- a couple wants to test for inherited disorders before embryos are transferred. ivf can be done even if a : - woman has had a reference tubal ligation opens new window reversal surgery that was not successful. - woman does not have fallopian tubes. - woman ' s fallopian tubes are blocked and can ' t be repaired. ivf can be done using donor eggs for women who cannot produce their own eggs due to advanced age or other causes. how well it works the number of women who have babies after in vitro fertilization varies, depending on many different things. almost all reference assisted reproductive technology ( art ) opens new window procedures are done using ivf. age. birth rates resulting from a single cycle of ivf using women ' s own eggs are about 30 % to 40 % for women age 34 and younger, then rates decrease steadily after age 35. reference 1 the reference aging of the egg supply has a powerful effect on the chances that an assisted reproductive technology ( art ) procedure will result in pregnancy and a healthy baby. cause of infertility. infertility can be caused by problems with the woman ' s or the man ' s reproductive system. some of these causes can include problems with the fallopian tubes, with reference ovulation opens new window, or with the sperm. pregnancy history. a woman who has already had a live birth is more likely to have a successful art procedure than a woman who hasn ' t given birth before. this " previous birth advantage " gradually narrows as women age from their early 30s to their 40s. own eggs versus donor eggs. birth rates are affected by whether art procedures use a woman ' s own eggs or donor eggs. many women over age 40 choose to use donor eggs, which greatly improves their chances of giving birth to healthy babies. for each cycle of in vitro fertilization : reference 1 - using her own eggs, a woman ' s chances of having a live birth decline from over 40 % in her late 20s, to 30 % at about age 38, and to 10 % by about age 43. - live birth rates are about the same among younger and older women using donor eggs. women in their late 20s through mid - 40s average about a 55 % birth rate using fresh ( not frozen ) embryos. frozen embryos versus fresh embryos. donor - frozen ivf embryos from a previous ivf cycle that are thawed and transferred to the uterus are less likely to result in a live birth than are donor - fresh


frozen ) embryos. frozen embryos versus fresh embryos. donor - frozen ivf embryos from a previous ivf cycle that are thawed and transferred to the uterus are less likely to result in a live birth than are donor - fresh ( newly fertilized ) ivf embryos. reference 1 but frozen embryos are less expensive and less invasive for a woman, because superovulation and egg retrieval aren ' t needed. in vitro fertilization ( ivf ) increases the risks of ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome and multiple pregnancy. - reference superovulation opens new window with hormone treatment can cause severe reference ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome opens new window. your doctor can minimize the risk of ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome by closely monitoring your ovaries and hormone levels during treatment. - the risk of conceiving a multiple pregnancy is directly related to the number of embryos transferred to a woman ' s uterus. reference multiple pregnancies are high - risk for both the mother and the fetuses. there may be a higher risk of birth defects for babies conceived by certain assisted reproductive techniques, such as ivf. talk with your doctor about these possible risks. embryo transfer success versus the risk of multiple pregnancy for a woman over age 35 to maximize her chances of conceiving with her own eggs and carrying a healthy pregnancy, she may choose to have more embryos transferred than a younger woman would. but this increases her risk of multiple pregnancy. because of the risks to the babies of multiple pregnancy, experts recommend limiting the number of embryos transferred. your doctor will recommend a certain number of embryos to be transferred based on your age and specific situation. women over 40 have a high rate of embryo loss when using their own eggs. as an alternative, older women can choose to use more viable donor eggs. when a woman uses donor eggs, experts recommend using the donor ' s age to help figure out how many embryos to transfer. reference 2 what to think about smoking has a damaging effect on fertility and pregnancy. smoking reduces the chance that ivf will work. reference 3 smoking can also affect the health of the fetus. in vitro fertilization provides diagnostic information about fertilization and embryo development ( which is not the case with a reference gift or zift opens new window procedure ). using ultrasound to help collect eggs from the woman ' s ovaries is less expensive, less risky, and less invasive than egg collection by reference laparoscopy opens


california sea otters will start the new year with a vast new range of territory far south of their government - imposed grounds north of point conception. beginning on jan. 18, they are free to swim south into waters off los angeles, san diego and baja - places they frequented before they were forcibly relocated to a remote channel island in the 1980s. the u. s. fish and wildlife service decided to lift the " no - otter " zone this month after a thorough review found that the translocation program that started it was essentially a failure. about 140 sea otters living between the mexican border and point conception, north of santa barbara, were gathered up and taken to san nicolas island in 1987. the purpose of the move was to establish a colony of otters far enough away from the coast to protect it from oil spills or other catastrophes. as coastal marine mammals, sea otters are particularly susceptible to pollution runoff and other near - shore toxins. a no - otter zone south of point conception was then instituted to keep otters, which are voracious shellfish eaters, from infringing on commercial fishers. many of the relocated otters swam back to central california or to coastal waters, or simply died. officials realized the relocation program was a failure years ago and stopped enforcing it by the early 1990s. " it seems really silly to have " a relocation program, said los angeles waterkeeper spokeswoman liz crosson. " sea otters sea otters eat the sea urchins that can decimate kelp forests, crossan explained. lifting the no - otter zone will also bring the marine mammals greater legal protection against harm because they are listed as a federally threatened species, crosson said. bernardo alps, a local marine mammal expert, said he has seen a sea otter this year and hears reports of sightings a few times a year off the palos verdes peninsula. " lately they ' ve been seen several times a year down here. there are areas near santa barbara where they ' re a lot more regular, " alps said, adding that they may venture south because " usually young males roam to establish new territories. " there are fewer than 3, 000 southern sea otters living off california, according to the u. s. geological survey. they were hunted to near extinction for their fur, and only 50 survivors were found off the coast of big sur by the 1930s. their numbers are growing very slowly because of numerous threats that cause die - offs, including algal toxins, parasites, infectious


medicines for hiv and aids are used to decrease the amount of hiv in the body and to strengthen the immune system. there are six types of hiv medicines. commonly three different types of medicines are taken together. this is called combination therapy. it is vital to take them exactly as prescribed to maintain success, and to help to prevent the virus from becoming resistant to the medicines. these medicines are usually taken for life. what are hiv and aids? hiv stands for human immunodeficiency virus. this is a virus in the group of viruses called retroviruses. hiv destroys cells in the body called cd4 t cells. cd4 t cells are a type of lymphocyte ( a white blood cell ). these are important cells that protect the body against various bacteria, viruses and other germs. hiv actually multiplies within cd4 cells. hiv cannot be destroyed by white blood cells, as it keeps on changing its outer coat, so protecting it. aids stands for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. this is a term which covers the range of infections and illnesses which can result from a weakened immune system caused by hiv. it is important to remember that when you are first infected with hiv you do not have aids. there is usually a time lag of several years between first being infected with hiv and subsequently developing infections and other aids - related problems. this is because it usually takes several years for the number of cd4 t cells to reduce to a level where your immune system is weakened. hiv is now a treatable medical condition and most treated people remain fit and well. this leaflet is a brief overview of medicines that are used to treat hiv and aids. for more information see separate leaflet called hiv and aids and the information resources listed below. what are medicines for hiv and aids and how do they work? medicines for hiv and aids are sometimes called antiretroviral medicines. there are six different types of these medicines available to prescribe in the uk ; they include : - nucleoside or nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors - abacavir, didanosine, emtricitabine, lamivudine, stavudine, and tenofovir. - non - nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors - efavirenz, etravirine, and nevirapine. - protease inhibitors - atazanavir, darunavir, fosamprenavir, indinavir, lopinavir, nelfinavir,


in looking after you and giving you your treatment. as discussed above, these medicines work best in combination. taking three or more antiretroviral medicines at the same time, each attacking hiv at different points in its cycle of replication, is more effective than one or two medicines alone. taking a combination of different medicines also reduces the risk that the virus will become resistant to any individual medicine. in 2008, the first one pill a day treatment was launched. each pill contains three different medicines. this is popular, as it is convenient to take and has few side - effects. in general, most guidelines recommend that you start with either : - two nucleoside or nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors plus a non - nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor ( this regimen is usually tried first ) ; or - two nucleoside or nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors plus a protease inhibitor boosted with low doses of ritonavir. this treatment regimen is usually reserved for people who have resistance to the above regimen, women who want to become pregnant, or anyone with psychiatric illness. when taking medicines for hiv and aids some important considerations are : - adherence - taking your medicines exactly as prescribed. - what to do if you miss a dose. - dietary restrictions. - regular blood tests. - taking other medicines. adherence - taking your medicines exactly as prescribed it is vital to take the medication regularly and exactly as prescribed, to maintain success and to help to prevent the virus from becoming resistant to the medicines. even if you miss one or two doses, the virus can become resistant to treatment. what to do if you miss a dose if you forget to take a dose, take your medicines as soon as you remember. however, if you remember just as you are about to take your next dose, do not take two doses at the same time to make up for the missed dose. if in doubt, speak to your pharmacist or doctor. if you are regularly forgetting to take your medicine, talk to your doctor or pharmacist ; there may be other combination medicines that are more suitable for you. regular blood tests you are likely to have regular blood tests to monitor how well these medicines are working. you will usually have a cd4 t - cell count and a viral load blood test before you start treatment. this is called a baseline measurement. after starting treatment, your doctor will usually measure your viral load and cd4 t - cell count after one month later, and then about every three months thereafter


