhz for satellite and terrestrial microwave equipment. 5. 13 bandpass filter the received the if


- wave am radio, 10. 7 mhz for broadcast fm receivers, 38. 9 mhz ( europe ) or 45 mhz ( us ) for television, and 70 mhz for satellite and terrestrial microwave equipment. 5. 13 bandpass filter the received the if stage includes a filter and / or multiple tuned circuits in order to achieve the desired selectivity. this filtering must therefore have a band pass equal to or less than the frequency spacing between adjacent broadcast channels. ideally a filter would have a high attenuation to adjacent channels, but maintain a flat response across the desired signal spectrum in order to retain the quality of signal. this may be obtained using one or more dual tuned if transformers or a multipole ceramic crystal filter. the received signal is now processed by the demodulator stage where the audio signal ( or other baseband signal ) is recovered and then further amplified. am demodulation requires the simple rectification of the rf signal ( so - called envelope detection ), and a simple rc low pass filter to remove remnants of the intermediate frequency. fm signals may be detected using a discriminator, ratio detector, or phase - locked loop. continuous wave ( morse code ) and single sideband signals require a product detector using a so - called beat frequency oscillator, and there are other techniques used for different types of modulation. the resulting audio signal ( for instance ) is then amplified and drives a loudspeaker. when so - called high - side injection has been used, where the local oscillator is at a higher frequency than the received signal ( as is common ), then the frequency spectrum of the original signal will be reversed. this must be taken into account by the demodulator ( and in the if filtering ) in the case of certain types of modulation such as single sideband. 6. circuit diagram of wireless fm microphone 7. circuit description the above figure shows the circuit diagram of wireless fm microphone. it has two transistor stages. the first one is the common emitter amplifier. the second stage is the voltage controlled oscillator. capacitor and self - made inductor will vibrate at frequencies in the fm radio band ( 88 to 108 mhz ) and it constitutes the l - c circuit. it is also called tank circuit. it consists of one inductor and two capacitors. this is called colpitt ' s oscillator. the physics lying behind this is that the capacitor stores charges between its plates, while the induc


tank circuit. it consists of one inductor and two capacitors. this is called colpitt ' s oscillator. the physics lying behind this is that the capacitor stores charges between its plates, while the inductor coil stores energy in the magnetic field induced by the coil winding. the tank circuit vibrates at resonant frequency. the resonant frequency is given by f = 1 / 2 π √lc hz where f is the frequency in hertz, c is the capacitance of trimmer in farads, and l is the inductance of coil in henry. the performance of an fm transmitter depends on two important aspects · tuning of the fm transmitter to the desired frequency. even a slight change in the coil specification or slight change in the variable capacitor value can shift the harmonic frequency of the 88 to 108 mhz fm band. · length of the antenna used to transmit the frequency. the important parameters for the optimum performance of an fm transmitter are : · transmitter frequency, output power and range of transmission. · antenna length. · coil diameter, length, number of turns and gauge of the wire used for coil winding. the electric microphone has a resistance that depends on how loudly you speak into it. this microphone is battery powered and according to the v = ir ohm ’ s law, changes in resistance for fixed voltage will result in proportional changes in current. this wireless fm microphone is easy to construct and its transmissions can be picked up on any standard fm radio. it has a range of up to 1 / 4 - mile ( 400 meters ) or more, depending on the line of sight, obstructions by large buildings, etc. if you decide to substitute transistors with something similar you already have, it may be necessary to adjust the collector voltage of q1 by changing the value of r2 or r3 ( because you change transistors, it changes this bias on the base of q1 ). it should be about half the supply voltage ( about 4 or 5 ). to find the signal on receiver, make sure there is a signal coming in to the microphone, otherwise the circuit won ' t work. to use the microphone, set up a radio in the area at least 10 feet ( 3 meters ) from the project. find a blank spot on the fm dial and tune the radio up so you can hear the static. connect a 9 - volt battery to the transmitter and listed to the radio. slowly adjust the trimmer capacitor until "


from the project. find a blank spot on the fm dial and tune the radio up so you can hear the static. connect a 9 - volt battery to the transmitter and listed to the radio. slowly adjust the trimmer capacitor until " quiet " the receiver ; this is the tuned spot. when move hand from the transmitter, then detune the circuit somewhat. it is usually best to leave it detuned and tune the radio in to get the best reception. if you get the tuning range you desire, you can squeeze the coils in the tank circuit closer together to raise the frequency, or pull them apart just a little to lower it. 8. pcb design 8. 1 pcb design procedure pcb preparation can be done using the following steps. · prepare the pcb layout of the circuit in a graph sheet. · cut the copper clad sheet in proper dimension and wash it. · pcb layout is coated with paint or sticker. · prepare the ferric chloride solution · dip the pcb in to ferric chloride solution for etching non printed surface. · wash cleanly with detergent. · drill the holes in necessary any position. 9. pcb layout soldering is the process of joining two or more similar or dissimilar maters by melting another meters having lower melting points. soldering is an alloy of tin and lead, used for fusing the metals at relatively low temperature about 260uk to 315uk. the joint where the two metal conductors are to be fused is heated and solder is applied so that it can melt and cover the connection. the reason for soldering connections is that it makes a good bond between the joining metals, covering the joints completely to prevent oxidization. the coating of solder provides protection for practically long period of time. the trick in soldering is to heat the joint, not the solder. when the soldering is hot enough to melt the solder, it follows smoothly to fill all cracks forming a shiny cover without any space. do not move the joint until the solder has set. either the soldering iron or soldering gun can be used rated at 25w to 100w. in addition to this solder flux is used to remove any oxide films on the metal being joint. otherwise they cannot be joined together. 9. 1 soldering fluxes in order to make the surface accept the solder readily, the component terminals should be for from order and other abstractly films. soldering flux cleans the orders from


joint. otherwise they cannot be joined together. 9. 1 soldering fluxes in order to make the surface accept the solder readily, the component terminals should be for from order and other abstractly films. soldering flux cleans the orders from the surface of the metal. zinc chloride, aluminums chloride, and rosin at the commonly used fluxes. solder is used for joining two or more mental at temperature below their melting point. the popularly used solders on alloy are alloys of tin ( 60 % ) and lead ( 40 % ) that metals at stiff and solidifies when it cools. 9. 3 soldering iron it is used the melt the solder and apply at the joints in the circuit. ø working with a simple dry cell power supply. ø it is user friendly. ø low cost. ø easy to install. ø simple circuit. ø greater freedom of movement for the artist or speaker. ø avoidance of cabling problems common with wired microphones, caused by constant moving and stressing the cables. ø sometimes limited range ( a wired balanced xlr microphone can run up to 300 ft or 100 meters ). some wireless systems have a shorter range, while more expensive models can exceed that distance. ø possible interference with or, more often, from other radio equipment or other radio microphones, though models with many frequency - synthesized switch - selectable channels are now plentiful and cost effective. ø operation time is limited relative to battery life ; it is shorter than a normal condenser microphone due to greater drain on batteries from transmitting circuitry, and from circuitry giving extra features, if present. ø noise or dead spots ( places where it doesn ' t work, especially in non - diversity systems ). ø limited number of operating microphones at the same time and place, due to the limited number of radio channels ( frequencies ). ø it is used in seminar halls, class rooms, for a school or college radio etc. the mini project ' wireless fm microphone ' is developed from the elementary idea of making a wireless hand piece, which can be used in a seminar hall, auditorium etc. this idea forced us to proceed with our project. as our project deals with transmitter & the most common receiver is fm receiver, we decided to make the fm transmitter. 15. future scope as the field of information technology and communication is developing day - by - day, the necessity of more sophisticated equipments and discoveries is raising up. hence, more enhanced version of our project, wireless fm microphone can be implemented in various


