session e : libraries in the digital age arja - riitta haarala : the role of libraries in information management in finnish university setting libraries have for some time been in a turbulent state. the information milieu is changing as a result of new technology : information media are in a state of rapid change ; the need for increased computing power continues to increase ; the use of information is changing ; and our masters demand more effectiveness and better results. old ways of doing things are now less effective. even the concept of service quality has evolved. users request new types of services, new ways of producing them, and new methods of delivery. libraries in finland have been active in introducing new information services and have a strong tradition of piloting computer - based services. in early 70´s online database searching were introduced among the first ones in europe. the first experimental packet - switched nordic telecommunication network scannet was implemented in nordic technical libraries in 70´s, and it included first nordic electronic journal extemplo. libraries were also among first ones in universities to accommodate microcomputers for public use in early 80´s. according to the outlines mentioned earlier universities have been developed strategies at the local level. most common are information technology strategies in which libraries are only shortly mentioned, and with a strong emphasis on information technologies. libraries tend to develop their own strategies. the helsinki university libraries assessment panel writes in their report " the university already has a strategy for information management. the panel believes that this may need to be updated and revised in the light of its recommendations as they affect the goals, objectives, budgets and staff of the libraries, in compliance with the university of helsinki policy research and education. " furthermore they make a recommendation that the university should appoint a director of academic information and learning resources. there are also information strategies where all key players at the local level are taken into account. recent strategy by the university of kuopio is a comprehensive one integrating computing centre, kuopio university printing office, learning centre, library and photographic laboratory under the same umbrella as a profit centre. similar type of strategies are developed in the university of lapland and lappeenranta university of technology. libraries have also actively entered in publishing business. quite often they are responsible for university publishing operations, especially so nowadays due to digital publishing. co - operation has considered as important by libraries. therefore regular national annual meetings have been organised with directors of it and computing centres together with directors of university libraries for some time. furthermore at the local level it steering committees or advisory committees for information management have


co - operation has considered as important by libraries. therefore regular national annual meetings have been organised with directors of it and computing centres together with directors of university libraries for some time. furthermore at the local level it steering committees or advisory committees for information management have been introduced at universities. it is necessary to consider the evolutionary stage of present library, computer and information services as well as other players in the field. are they yet at a sufficiently mature stage for new systems to be designed with confidence, or is there still a great deal of dynamism, so that different design criteria must be incorporated to deal with the continuing evolution? consequently, most organisations have started to look at new ways of working. co - operation and collaboration have been found productive and useful, with organisations entering into new type of alliances. libraries and computing centres have developed closer relationships in the uk and usa, although less so in other countries. the first alliance of this type in finland is at tampere university of technology, where the computing centre as a independent institute was terminated. co - operation has always been a strong feature in finnish university libraries, and not less today. a major work has been carried out in selecting and at the moment implementing a new library system voyager. this is a second system consecutively in university libraries, and co - operation has proven its advantages and benefits. another success story is finelib, finnish electronic library that acquires electronic material for university libraries. the finnish universities form the core of the finelib consortium, and it started already in 1997. it is financed by the ministry of education ( 18 mill. finnish marks ) and the rest comes from the licence fees of university libraries. finnish electronic library works in close co - operation with other national development programmes. common concerns include electronic publishing, long - term storage of electronic material, copyright and other topical issues. international projects in the field of electronic libraries are being followed closely. virtual university collaboration and the development of digital learning environments is the next extensive area to be considered. the work has already begun under the project of finnish virtual university. © this publication and its compilation in form and content is copyrighted. every realization which is not explicitly allowed by copyright law requires a written agreement. especially, this holds for reprography and processing / storing by electronic systems.


a map of marco polo ' s route to and from china. in the 13th century, a young venetian named marco polo set out with his father and uncle on a great adventure. following a series of trade routes, they traveled across the vast continent of asia and became the first europeans to visit the chinese capital ( modern beijing ). marco so impressed the reigning emperor of china, kublai khan, that he was appointed to the imperial court. for the next 17 years, marco was sent on missions to many parts of kublai ' s sprawling empire. the polos finally returned to venice via the sea route. marco later wrote a book about his experiences, which inspired new generations of explorers to travel to the exotic lands of the east. read through the entire lesson plan and become familiar with the content and resources. bookmark relevant websites for later reference. begin this activity by telling your students that they will be learning about a young man, marco polo, who was one of the first europeans to travel to china. marco grew up in the 13th century in venice, an important trading city in italy. have the students locate venice using the following links : students should note that venice is an archipelago ( a group of islands ) in a fairly shallow lagoon. during the 13th century, venice was an international center of trade. its strategic location on the mediterranean enabled the city to attract ships from trading ports in other parts of europe was well as africa and asia. these ships carried a wide variety of products, such as ivory, precious stones, and spices, which were bought by venetian merchants or exchanged for such local products as woven wool cloth and colored glass. marco ' s father was a merchant. he and his brother left for an extended business trip when marco was five. the boy lived alone with his mother while he was growing up. at one point, he worked in a spice shop overlooking the harbor. marco was fascinated by the tales he heard from merchants and mariners, and he often dreamed of the day when he, too, could travel to distant places. to learn more about venice ' s role as a trading hub, students can visit the following links : have the students, working in pairs, fill out the chart and answer the questions about 13th - century venice available in pdf format. once they have gathered this information, tell them to pretend that they are 13th - century travel agents. still working in pairs, their task is to design travel brochures, advertising with words and pictures ( drawings or images they have downloaded ) the wonders of venice. 1 -