count and a viral load blood test before you start treatment. this is called a baseline measurement. after starting treatment, your doctor will usually measure your viral load and cd4 t - cell count after one month later, and then about every three months thereafter. if your treatment is effective then your viral load will decrease and your cd4 t cells will increase. you may need more blood tests if you feel unwell or develop symptoms such as an infection. taking other medicines quite a few medicines that you may be prescribed for other conditions or that you can buy from pharmacies or supermarkets can interfere with hiv medicines. this includes herbal medicines. always ask your pharmacist or doctor before taking any new medicines. for more information see the leaflet that came with your medicine. what are the possible side - effects? the side - effects for most hiv medicines are usually mild and often go away after a few weeks. common side - effects include nausea ( feeling sick ), vomiting and headache. if these side - effects do not go away, your doctor can prescribe some other medicines to help with these problems. if this does not help, your doctor may change your medicines. other less common side - effects include : - damage to the liver, kidneys, or pancreas. - skin rash. - dry skin, nail problems, hair loss. - peripheral neuropathy ( damage to the nerves ). - fat loss ( lipoatrophy ). - fat accumulation. - increased blood - sugar levels and risk of type 2 diabetes. see the leaflet that comes with your particular brand for a full list of possible side - effects and cautions. what is the usual length of treatment? once you have started treatment you will need to take these medicines for the rest of your life. this is in order to keep your immune system healthy and to prevent you from getting infections. how well do medicines for hiv and aids work? although these medicines do not cure hiv, they slow the progression of hiv to aids. they are effective at allowing people with hiv to live their lives as normally as possible. since the introduction of medicines to treat hiv, the death rates from aids has reduced dramatically. newer medicines are more effective than medicines used in the past. what happens if i do not take hiv medicines? if you have hiv and do not take hiv medicines, eventually - typically, over a number of years - your viral load increases and the number of cd4 t cells decreases significantly. your immune system becomes very weak. this means that you are open to


if you have hiv and do not take hiv medicines, eventually - typically, over a number of years - your viral load increases and the number of cd4 t cells decreases significantly. your immune system becomes very weak. this means that you are open to getting infections and your body is unable to fight the infection. these infections can become serious and overwhelming for your body and you are likely to die. how to use the yellow card scheme if you think you have had a side - effect to one of your medicines you can report this on the yellow card scheme. you can do this online at the following web address : www. mhra. gov. uk / yellowcard. the yellow card scheme is used to make pharmacists, doctors and nurses aware of any new side - effects that medicines may have caused. if you wish to report a side - effect, you will need to provide basic information about : - the side - effect. - the name of the medicine which you think caused it. - information about the person who had the side - effect. - your contact details as the reporter of the side - effect. it is helpful if you have your medication - and / or the leaflet that came with it - with you while you fill out the report. further help and information 4th floor, 57a great suffolk street, london, se1 0bb tel : 020 7407 8488 or treatment phoneline : 0808 800 6013, mon, tues, wed 12 - 4 pm hiv i - base is a treatment activist group, hiv - positive - led and committed to providing timely hiv treatment information to hiv - positive people and to healthcare professionals. national aids trust new city cloisters, 196 old street, london, ec1v 9fr tel : 020 7814 6767 web : www. nat. org. uk promotes a wider understanding of hiv and aids, develop and support efforts to prevent the spread of hiv and improve the quality of life of people affected by hiv and aids. terrence higgins trust 314 - 320 grays inn road, london, wc1x 8dp helpline : 0845 1221 200 web : www. tht. org. uk a national hiv and sexual health charity. their helpline offers information and support to anyone living with hiv, affected by hiv indirectly or concerned about their sexual health. a comprehensive web - based resource on hiv and aids - related matters. lists several other hiv / aids support organisations. sexual health videos from nhs choices includes videos specifically about hiv and


as one - year olds play, they start to recognize patterns and understand shapes. they begin to sort familiar objects by one characteristic, such as whether they are " hard " or " soft. " they may enjoy filling and emptying containers. they notice that night is followed by day, and that socks go on feet before shoes. they know that when an object is hidden, it is still there. many can also do simple insert puzzles when the puzzle pieces show whole objects. between 18 - 24 months, some children will begin to use a few number words without understanding quantity ( e. g., imitates a simple counting rhyme ). some children may also begin to understand the words " one " and " two " ( e. g., distinguishes " one " or " two " from many ; identifies pairs of items as " two ; " identifies three or more items as " many " rather than as " one " or " two ; " asks for " one " or " two " of something ; knows age ; responds appropriately to the request, " take just one, " or " give me two. " ). between 18 - 24 months, a few children will begin to nonverbally and mentally determine that one item added to another makes " two, " and that one item taken away or subtracted from " two " makes " one. " between 12 and 18 months, the average child understands that when an object is completely hidden, it is still there ( " object permanence " ), and can be recovered. ( some children may understand this between 18 - 24 months. ) during the first half of this year, some children will even be able to recover an object that has been hidden in one place, and then visibly moved to a second position and re - hidden. ( the average child will establish such " object permanence " during the second half of this year. ) during the first half of this year, the average child will also be able to recover an object that has been covered with one item, and then covered with something else while remaining in the same position between 18 and 24 months, some children will informally identify and play with solid objects ( e. g., picks out a familiar object by touch when that object is placed in a bag with two other objects ). between 12 - 24 months, children are typically able to work simple " insert " puzzles ( e. g., completes a three - piece simple puzzle where pieces are whole objects ). also, children can remove a part from


two other objects ). between 12 - 24 months, children are typically able to work simple " insert " puzzles ( e. g., completes a three - piece simple puzzle where pieces are whole objects ). also, children can remove a part from a toy ( e. g., a wheel ) and replace it. finally, children can build three - dimensional structures using one type of item ( e. g., a cube ). between 12 - 18 months, children adjust their reach based on the distance and size of an object ( e. g., accurately reaches and closes hand around an item instead of missing the object or closing hand before contact ). children also adjust their grasp of an object based on its weight ( i. e., no longer grasps all items tightly or allows arm to drop when given heavy items ). some children at 12 - 18 months believe that a cracker broken into many pieces is more food than the same type of cracker that is whole. ( the average child believes this between 18 - 24 months. ) some children during the second half of this year will explore objects by filling and emptying containers ( e. g., with sand or water ). during the second half of this year, a few children begin to develop a sense of time through participation in routine daily activities ( e. g., knows about when it is time to eat, nap time, etc. ). children ' s sense of time develops gradually over the next several years. between 12 - 18 months, some children recognize that there is an order to the day ( e. g., mommy comes to get me after storytime ). the average child sees daily patterns by the second half of this year. in the second half of the year, some children show a greater understanding of daily time sequence ( e. g., time to eat, nap time, etc. ). during the second half of the year, some children notice patterns in the environment ( e. g., day follows night, patterns in carpeting or clothing, etc. ). they also use the terms, " tomorrow, " and " yesterday. " in the second half of this year, some children show interest in patterns or sequence ( e. g., attempts to follow patterns with stringing beads, magnetic shapes, peg boards ). between 18 - 24 months, some children can classify, label and sort familiar objects by a known group ( e. g., hard v. soft, large v. small, heavy v


patellar luxation in dogs patellar luxation occurs when the dog ' s kneecap ( patella ) is dislocated from its normal anatomic position in the groove of the thigh bone ( femur ). when the kneecap is dislocated from the groove of the thigh bone, it can only be returned to its normal position once the quadriceps muscles in the hind legs of the animal relax and lengthen. it is for this reason that most dogs with the condition will hold up their hind legs for a few minutes. a dislocated kneecap is one of the most prevalent knee joint abnormalities in dogs. the condition is most common in toy and miniature dog breeds such as the yorkshire terrier, pomeranian, pekingese, chihuahua, and boston terrier. female dogs are 1 1 / 2 times more likely to acquire the condition. patellar luxation is thought to be rare in cats. nevertheless, if you would like to learn more about how it affects, please visit this page in the petmd health library. symptoms and types the specific symptoms of a dislocated kneecap will depend on the severity and persistence of the condition, as well as the amount of degenerative arthritis that is involved. typically, a dog with a dislocated kneecap will exhibit prolonged abnormal hindlimb movement, occasional skipping or hindlimb lameness, and sudden lameness. the dog will rarely feel pain or discomfort once the kneecap is out of position, only feeling pain at the moment the kneecap slides out of the thigh bone ' s ridges. a dislocated kneecap is usually caused by a genetic malformation or trauma. the clinical signs of the condition will normally start showing approximately four months after birth. a dislocated kneecap is diagnosed through a variety of means. top view ( craniocaudal ) and side view ( mediolateral ) x - rays of the stifle joint, hip, and hock may be used to detect bending and twisting of the thigh bone and larger bone of the lower leg. skyline x - rays may reveal a shallow, flattened, or curved groove of the thigh bone. a fluid sample taken from the joint and an analysis of the lubricating fluid in the joint ( synovial fluid ) will show a small increase in mononuclear cells. it is also necessary for the veterinarian to perform an examination by touch to feel for kneecap freedom. medical treatment for kneecap dislocation