mount union students face their fears october 18, 2012 alliance, ohio — for the third year in a row, university of mount union students enrolled in assistant professor of psychology dr. kevin meyers ’ abnormal psychology course had the opportunity to overcome a specific phobia at cedar point amusement park. students learned to overcome their phobias through a process known as “ exposure therapy. ” this year ’ s ‘ face your fears ’ project was held at cedar point in sandusky, oh. students explored and overcame the “ roller coaster phobia ” which falls into the category of anxiety disorders known as specific phobias. specific phobias can be focused on certain objects or certain environments and their impact on the individual. a person with a specific phobia disorder is commonly diagnosed with behavioral disorders and the individual can suffer from anxiety attacks, persistent fear and the action of avoiding the object or environment to which their fear stems from. this is where the concept of exposure therapy comes into play. exposure therapy is a type of cognitive behavioral therapy in which the individual is gradually exposed to their fear over time. according to meyer, cedar point is a prime location to expose students to their roller coaster fears since cedar point has moderate to medium to extreme roller coaster varieties available. the overall goal of the ‘ face your fear ’ project is to expose students to a real - world application of how a specific therapeutic method can be applied to successfully treat a behavioral disorder. students were active in collecting various types of data, serving as an active sample in a real - time working study, and will have the opportunity to integrate what they learn into a course project. through this process, several individuals will in fact overcome their roller coaster phobia, opening up a previously inaccessible source of fun and excitement they can now be free to explore. back to previous page


fun learning with printable flash cards here you will find our selection of free printable flash cards for preschool learning ( and beyond! ). flash cards are a great way for kids to learn the basic elements and memorize them through short repeat sessions. you ’ ll find helping them learn their first abc, animal names and numbers incredibly rewarding. a few minutes here, a few minutes there, whether at home, traveling, in the park or at auntie ’ s it ’ s learning on the go. these lovely cards turn learning into playing ( … but we also love decorating kids ’ rooms by sticking them on the wall or putting them in picture frames. ) we ’ ve made all our printable flash cards here free for everybody and of course you can print them as many times as you like! alphabet flash cards helping the little one ’ s first learning fun and sweet! vocabulary flash cards learning new words and concepts is great fun! number & math flash cards various flash cards for all your math activities. shapes & colors flash cards try combining abstract shapes and pretty colors with various colorful activities. we have a growing selection of children ’ s resources for preschool, homeschool & classroom learning activities. please check back soon to see what ’ s new. thank you! we ’ d also love to hear from parents and teachers with suggestions.


the use of pressure of the fingers and hands for massage and to stimulate qi ( vital energy ) flow throughout the body. it is used well with tension and stress ailments. acupuncture - the use of thin needles to restore energy balances. it is believed that the body has special channels of energy, called meridians, running throughout the body. by stimulating special points on these meridians with acupuncture needles, energy balance is restored to normal functioning. an educational technique, rather than a therapeutic technique, that teaches a method of adjusting body postures and movement to relieve damaging stresses. the therapeutic use of bee venom to help alleviate pain and various conditions. a science that tests nerve and muscle groups throughout the body to determine the strengths and weaknesses of the various organ systems. it is also used to determine the body ' s receptivity to various remedies thereby assisting health restoration. additional modalities like nutrition, massage, and acupressure are then added for treatments. bee sting see apitherapy chiropractic - a technique of manipulating and adjusting the spine to restore normal flow of nerve function throughout the spinal column to heal and to alleviate p homeopathy - the field of medicine that treats disease and restores health by giving minute amounts of medicinal substances that would produce the same symptoms of the disease in healthy persons. this field uses the principle that " like cures like. " hyperbaric oxygen therapy see oxygen therapy magnetic field therapy the use of magnets and electromagnetic fields for medical treatments of many conditions including pain and stress. there is current ongoing research in this field. music and sound therapy the use of sounds and music to promote health through its calming and soothing effects and through energizing effects on the central nervous system. it is being widely spread for use in hospitals and schools. treatment programs have been used for stress reduction, pain alleviation, improvements in movement, balance, and cognition, and promotion of strength and endurance. the use of oxygen to destroy pathogens in the body through oxygenation or oxidation. the use of oxygen therapy in the united states is controversial, even though use in europe is wide spread. the legal use of oxygen therapy varies from state to state. a therapy that utilizes motion and soft stretching and rotations to promote relaxation and to improve flexibility and range of motion. view these alternatives health and well being - diet, exercise, herbs, vitamins, apitherapy, hyperbaric oxygen stress - massage, reflexology, meditation, guided imagery, biofeedback, tai


do you bite your nails? you may be deficient in minerals what are minerals? yes, nail biting often begins with boredom or impatience or fidgeting. if you are among the millions who regularly bite their nails, you ' ve probably said to yourself " i wish i could stop biting my nails! " but often your body needs the minerals in the nail material that your body is recycling. so the reward - cycle begins and continues. studies show that the mineral content of hair or nails is similar to the mineral content of bone. the human body, like everything else in nature, is made up of chemicals. since the trace minerals group includes over 50 chemical elements, scientists further subdivide this group into three categories, to separate the minerals that are important in health from others that are in our bodies just because they are in the environment and probably have no special role. the first category is the essential trace minerals. these are minerals that are required in the diet for full health, and when the intake is insufficient, symptoms of deficiency will arise. they include nine known to be essential : zinc, copper, selenium, chromium, manganese, molybdenum, iodine, fluoride, and cobalt. about 10 more minerals are thought to be essential but the full proof is not yet in ; these are arsenic, boron, bromine, cadmium, lead, lithium, nickel, silicon, tin, and vanadium. you will note in this list several minerals ( arsenic, cadmium, lead ) that are normally thought to be toxic. this leads to the second category of trace minerals, the toxic trace minerals. the term is used for minerals that give problems with toxicity at levels that may be encountered normally in the environment and for which health concerns are more likely to arise from too much rather than too little in the body. this category is fairly loose, changing from time to time, and includes aluminum, arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury, and tin. actually, all nutrients are toxic if too much is ingested ; how much is too much depends on the nutrient. for essential minerals like copper, there is a definite gradation for health ; if the intake is below the requirement, illness due to deficiency will develop ; as the intake goes up, health will improve until a plateau is reached, where small increases in intake will not make any difference to health ; above the top safe level ( the end of the plateau ), increases in intake will cause toxic illness. in extreme cases,