teachers were working way too hard on some things that modern technology could make so much easier, says to dan levin. “ precisely, there are a lot of questions available on the internet, but they tend to be in the form of pdf files, ” he says. “ teachers need to get the pdfs, skim through them, find the kinds of questions they are looking for and then, after doing all that work, they still have to cut and paste and reformat. ” his solution to all that, problem - attic, makes the process a whole lot faster, simpler and more convenient. here, dan discusses what the name means, takes us through the late 1980s when technology integration into the classroom began in earnest, through an era of large vertical systems — and into the present time environment of technology in education to fill us in on what he thinks is really going on with teachers and technology. victor : what does the name mean? dan : the name problem - attic gradually evolved from a lot of experimentation with words such as test, quiz, problem, question and exercise. we wanted to combine that part of instruction with the concept of storage, particularly long - term storage, and content curation. a lot of the documents that we thought we could make more searchable and useful to teachers have been up on websites for years. some of them have been gathering “ digital dust ” because they are much harder to access than they should be. we eventually realized that problem - attic was a really good play on words for what we are doing. victor : so the attic is really coming from the attic of the house? dan : that ’ s the metaphor. there are gobs of really good questions on the internet that organizations and states have been putting up for decades – new york regents exams are a good example – but they were too hard to access. but they ’ re great questions! to us, attic means long - term storage, so we thought problem - attic was appropriate. really, what we ’ ve done is dusted off the questions and made them modern and accessible – made them new again. victor : what is it? who created it? dan : our company, educaide, is the creator of problem - attic. we have a long history of providing schools with high - quality, standards - based material for assessment and instruction. what we ’ ve done with problem - attic reflects more of a startup mentality. like a lot of young companies, we spotted a problem that could be fixed, and we thought we could make the lives


standards - based material for assessment and instruction. what we ’ ve done with problem - attic reflects more of a startup mentality. like a lot of young companies, we spotted a problem that could be fixed, and we thought we could make the lives of teachers, homeschoolers, tutors and parents a lot easier. it was fortunate for us that our company had experience developing question banks and teacher tools. even though we approached this with a startup mentality, we were able to apply some unique skills because we had already been doing something similar for a long time. we ’ d already figured out how to handle the formatting, and we knew how to scale up and organize a lot of questions quickly. i think we brought in a good understanding of what needed to be done and how to do it. i helped found educaide about 20 years ago. some people might have given up and moved on, but we ’ ve always approached our work as a long - term effort. a lot of things happen quickly on the internet, but this is content curation, so we ’ ve had to grow our offerings almost as a museum director would. knowing how to organize content and make searching efficient requires a particular set of skills. i think that we were uniquely positioned to develop problem - attic because we had been grappling with these issues for a long time. i was a teacher before this company was founded, so the main idea behind problem - attic, which is coming into play now, comes from my own experience. as a teacher, i was frustrated. computers were entering classrooms in the late 1980s, and i had a dream, even back then, of building a massive database for teachers to eliminate the problems of cutting and pasting, searching for material and sharing. so problem - attic is not a new idea, but a confluence of factors was needed to make it a reality. one is the whole web 2. 0 model, which is only about 10 years old. the second is a good understanding of how websites like this should work, what the interaction should be. a lot of the technology behind the website is actually very new – probably no more than a few years old. so even though i think we were way ahead of our time 20 years ago and we tried mightily to do something like problem - attic back in the 1990s, we were stuck with desktop applications and databases, and we had no good distribution model. the model became clearer around 2002 to 2003 with no child left behind. we started to get some insight into what a


something like problem - attic back in the 1990s, we were stuck with desktop applications and databases, and we had no good distribution model. the model became clearer around 2002 to 2003 with no child left behind. we started to get some insight into what a large - scale solution might look like. then, in recent years, the quantity of available material became even larger, states began to coalesce around certain things such as common core standards, and people became very comfortable with the idea of software as a service. everything came together perfectly for us, which is to say, changes in the world around us finally made our dream of problem - attic achievable. i hope problem - attic is an overnight success, but it will have taken us 20 years to achieve that overnight success! victor : what does problem - attic do? what are the benefits? dan : first and foremost, problem - attic puts a lot of good material back in the hands of teachers – material that was excellent when it first came out and has unfortunately gotten lost or buried, become inaccessible over time or was not in a good form for teachers. problem - attic gives them access to great questions that have already been written and shouldn ’ t be forgotten. it ’ s a waste of time for so many educators around the world to be rewriting this stuff, reinventing the wheel. from the technical side, problem - attic eliminates the drudgery of cutting and pasting, reformatting and putting questions together into a test, quiz or worksheet. problem - attic ’ s output is gorgeous and can make a teacher feel proud. it doesn ’ t look like you took scissors and tape and went over to the photocopy machine. it looks like there is real desktop publishing muscle behind what you created. i think that ’ s really neat and that a lot of teachers are going to appreciate it. the documents look very professional. from there, problem - attic ’ s benefits flow down to students. although it is definitely a time - saving tool for teachers, that is only a means to an end. the goal is to help students learn, to personalize learning. giving kids quick feedback, having a convenient way to do ongoing assessment, being able to serve classes of mixed abilities, meeting students ’ individual needs – all that makes for a powerful tool! victor : how is it unique from other similar products / services? what companies do you see as in the same market? dan : one of the interesting things about the web is that it is pretty easy to put up