the joint ( synovial fluid ) will show a small increase in mononuclear cells. it is also necessary for the veterinarian to perform an examination by touch to feel for kneecap freedom. medical treatment for kneecap dislocation has very little effectiveness ; surgery is the preferred treatment of choice for severe cases. surgery can correct both the affected structures and the movement of the kneecap itself, and in 90 percent of cases, frees the dog from lameness and dysfunction. the kneecap may be fastened on the outside of the bone to prevent it from sliding towards the inside. alternatively, the groove of the thigh bone may be deepened so that it can better hold the kneecap. living and management follow - up treatment after successful surgery will include leash walk exercise for one month ( avoid jumping ) and yearly examinations to check for progress. it is important that pet owners are aware that there is a high possibility of recurrence ( 48 percent ), although the dislocation will be considerably less severe than the original incidence. because kneecap dislocation is genetically inherited, the breeding of affected dogs is highly discouraged. there are currently no known preventative measures for this medical condition. the term for the knee cap the term for the joint between the femur and tibia ( knee cap ) any growth or organ on an animal that is not normal any type of pain or tenderness or lack of soundness in the feet or legs of animals a medical condition in which the joints become inflamed and causes a great deal of pain. term used to refer to an animal in its regular standing position. the dislocation of a bone from the joint


posted by james briggs on january 19, 2003 in reply to : the ' v ' sign posted by alan on january 19, 2003 : perhaps the most common british phrase, even if it is not spoken but indicated by raising two spread fingers in a similar fashion and meaning two the american ' one finger salute '. : it is said to have originated during the napoleonic wars when napoleon so frustrated with the devastating effect the british archers were having in battle that he promised that any captured british archer would have his two firing fingers chopped off, in defiance the british archers stood on a hill and raised two fingers in the direction of the enemy soldiers and shouted f * * k off thus connecting the word and the sign. although he certain origin is unknown, a highly likely basis takes us back to the hundred years ' war between england and france in the 14th and 15th centuries - much earlier than napoleon, by which time archers were virtually redundant! captured ' english ' archers who, it seems, were actually mainly welsh, had the first two fingers of their right hand cut off so that they couldn ' t take part in future battles. as a defiant riposte, after felling a french soldier with an arrow, an archer would raise his two fingers, just to show that he was still in the game. the battle where this first happened was likely to have been crecy in 1346.


there is no doubt that animals and animal industries are integral to the socio - economic wellbeing of rural and urban australia. climate change brings with it a variety of environmental stressors which will have range of negative impacts on animal industries, threatening food safety and security, animal and human health, and local and national economies. adaptation of production animals to climate change is the key to minimising impacts. adaptation relies on better awareness of the effects of climate change on animal productivity and health, and identification of the vulnerabilities and opportunities that climate change presents to animal industries. this knowledge can inspire proactive farm, industry and social changes that will in turn lead to more sustainable, healthy and productive animal industries. the animal health, production and biosecurity theme aims to build awareness of the climate change threats to animal farming industries and communities. the theme aims to encourage multidisciplinary climate change research in animal sciences that will provide holistic solutions to key climate change issues including : - land, feed and water availability and usage - genetics and breeding - infectious disease control ultimately participants in this theme, both academic and non - academic, will provide inspiration and instruction to foster sustainable animal farming in a changing climate. the theme plans to produce informative climate change adaptation fact sheets for key industries, develop online discussion forums and cutting edge research updates, and visit farming communities over the next two years. we encourage researchers, farmers, local and national government representatives, and rural and urban communities involved with the animal industries to get involved with this piarn theme as active members. member input is valued and encouraged as we work to adapt our animal industries to climate change.


solar electrical power is the particular conversion of sunshine into electricity, either straight making use of photovoltaics ( pv ), and / or indirectly utilizing concentrated solar electric power ( csp ). commercial concentrated solar force vegetation were 1st developed within the 1980s. the actual 354 mw segs csp installing the components is actually the biggest solar electrical power plant throughout the globe, placed within the mojave desert of california. some other big csp plants include the actual solnova solar power station ( 150 mw ) plus the andasol solar electric power station ( 150 mw ), both throughout spain. the actual 214 mw gujarat solar park inside india, is actually the entire globe s biggest photovoltaic plant. solar force typically is the conversion of sunshine into electricity. sunshine is converted straight into electricity applying photovoltaics ( pv ), or simply indirectly with concentrated solar force ( csp ), that normally concentrates the actual sun ' s stamina that would boil water that is afterward used to provide energy. other technologies furthermore exist, for instance stirling engine dishes which incorporate a stirling cycle motor to electrical power a generator. photovoltaics were initially chosen to power little and also medium - sized applications, from the calculator driven by a single solar mobile that would off - grid homes driven by a photovoltaic range. a parabolic trough consists of the linear parabolic reflector which concentrates light onto a receiver placed over the reflector ' s focal line. the recipient is a tube positioned right above the entire center associated with the parabolic mirror and also is actually filled with a functioning liquid. the particular reflector is actually built to follow the actual sun during the entire daylight hours by tracking along a single axis. parabolic trough systems provide the ideal land - use factor of any solar development. the actual segs vegetation within california not to mention acciona ' s nevada solar one near boulder city, nevada are generally representatives of this development. compact linear fresnel reflectors happen to be csp - plants which employ countless thin mirror strips instead of parabolic mirrors to be able to focus sunshine onto two tubes alongside working liquid. this particular has the advantage which flat mirrors will likely be chosen that are much cheaper compared to parabolic mirrors, and additionally that more reflectors will be put within the exact same amount of space, permitting more of the available sunshine in order to be chosen. focusing linear fresnel reflectors can certainly be utilized in either big or even more compact plants. for more information, check out : pre


when we exercise, our heart rates increase, and when we sleep, they drop. but sometimes, when we ' re working during the day and minding our business, our heart skips a beat. during any 24 - hour period, in fact, one - fifth of adults may experience this phenomenon and not know it. when extra beats happen in quick succession, the heart can enter a chaotic state, leading to a condition known as arrhythmia, which is treated with daily medication or, in more severe cases, electrical pulses that return the heart to normalcy. teresa chay is a biophysicist who suffers from arrhythmia. she developed the condition as a child after rheumatic fever damaged two heart valves. surgery seven years ago replaced the valves, but she still takes daily medication and occasionally needs to rush to the hospital for electrical pulse treatment. since her surgery, chay has studied arrhythmia. using supercomputers at the pittsburgh supercomputing center, she has developed a mathematical model that explains why arrhythmia begins and why it stops when electric shocks are applied. her goal, like other researchers in this field, is providing a foundation for developing better drugs to control arrhythmia. currently, the drugs are not always effective, and in some cases, for reasons not well understood, rather than controlling arrhythmia they can trigger it and kill you. researcher : teresa chay, university of pittsburgh. hardware : cray c90 software : user developed code keywords : arrhythmia, heart, heart rate, electrical pulse treatment, anti - arrhythmic drugs, ion channels, sudden cardiac death, atrial fibrillation, erratic beating, chaotic state, nonlinear dynamics, chaos theory, bifurcation analysis, coexistence theory, reentrant arrhythmia, self beating, quiescent state, sinus node. related material on the web : more information about dr. chay and her research, from the community of science web server. projects in scientific computing, psc ' s annual research report. references, acknowledgements & credits


for immediate release contact : carmeyia gillis news releases 2005 noaa home page noaa public affairs the national oceanic and atmospheric administration announced the 2005 - 2006 u. s. winter outlook today for the months december, january and february. noaa forecasters expect warmer - than - normal temperatures in most of the u. s. the precipitation outlook is less certain, showing equal chances of above, near or below normal precipitation for much of the country. “ even though the average temperature over the three - month winter season is forecast to be above normal in much of the country, there will still be bouts of winter weather with cold temperatures and frozen precipitation, ” said retired navy vice admiral conrad c. lautenbacher, jr., ph. d., under secretary of commerce for oceans and atmosphere and noaa administrator. noaa does not expect la nina and el nino / southern oscillation ( enso ) to play a role in this winter ’ s forecast. without enso forecasters look to other short - term climate factors, like the north atlantic oscillation, in determining the overall winter patterns. under these conditions there tends to be more variability in winter weather patterns across the nation, especially in the great lakes region and the northeast u. s. the 2005 - 2006 u. s. winter outlook calls for warmer - than - normal temperatures across much of the central and western united states, including alaska and hawaii. the midwest, the southern californian coast and the east coast have equal chances of warmer, cooler, or near - normal temperatures this winter. the precipitation outlook calls for wetter - than - normal conditions across most of arkansas, louisiana, oklahoma, and northeastern texas. drier - than - normal conditions are expected across the southwest from arizona to new mexico. as winter approaches, nearly 20 percent of the nation is in some level of drought compared to around 30 percent of the country this time last year as defined by the u. s. drought monitor. for the sixth year in a row, drought remains a concern for parts of the northwest and northern rockies. wet or dry conditions during the winter typically have a significant impact on drought conditions. winter - spring snow pack is particularly important in the west, as much of the annual water supply comes from the springtime snow melt. noaa cautions it would take a number of significant winter snowstorms to end the drought in the pacific northwest and northern rockies. what could drive this winter ’ s weather? since early 2005 sea - surface temperatures in the central - equatorial pacific