most ingrown nail infections can be described as a simple foreign body reaction. the nail grows into the skin and acts as a foreign body, just like a splinter or a piece of glass. continued pressure by the nail against the skin causes inflammation and a soft the most common reason we develop ingrown nails is due to improper trimming of the nail. the nail is very weak when twisted ( torsion ). if the nail is trimmed so that a small spur, called a spicule, is left on the border of the nail, the nail will continue to grow forcing the spicule into the skin. as the skin responds to this ' foreign object ' it becomes inflamed and sore. the area adjacent to the nail will become increasingly more difficult to trim, and so begins the vicious cycle that we call an ingrown nail. the majority of ingrown nails are on the hallux ( big toe ). pain is usually tolerable until the nail is bumped or stepped on. ingrown nails are extremely common in adolescent boys and in women 2 - 3 months postpartum. why? young boys seem to have little regard for regular hygiene and pregnant women have a difficult time reaching their feet during the last several months of their pregnancy, not to mention the additional burden of their feet the shape of the nail can also be a contributing factor for ingrown nails. pincer nails ( as shown to the left ), a term used for nails that have a pinched appearance, put pressure on the periungual folds. as shoe pressure is exerted on the nail, the edges of the nail push into the skin just as the weight of something put on a table pushes through the legs of the table to the floor. other contributing factors that may cause ingrown nails include trauma to the nail, pressure from adjacent toes and the shape or profile of the forefoot in relationship to the shape of the toe box of the shoe. medical conditions, such as fungal infections or psoriasis, can change the shape of the nail and contribute to ingrown nails. treatment for ingrown nails ingrown toenails are treated much the same as a splinter. antibiotics and soaking can help to reduce the inflammation associated with the ingrown nail, but until the foreign object ( ingrown nail ) is removed, the stale mate between the nail and adjacent skin will continue. removal of the offending border of nail is necessary in most cases of ingrown nails. many have suggested the '


but until the foreign object ( ingrown nail ) is removed, the stale mate between the nail and adjacent skin will continue. removal of the offending border of nail is necessary in most cases of ingrown nails. many have suggested the ' proper ' way to trim the nail, but in actuality, every nail is a bit different from the next nail. therefore, it ' s most important to trim the nail with quality nail trimmers in a way that it is not going to irritate the periungual fold. trimming the nail straight across may work for some but is ineffective for others. some advocate cutting a groove or v in the distal tip of the nail. this is also ineffective. cotton under the edge of the nail has been tried, even metallic clips that ' lift ' the nail, but each of these will fail in time unless the offending border of the nail is removed. nailease may help to lift the edges of the nail in a limited number of cases. many pregnant women develop ingrown nails due to their inability to reach their feet. nailease is a great product for them since they are poor surgical candidates until they the technique used most commonly today to treat infected ingrown nails is called a phenol - alcohol procedure ( p & a procedure ). this procedure is performed in the office under a local anesthetic on an out - patient basis. after the toe is numbed and cleaned with a disinfecting agent, a thin margin of nail is removed. phenol, which is 77 % carboxylic acid, is applied to the nail matrix to kill the cells that produce that small margin of nail only. the phenol is then flushed out with alcohol. patients can return to a band - aid and regular shoes the next day. the interesting thing about the phenol - alcohol procedure is the lack of pain experienced by patients following their surgery. this is due to the fact that phenol has a topical anesthetic property that last for 2 - 3 weeks. although the procedure will drain for several days, the benefit of using phenol is significant. phenol is best know as the active ingredient in chloroseptic mouthwash spray. in chloroseptic, phenol is used in a more dilute concentration but has the same effect in that it inhibits sore throat pain. other surgical procedures may be used with or without phenol and include the use of a co2 laser or other chemicals to destroy the


##l is used in a more dilute concentration but has the same effect in that it inhibits sore throat pain. other surgical procedures may be used with or without phenol and include the use of a co2 laser or other chemicals to destroy the matrix cells. the decision to remove one border, both borders or the entire nail should be discussed with your doctor. the following images show the steps involved in correcting an ingrown nail with a p & a or phenol alcohol procedure. image 1 shows administration of local anesthesia. once the nail has been anesthetised, the foot is prepped with a betadine or comparable solution. image 2 shows a small tourniquet ( penrose drain ) around the toe to inhibit bleeding ( hemostasis ). a nail splitter is being used to create a clean split to remove just the borders of the nail. image 3 shows a hemostat being used to remove the nail. the nail bed is then scraped with a small curette to physically destroy the nail matrix. in image 4 we see the application of phenol. phenol application is normally done 3 times for 5 - 10 seconds each application. and image 5 shows the final bandage. this procedure is completed in 10 minutes and is performed in an office setting. post - op care varies, but steps are taken to promote drainage of the nail and may include epsom salt soaks or application of steroid / antibiotic drops. patients return to a normal shoe the day after surgery wearing just a 1 inch band - aid. healing takes


prepare this delightful combination of potatoes and vegetables on the grill or in the oven. it can be made ahead of time and served at room temperature or reheated. by patty james why is it important to eat lots of different colored fruits and vegetables? because each colored vegetable and fruit has unique properties and there is strong evidence of interactions between the colors that are beneficial to your health. eating by the rainbow is vitally important to your well - being. here are the colors : red foods contain lycopene that helps rid the body of damaging free radicals and protects against prostate cancer, as well as heart and lung disease. the red foods are loaded with antioxidants thought to protect against heart disease by preventing blood clots, and may also delay the aging of cells in the body. orange and yellow foods contain alpha carotene, which protects against cancer, but also contain beta - carotene, which the body converts to vitamin a, protecting the skin against free - radical damage. beta - carotene is also good for night vision. yams and sweet potatoes oranges and tangerines yellow summer or winter squash green foods contain the chemicals that help ward off cancer by inhibiting carcinogens. chlorophyll is the component that makes plants green, and it is purifying in the body. many green foods also contain calcium and minerals. kale, spinach, and other leafy greens blue, indigo, and violet foods contain the compound anthocyanins that not only give food their color but also have been shown to reduce the risk of high blood pressure and increasing heart health. plums, fresh and dried white foods, though not part of the color of the rainbow, contain properties that have anti - tumor qualities, such as allicin in onions as well as other health - improving antioxidants such as the flavanoids. the white foods, like bananas and potatoes, contain potassium as well. so how do you incorporate these fruits and vegetables into your daily eating habits? here are some sample menus to get you started : an orange. saute 1 / 2 red pepper, ½ onion, 2 shitake mushrooms, and 2 cloves garlic. add 3 cups leafy greens ( spinach leaves are fine ) and 3 eggs. cook until eggs are done and serve. strawberries. oatmeal made with cubed butternut squash or pureed pumpkin, topped with raw walnut pieces and raw pumpkin seeds. turkey sandwich on whole grain bread with sprouts