that makes for a powerful tool! victor : how is it unique from other similar products / services? what companies do you see as in the same market? dan : one of the interesting things about the web is that it is pretty easy to put up a shingle and say you ’ ve started a business. so there are many companies out there in the same general space. i don ’ t think there is anything profound in what we ’ re doing, but there was definitely a need for problem - attic, an unmet need. i think we are way ahead of what anyone else is doing in terms of scale – just the sheer magnitude of the number of questions we ’ re able to put up and how much more we have coming soon. we have probably another 200, 000 to 250, 000 questions that we can put up onto the site. that ’ s pretty formidable. and again, that ’ s because of our 20 - year history. victor : when was problem - attic developed? what is something interesting or relevant about its development history? dan : i would narrow it down to just the last few years. just a few, key things needed to be in place for this actually to work. one is a really good model for serving up content through the web. so, if i can take you down memory lane a tiny bit, you will see what i mean. the ’ 90s were pretty much all - desktop applications with some networking, and then by the late ’ 90s, we were into the dot - com boom – which people are now calling web 1. 0. it was a different kind of model : less interactivity with users and more just plain selling. you went on the web to buy stuff. people didn ’ t quite understand this notion of interacting in a deep way with a website where it is, say, a software service – and then, of course, social networking was in its infancy as well. as we all know, the dot - com thing imploded and there were some survivors, some amount of e - commerce and online purchasing. gradually, out of the ashes, came a lot of new technologies and a new understanding about how users might want to interact with websites. this is all changing really quickly now with mobile phones and ipads. interestingly, in our industry, i think no child left behind stalled things quite a bit. around 2001 to 2002, a lot of interest, including our own interest in what we developed, shifted toward large - scale assessment, state standards, and scoring and reporting – basically,


industry, i think no child left behind stalled things quite a bit. around 2001 to 2002, a lot of interest, including our own interest in what we developed, shifted toward large - scale assessment, state standards, and scoring and reporting – basically, toward data - driven instruction. the way i see it, there was a need for development in that area, but ultimately it sidetracked us a little bit from that dream we had in the ‘ 90s of doing more pure content and serving the needs of teachers. like a lot of companies, we shifted our focus to assessment, and in retrospect, that ’ s a different industry, a different model. it doesn ’ t work quite as well with web 2. 0 because it is so large and integrated. so that whole era, from about 2001 or 2002 to just a couple of years ago, was based on the concept of large, vertical systems that did everything for schools and teachers – everything from attendance and grading to curriculum management, from tracking student progress to contacting parents. and that still is somewhat of a model in education, though i think it is fading. in the last three or four years, we began to see a change, an understanding that websites could be more directed at specific needs, and that they could speak to each other. so it turns out you don ’ t really need big systems. thus there has been fertile development in a lot of areas, a shift toward best - of - class solutions for specific problems. of course the solutions should talk to one another so teachers end up with a complete solution that is best - of - class, seamlessly integrated, convenient and, of course, usable on a whole bunch of different devices and with different applications in the classroom. that ’ s the change which has occurred, or rather is occurring, in k - 12 education. the shift from big, vertically integrated systems is producing a fertile environment with much more adaptable software, with a better understanding that the end user, rather than the company that made it, should decide how to do the work. so that ’ s our philosophy : let the end user decide the best way to make use of all of these great questions. and i think that what i just described is how a lot of people are approaching the web these days. it is not unique to education. victor : where did it originate? where can you get it now? dan : as i said earlier, problem - attic was developed by educaide, of which i ’ m one of the founders. we still


it is not unique to education. victor : where did it originate? where can you get it now? dan : as i said earlier, problem - attic was developed by educaide, of which i ’ m one of the founders. we still make a desktop app, and we will continue to support that because it is a really good development platform. it has allowed us to build up our massive database of questions. and it is still a great tool for teachers who want an industrial - strength program for putting their own questions on the computer, for authoring, organizing and publishing. teachers can find problem - attic, with more than 45, 000 questions from the new york state regents exams and tens of thousands more to come, at www. problem - attic. com. victor : how much does it cost? what are the options? dan : access to the questions and current tools on problem - attic is free and will remain free. down the road, we will consider adding some for - pay options that might include additional content, editing and document management and storage capabilities. we might do some partnerships with publishers or content developers, where they would use problem - attic ’ s platform to deliver their questions to their audience. we will almost certainly begin to look at exporting questions to various devices – everything from tablets and phones to more traditional classroom applications such as assessment systems – in the very near term. victor : who is it particularly tailored for? who is it not for? dan : problem - attic is tailored for any educator who finds the content relevant. the new york state regents exam questions that are available now are largely targeted at a secondary audience – not just in new york but in every state – and as we add more questions in the future, there will be content for all grade levels. by the way, when i say any educator, i mean teachers, parents, homeschoolers, tutors, researchers, and so on. i ’ m not sure if “ self - educator ” is a common term, but certainly students can access the site also and make use of the questions to further their own learning. victor : what are your thoughts on education these days? dan : i think it is a really exciting time for education. everything i just talked about that has happened over the last 20 years is making it an amazing time because there are so many things that can be done now to improve education and help teachers. we look at our company as helping to solve one piece of the puzzle. problem - attic helps fulfill the promise of a digital classroom


is making it an amazing time because there are so many things that can be done now to improve education and help teachers. we look at our company as helping to solve one piece of the puzzle. problem - attic helps fulfill the promise of a digital classroom – personalized learning and everything that goes with that. it is a great time to be in this field. victor : what sort of formative experiences in your own education and teaching career helped to inform your approach to creating problem - attic? dan : like a lot of inventors going back centuries, it was frustration over something that had to be better. of course, i don ’ t think problem - attic is a complicated type of invention or discovery compared with some. but it can help solve teachers ’ frustration with not having easy access to, or not a having a good means of formatting, high - quality, proven content. i have two daughters, and i help them at home with their math homework. i was a math coach and a math club adviser when they were in middle school. there were a lot of times i would have done anything to have a product like problem - attic because i was spending so much time trying to pull questions together. i hope we can help teachers of all types who are in search of good questions, in and out of the classroom, to help kids understand difficult concepts. victor : how does problem - attic address some of your concerns about education? dan : education needs help in many ways, but the system is also showing great promise right now. i think problem - attic, like a lot of other great web tools, does change the economics. i think that it shows, among other things, that this can be done affordably and that valuable resources can be made available free of charge. there is no reason that the tools that educators need should be costly. and that isn ’ t just our discovery. khan academy does free videos, and so do others. a couple of companies that could be considered our competitors have realized that they will have to make a lot of things available for free. i think that is maybe the biggest way we are changing the economics – making the solutions less expensive and more widely available, if they are done right. it took a lot of years to figure out how to do this ; there were no shortcuts. victor : what is your outlook on the future of education? dan : i ’ m excited about where education is headed, toward more online and blended learning. i also realize there will be bumps in the road. one thing