. noaa cautions it would take a number of significant winter snowstorms to end the drought in the pacific northwest and northern rockies. what could drive this winter ’ s weather? since early 2005 sea - surface temperatures in the central - equatorial pacific ocean have been near normal. near normal sea - surface temperatures in the central - equatorial pacific ocean are expected to continue for the next three to six months. therefore, it is unlikely that either the el nino or la nina phases of the el nino / southern oscillation ( enso ) cycle will be present during the upcoming winter. as a result, one key climate feature that could have a particularly large impact in u. s. winter weather, especially along the east coast, is the north atlantic oscillation or nao. the north atlantic oscillation often changes its phase from week - to - week. during the positive phase the jet stream shifts to the north of its usual position and the winter weather features relatively warm days over much of the contiguous u. s. in contrast, during the negative phase the jet stream shifts to the south of its usual position. the negative phase of the nao features more nor ’ easters and more frequent cold air outbreaks and snowstorms, especially along the east coast. currently, the phase of the nao is difficult to anticipate more than one to two weeks in advance. recognizing the demand to have more precision with seasonal outlooks, noaa ’ s climate prediction center has formed a climate test bed. the climate test bed is a collaborative scientific effort among the operational, academic and research communities. the mission of the climate test bed is to accelerate the transfer of atmospheric and oceanic research and development into operational climate forecasts, products and applications. at present the climate test bed is focused on maximizing the use of noaa ’ s climate forecast system model in combination with other climate forecast tools to improve u. s. seasonal precipitation and temperature outlooks. noaa will publish updates to the 2005 - 2006 u. s. winter outlook via the web oct. 20, and nov. 17. meteorological winter begins dec. 1 while astronomical winter begins dec. 21. the national oceanic and atmospheric administration, an agency of the u. s. commerce department, is dedicated to enhancing economic security and national safety through the prediction and research of weather and climate - related events and providing environmental stewardship of our nation ’ s coastal and marine resources. through the emerging global earth observation system of systems ( geoss ), noaa is working with its federal partners


myth no. 2 : most college students are supported by their parents and take advantage of a multitude of available loans, scholarships, and savings plans. reality no. 2 : young people who fail to finish college are often going it alone financially. they ’ re essentially putting themselves through school. according to one recent analysis, college costs have risen more than 400 percent in the last 25 years, while the median family income has increased less than 150 percent. 1 and even though the pressure of having to balance the demands of a job and school is the major reason young people say they drop out of college, it would be misleading to dismiss the role of rising college costs and stagnant family incomes. national statistics show that young people who leave college without a degree are more likely than their peers to come from less privileged backgrounds and to live in more precarious economic circumstances. 2 this study revealed that these students often bear the full responsibility of paying for school : nearly 6 in 10 students in our study who left higher education without graduating say that they had to pay for college costs themselves, rather than being able to count on help from their families. in contrast, more than 6 in 10 of those who completed their degrees say they had help from parents or other relatives to cover the costs of school. young people who fail to finish college are also substantially less likely to have received scholarships or financial aid, loans or even good advice about how to get help. about 7 in 10 of those who leave school report that they did not have scholarships or financial aid, compared with about 4 in 10 of those who graduate. the majority of students ( 62 percent ) who told us that they alone were responsible for paying for college ( regardless of whether they dropped out ) report that their high school guidance counselors did a poor or only fair job of helping them to understand the college application process. among students who had financial support from their parents, less than half said the same. unfortunately, about 3 in 10 of those young people who leave school without getting a diploma report that they have college loans — money that has to be repaid even though they do not have the financial leg up that a college degree affords. in many respects, they have the worst of both worlds — no diploma, but college loans to repay. t he national center for public policy and education, “ measuring up 2008 ” report ; in viany orozco and nancy k. cauthen, “ work less, study more, & succeed : how financial supports can improve postsecondary success, ” demos


guthrie was born in okfuskee county, oklahoma in the summer of 1912. his father, a prominent businessman in the area, was involved in the nelson lynchings in the area the previous year, a topic guthrie covered three times in song, maintaining that his father later became a member of the ku klux klan. his mother suffered from huntington ' s disease, a degenerative disorder which affects muscle control, and was institutionalised when woody was 14. his father charley abandoned the family to work in texas. guthrie taught himself to play the harmonica and later the guitar over this period, and eventually made his way to california, where he established himself as a working musician. guthrie ' s work encompassed a range of subjects, but he is perhaps best known for his protest songs, frequently using his work to tell stories of poverty and unemployment, repression and violence, but also tempering this with more hopeful and lightly comic songs like ' the biggest thing that man has ever done '. guthrie took his lyrical inspiration from many of his experiences travelling during the great depression, but he took a great deal of musical influence from early blues musicians, insights which were passed on through a direct line of descent to bob dylan, as evidenced by the following quote. woody ' s son, arlo guthrie, maintained that he and dylan were taught by guthrie ' s protege, ' ramblin ' ' jack elliot, since woody ' s huntington ' s disease had progressed too far for him to tutor them directly. this account was corroborated by elliot : guthrie was institutionalised, first in hospitals, then in a psychiatric institution, over the final decade of his life. he died from complications relating to his huntington ' s disease on the 3rd of october, 1967, having inherited the condition from his mother. following her husband ' s death, marjorie guthrie founded the committee to combat huntington ' s disease, which later became the huntington ' s disease society of america. i was flattered. dylan learned from me the same way i learned from woody. woody didn ' t teach me. he just said, if you want to learn something, just steal it - that ' s the way i learned from lead belly. guthrie ' s influence on the musical landscape is difficult to gauge, but it is undeniably lasting and significant, particularly in punk rock. joe strummer famously insisted on being called ' woody ' for a good chunk of his youth, a period nodded to in the gaslight anthem song ' i ' da called you woody, joe '. billy bragg cites guthrie


particularly in punk rock. joe strummer famously insisted on being called ' woody ' for a good chunk of his youth, a period nodded to in the gaslight anthem song ' i ' da called you woody, joe '. billy bragg cites guthrie as a major influence, and, together with wilco, collaborated on two albums of original music set to woody ' s unused lyrics, mermaid avenue volumes i and ii. more recently, the dropkick murphys took a disused guthrie lyric, and crafted it into ' shippin ' up to boston ', on the 2005 full length the warrior ' s code. in a subculture based on guitar music and, at it ' s finest moments, committed to freedom and justice, we owe a tremendous amount to woody guthrie. his work has inspired a great many people to a great many things, but has come full circle in the case of one flaviano giorgini. formerly of squirtgun, now a lecturer in mammalian genetics at the university of leicester, dr giorgini ' s research interests have focused on neurodegenerative disorders. simply put, following years as a touring musician in a genre which owes so much to guthrie, flav and his colleagues work to better understand, and more effectively treat, huntington ' s disease, and disorders like it. we can think of no finer tribute to woody than that.


getting students to take responsibility for their learning wouldn ' t it be great if our students came to class prepared? not just having read the assignment, but mentally prepared as well - - alert and ready to debate, challenge, interact, and contribute? unfortunately, it often seems that when students walk into our classrooms their brains are set on the lowest possible setting. one reason students may not feel compelled to prepare ( or be in the proper mindset for learning ) is that they don ' t mind being shortchanged. in our consumer - driven society, where more is supposedly better, education is the one area where people are content to settle for less. want to make a class happy? let them out early. are there some things we can do to get our students to read the assignment, come to class ready to participate, and be responsible learners? absolutely! not only are there things we could be doing, we should be doing them, according to marcia magolda in her article " helping students make their way to adulthood : good company for the journey " ( 2002 ). magolda believes that instructors are in a unique position to help students learn two important lessons : ( a ) to be less dependent on external authorities, and ( b ) to take ownership and responsibility for their own lives. so, whose responsibility is it for learning to occur in the classroom? the responsibility belongs to both the instructor and the students. responsibility can ( and should ) shift, depending on the time in the semester and the level of the students. faculty working with freshmen may take more of the responsibility for learning to occur than faculty working with seniors or graduate students. likewise, instructors may take more of the responsibility at the beginning of the semester. as the class progresses, they can slowly relinquish control and prepare their students to take over, so that by the end of the semester, the students are shouldering most of the responsibility. by teaching responsibility, we not only enhance learning and raise the level of our classrooms, but we help produce responsible citizens and productive members of society. for ten specific strategies for getting students to take responsibility for their learning, click on " words of wisdom " below.


trends in amphibian occupancy in the united states michael j. adams, david a. w. miller, erin muths, paul stephen corn, evan h. campbell grant, larissa l. bailey, gary m. fellers, robert n. fisher, walter j. sadinski, hardin waddle, susan c. walls public library of science one 22 may 2012. what we found based on sampling on protected areas from across the united states, including from the mid - atlantic and from national parks and refuges across the northeast, armi has produced the first estimate of how fast we are losing amphibians. even though the declines seem small and negligible on the surface, they are not ; small numbers build up to dramatic declines with time. for example, a species that disappears from 2. 7 % of the places it is found per year will disappear from half of the places it occurs in 26 years if trends continue. more concerning is that even the species we thought were faring well – that is, fairly common and widespread - - are declining, on average. fowler ’ s toad ( 9 total years of data at 1 area : - 0. 06 % annual trend ) and spring peepers ( 26 total years at 5 areas : - 0. 06 % ) are examples of iucn least concern species for which we found a declining trend at the places we monitor. we also found evidence that amphibian declines are even taking place in protected areas like national parks and national wildlife refuges. check out the full publication here. what we are doing the amphibian research and monitoring initiative ( armi ) brings scientists and resource managers together to make real progress on a difficult problem. the armi program is a model for a productive program that links management and cutting edge science – since its inception in 2000, armi has produced over 430 publications on amphibian ecology, methodological advances for studying wildlife populations, and information useful to our doi partners and beyond. we now have the first continental scale amphibian monitoring program at a point where broad - scale analyses can occur. this gives us new ways to study amphibian declines and look for ways to address the problem. in the northeast, we are working with our resource management partners in nps and fws to identify and implement management strategies we think are optimal for maintaining populations - typically involving habitat manipulation. in addition, we will continue to monitor populations, and to develop novel research approaches to better understand what is causing declines, which will help to generate support for management


i highly recommend the golden spider silk exhibition at the victoria and albert museum, where the world ’ s largest piece of cloth, made entirely from spider silk is being exhibited. the exhibition will run from the 25th january to the 5th june. spider silk is an extremely strong material and on a weight basis is stronger than steel. these spiders are found throughout the tropics, in countries such as madagascar, and are known as gold orb weavers because of their gold coloured web. these spiders, large enough to fill the palm of your hand, are in fact blind. their eyes are only able to vaguely detect changes in light. instead they rely on a keen sense of touch to feel vibrations on their web and track down the entangled prey. the work of producing golden silk is completely a female endeavour! – the male spider does not produce silk – and it is a completely environmentally friendly process. however, as they are cannibals the spiders cannot be in close proximity to one another. it took eight years to make the cloth using silk from 1. 2 million madagascar golden orb spiders ( nephila madagascariensis ). the exhibition is the result of the work of two men, briton simon peers who has lived in madagascar since 1989, and his partner nicholas godley whose grandmother was born in madagascar. for more information visit the victoria and albert museum website. about our guest blogger : anita has travelled extensively around the world, she is interested in art and history, and loves discovering new places!