3 eggs. cook until eggs are done and serve. strawberries. oatmeal made with cubed butternut squash or pureed pumpkin, topped with raw walnut pieces and raw pumpkin seeds. turkey sandwich on whole grain bread with sprouts, lettuce, tomato slices, avocado, and grated carrots. serve with a 2 - cup salad made with romaine lettuce and raw cauliflower, broccoli, and garbanzo beans. spinach salad topped with black olives, cherry tomatoes, cucumbers, green onions, and cauliflower. add beans or chicken if you like. toss with fresh lemon juice and either olive oil or flax oil or a combination of the two. sprinkle fresh parsley, chopped, on top. grilled fish or chicken breast or black beans and brown rice ( protein ). coleslaw made with green and red cabbage with red onions and grated carrots. baked yam. pasta primavera made with spinach fettuccini, sauteed red peppers, onions, garlic, zucchini, carrots, and whatever else is in season. 1 cup blueberries and cantaloupe jicama slices with salsa and celery with hummus or peanut or almond butter pineapple chunks and banana slices raw veggies with your favorite dip. hummus is a good choice. tangerine slices with herb tea remember that you need 5 – 9 cups of vegetables and fruits a day for good health. make sure at least half of your veggies are raw. don ' t forget that juicing can incorporate many colored fruits and veggies easily and may be a good choice for those who may not be able to chew raw fruits and veggies. patty james is a certified natural chef with a master ' s degree in holistic nutrition and was founder and director of the patty james cooking school and nutrition center, the first certified organic cooking school and nutrition center in the country. she created the patty james health guide, a guide to life - long healthy eating and lifestyle. patty is a frequent guest speaker in public and private schools around the us, the clinton foundation in new york, as well as to health practitioners and organizations. patty runs shine the light on america ' s kids, an organization whose mission is to shine the light on all aspects of kids ' health in america. she is the author of more vegetables, please! website : pattyjames. com and shinethelightonkids. org


jacob ' s diverse family jacob found it in his heart to embrace all his children, though they chose different paths. provided by the jewish outreach institute, an organization dedicated to creating a more open and welcoming judaism. we have come to the end of jacob ' s tumultuous life. and as he gathers his children to his on his deathbed, jacob offers each one a blessing. in these blessings are contained wishes for his children that emanate from his own experience of life and his relationship with each one. rather than being cut of divine cloth and thereby a form of revelation, these blessings emerge from the kind of wisdom that only comes from the experience of human living. of the many lessons that jacob teaches us, we learn from him that old age can be a powerful teacher, as well as a calming influence particularly as they relate to those issues that seem to tear families apart only years before. the things that were once so important are eclipsed by the hovering shadow made so poignant by the angel of death. if we can reconcile at the end of life, why can ' t we do so earlier? what will it take to do so earlier? jacob ' s family was certainly diverse and its members had traveled different paths in their lives. yet he found it in his heart to embrace them all, including his grandchildren, the children of joseph. this diversity reflects his final and complete transformation from jacob to israel ( which we read about in a previous section ). if our communities are to be diverse and supportive of the foundational values of inclusion, then our families - - which are already diversifying - - can do no less.


joined : 16 mar 2004 | posted : wed dec 13, 2006 11 : 39 am post subject : new method creates nanowire detectors exactly where needed | new method creates nanowire detectors exactly where needed there seems to be little doubt among cancer researchers that new detection systems using nanowires and microfluidics hold the promise of providing a quantum leap in the detection of cancer - related molecules and genes. however, researchers also know that there are significant technical barriers that must be overcome to realize that promise, including the current difficulty in creating microfluidic devices built around nanowire detectors. now, a team of investigators at the nanosystems biology cancer center, one of eight nci - funded centers of cancer nanotechnology excellence, has developed a method for creating conducting polymer nanowires in place within microfluidic circuits. the team, led by hsian - rong tseng, ph. d., of the university of california, los angeles, and james health, ph. d., of the california institute of technology, reported their work in the journal chemical communications. the researchers create the nanowires using standard microelectrodes built into the microfluidics device specifically for the purpose of carrying out electrochemical reactions within the channels of the device. this allows them to use the microfluidic channels to introduce the precursor molecules, or monomers, needed to create the conducting polymer nanowires and trigger an electrochemical reaction at the exact place where the nanowires are needed to function as biomolecule detectors. this reaction causes the monomers to link to one another, forming the conducting polymer nanowires. this process can create two different types of polymer nanowires, one made of polyaniline, the other of polypyrrole. the chemical reactions are completed within 40 minutes. once formed, the nanowires can function immediately as detectors, with the electrodes used to form the nanowires now functioning as the circuitry that connects the nanowires to electrical signal recorders. the investigators demonstrate that these detectors are highly sensitive to changes in ph and to changing ammonia concentrations, though they note that these nanowires should be able to be used to detect a wide range of biomolecules. this work, which was supported in part by the national cancer institute, is detailed in a paper titled, “ electrochemical fabrication of conducting polymer nanowires in an integrated microfluidic system. ” this story was first posted on 26th september 2006.


joined : 16 mar 2004 | posted : tue aug 11, 2009 11 : 55 am post subject : new line of lasers for biomedicine | dundee leads eu project to develop next generation of lasers laser technology has revolutionised the world of medicine in ways never before thought of. more and more often the scalpel is giving way to a new generation of lasers. now the fast - dot project, backed by the eu with €10. 1 million in financing, is underway to develop a new line of lasers for biomedical applications. led by a team located at the university of dundee, 18 european partners from 12 countries will pool their knowledge and resources to develop the next generation of lasers which will be used for biomedical applications. their combined efforts mean that they are able to conduct nearly 100 person years of work in a fraction of the time. according to professor edik rafailov of the university of dundee, ' this project will revolutionise the use of lasers in the biomedical field, providing both practitioners and researchers with pocket sized ultra high performance lasers at a substantially lower cost, which will make their widespread use affordable. ' the new lasers that will be developed will not only be much smaller but also more energy efficient than current lasers in use. current lasers are not portable and are heavy on energy consumption. the new lasers will be designed for use in microscopy and nanosurgery, where high precision cutting, imaging and treatment therapies will be made possible. according to neil stewart, fast - dot project manager, ' the objectives of the project are to use a technology called quantum dot materials, probably gallium arsenide, and exploit their lasing characteristics for use in biomedical applications, such as laser tweezing for microsurgery. ' the new lasers will mean that surgeons and life scientists will have access to much higher performance and lower cost lasers than are currently available and will open up exciting new application areas for lasers in biomedicine. there is also hope that new lasers under development will also decrease in size. currently, lasers are roughly the size of a shoebox. fast - dot hopes to bring down the size to that of a matchbox while bringing the cost down to a tenth of what they currently are. dr stewart also claimed that the new lasers would be applicable in the field of micro - surgery. ' with these lasers we ought to be able to take that down to about a very few microns. and because of the differences in the way the energy is controlled, it enables us to deliver very controlled amounts of energy so