were no shortcuts. victor : what is your outlook on the future of education? dan : i ’ m excited about where education is headed, toward more online and blended learning. i also realize there will be bumps in the road. one thing i feel strongly about is that as we enter this new age we shouldn ’ t throw out everything that worked before. many things still work well. that doesn ’ t mean they can ’ t be improved, but it would be a mistake to think that every student can be put in front of a computer and learn that way. teachers can and should and will remain an integral part of the learning process for a long, long time to come. i think that inspiration and education often come from the personal side of teaching – the human side. that is very much what we are trying to support. we are not putting our heads in the sand ; we are not thinking that education is always going to follow that old, traditional model of a teacher in front of a classroom. but we also don ’ t think that the importance of that teacher, tutor, mentor, parent – whomever – should be overlooked. they need quality tools like everyone else! they need tools that will make their jobs easier and make them more efficient, so they can concentrate on teaching and learning. there is no doubt that technology is bringing about great changes, but my observation is that much of what has gone into classrooms in the past 20 years has not directly aided the teacher. a lot of it helps tangentially, but most – and i ’ m not putting it down – has been for student use, or for communication between parents and teachers, or for administrative purposes, like grading or attendance. when you get right down to it, few things can actually be called tools for teachers. the main exceptions are probably email and word processors, and everybody has those. but you see my point : if they were doctors or journalists or electricians, they would have new tools and a new kind of tool belt to carry around! while teachers have a lot more software and hardware, interactive whiteboards for example, some of it makes teachers ’ lives harder. our focus is to support the work of teachers. victor : could you share an anecdote that our readers would find interesting? dan : the most interesting thing is being a long - time player in the game. as i watch all of the really exciting things being done in education, many by young people, it ’ s kind of fun to be an “ adult ” in the room. it


10 tips to preserve the environment | this article is part of the | living together theme becoming more mindful of the environment is not as hard as one might think. there are plenty of little things we can do on a daily basis to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and limit our impact on the environment ( ecological footprint ). every single thing is important and will make a difference : this is our responsibility, but it ' s also an honour, being a green ecocitizen is very gratifying and rewarding. buy less consumption implies pollution. before buying anything, think twice and make sure you need this item. there are other solutions : do it yourself, repair the older one, borrow the tools you won ' t often need and save money. use cars and planes as little as possible it can be easy to refrain from using your car or any other polluting vehicle, use alternative means of transport. as a rule, we ' ll do 5 trips a week back and forth to go to work. this can be a good start to do without cars. in many cases we can walk or ride to work and it often proves to be more pleasant and convenient, even compared to public transport : no need to bother about parking your car or traffic jams. another solution is car sharing which is good for your purse as well as for the environment. trains and boats or ferries are also greener solutions than personal vehicles, your holiday trips will be much more pleasant than in the tiny space of a seat in a plane. let ' s eat less meat, for animal proteins, opt for meat with low ecological footprint contrary to what many people think, a diet excluding meat, is as good for our health as for the environment. without necessarily opting for vegetarianism, a moderate consumption of meat ( say once or twice a week ) will significantly lower one ' s ecological footprint. as a matter of fact, breeding implies a huge waste of cereals, of water, of the end of oil | fossil energy and of arable land. in the us, more than half the cereals are cropped to feed cattle. for the same area of arable land, we get 16 kilos of soy or other cereal and 1 kilo of beef. more and more forests are destroyed to make room for fields whose only use is growing crops for cattle. a recent study from the scientific journal " nature " explains that 40 % of the amazon forest will be destroyed by 2050 if the trend continues. not to mention a un report, breeding is the first cause of


only use is growing crops for cattle. a recent study from the scientific journal " nature " explains that 40 % of the amazon forest will be destroyed by 2050 if the trend continues. not to mention a un report, breeding is the first cause of greenhouse gas emissions, more than global transport. among the various options, selecting the right kind of meat for animal proteins is important too, as shown on this graph. thus beef, veal and cheese are worse than chicken, eggs or milk. pork is so and so and mutton between pork and beef. as for fish, abstain from consuming predators such as ( salmon, tuna, trout ), since eating one kilo os such fish implies eating many kilos of other fish. prefer sardines and herrings. you can also select food with low environmental impact among vegetables. for cereals, prefer corn, quinoa, rye or barley rather than rice : rice is more polluting as paddies produce methane. even better than cereals, potatoes are less polluting and good starchy food. act local whether it be food, clothing, furniture, we must always mind the negative aspect of transport for all these goods. opting for local products can also mean producing locally. a few hens in the back garden will eat your dinner wastes on your compost heap. you can also easily learn to deal with hives. easier still, replace flowers by aromatic herbs along your alleys ( thyme, rosemary, mint... ). in the same line of idea, you can help support local agriculture by buying your weekly basket in a nearby farm. we can help reduce pollution very easily by sorting out our plastic bottles for instance. always opt for the product with less packaging. consider a building with 7000 employees who regularly recycle their paper wastes : this is equivalent to saving the pollution of 400 cars. composting is an efficient way of reducing household wastes ( from 20 to 30 % ) that would otherwise be incinerated or dumped into landfills, instead they ' ll fertilize your garden for free... it ' s easy, you can make your bin yourself or you may even get incentives to buy one as in quebec. save electricity and water turn the lights off when leaving a room, turn off your computer ( and the screen ) when you don ' t use it, same with the tv and other electric appliances, prefer compact fluorescent lamps or even better leds. when a device is on stand - by, its transform