final results ( phase 1, 2 and 2b ) the data that is gathered constitutes an important collection of information on the currents that form within the system and between the system and the surrounding areas, and on the chemical and physical characteristics of the column of water. this knowledge provides a reference framework for the interpretation of analytical data regarding the movement of masses of water and the transport of matter and polluting substances inside the network of canals. the expansion of the system under observation has also made it possible to validate the two - dimensional model of the finite elements for the lagoon – available to insula – that simulates the propagation of a wave from the inlets at the outer margins of the city ( technical report “ d2 ” ) and that provides the surrounding conditions for the two - dimensional link - node model of the inner canals. with the uninterrupted acquisition of time - based series of chemical and physical parameters, the periodicity of some processes was also investigated. in particular, the series of turbidity values made it possible to assess the phenomenon of the re - suspension of sediment from the bottom of the canals over a more extended span of time. the study highlighted how the primary factor in determining the turbidity of the waters inside the system is the circulation of motor boats and depends on the intensity of the traffic, of the water head and the tide conditions. an estimate of the flow of sedimentation made by placing five traps across a more extended area has made it possible to compare different canal systems. the data relative to the entire monitoring period highlights a distinct differentiation of the flow of sediment, in relation to the different hydrodynamic conditions in the five canals under observation. however, the evolution over time of the flow in the different sites is similar, with relatively low values in winter, followed by a progressive increase in the flow in the springtime. the results confirm the strict relationship between the hydrodynamic characteristics of each single canal, the quality of the material that collects on the bottom, and the intensity of the metabolic processes. as seen in a preliminary manner during phase 1, the sedimentation traps, jointly with the constant measuring of the turbidity, are an effective system for studying the variations in the phenomena of sediment re - suspension and transport within the network of canals in the historic city centre of venice. the investigation makes it possible to explore the mechanisms of sedimentation, an aspect that is particularly interesting to insula : the objective is to predict the rate of sedimentation of the materials in the canals,


of canals in the historic city centre of venice. the investigation makes it possible to explore the mechanisms of sedimentation, an aspect that is particularly interesting to insula : the objective is to predict the rate of sedimentation of the materials in the canals, and hence to program dredging operations. the results of the analyses on the water samples taken during the measuring campaigns, confirm the importance of determining the concentration of suspended particles for the evaluation of the transport of solids and heavy metals in the canals of venice. the dissolved species of nitrogen and phosphorus, in particular ammonia and orthophosphate, constitute a very precise tracer of the qualitative variations of a column of water, that are introduced as a result of the draining of waste water, or the route of the water and the length of time they stay in the system. these results further highlight the fundamental role of circulation in establishing the behaviour of contaminants from the urban waste inside the system. at the close of phase 2, on the basis of the results acquired during the study, a methodological protocol ( or specification ) was drafted, describing appropriate monitoring methodologies for assessing possible variations, over a relatively short span of time, in the quality of the water in the canal networks of the historic city centre ( icaro project, phases 1 and 2 – results and methodologies, january 2004 ).


| rediff india abroad home | all the sections | what is 3g spectrum? how does it help you? rediff business desk | september 29, 2006 it ' s boom time for mobile phones in india. and people are looking forward to more information, faster data access and multimedia services through their mobile phones. 3g technology is here to turn this dream into reality. it ' s a technology anxiously awaited by telecom operations and subscribers in india. how long do you have to wait? not very long! india is all set to launch 3g mobile telephone services by june 2007. according to telecom regulatory authority of india chairman nripendra misra, a total of 32. 5 mhz is available for allocation within the next 6 - 9 months. trai has also recommended auctioning 200 mhz for broadband wireless access services like wimax ( worldwide interoperability for microwave access ) and has proposed a national frequency management board to oversee spectrum availability and its efficient use. he hopes that the allocated spectrum would be enough for the next two years and said trai would recommend freeing up more spectrum for those who lose out in this auction. so what is 3g spectrum all about? read on. what is spectrum? radio spectrum refers to a range of radio frequencies. the bandwidth of a radio signal is the difference between the upper and lower frequencies of the signal. for example, in the case of a voice signal having a minimum frequency of 200 hertz ( hz ) and a maximum frequency of 3, 000 hz, the bandwidth is 2, 800 hz ( 3 khz ). the amount of bandwidth needed for 3g services could be as much as 15 - 20 mhz, whereas for 2g services a bandwidth of 30 - 200 khz is used. hence, for 3g huge bandwidth is required. how is 3g different from 2g and 4g? while 2g stands for second - generation wireless telephone technology, 1g networks used are analog, 2g networks are digital and 3g ( third - generation ) technology is used to enhance mobile phone standards. 3g helps to simultaneously transfer both voice data ( a telephone call ) and non - voice data ( such as downloading information, exchanging e - mail, and instant messaging. the highlight of 3g is video telephony. 4g technology stands to be the future standard of wireless devices. currently, japanese company ntt docomo and samsung are testing 4g communication. how will 3g services help you? 3g services will enable video broadcast and data - intensive services such as stock transactions, e


be the future standard of wireless devices. currently, japanese company ntt docomo and samsung are testing 4g communication. how will 3g services help you? 3g services will enable video broadcast and data - intensive services such as stock transactions, e - learning and telemedicine through wireless communications all telecom operators are waiting to launch 3g in india to cash in on revenues by providing high - end services to customers, which are voice data and video enabled. india lags behind many asian countries in introducing 3g services. what is trai ' s recommendation on 3g pricing? the telecom regulatory authority of india has recommended auctioning radio frequencies for 3g telecom services at a reserve price of rs 1, 050 crore ( rs 10. 50 billion ) to companies seeking to offer nationwide high - speed internet and streaming video. the base price for spectrum in cities like mumbai and delhi and category a telecom circles is rs 80 crore ( rs 800 million ) ; in cities like chennai and kolkata and category b circles rs 40 crore ( rs 400 million ) ; and in all other cities rs 15 crore ( rs 150 million ). what are the frequency bands and quota for cdma? trai has recommended three sets of frequency bands - 450 mhz, 800 mhz and 2. 1 ghz. for cdma players like reliance and tata teleservices 1. 25 mhz each is offered. cdma operators are free to bid both in the 2. 1 ghz and the 450 mhz bands, but they will be allocated spectrum only in one. the pricing of these two bands is linked to the auction in the 2. 1 ghz band. cdma operators will pay the same as the second - highest gsm bidder. and if there is more than one claimant in the 450 mhz band, the reserve price will be half of that arrived at in the 2. 1 ghz band. another rider is that if the highest bid is a quarter more than the lowest, the lowest bidder has to raise its bid to 75 per cent of the winning bid. but cdma operators are likely to face problems. operating 3g services on 450 mhz is a problem because we they do not have dual - band phones that work both in 450 mhz and in 800 mhz ( the band in which cdma operates in india ). what are the issues regarding 3g for providers and users? 3g has successfully been introduced in europe. but several issues continue to hamper its growth. high spectrum licensing fees for the 3g services huge capital required to build infrastructure for 3g


. what are the issues regarding 3g for providers and users? 3g has successfully been introduced in europe. but several issues continue to hamper its growth. high spectrum licensing fees for the 3g services huge capital required to build infrastructure for 3g services. health impact of electromagnetic waves. prices are very high for 3g mobile services. will 2g users switch to 3g services. takes time to catch up as the service is new. what are the issues regarding 3g pricing? pricing has been a cause of concern. spectrum auctions ran into billions of euros in europe. in europe, spectrum licensing fees were collected years before the 3g service was developed and it required huge investments to build 3g networks, hitting mobile operators ' margins. however, in japan and south korea, spectrum licensing fees were not applicable as the focus of these countries were national it infrastructure development. which companies have applied for 3g license? 3g spectrum has been provided to gsm players like bsnl, mtnl, bharti, and hutch to carry out an interface check on a non - commercial basis ahead of the start of 3g mobile services. trial spectrum has been given for a period of one month. this will be only 1 / 1000th of the actual 3g spectrum capability. apart frm psu majors, spectrum for carrying out 3g trials has been given to all those who have applied under the national frequency allocation plan on the 2. 1 ghz band. gsm players operate on 900 mhz and 1, 800 mhz, while cdma players operate on 800 mhz. what is the pricing issue in india? while tatas have welcomed trai ' s rs 1, 400 - crore ( rs 14 billion ) base price for a nationwide rollout of 3g services, the rest of the players find the price too exorbitant. bharti - airtel is disappointed with the pricing as they were expecting it to be rs 300 - 400 crore ( rs 3 - 4 billion ). the reserve price is a disincentive for telecom companies in india. bharti has appealed to lower the prices specially for rural penetration. the cellular operators association of india and the association of unified service providers of india are studying trai ' s recommendations and have not given their comments. however, trai chairman nripendra misra has said that there is no reason to worry as players will not bid exorbitantly and derail the auction. misra said telecom operators had matured from their experiences and global developments, and would