biologists have known for decades that cells use tiny molecular motors to move chromosomes, mitochondria, and many other organelles within the cell, but no one has been able to understand what " steers " these engines to their destinations. now, researchers at the university of rochester have shed new light on how cells accomplish this feat, and the results may eventually lead to new approaches to fighting pathogens and neurological diseases. michael welte, associate professor of biology, shows in a paper published in today ' s issue of cell that the mechanisms that control the molecular motors are quite different from what biologists have previously believed. before these findings, scientists assumed that the number of motors attached to an organelle determined how far and fast the organelle could travel, but welte and colleagues have discovered that it is not the number of motors, but yet - to - be - discovered molecules that are likely the master regulators. " the fact that motor number has nothing to do with regulating transport is extremely surprising, and somewhat unsettling to people working in vitro, " says welte. " it says we ' re really missing something when we study these motors only in the test tube instead of in a living cell. " intracellular transport is crucial to a cell ' s health, says welte. for instance, during cell division, one copy of each of the cell ' s chromosomes migrates to one side of the cell while the other copy moves to the other side. if this movement is disturbed, it could cause an imbalance of chromosomes in the daughter cells, which might die or become cancerous. similarly, neurons, some of which are as much as three feet in length, manufacture proteins and organelles at one end and then must move that precious cargo all the way to the far end where they ' ll be used. this is an enormous task, says welte, and defects in this transport are thought to cause a number of neurological diseases. given the difficulty of investigating these tiny motors acting within the cell, biologists have performed basic experiments on them outside of the cell in a carefully controlled environment. this led them to believe that the speed and distance an organelle could be transported depended on how many motors were pulling it, says welte. thus, the scientists reasoned, perhaps the cell simply attaches the right number of motors to an organelle to send it the right distance. although this " multi - motor " hypothesis is very simple and elegant, says welte, whether it actually holds true within living


reasoned, perhaps the cell simply attaches the right number of motors to an organelle to send it the right distance. although this " multi - motor " hypothesis is very simple and elegant, says welte, whether it actually holds true within living cells had never been tested. welte ' s graduate student, susan tran, decided to perform that test. she created fruit - fly eggs lacking a type of molecular motor called kinesin and found that certain organelles stopped moving — strong evidence that kinesin is responsible for their transport. tran then made another type of mutant eggs, this time ones that produced only about half the number of kinesin motors of a regular egg. in both types of eggs, organelles were transported with the same speed and the same distance. welte needed to know if this equality was because the normal egg was simply utilizing only half the available kinesin motors, or if some master regulator was controlling the organelle ' s progress, regardless of the number of motors moving it. to do this, welte turned to steven gross, associate professor of developmental and cell biology at the university of california. gross ' group uses an apparatus called " optical tweezers " that employs laser light to measure the tiny forces the motors generate. the team found that organelles in regular cells are pulled with twice the force of tran ' s mutant, low - kinesin cells. " that clinched it for us, " says welte. " yes, there are multiple motors moving organelles around, but exactly how many doesn ' t matter. there is something else in the cell that ' s controlling all the motors. that opens up a big area for research — find what ' s driving these motors and maybe we can control them all by controlling one thing. " welte and his team are now looking at where in the cell this signal comes from and how it influence the motors. although welte ' s team studied fruit fly eggs, the motors moving the organelles are present in all animals and employed for many tasks, including transport in human neurons. welte also points out that viruses, including hiv, make use of the same kind of motors to move about the cell, first to get from the site of penetration to the nucleus, where they multiply, and then to get progeny viruses back to the cell surface. if welte and others can figure out how cells normally control these motors, it may be possible to prevent hiv from taking control of the motors and thus to


the latest news from academia, regulators research labs and other things of interest posted : december 7, 2009 super cool atom thermometer ( nanowerk news ) as physicists strive to cool atoms down to ever more frigid temperatures, they face the daunting task of developing new, reliable ways of measuring these extreme lows. now a team of physicists has devised a thermometer that can potentially measure temperatures as low as tens of trillionths of a degree above absolute zero. their experiment is reported in the current issue of physical review letters and highlighted with a viewpoint in the december 7 issue of physics. physicists have developed a new thermometry method suitable for measuring temperatures of ultracold atoms. ( illustration : alan stonebraker ) physicists can currently cool atoms to a few billionths of a degree, but even this is too hot for certain applications. for example, richard feynman dreamed of using ultracold atoms to simulate the complex quantum mechanical behavior of electrons in certain materials. this would require the atoms to be lowered to temperatures at least a hundred times colder than what has ever been achieved. unfortunately, thermometers that can measure temperatures of a few billionths of a degree rely on physics that doesn ' t apply at these extremely low temperatures. now a team at the mit - harvard center for ultra - cold atoms has developed a thermometer that can work in this unprecedentedly cold regime. the trick is to place the system in a magnetic field, and then measure the atoms ' average magnetization. by determining a handful of easily - measured properties, the physicists extracted the temperature of the system from the magnetization. while they demonstrated the method on atoms cooled to one billionth of a degree, they also showed that it should work for atoms hundreds of times cooler, meaning the thermometer will be an invaluable tool for physicists pushing the cold frontier. source : american physical society translate this article : check out these other trending stories on nanowerk :


edwards middle school students like four - footed martian robots it was the video of robots looking like geckos crawling on mars that did it. that ' s the catalyst that brought a gymnasium full of middle school students to life during a visit by nasa dryden flight research center director kevin petersen, astronaut pam melroy, and local graduate shelby hagenauer, now a legislative assistant to representative william m. thomas from california ' s 22nd congressional district. image right : nasa dryden flight research center director kevin petersen talks to edwards middle school students on april 9. nasa photo by tom tschida. the students, some 350 - strong, attend edwards middle school on edwards air force base, where nasa dryden is located. dryden supports the school as a nasa explorer school, one of a growing number of schools around the country who are partnering with nasa to achieve exciting learning projects. petersen, melroy and hagenauer each had messages of encouragement for the students. the edwards community is a savvy audience ; many of the students ' parents fly aboard, or support, experimental aircraft tested by the air force at this mojave desert location. when petersen spoke about cutting - edge experiments flying overhead every day, it was the straight scoop from nasa dryden ' s top insider, delivered to an audience whom, he said, may have the opportunity to contribute to the planned exploration of mars. " let ' s go do something really hard, " petersen encouraged his audience. " we ' ll learn some things we can all use. " pam melroy captivated the students with descriptions of space travel taken from her two space shuttle missions. when asked what it was like to sleep in outer space, melroy smiled and replied, " sleep? it ' s worse than the night before christmas times a thousand! " she wanted to stay awake to experience everything, knowing she had but a short stay on orbit. but sleep in space is necessary, and she said astronauts sometimes strap themselves to a wall to get the feeling of something at their backs, like the feeling of a mattress on earth. in zero gravity conditions, up and down don ' t matter, and some astronauts " hang upside down like bats " to sleep, she told the edwards middle school crowd. image left : nasa astronaut pamela melroy answers students ' questions at edwards middle school. nasa photo by tom tschida. melroy reminded her audience, " someone between the age of about five and 15 right now will be the one to step on mars. " prophetic words that melroy and her co