a room, turn off your computer ( and the screen ) when you don ' t use it, same with the tv and other electric appliances, prefer compact fluorescent lamps or even better leds. when a device is on stand - by, its transformator uses electricity, using a multi plug with a switch will save this useless waste. there are easy but very efficient things you can do. we can do without a tumble drier. little things are all important. don ' t let the water run while brushing your teeth. fix leaks that represent big volumes of water at the end of the day. install dry toilets to save even more water ( more than 10m3 / per head every year ) and to get compost. prefer tap water, quite drinkable in western countries to save the plastic and wrapping of bottle water. use biodegradable soap for your washing and select a low temperature program. buy second - hand items is it always necessary to buy new items? second - hand goods are often quite a good idea and are cheaper. as for quality, there can be different cases but older products will often last longer. using second - hand things is consuming less and so polluting less. instead of considering an item as waste, you can give it a second life! however, the energy consumption of older appliances must be taken into account. use biodegradable products try and use as little plastic as possible : is it always necessary to wrap an item you can hold in your hand? a good alternative is using cloth bags or willow baskets. be careful with the so - called biodegradable plastic bags, some will only be fragmented, which makes a difference. plenty of polluting and toxic products can easily be replaced by biodegradable ones for housecleaning : white vinegar, hydrogen carbonate will do wonders. the higher the quality of a product, the longer it will last. so prefer wood to plastic for your furniture, wood is sturdier and can be repaired. same for building, use timber which is more environment friendly as it traps and stores carbon, also, it is a renewable resource. let ' s take action we have the duty to pass on a healthy planet to the next generations so we must do our best to become worthy eco - citizens, we can join green groups locally and raise awareness, share our pleasure in simple living and, last but not least, we can contribute to... ekopedia! see also - ↑ the american dietetic association position paper at eatright, pdf. -


ottoman women and daily life for the harems women, whose daily recreational pursuits were largely confined to conversation, embroidery, drinking coffee and smoking pipes, receiving guests and holding musical gatherings were occasions that added colour to their lives. in the palace harem there were orchestras and groups of dancers consisting of female slaves, and the female musicians were taught by the most eminent teachers of the time. singing and playing music was one of the most popular pursuits of women at the palace and the upper echelons of society. ottoman women had limited opportunities for activities outside the home. the upper - class women rarely went shopping, most of their needs being met by servants or peddler women. wedding celebrations and feasts, visits to holy tombs and sufi lodges, and friends and relatives, social gatherings known as ' helva nights ', mevlit ceremonies, weekly visits to the public baths, and above all picnics and country excursions in spring and summer were events that took women out of their homes. western men, who had to make do with second - hand accounts of ottoman harem life, only had the opportunity to see these women for themselves when they were travelling from place to place, shopping in the company of eunuchs, or enjoying country outings. the most popular excursion places were kagıthane on the golden horn and goksu and kucuksu on the asian shore of the bosphorus. pleasing scenes of women in gauzy yashmaks and colourful outer robes promenading in their carriages, strolling in meadows, or being rowed along in graceful caiques, lacy sunshades in hand, were a favourite topic for western painters.


general chemistry / periodicity and electron configurations blocks of the periodic table the periodic table does more than just list the elements. the word periodic means that in each row, or period, there is a pattern of characteristics in the elements. this is because the elements are listed in part by their electron configuration. the alkali metals and alkaline earth metals have one and two valence electrons ( electrons in the outer shell ) respectively. these elements lose electrons to form bonds easily, and are thus very reactive. these elements are the s - block of the periodic table. the p - block, on the right, contains common non - metals such as chlorine and helium. the noble gases, in the column on the right, almost never react, since they have eight valence electrons, which makes it very stable. the halogens, directly to the left of the noble gases, readily gain electrons and react with metals. the s and p blocks make up the main - group elements, also known as representative elements. the d - block, which is the largest, consists of transition metals such as copper, iron, and gold. the f - block, on the bottom, contains rarer metals including uranium. elements in the same group or family have the same configuration of valence electrons, making them behave in chemically similar ways. causes for trends there are certain phenomena that cause the periodic trends to occur. you must understand them before learning the trends. effective nuclear charge the effective nuclear charge is the amount of positive charge acting on an electron. it is the number of protons in the nucleus minus the number of electrons in between the nucleus and the electron in question. basically, the nucleus attracts an electron, but other electrons in lower shells repel it ( opposites attract, likes repel ). shielding effect the shielding ( or screening ) effect is similar to effective nuclear charge. the core electrons repel the valence electrons to some degree. the more electron shells there are ( a new shell for each row in the periodic table ), the greater the shielding effect is. essentially, the core electrons shield the valence electrons from the positive charge of the nucleus. electron - electron repulsions when two electrons are in the same shell, they will repel each other slightly. this effect is mostly canceled out due to the strong attraction to the nucleus, but it does cause electrons in the same shell to spread out a little bit. lower shells experience this effect more because they are smaller and allow the electrons to interact more. coulomb ' s