, trai chairman nripendra misra has said that there is no reason to worry as players will not bid exorbitantly and derail the auction. misra said telecom operators had matured from their experiences and global developments, and would bid sincerely. where was 3g spectrum first introduced? japan was the first country to introduce 3g on a large commercial scale. in 2005, about 40 per cent of subscribers used only 3g networks. it is expected that during 2006 the subscribers would move from 2g to 3g and upgrade to the next 3. 5 g level. the success of 3g in japan also shows that video telephony was the killer application for 3g networks. downloading music was the biggest draw in 3g services. in how many countries does 3g exist? there are about 60 3g networks across 25 countries. in asia, europe and the usa, telecom firms use wcdma technology. the wcdma standard provides seamless global evolution from today ' s gsm with support of the worlds ' largest mobile operators. wcdma technology is built on open standards, wide ranging mobile multimedia possibility, and vast potential economies of scale with the support of around 100 terminal designs to operate 3g mobile networks. 3g services were introduced in europe in 2003.


afghanistan / æfˈgænɪstæn /, officially the islamic republic of afghanistan ( pashto : د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, persian : جمهوری اسلامی افغانستان ), is a landlocked country that is located approximately in the center of asia. it is variously designated as geographically located within central asia, south asia, and the middle east. it has religious, ethno - linguistic, and geographic links with most of its neighboring states. it is bordered by pakistan in the south and east, iran in the west, turkmenistan, uzbekistan and tajikistan in the north, and china in the far northeast. the name afghanistan means the " land of afghans. " afghanistan is a culturally mixed nation, a crossroads between the east and the west, and has been an ancient focal point of trade and migration. it has an important geostrategical location, connecting south, central and southwest asia. during its long history, the land has seen various invaders and conquerors, while on the other hand, local entities invaded the surrounding vast regions to form their own empires. ahmad shah durrani created the durrani empire in 1747, with its capital at kandahar. subsequently, the capital was shifted to kabul and most of its territories ceded to former neighboring countries. in the late 19th century, afghanistan became a buffer state in " the great game " played between the british indian empire and russian empire. on august 19, 1919, following the third anglo - afghan war, the country regained full independence from the united kingdom over its foreign affairs. since the late 1970s afghanistan has suffered continuous and brutal civil war, which included foreign interventions in the form of the 1979 soviet invasion and the recent 2001 u. s. - led invasion that toppled the taliban government. in late 2001 the united nations security council authorized the creation of an international security assistance force ( isaf ). this force is composed of nato troops that are involved in assisting the government of president hamid karzai in establishing the writ of law as well as rebuilding key infrastructures in the nation. in 2005, the united states and afghanistan signed a strategic partnership agreement committing both nations to a long - term relationship. in the meantime, multi - billion us dollars have also been provided by the international community for the reconstruction of the country. in this regard the encyclopædia iranica states : it further explains : the


to a long - term relationship. in the meantime, multi - billion us dollars have also been provided by the international community for the reconstruction of the country. in this regard the encyclopædia iranica states : it further explains : the term " afghanistan, " meaning the " land of afghans, " was mentioned by the sixteenth century mughal emperor babur in his memoirs, referring to the territories south of kabul that were inhabited by pashtuns ( called " afghans " by babur ). until the 19th century the name was only used for the traditional lands of the pashtuns, while the kingdom as a whole was known as the kingdom of kabul, as mentioned by the british statesman and historian mountstuart elphinstone. other parts of the country were at certain periods recognized as independent kingdoms, such as the kingdom of balkh in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. with the expansion and centralization of the country, afghan authorities adopted and extended the name " afghanistan " to the entire kingdom, after its english translation, " afghanland ", had already appeared in various treaties between british raj and qajarid persia, referring to the lands that were subject to the pashtun barakzai dynasty of kabul. " afghanistan " as the name for the entire kingdom was mentioned in 1857 by friedrich engels. it became the official name when the country was recognized by the world community in 1919, after regaining its full independence from the british, and was confirmed as such in the nation ' s 1923 constitution. afghanistan is a landlocked and mountainous country in south - central asia, with plains in the north and southwest. the highest point is nowshak, at 7, 485 m ( 24, 557 ft ) above sea level. large parts of the country are dry, and fresh water supplies are limited. the endorheic sistan basin is one of the driest regions in the world. afghanistan has a continental climate with hot summers and cold winters. the country is frequently subject to minor earthquakes, mainly in the northeast of hindu kush mountain areas. some 125 villages were damaged and 4000 people killed by the may 30, 1998 earthquake. the country ' s natural resources include gold, silver, copper, zinc and iron ore in southeastern areas ; precious and semi - precious stones such as lapis, emerald and azure in the north - east ; and potentially significant petroleum and natural gas reserves in the north. the country also has uranium, coal, chromite, talc, barites,


precious and semi - precious stones such as lapis, emerald and azure in the north - east ; and potentially significant petroleum and natural gas reserves in the north. the country also has uranium, coal, chromite, talc, barites, sulfur, lead, and salt. however, these significant mineral and energy resources remain largely untapped due to the effects of the soviet invasion and the subsequent civil war. plans are underway to begin extracting them in the near future. afghanistan is a country at a unique nexus point where numerous indo - european civilizations have interacted and often fought, and was an important site of early historical activity. through the ages, the region has been home to various people, among them the aryan ( indo - iranian ) tribes, such as the kambojas, bactrians, persians, pashtuns, etc. it also has been conquered by a host of people, including the median and persian empires, alexander the great, kushans, hepthalites, arabs, turks, and mongols. in recent times, invasions from the british, soviets, and most recently by the united states and their allies have taken place. on the other hand, native entities have invaded surrounding regions in iranian plateau and indian subcontinent to form empires of their own. between 2000 and 1200 bc, indo - european - speaking aryans are thought to have been in the region of northern afghanistan. it is unlikely that the aryans themselves originated in afghanistan although they did migrate from there south towards india and west towards persia, but they also migrated into europe via north of the caspian. these aryans set up a nation that during the rule of medes and achaemenid persians which became known as aryanam xsaθra or airyanem vaejah. original homelands of the aryans have been proposed as anatolia, kurdistan, central asia, iran, or northern india, with the directions of the historical migration varying accordingly. later, during the rule of ashkanian, sasanian and after, it was called eranshahr ( - iransahr ) meaning " dominion of the aryans. " it has been speculated that zoroastrianism might have originated in what is now afghanistan between 1800 to 800 bc, as zoroaster lived and died in balkh. ancient eastern iranian languages, such as avestan, may have been spoken in this region around the time of the rise of zoroastrianism. by the middle of the sixth century bc, the persian empire of the achae


in balkh. ancient eastern iranian languages, such as avestan, may have been spoken in this region around the time of the rise of zoroastrianism. by the middle of the sixth century bc, the persian empire of the achaemenid persians overthrew the median empire and incorporated afghanistan ( known as arachosia to the greeks ) within its boundaries. alexander the great conquered afghanistan after 330 bce. following alexander ' s brief occupation, the successor state of the seleucid empire controlled the area until 305 bce, when they gave most of the area to the mauryan empire as part of an alliance treaty. during mauryan rule, buddhism became the dominant religion in the region. the mauryans were overthrown by the sunga dynasty in 185 bce, leading to the hellenistic reconquest of afghanistan by the greco - bactrians by 180 bce. much of afghanistan soon broke away from the greco - bactrians and became part of the indo - greek kingdom. the indo - greeks were defeated by the indo - scythians and expelled from most of afghanistan by the end of the 2nd century bce. during the first century, the parthian empire subjugated afghanistan, but lost it to their indo - parthian vassals. in the mid to late 1st century ad the vast kushan empire, centered in modern afghanistan, became great patrons of buddhist culture. the kushans were defeated by the sassanids in the third century. although various rulers calling themselves kushanshas ( generally known as indo - sassanids ) continued to rule at least parts of the region, they were probably more or less subject to the sassanids. the late kushans were followed by the kidarite huns who, in turn, were replaced by the short - lived but powerful hephthalites, as rulers of the region in the first half of the fifth century. the hephthalites were defeated by the sasanian king khosrau i in ad 557, who re - established sassanid power in persia. however, the successors of kushans and hepthalites established a small dynasty in kabulistan called kushano - hephthalites or kabul - shahan / shahi, who were later defeated by the muslim arab armies and finally conquered by muslim turkish armies led by the ghaznavids. the region of afghanistan became the center of various important empires, including that of the samanids ( 875 – 999 ), g