21 may - 3 october 2010 ‘ the glass delusion ’ was the name given in the late middle ages and baroque times to a form of depression. sufferers were obsessive, compulsive, driven by irrational fears, and imagined themselves to be made of glass, hence brittle and fragile. so pervasive was the condition that it entered world literature, philosophy and history. cervantes wrote the novel the glass licentiate, descartes mentions it as a premise to his syllogism i think therefore i am, and charles vi of france had iron ribs sewn into his clothes to protect himself from breaking. victims allegedly travelled padded in straw and refused to sit down fearing their body weight would fracture their buttocks. the syndrome evokes a psychological separation between reality and imagination, between a strength and a vulnerability that we all experience at times. glass is a barrier, yet allows light to pass through it ; it magnifies and shrinks ; it can be delicate as well as deadly. its attributes are appropriated in symbolic ways : the glass brain and the glass man ; mirror image, alter ego, doppelganger, and split personality all come to mind. more than any other material glass has the ability to combine opposites and it is this duality that is the inspiration for this exhibition.


water in the ear living in thailand is great for those of us who enjoy swimming and water sportsbut the hot and tropical climate doesn ' t mean that you are safe from " swimmer ' s ear syndrome " or otitis. swimmer ' s ear or otitis externa is an inflammation, irritation or infection of the skin of the outer ear canal. after swimming or showering, water remaining in the ear leaves the ear canal moist, making it a good environment for bacterial growth. rubbing the ear with a finger or using cotton tips to clean the ears lead to abrasions of the ear canal skin. bacteria then invade the skin and cause infection of the ear canal or swimmer ' s ear. swimming in polluted water and excessive cleaning worsen the infection. symptoms of swimmer ' s ear start with itching and mild discomfort, then progress to pain, swelling and redness in the ear, feeling of fullness or a blocked ear, fluid ( pus ) drainage from the ear, lymph node swelling and fever. the diagnosis is made by history, symptoms and ear examination. pain, redness or swelling of the outer ear canal leads to the diagnosis of otitis externa ( swimmer ' s ear ). however, in recurrent infections, the doctor may collect discharge from the ear canal for culture to identify the causative bacteria. treatment for swimmer ears includes cleaning of the ear canal, application of eardrops that inhibit bacterial or fungal growth and reduce swelling, and / or oral antibiotics. pain relief medication may be given to minimise the discomfort. as with all infections, prevention is better than cure. below are some tips that should keep you safe from otitis externa. 1. keep your ear dry because a dry ear is unlikely to become infected. tip your head to the side to drain water out of your ear after swimming and showering. swim mould can also be used to prevent water to the ear. 2. do not swim in polluted water. 3. do not put anything into your ear including finger, cotton, cloth or paper. 4. if you have an ear infection, do not go swimming. dr savitree chaloryoo, is a specialist paediatric audiologist at the hearing center, on the third floor of samitivej srinakarin hospital. she can be contacted at ( 02 ) 378 9000.


on a trip to ireland a few years ago, i was struck by a number of faces among the crowds. they were children with the tell - tale look of down syndrome. don ' t miss these health stories more women opting for preventive mastectomy - but should they be? rates of women who are opting for preventive mastectomies, such as angeline jolie, have increased by an estimated 50 percent in recent years, experts say. but many doctors are puzzled because the operation doesn ' t carry a 100 percent guarantee, it ' s major surgery - - and women have other options, from a once - a - day pill to careful monitoring. - larry page ' s damaged vocal cords : treatment comes with trade - offs - report questioning salt guidelines riles heart experts - cdc : 2012 was deadliest year for west nile in us - what stresses moms most? themselves, survey says - more women opting for preventive mastectomy - but should they be? what struck me was the realization that i hardly ever see these young faces out on the street in the united states. a fascinating probe by the associated press suggests the reason. gene testing of parental carriers is leading to the birth of fewer and fewer children with inherited diseases in the united states. other conditions such as down syndrome, which uses prenatal testing of the fetus, are also apparently being screened out in greater numbers. by encouraging genetic testing for potential parents of european background, fewer and fewer children in the u. s. are being born with cystic fibrosis. aggressive programs to offer genetic testing to a subset of jewish ancestry has, over the last decade, resulted in a situation in which only about a dozen new cases of fatal tay - sachs disease occur each year in babies in the united states. experts believe that wider testing of parents may produce in the years to come a sharp decline in the number of children born with sickle cell disease and fragile x syndrome, a leading cause of cognitive impairment in boys. reducing the burden of disease is obviously a good thing. but genetic testing of parents, and, as is now happening with increasing frequency, embryos, raises some difficult ethical challenges as well. in many cases, genetic testing of parents may discourage them from trying to have a child but, in situations where there is risk but not certainty, some parents will try to conceive. then, aware of the risk, they pursue further prenatal testing, and end any pregnancy in which a fetus could be affected. destroying an


, in situations where there is risk but not certainty, some parents will try to conceive. then, aware of the risk, they pursue further prenatal testing, and end any pregnancy in which a fetus could be affected. destroying an embryo is obviously a difficult ethical and personal choice. not as obvious are two other ethical challenges that more and more testing creates : the impact on those with genetic disabilities and their families and the likely expansion of genetic testing to more and more conditions in the years to come. as some families with a down syndrome child have noted, fewer kids with down may mean fewer public programs, fewer resources in schools and for housing and less political clout. if some genetic diseases begin to fade away, will society ’ s willingness to provide support for the diminishing numbers of those born with such diseases fade as well? and are we headed to a time when parents who choose not to be genetically tested find themselves condemned as morally irresponsible parents? there may be broad agreement that getting rid of a disease like tay - sachs, which produces a slow, miserable and inevitable death, usually by age 4, morally justifies aggressive genetic testing and even decisions to abort pregnancies where the fetus has the disease. but, could the same ethical consensus be brought to bear concerning conditions such as deafness or dwarfism, which also have a genetic component? and what about using genetic testing on parents to pick out those at high risk for passing on conditions such as breast cancer, depression, alzheimer ’ s or addiction — conditions that involve genetic risks but that may not appear until mid - life or later and for which therapies may well be found in the future? and at the far extreme will companies be free to tout genetic testing of would - be parents simply to try and make matches that would result in a " better " baby? as with many scientific advances, the good they do comes with some very hard dilemmas for you and me. arthur caplan is director of the center for bioethics at the university of pennsylvania. © 2013 msnbc. com. reprints