canceled out due to the strong attraction to the nucleus, but it does cause electrons in the same shell to spread out a little bit. lower shells experience this effect more because they are smaller and allow the electrons to interact more. coulomb ' s law coulomb ' s law is an equation that determines the amount of force with which two charged particles attract or repel each other. it is, where is the amount of charge ( + 1e for protons, - 1e for electrons ), is the distance between them, and is a constant. you can see that doubling the distance would quarter the force. also, a large number of protons would attract an electron with much more force than just a few protons would. trends in the periodic table most of the elements occur naturally on earth. however, all elements beyond uranium ( number 92 ) are called trans - uranium elements and never occur outside of a laboratory. most of the elements occur as solids or gases at stp. stp is standard temperature and pressure, which is 0° c and 1 atmosphere of pressure. there are only two elements that occur as liquids at stp : mercury ( hg ) and bromine ( br ). bismuth ( bi ) is the last stable element on the chart. all elements after bismuth are radioactive and decay into more stable elements. some elements before bismuth are radioactive, however. atomic radius leaving out the noble gases, atomic radii are larger on the left side of the periodic chart and are progressively smaller as you move to the right across the period. conversely, as you move down the group, radii increase. atomic radii decrease along a period due to greater effective nuclear charge. atomic radii increase down a group due to the shielding effect of the additional core electrons, and the presence of another electron shell. ionic radius for nonmetals, ions are bigger than atoms, as the ions have extra electrons. for metals, it is the opposite. extra electrons ( negative ions, called anions ) cause additional electron - electron repulsions, making them spread out farther. fewer electrons ( positive ions, called cations ) cause fewer repulsions, allowing them to be closer. | ionization energy is the energy required to strip an electron from the atom ( when in the gas state ). ionization energy is also a periodic trend within the periodic table organization. moving left to right within a period or upward within a group, the first ionization energy generally increases. as the


an electron from the atom ( when in the gas state ). ionization energy is also a periodic trend within the periodic table organization. moving left to right within a period or upward within a group, the first ionization energy generally increases. as the atomic radius decreases, it becomes harder to remove an electron that is closer to a more positively charged nucleus. ionization energy decreases going left across a period because there is a lower effective nuclear charge keeping the electrons attracted to the nucleus, so less energy is needed to pull one out. it decreases going down a group due to the shielding effect. remember coulomb ' s law : as the distance between the nucleus and electrons increases, the force decreases at a quadratic rate. it is considered a measure of the tendency of an atom or ion to surrender an electron, or the strength of the electron binding ; the greater the ionization energy, the more difficult it is to remove an electron. the ionization energy may be an indicator of the reactivity of an element. elements with a low ionization energy tend to be reducing agents and form cations, which in turn combine with anions to form salts. electron affinity | electron affinity is the opposite of ionization energy. it is the energy released when an electron is added to an atom. electron affinity is highest in the upper left, lowest on the bottom right. however, electron affinity is actually negative for the noble gasses. they already have a complete valence shell, so there is no room in their orbitals for another electron. adding an electron would require creating a whole new shell, which takes energy instead of releasing it. several other elements have extremely low electron affinities because they are already in a stable configuration, and adding an electron would decrease stability. electron affinity occurs due to the same reasons as ionization energy. electronegativity is how much an atom attracts electrons within a bond. it is measured on a scale with fluorine at 4. 0 and francium at 0. 7. electronegativity decreases from upper right to lower left. electronegativity decreases because of atomic radius, shielding effect, and effective nuclear charge in the same manner that ionization energy decreases. metallic character metallic elements are shiny, usually gray or silver colored, and good conductors of heat and electricity. they are malleable ( can be hammered into thin sheets ), and ductile ( can be stretched into wires ). some metals, like sodium, are soft and can be cut with a knife. others, like iron,


adriatic campaign of world war ii the adriatic campaign of world war ii was a minor naval campaign fought during world war ii between the greek, yugoslavian and italian navies, the kriegsmarine, and the mediterranean squadrons of the united kingdom, france, and the yugoslav partisan naval forces. considered a not important part of the naval warfare of world war ii, it nonetheless saw interesting developments, given the specificity of the dalmatian coastline. prelude — italian invasion of albania on april 7, 1939, mussolini ' s troops occupied albania, overthrew zog, and annexed the country to the italian empire. naval operations in the adriatic consisted mostly of transport organisation through the ports of taranto. greco - italian war the greco - italian war lasted from 28 october 1940 - 30 april 1941 and was part of world war ii. italian forces invaded greece and made limited gains. at the outbreak of hostilities, the royal hellenic navy was composed of the old cruiser georgios averof, 10 destroyers ( four old theria class, four relatively modern dardo class and two new greyhound class ), several torpedo boats and six old submarines. faced with the formidable regia marina, its role was primarily limited to patrol and convoy escort duties in the aegean sea. this was essential both for the completion of the army ' s mobilization, but also for the overall resupply of the country, the convoy routes being threatened by italian aircraft and submarines operating from the dodecanese islands. nevertheless, the greek ships also carried out limited offensive operations against italian shipping in the strait of otranto. the destroyers carried out three bold but fruitless night - time raids ( 14 – 15 november 1940, 15 – 16 december 1940 and 4 – 5 january 1941 ). the main successes came from the submarines, which managed to sink some italian transports. on the italian side, although the regia marina suffered severe losses in capital ships from the british royal navy during the taranto raid, italian cruisers and destroyers continued to operate covering the convoys between italy and albania. also, on 28 november, an italian squadron bombarded corfu, while on 18 december and 4 march, italian task forces shelled greek coastal positions in albania. invasion of yugoslavia the invasion of yugoslavia ( also known as operation 25 ) began on 6 april 1941 and ended with the unconditional surrender of the royal yugoslav army on 17 april. the invading axis powers ( nazi germany, fascist italy and hungary ) occupied and dismembered the kingdom of yugoslavia. when germany and italy attacked yugoslavia on 6 april 1941