later defeated by the muslim arab armies and finally conquered by muslim turkish armies led by the ghaznavids. the region of afghanistan became the center of various important empires, including that of the samanids ( 875 – 999 ), ghaznavids ( 977 – 1187 ), seljukids ( 1037 – 1194 ), ghurids ( 1149 – 1212 ), mongol empire and ilkhanate ( 1225 - 1335 ) and timurids ( 1370 – 1506 ). among them, the periods of ghaznavids of ghazni, and timurids of heart are considered as some of the most brilliant eras of afghanistan ' s history. in 1219 the region was overrun by the mongols under genghis khan, who devastated the land. their rule continued with the ilkhanate [ one of 4 subordinate mongolian khanates ], and was extended further following the invasion of timur lang ( " tamerlane " ), a ruler from central asia. in 1504, babur, a descendant of both timur lang and genghis khan, established the mughal empire with its capital at kabul. by the early 1700s, afghanistan was controlled by several ruling groups : uzbeks to the north, safavids to the west and the remaining larger area by the mughals or self - ruled by local afghan tribes. by 1751 ahmad shah durrani and his afghan army conquered the entire present - day afghanistan, pakistan, khorasan and kohistan provinces of iran, along with delhi in india. in october 1772, ahmad shah retired to his home in maruf, kandahar, where he died peacefully. he was succeeded by his son, timur shah durrani, who transferred the capital from kandahar to kabul. timur died in 1793 and was finally succeeded by his son zaman shah durrani. during the nineteenth century, following the anglo - afghan wars ( fought 1839 – 42, 1878 – 80, and lastly in 1919 ) and the ascension of the barakzai dynasty, afghanistan saw much of its territory and autonomy ceded to the united kingdom. the uk exercised a great deal of influence, and it was not until king amanullah khan acceded to the throne in 1919 that afghanistan re - gained complete independence over its foreign affairs ( see " the great game " ). during the period of british intervention in afghanistan, ethnic pashtun territories were divided by the durand line. this


acceded to the throne in 1919 that afghanistan re - gained complete independence over its foreign affairs ( see " the great game " ). during the period of british intervention in afghanistan, ethnic pashtun territories were divided by the durand line. this would lead to strained relations between afghanistan and british india – and later the new state of pakistan – over what came to be known as the pashtunistan debate. the longest period of stability in afghanistan was between 1933 and 1973, when the country was under the rule of king zahir shah. in 1978 a prominent member of the people ' s democratic party of afghanistan ( pdpa ), mir akbar khyber ( or " kaibar " ), was killed by the government. the leaders of pdpa apparently feared that daoud was planning to exterminate them all, especially since most of them were arrested by the government shortly after. hafizullah amin and a number of military wing officers of the pdpa managed to remain at large and organised an uprising. the pdpa, led by nur mohammad taraki, babrak karmal and amin overthrew the regime of mohammad daoud, who was killed along with his family. the uprising was known as the great saur revolution ( ' saur ' means ' april ' in pushto ). on may 1, taraki became president, prime minister and general secretary of the pdpa. the country was then renamed the democratic republic of afghanistan ( dra ), and the pdpa regime lasted, in some form or another, until april 1992. some are of the opinion that the 1978 khalq uprising against the government of daoud khan was essentially a resurgence by the ghilzai tribe of the pashtun against the durrani ( the tribe of daoud khan and the previous monarchy ). once in power, the pdpa moved to permit freedom of religion and carried out an ambitious land reform, waiving farmers ' debts countrywide. they also made a number of statements on women ’ s rights and introduced women to political life. a prominent example was anahita ratebzad, who was a major marxist leader and a member of the revolutionary council. ratebzad wrote the famous new kabul times editorial ( may 28, 1978 ) which declared : “ privileges which women, by right, must have are equal education, job security, health services, and free time to rear a healthy generation for building the future of the country.... educating and enlightening women is now the subject of close government attention


women, by right, must have are equal education, job security, health services, and free time to rear a healthy generation for building the future of the country.... educating and enlightening women is now the subject of close government attention. ” the majority of people in the cities including kabul either welcomed or were ambivalent to these policies. however, the secular nature of the government made it unpopular with religiously conservative afghans in the villages and the countryside, who favoured traditionalist ' islamic ' restrictions on women ' s rights and in daily life. the u. s. saw the situation as a prime opportunity to weaken the soviet union. as part of a cold war strategy, in 1979 the united states government ( under president jimmy carter and national security advisor zbigniew brzezinski ) began to covertly fund and train anti - government mujahideen forces through the pakistani secret service known as inter services intelligence ( isi ), with the intention of provoking soviet intervention, ( according to brzezinski ). the mujahideen belonged to various different factions, but all shared, to varying degrees, a similarly conservative ' islamic ' ideology. in march 1979 hafizullah amin took over as prime minister, retaining the position of field marshal and becoming vice - president of the supreme defence council. taraki remained president and in control of the army. on september 14, amin overthrew taraki, who died or was killed. the soviet occupation resulted in the killings of at least 600, 000 to 2 million afghan civilians. over five million afghans fled their country to pakistan, iran and other parts of the world. faced with mounting international pressure and great number of casualties on both sides, the soviets withdrew in 1989. the soviet withdrawal from the dra was seen as an ideological victory in the u. s., which had backed the mujahideen through three u. s. presidential administrations in order to counter soviet influence in the vicinity of the oil - rich persian gulf. following the removal of the soviet forces, the u. s. and its allies lost interest in afghanistan and did little to help rebuild the war - ravaged country or influence events there. the ussr continued to support president najibullah ( former head of the afghan secret service, khad ) until 1992 when the new russian government refused to sell oil products to the najibullah regime. because of the fighting, a number of elites and intellectuals fled to take refuge abroad. this led to a leadership imbalance in


service, khad ) until 1992 when the new russian government refused to sell oil products to the najibullah regime. because of the fighting, a number of elites and intellectuals fled to take refuge abroad. this led to a leadership imbalance in afghanistan. fighting continued among the victorious mujahideen factions, which gave rise to a state of warlordism. the most serious fighting during this period occurred in 1994, when over 10, 000 people were killed in kabul alone. it was at this time that the taliban developed as a politico - religious force, eventually seizing kabul in 1996 and establishing the islamic emirate of afghanistan. by the end of 2000 the taliban had captured 95 % of the country. during the taliban ' s seven - year rule, much of the population experienced restrictions on their freedom and violations of their human rights. women were banned from jobs, girls forbidden to attend schools or universities. communists were systematically eradicated and thieves were punished by amputating one of their hands or feet. the majority of the opium production was eradicated by 2001. following the september 11 attacks the united states launched operation enduring freedom, a military campaign to destroy the al - qaeda terrorist training camps inside afghanistan. the u. s. military also threatened to overthrow the taliban government for refusing to hand over osama bin laden and several al - qaida members. the u. s. made a common cause with the former afghan mujahideen to achieve its ends, including the northern alliance, a militia still recognized by the un as the afghan government. in late 2001, u. s. special forces invaded afghanistan to aid anti - taliban militias, backed by u. s. air strikes against taliban and al qaeda targets, culminating in the seizure of kabul by the northern alliance and the overthrow of the taliban, with many local warlords switching allegiance from the taliban to the northern alliance. in december of the same year, leaders of the former afghan mujahideen and diaspora met in germany, and agreed on a plan for the formulation of a new democratic government that resulted in the inauguration of hamid karzai, an ethnic pashtun of the durrani clan ( from which the royal family was drawn ) from the southern city of kandahar, as chairman of the afghan interim authority. karzai was a top adviser to the unocal corporation, which negotiatied with the taliban to construct a central asia gas ( centgas ) pipeline from turkmenistan through western afghanistan to pakistan. after a nationwide loya jirga in 2002


karzai was a top adviser to the unocal corporation, which negotiatied with the taliban to construct a central asia gas ( centgas ) pipeline from turkmenistan through western afghanistan to pakistan. after a nationwide loya jirga in 2002, karzai was chosen by the representatives to assume the title as interim president of afghanistan. the country convened a constitutional loya jirga ( council of elders ) in 2003 and a new constitution was ratified in january 2004. following an election in october 2004, hamid karzai won and became the president of the islamic republic of afghanistan. legislative elections were held in september 2005. the national assembly – the first freely elected legislature in afghanistan since 1973 – sat in december 2005, and was noteworthy for the inclusion of women as voters, candidates, and elected members. as the country continues to rebuild and recover, it is still struggling against poverty, poor infrastructure, large concentration of land mines and other unexploded ordnance, as well as a huge illegal poppy cultivation and opium trade. afghanistan also remains subject to occasionally violent political jockeying. the country continues to grapple with the taliban insurgency and the threat of attacks from a few remaining al qaeda. at the start of 2007 reports of the taliban ' s increasing presence in afghanistan led the u. s. to consider longer tours of duty and even an increase in troop numbers. according to a report filed by robert burns of associated press on january 16, 2007, " u. s. military officials cited new evidence that the pakistani military, which has long - standing ties to the taliban movement, has turned a blind eye to the incursions. " also, " the number of insurgent attacks is up 300 percent since september, 2006, when the pakistani government put into effect a peace arrangement with tribal leaders in the north waziristan area, along afghanistan ' s eastern border, a u. s. military intelligence officer told reporters. " afghanistan is currently led by president hamid karzai, who was elected in october 2004. the current parliament was elected in 2005. among the elected officials were former mujahadeen, taliban members, communists, reformists, and islamic fundamentalists. 28 % of the delegates elected were women, 3 points more than the 25 % minimum guaranteed under the constitution. this made afghanistan, long known under the taliban for its oppression of women, one of the leading countries in terms of female representation. construction for a new parliament building began on august 29, 2005. the supreme court of afghanistan is currently led by chief justice abdul