an elderly woman on long island became nassau county ' s first confirmed case of west nile virus in a human this year, as the nation battles what has been described as one of the largest - ever outbreaks of the disease. the woman, who nassau county health department officials described as over 70 and a resident of the town of oyster bay, became sick july 27, was hospitalized and is now recovering. the centers for disease control said wednesday that so far there have been five confirmed cases of west nile in new york state - - on staten island, long island and in oswego and onondaga counties upstate. there have been two cases each in new jersey and connecticut. a county - by - county breakdown can be found here. u. s. health officials reported wednesday three times the usual number of west nile cases for this time of year and one expert called it " one of the largest " outbreaks since the virus appeared in this country in 1999. so far, 1, 118 illnesses have been reported, about half of them in texas, according to the centers for disease control and prevention. in an average year, fewer than 300 cases are reported by mid - august. there have also been 41 deaths this year. " we ' re in the midst of one of the largest west nile outbreaks ever seen in the united states, " said dr. lyle petersen, a cdc official. never before have so many illnesses been reported this early, said petersen, who oversees the cdc ' s mosquito - borne illness programs. most infections are usually reported in august and september, so it ' s too early to say how bad this year will end up, cdc officials said. they think the mild winter, early spring and very hot summer have fostered breeding of mosquitoes that pick up the virus from birds they bite and then spread it to people. west nile virus was first reported in the u. s. in 1999 in new york, and gradually spread across the country over the years. it peaked in 2002 and 2003, when severe illnesses reached nearly 3, 000 and deaths surpassed 260. last year was mild with fewer than 700 cases. only about one in five infected people get sick. one in 150 infected people will develop severe symptoms including neck stiffness, disorientation, coma and paralysis. in recent years, cases have been scattered across the country. hot spots are usually in southeast louisiana, central and southern california, and areas around dallas, houston, chicago and phoenix. those areas seem to have a combination of factors that include the right kinds of


patrick henry : violent extremist? just as today, americans enjoyed more freedom and less taxes than any nation in europe. yet they opposed a tax on tea ( today ’ s equivalent of taxing coke ) with violent vigor. laws like the stamp act, which are reasonable by today ’ s standards, caused violent opposition that bordered on treason. where the colonists crazy? after the british repealed many of these duties, the sons of liberty hurled entire chests of perfectly fresh, well priced tea, into boston harbor with significant public support. were the colonists just trying to provoke the wrath of the british? when that wrath did come, politicians like patrick henry shouted phrases like “ liberty or death! ” when in the direct warpath of the most powerful military in the world. the founders did these things because they believed in the principle of individual rights. individual rights is the idea that the government ’ s sole job is the protection of the life liberty and property of individuals, and the belief that any compromise, any deviation from that principle, is unacceptable. today, the principle of individual rights is hardly ever mentioned, and compromise is considered a virtue. the colonists were not protesting against the level of taxes ( as republicans do today ) they protested the fact that they were being collected by the whim of a single man, just as today they are collected at the whim of a simple majority, or at the whim of whatever pressure group manages to lobby congress. they recognized that any amount of taxes collected in this way violated the principle and was therefore completely wrong. the boston tea party was a demonstration against the british government bailing out the east india company by giving the failing business a trade monopoly. they recognized that if the government had the arbitrary power to save a failing company, it also had the arbitrary power to destroy their liberties. imagine what we would think of the sons of liberty today if they were caught tossing chevy volts into the sea. when patrick henry shouted “ give me liberty or give me death! ” he understood that life means nothing if it is bought at the cost of liberty. if he spoke such words today he would be viewed as a “ violent extremist ”. intellectuals would condemn his position as too “ black and white ” to account for the nuances of politics. instead of protesting taxes that are “ too high ” or that government regulations are “ too much ” we should remember the principles involved. the purpose of government is to protect individual rights. when it does things other than that, it stands in violation of that principle. it is our


in what ' s being described as the largest, most complete genetic mapping project for a single disease, scientists monday announced a plan to obtain the genetic make - up of more than 800 individuals enrolled in an alzheimer ' s research study. the research will determine all 6 billion letters in each individual ' s dna. the new data - - vast and shared worldwide with eligible researchers - - may explain how genes cause changes in the body that lead people to develop alzheimer ' s disease. " it ' s probably dozens or scores of genes that are contributing to whether you get it and how severe it is in you, " said dr. robert green, a physician - scientist at harvard medical school who is tasked with coordinating the genetic sequencing. " the genome is a complicated place. it ' s not just about identifying a gene that puts you at risk. it ' s about identifying other genes that modify those genes. it ' s about identifying genes that protect you. " the $ 2 million genetic sequencing project is being conducted by the alzheimer ' s disease neuroimaging initiative in partnership with the alzheimer ' s association and the brin wojcicki foundation. the sequencing will be completed in three months. it will take much longer to know whether the study participant ' s decoded genomes yield any breakthrough strategies to treat the more than 5 million americans who have alzheimer ' s disease. " i would expect it to point us to new areas we might want to investigate for therapies, " said william thies, chief medical and scientific officer at the alzheimer ' s association. " i expect that it may point us to new areas that will allow us to predict who ' s at high risk for alzheimer ' s disease and who could be treated early before they have any signs of dementia. "


by dr. perry kendall provincial health officer aug. 14, 2012 victoria - as summer vacations come to an end, and we begin to look forward to the fall, it is a good time to start thinking about how to best protect ourselves and our loved ones from illnesses like influenza. the public health agency of canada estimates that between 2, 000 and 8, 000 canadians die every year from influenza and its complications. british columbia provides the flu shot for free each year to those considered at higher risk of developing influenza complications, or those who care for them. that list includes : - people over age 65 and their caregivers. - children and adults with chronic health conditions and their household contacts. - health - care workers. - emergency responders. - healthy children aged six months - five years. - household contacts and caregivers of children aged zero - five years. - pregnant women who will be in their third trimester during the influenza season. - residents of nursing homes and other chronic - care facilities. - aboriginal peoples. - people who are very obese ( those with a body mass index of 40 or greater ) even if you are not considered a person of high risk, if you regularly interact with or work around someone who is, i strongly encourage you to get vaccinated for their sake. high - risk populations can suffer severe consequences from influenza, including death. bacterial pneumonia, an infection of the lungs, is the most common complication from influenza, especially in elderly people. it can also lead to more complications for people who have heart, lung or other health conditions. for these reasons, it is especially important that health - care workers get their flu shot each year, and i would like to acknowledge and thank those health - care workers who do get vaccinated. as a physician myself, i know how important it is to protect patients. all of the major professional health care bodies, such as the college of registered nurses of british columbia, support vaccination of health - care workers. unfortunately, each year throughout b. c., fewer than 50 per cent of health - care workers get immunized against influenza. this rate is too low - patients deserve better. some jurisdictions in the united states have managed to achieve 95 per cent coverage of health - care workers. there is significant evidence in long - term care facilities that high health - care worker influenza vaccine coverage results in diminished illness and fewer deaths. getting the flu shot should be considered standard patient safety practice for all health - care workers who come into contact with patients -