ended with the unconditional surrender of the royal yugoslav army on 17 april. the invading axis powers ( nazi germany, fascist italy and hungary ) occupied and dismembered the kingdom of yugoslavia. when germany and italy attacked yugoslavia on 6 april 1941, the yugoslav royal navy had available three destroyers, two submarines and 10 mtbs as the most effective units of the fleet. one other destroyer, the ljubljana was in dry - dock at the time of the invasion and she and her anti - aircraft guns were used in defence of the fleet base at kotor. the remainder of the fleet was useful only for coastal defence and local escort and patrol work. kotor ( cattaro ) was close to the albanian border and the italo - greek front there, but zara ( zadar ), an italian enclave, was to the north - west of the coast and to prevent a bridgehead being established, the destroyer beograd, four of the old torpedo boats and six mtbs were despatched to sibenik, 41 ft 6 in ( 12. 65 m ) 80 km to the south of zara, in preparation for an attack. the attack was to be co - ordinated with the 12th " jadranska " infantry division and two odred ( combined regiments ) of the royal yugoslav army attacking from the benkovac area, supported by air attacks by the 81st bomber group of the royal yugoslav air force. the yugoslav forces launched their attack on 9 april, but by 13 april the italian forces - under the orders of general vittorio ambrosio - had counter - attacked and were in benkovac by 14 april. the naval prong to this attack faltered when beograd was damaged by near misses from italian aircraft off sibenik when her starboard engine was put out of action, after which she limped to kotor, escorted by the remainder of the force, for repair. the maritime patrol float - planes of the royal yugoslav air force flew reconnaissance and attack missions during the campaign, as well as providing air cover for mine - laying operations off zara. some of their successes included an italian tanker being damaged by a near miss off the italian coast near bari, attacks on the albanian port of durres, as well as strikes against italian re - supply convoys to albania. on 9 april, one dornier do 22k floatplane notably took on an italian convoy of 12 steamers with an escort of eight destroyers crossing the adriatic during the day, attacking single - handed in the face of intense aa fire


convoys to albania. on 9 april, one dornier do 22k floatplane notably took on an italian convoy of 12 steamers with an escort of eight destroyers crossing the adriatic during the day, attacking single - handed in the face of intense aa fire. italian occupation and yugoslav resistance after the invasion, italy controlled the entire eastern adriatic coast through the annexation of much of dalmatia, the italian occupation zone of the independent state of croatia, and the italian puppet regimes of the kingdom of montenegro ( 1941 – 1944 ) and the albanian kingdom ( 1939 – 1943 ). naval forces of the yugoslav partisans were formed as early as 19 september 1942, when partisans in dalmatia formed their first naval unit made of fishing boats, which gradually evolved into a force able to engage the italian navy and kriegsmarine and conduct complex amphibious operations. this event is considered to be the foundation of the yugoslav navy. at its peak during world war ii, the yugoslav partisans ' navy commanded nine or 10 armed ships, 30 patrol boats, close to 200 support ships, six coastal batteries, and several partisan detachments on the islands, around 3, 000 men. after the italian capitulation of 8 september 1943, following the allied invasion of italy, the partisans took most of the coast and all of the islands. on 26 october, the yugoslav partisans ' navy was organized first into four, and later into six maritime costal sectors ( pomorsko obalni sektor, pos ). the task of the naval forces was to secure supremacy at sea, organize defense of coast and islands, and attack enemy sea traffic and forces on the islands and along the coasts. german occupation as a first move ( operation wolkenbruch ) the germans rushed to occupy the northern adriatic ports of trieste, fiume and pula, and established the operational zone adriatic coast ozak, with its headquarters in trieste, on 10 september. it comprised the provinces of udine, gorizia, trieste, pula ( pola ), rijeka ( fiume ) and ljubljana ( lubiana ). since an allied landing in the area was anticipated, ozak also hosted a substantial german military contingent, the befehlshaber operationszone adriatisches kustenland commanded by general der gebirgstruppe ludwig kubler. on 28 september 1944, these units were redesignated xcvii armeekorps. soon also german marine units were formed. royal navy engagement was also on the rise. vize - admiral joachim lietzmann


of civilian population from dalmatia fleeing the german occupation, and moved them to the el shatt refugee camp in egypt. vis island by 1944, only vis island remained unoccupied and divisions task become its defense against later cancelled german invasion ( operation freischutz ). the island was about 14 mi ( 12 nmi ; 23 km ) long and 8 mi ( 7. 0 nmi ; 13 km ) wide, with a mainly hilly perimeter, with a plain in the centre covered with vines, part of which has been removed to make way for an airstrip about 750 yd ( 690 m ) long, from which four spitfires of the balkan air force were operating. at the west end of the island was the port of komiza, while at the other end was the port of vis, these were connected by the only good road running across the plain. vis was organized as a great stronghold, held until the end of world war ii. in 1944, tito ' s headquarters moved there and british forces with over 1, 000 troops was also included in the defence of vis. the british forces, already on the island, were called land forces adriatic, and were under the command of brigadier george daly, and consisted of the no. 40 ( royal marine ) commando and no. 43 ( royal marine ) commando of the 2nd special service brigade, the highland light infantry ( part of the 51st highland infantry division ) and other support troops. operating from the two ports were several royal navy craft, marshal tito ' s forces numbered about 2, 000. vis was functioning as the political and military center of the liberated territories until the liberation of belgrade in late 1944. a remarkable figure was the canadian captain thomas g. fuller, son of the canadian chief dominion architect thomas william fuller, who in 1944 took command of the 61st mgb flotilla. operating from the island of vis he supplied the partisans by pirating german supply ships. he managed to sink or capture 13 german supply boats, was involved in 105 fire fights and another 30 operations where there was no gunfire. characteristically for the yugoslav operations theatre, fuller attributed a good part of his success to the blood - curling threats uttered by the yugoslav partisan who manned the mgb ' s loud hailer : a 400 ton schooner was captured with its whole cargo and whose crew gave up without a struggle because of the explanation of what would be done to them personally, with knives, if they disobeyed. liberation of dalmatia british naval forces in the middle east operating in the adriatic sea were under