made afghanistan, long known under the taliban for its oppression of women, one of the leading countries in terms of female representation. construction for a new parliament building began on august 29, 2005. the supreme court of afghanistan is currently led by chief justice abdul salam azimi, a former university professor who had been legal advisor to the president. the previous court, appointed during the time of the interim government, had been dominated by fundamentalist religious figures, including chief justice faisal ahmad shinwari. the court had issued numerous questionable rulings, such as banning cable television, seeking to ban a candidate in the 2004 presidential election and limiting the rights of women, as well as overstepping its constitutional authority by issuing rulings on subjects not yet brought before the court. the current court is seen as more moderate and led by more technocrats than the previous court, although it has yet to issue any rulings. afghanistan currently has more than 70, 000 national police officers, with plans to recruit more so that the total number can reach 80, 000. they are being trained by and through the afghanistan police program. although the police officially are responsible for maintaining civil order, sometimes local and regional military commanders continue to exercise control in the hinterland. police have been accused of improper treatment and detention of prisoners. in 2003 the mandate of the international security assistance force, now under command of the north atlantic treaty organization ( nato ) was extended and expanded beyond the kabul area. however, in some areas unoccupied by those forces, local militias maintain control. in many areas, crimes have gone uninvestigated because of insufficient police and / or communications. troops of the afghan national army have been sent to quell fighting in some regions lacking police protection. the governor of the province is appointed by the ministry of interior, and the prefects for the districts of the province will be appointed by the provincial governor. the governor is the representative of the central government of afghanistan, and is responsible for all administrative and formal issues. the provincial chief of police is appointed by the ministry of interior, who works together with the governor on law enforcement for all the cities or districts of that province. a july 2008 estimate of the total afghan population is 32, 738, 376. the population of afghanistan is divided into a wide variety of ethnic groups. because a systematic census has not been held in the country in decades, exact figures about the size and composition of the various ethnic groups are not available. therefore most figures are approximations only. an approximate distribution of ethnic groups


wide variety of ethnic groups. because a systematic census has not been held in the country in decades, exact figures about the size and composition of the various ethnic groups are not available. therefore most figures are approximations only. an approximate distribution of ethnic groups estimated by the cia world factbook is as following : based on official census numbers from the 1960s to the 1980s, as well as information found in mainly scholarly sources, the encyclopædia iranica gives the following list : afghans display pride in their religion, country, ancestry, and above all, their independence. like other highlanders, afghans are regarded with mingled apprehension and condescension, for their high regard for personal honor, for their clan loyalty and for their readiness to carry and use arms to settle disputes. as clan warfare and internecine feuding has been one of their chief occupations since time immemorial, this individualistic trait has made it difficult for foreign invaders to hold the region. afghanistan has a complex history that has survived either in its current cultures or in the form of various languages and monuments. however, many of the country ' s historic monuments have been damaged in recent wars. the two famous statues of buddha in the bamyan province were destroyed by the taliban, who regarded them as idolatrous. other famous sites include the cities of kandahar, heart, ghazni and balkh. the minaret of jam, in the hari river valley, is a unesco world heritage site. the cloak worn by muhammad is stored inside the famous khalka sharifa in kandahar city. buzkashi is a national sport in afghanistan. it is similar to polo and played by horsemen in two teams, each trying to grab and hold a goat carcass. afghan hounds ( a type of running dog ) also originated in afghanistan. although literacy levels are very low, classic persian poetry plays a very important role in the afghan culture. poetry has always been one of the major educational pillars in iran and afghanistan, to the level that it has integrated itself into culture. persian culture has, and continues to, exert a great influence over afghan culture. private poetry competition events known as “ musha ’ era ” are quite common even among ordinary people. almost every homeowner owns one or more poetry collections of some sort, even if they are not read often. the eastern dialects of the persian language are popularly known as " dari ". the name itself derives from " parsi - e darbari ", meaning persian of


one or more poetry collections of some sort, even if they are not read often. the eastern dialects of the persian language are popularly known as " dari ". the name itself derives from " parsi - e darbari ", meaning persian of the royal courts. the ancient term dari – one of the original names of the persian language – was revived in the afghan constitution of 1964, and was intended to signify that afghans consider their country the cradle of the language. hence, the name farsi, the language of fars, is strictly avoided. with this point in mind, we can consider the development of dari or persian literature in the political entity known as afghanistan. many of the famous persian poets of the tenth to fifteenth centuries stem from khorasan where is now known as afghanistan. they were mostly also scholars in many disciplines like languages, natural sciences, medicine, religion and astronomy. most of these individuals were of persian ( tajik ) ethnicity who still form the second - largest ethnic group in afghanistan. also, some of the contemporary persian language poets and writers, who are relatively well - known in persian - speaking world, include ustad betab, qari abdullah, khalilullah khalili, sufi ghulam nabi ashqari, sarwar joya, qahar asey, parwin pazwak and others. in 2003, khaled hosseini published the kiterunner which though fiction, captured much of the history, politics and culture experienced in afghanistan from the 1930s to present day. in addition to poets and authors, numerous persian scientists were born or worked in the region of present - day afghanistan. most notable was avicenna ( abu ali hussein ibn sina ) whose father hailed from balkh. ibn sina, who travelled to isfahan later in life to establish a medical school there, is known by some scholars as " the father of modern medicine ". george sarton called ibn sina " the most famous scientist of islam and one of the most famous of all races, places, and times. " his most famous works are the book of healing and the canon of medicine, also known as the qanun. ibn sina ' s story even found way to the contemporary english literature through noah gordon ' s the physician, now published in many languages. moreover, according to ibn al - nadim, al - farabi, a well - known philosopher and scientist, was from the faryab province of afghanistan. before the taliban gained power, the


s the physician, now published in many languages. moreover, according to ibn al - nadim, al - farabi, a well - known philosopher and scientist, was from the faryab province of afghanistan. before the taliban gained power, the city of kabul was home to many musicians who were masters of both traditional and modern afghan music, especially during the nauroz - celebration. kabul in the middle part of the twentieth century has been likened to vienna during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. the tribal system, which orders the life of most people outside metropolitan areas, is potent in political terms. men feel a fierce loyalty to their own tribe, such that, if called upon, they would assemble in arms under the tribal chiefs and local clan leaders ( khans ). in theory, under islamic law, every believer has an obligation to bear arms at the ruler ' s call ( ulul - amr ). heathcote considers the tribal system to be the best way of organizing large groups of people in a country that is geographically difficult, and in a society that, from a materialistic point of view, has an uncomplicated lifestyle. religiously, afghans are over 99 % muslims : approximately 74 - 80 % sunni and 19 - 25 % shi ' a ( estimates vary ). up until the mid - 1980s, there were about 30, 000 to 150, 000 hindus and sikhs living in different cities, mostly in jalalabad, kabul, and kandahar. the economically active population in 2002 was about 11 million ( out of a total of an estimated 29 million ). as of 2005, the official unemployment rate is at 40 %. the number of non - skilled young people is estimated at 3 million, which is likely to increase by some 300, 000 per annum. the nation ' s economy began to improve since 2002 due to the infusion of multi - billion us dollars in international assistance and investments, as well as remittances from expats. it is also due to dramatic improvements in agricultural production and the end of a four - year drought in most of the country. the real value of non - drug gdp increased by 29 % in 2002, 16 % in 2003, 8 % in 2004 and 14 % in 2005. as much as one - third of afghanistan ' s gdp comes from growing poppy and illicit drugs including opium and its two derivatives, morphine and heroin, as well as hashish production. opium production in afghanistan has soared to a new record in 2007, with an increase on last year of


afghanistan ' s gdp comes from growing poppy and illicit drugs including opium and its two derivatives, morphine and heroin, as well as hashish production. opium production in afghanistan has soared to a new record in 2007, with an increase on last year of more than a third, the united nations has said. some 3. 3 million afghans are now involved in producing opium. in a recent article in the washington quarterly, peter van ham and jorrit kamminga argue that the international community should establish a pilot project and investigate a licensing scheme to start the production of medicines such as morphine and codeine from poppy crops to help it escape the economic dependence on opium : according to a 2004 report by the asian development bank, the present reconstruction effort is two - pronged : first it focuses on rebuilding critical physical infrastructure, and second, on building modern public sector institutions from the remnants of soviet style planning to ones that promote market - led development. in 2006, two u. s. companies, black & veatch and the louis berger group, have won a us 1. 4 billion dollar contract to rebuild roads, power lines and water supply systems of afghanistan. one of the main drivers for the current economic recovery is the return of over 4 million refugees from neighbouring countries and the west, who brought with them fresh energy, entrepreneurship and wealth - creating skills as well as much needed funds to start up businesses. what is also helping is the estimated us 2 – 3 billion dollars in international assistance every year, the partial recovery of the agricultural sector, and the reestablishment of market institutions. private developments are also beginning to get underway. in 2006, a dubai - based afghan family opened a $ 25 million coca cola bottling plant in afghanistan. while the country ' s current account deficit is largely financed with the donor money, only a small portion – about 15 % – is provided directly to the government budget. the rest is provided to non - budgetary expenditure and donor - designated projects through the united nations system and non - governmental organizations. the government had a central budget of only $ 350 million in 2003 and an estimated $ 550 million in 2004. the country ' s foreign exchange reserves totals about $ 500 million. revenue is mostly generated through customs, as income and corporate tax bases are negligible. inflation had been a major problem until 2002. however, the depreciation of the afghani in 2002 after the introduction of the new notes ( which replaced 1, 000 old afghani by 1 new afghani ) coupled with the relative stability compared