is significant evidence in long - term care facilities that high health - care worker influenza vaccine coverage results in diminished illness and fewer deaths. getting the flu shot should be considered standard patient safety practice for all health - care workers who come into contact with patients - as important as following effective hand hygiene practices, staying home when ill or wearing a mask in the operating room. i would like to briefly address the concerns that some people have about the vaccine, as each year far fewer people get vaccinated than we in the public health community would like to see. the flu vaccine is extremely safe. it is not possible to contract the flu from getting a flu shot, because the publicly funded vaccines use only killed - inactive - virus particles. there is also no risk of developing conditions like autism from the flu vaccine ( or any vaccine, for that matter ). it is far safer to get the vaccine than to get sick - especially if you or someone you love is considered high risk. vaccines have been one of the most important medical advances of the modern era and have been responsible for wiping out ( or nearly eliminating ) once common illnesses, such as smallpox. this year, if you are eligible for a free flu shot, i encourage you to get immunized. if you care for vulnerable people, i especially urge you to get immunized, and if you are a health - care worker providing care to patients, the national advisory committee on immunization considers influenza immunization an essential component of the standard of care. finally, if you are a parent, ensure that your child ' s other vaccinations are up - to - date. vaccines are safe and effective. they reduce illness and save lives.


the pulling power of chaos our science essay ponders the riddle of the wandering stars. starting with poincare, complex maths i what is the most efficient way to get a space probe to its target? when apollo 11 went to the moon in 1969 it followed a conventional hohmann transfer orbit. imagine an egg - shaped outline, with the earth at the bottom. as the spacecraft comes up the left - hand side, it burns fuel to accelerate, and swings into orbit around the moon. this was the quickest route – aside from the impractical one of flying straight out by burning fuel the whole time – and, in a manned mission, speed was of the essence. however, we now know that when efficient use of fuel is the main objective, and time is unimportant, less direct routes can be much better. when nasa sent the cassini probe to saturn, it first went inwards in the solar system, undergoing two close encounters with venus. then it swung back past the earth and on to jupiter before making a sharp turn to meet saturn. trajectories such as this exploit the slingshot effect, in which the spacecraft steals energy from a planet. the tiny spacecraft speeds up considerably, pulled towards the planet by gravity ; the massive planet slows down very slightly, but not enough to notice. yet there is another, subtler effect of orbital dynamics which is also being used to get spacecraft to their targets using as little fuel as possible : chaos. the technique was first used in 1991. a japanese space probe, hiten, had been surveying the moon. having completed its mission and returned to orbit the earth, it had pretty much run out of fuel. edward belbruno, an orbital analyst at nasa ’ s jet propulsion laboratory in los angeles, came up with an idea that sounded impossible. he wanted to extend its useful life and enhance its scientific value by sending it back to the moon. then it would visit the moon ’ s trojan points – the points in space 60 degrees ahead of and behind the moon in its orbit where gravity and centrifugal forces cancel each other out. there it could search for cosmic dust that might have become trapped. it sounded crazy, but belbruno knew a way to do it. mathematicians and physicists had realised that the motion of bodies under gravity can be chaotic – highly irregular, despite obeying entirely deterministic laws. chaotic orbits are sensitive to very small disturbances. normally, this feature is seen as an obstacle to prediction, but belbruno realised


realised that the motion of bodies under gravity can be chaotic – highly irregular, despite obeying entirely deterministic laws. chaotic orbits are sensitive to very small disturbances. normally, this feature is seen as an obstacle to prediction, but belbruno realised that it could be used to advantage. very small changes in position or speed, which use very little fuel, can cause large changes to the trajectory. that makes it easy to redirect the spacecraft in a fuel - efficient, though possibly slow, manner. one place where chaotic orbits can arise is somewhere called the “ l1 lagrange point ” between the earth and the moon, where the net gravitational force is zero ( essentially, objects are “ suspended ” between the two bodies because of the forces generated by each ). belbruno designed a new orbit that took hiten close to the l1 point, where a short, carefully calculated burst of its rockets would loop it out to where he wanted it to go. he faxed his proposals, unsolicited, to the japanese team ; they loved the idea. when the probe arrived at l1, it found there was no more dust than you ’ d expect ; after a few years orbiting the moon, hiten was crashed into its surface in 1993. still, it had ushered in a new era of space travel. a similar trick was used for nasa ’ s genesis mission to bring back samples of the solar wind. the first oscar our fascination with the planets goes back to prehistoric times, when human eyes watched the star - spangled splendour of the night sky and human minds were awed by the cosmic spectacle. countless stars moved across the sky, pinpricks of light on a gigantic, rotating velvet - black bowl. a few of those pinpricks of light, however, did not obey the rules. they went walkabout. the greeks called them planetes – wanderers ; we call them planets. their paths are complicated and sometimes loop back on themselves. it is not surprising that the ancients attributed their movements to the caprices of supernatural beings. ptolemy, a roman who lived in egypt around ad120, began the lengthy process of taming the solar system, proposing that we live in an earth - centred universe in which everything revolves around humanity in complex combinations of circles supported by giant crystal spheres. around 1300, the persian islamic philosopher najm al - katibi proposed a heliocentric ( sun - centred ) theory, but changed his mind. the big breakthrough came in 154


around humanity in complex combinations of circles supported by giant crystal spheres. around 1300, the persian islamic philosopher najm al - katibi proposed a heliocentric ( sun - centred ) theory, but changed his mind. the big breakthrough came in 1543 when nicolaus copernicus published on the revolutions of the celestial spheres. he was clearly influenced by al - katibi, but he went further, setting out an explicitly heliocentric system. among its implications was the novel thought that human beings were not at the centre of things. to the christian church, this suggestion was contrary to doctrine, and explicit heliocentrism was heresy. the riddle of the wandering stars was finally answered in 1609 by johannes kepler, an assistant to the astronomer tycho brahe. when his employer died unexpectedly, kepler took over as court mathematician to emperor rudolph ii. his main role was casting imperial horoscopes, but he also had time to analyse the orbit of mars. for years, he tried without success to fit the planet ’ s orbit to an egg - shaped curve, sharper at one end than the other. in 1605 he decided to try an ellipse, equally rounded at both ends. he discovered that this shape fitted the observations, and declared : “ ah, what a foolish bird i have been! ” in 1609, kepler published a new astronomy, stating two basic laws of planetary motion. first law : all planets move in ellipses with the sun as a focus. second law : a planet moves along its orbit in such a manner that it sweeps out equal areas in equal times. in 1619 he returned to planetary orbits in the harmony of the world. the book contained many curious ideas – for example, that planets emit musical sounds as they roll round the sun. but it also contained his third law : the squares of the time taken for planets to orbit are proportional to the cubes of their distances from the sun. this work led to one of the greatest scientific discoveries of all time. in his mathematical principles of natural philosophy of 1687, isaac newton proved that kepler ’ s three laws are equivalent to a single universal law of gravitation. two bodies attract each other with a force that is proportional to their mass and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. newton ’ s law of gravity had a huge advantage over kepler ’ s ellipses : it applies to any system of bodies, however many there might be. the price to be paid is the way the law prescribes