and whose crew gave up without a struggle because of the explanation of what would be done to them personally, with knives, if they disobeyed. liberation of dalmatia british naval forces in the middle east operating in the adriatic sea were under the command of the flag officer taranto and adriatic & liaison with the italians ( f. o. t. a. l. i ). all the naval forces were controlled from taranto and operated in close coordination with the coastal attack operations conducted by the baf. the yugoslavs used the units in the british navy to transport materials and men, but especially to make landings on the islands of dalmatia to liberate them from german occupation. during the vis period, partisans carried out several seaborne landings on dalmatian islands with help of royal navy and commandos : - solta - operation detained - hvar - operation endowment - mljet - operation farrier - brac - operation flounced the french navy was involved as well in the first half of 1944, with the 10th division of light cruisers made up of three fantansque - class destroyers ( le fantasque, le terrible, le malin ) making high speed sweeps in the adriatic, destroying german convoys. in the second half of 1944 the royal navy sent a destroyer flotilla in the adriatic. the biggest engagement happened on 1 november, when two hunt - class destroyers hms avon vale and wheatland were patrolling the coastal shipping routes south of lussino in the adriatic. that evening, two enemy corvettes were sighted ; uj - 202 and uj - 208. the two destroyers opened fire at a range of 4, 000 yd ( 3, 700 m ). in less than 10 minutes, the enemy ships were reduced to mere scrap, the two british ships were circling the enemy and pouring out a devastating fire of pom - pom and small calibre gunfire. when the first corvette was sunk avon vale closed to rescue the germans while wheatland continued to shoot up the second corvette which eventually blew up. ten minutes later, the british came under fire from the german torpedoboot ausland destroyer ta - 20 ( ex - italian destroyer audace ) which suddenly appeared on the scene. when the two british ships directed their fire at her and the enemy destroyer was sunk. but while the adriatic campaign continued to the end of the war, the hunts did not again engage large german warships, although the german navy was constantly launching and commissioning light destroyer types from the yards of trieste and fiume. moreover, on 14


sunk. but while the adriatic campaign continued to the end of the war, the hunts did not again engage large german warships, although the german navy was constantly launching and commissioning light destroyer types from the yards of trieste and fiume. moreover, on 14 december, hms aldenham struck a mine around the island of skrda and it was the last british destroyer lost in world war ii. to prevent entrance to north adriatic in last two years of second world war, germans spread thousands mines and blocked all ports and canals, many of underwater mine fields has been situated at the open sea. mine sweeping was executed by britain ships equipped with special mine - sweep technology. on 5 may 1945, the shakespeare - class trawler hms coriolanus hit a mine while it was sweeping the sea in front of novigrad. planned allied landings the allies, first under french initiative of the general maxime weygand planned landings in the thessaloniki area. although discarded by the british, later the landing option became most advocated by winston churchill. the so - called ljubljana gap strategy proved ultimately to be little more than a bluff owing to american refusal and skepticism upon the whole operation. nevertheless, the british command planned several landing operations in dalmatia and istria codenamed armpit and a more ambitious plan gelignite. facing american opposition the british made last attempts were marked by sending an air force called fairfax in zadar area, and an artillery attachment called floyd force also in dalmatia, but due to yugoslav obstruction such attempts ceased. nevertheless, the bluff worked since hitler eventually awaited an allied landing in the northern adriatic, and diverted important resources in the area. instead of landings the allied agreed to provide tito land units with aerial and logistical support by setting up the balkan air force. the biggest british - led combined operation in the eastern adriatic codenamed operation antagonise in december 1944 was intended to capture the island of losinj, where the germans kept e - boats and ( possibly ) midget submarines. it was only partially executed since the partisan navy commander in chief, josip cerni, refused to give his troops for the landing operation. instead, a group of destroyers and mtbs shelled the german gun positions and 36 south african air force bristol beaufighters attacked the naval base installations with rp - 3 3 in ( 76 mm ) rocket projectiles as the attacks proved ineffective in stopping german activities they were repeated also in the first months of 1945. by the end of october 1944, the germans still had five destroyers


naval base installations with rp - 3 3 in ( 76 mm ) rocket projectiles as the attacks proved ineffective in stopping german activities they were repeated also in the first months of 1945. by the end of october 1944, the germans still had five destroyers ( ta20, ta40, ta41, ta44, and ta 45 ) three corvettes ( uj205, uj206, and ta48 ). on 1 january 1945, there were four german destroyers operative in the northern adriatic ( ta40, ta41, ta44, and ta 45 ) three u - boot jager corvettes ( uj205, uj206, and ta48 ). even as late as 1 april ta43, ta 45 and uj206 were in commission and available to fight. allied aircraft sank four in port ( at fiume and trieste ) in march and april, british mtb torpedoed ta 45 in april. the very last operations of the german navy involved the evacuation of troops and personnel from istria and trieste before the advancing yugoslavs that took place in may 1945. an estimated enemy force of 4, 000 was landing from 26 ships of all types at the mouth of the tagliamento river at lignano sabbiadoro. the area is a huge sand spit running out into a big lagoon, and at its southern end the tagliamento river enters the sea. the germans had evacuated trieste to escape the yugoslav army. the germans were protected by naval craft holding off three british mtbs, which could not get in close enough to use their guns effectively. there were about 6, 000 of them and their equipment included e - boats, lsts, a small hospital ship, all types of transport, and a variety of weapons. the 21st battalion of the new zealand 2nd division was outnumbered by 20 to one, but at the end the germans surrendered on 4 may 1945. others had already surrendered to the british troops on german ships which arrived from istria to ancona on 2 may. british sources wrote there were about 30 boats, but no exact record is mentioned. - fatutta, et al, 1975. - whitely, 2001, p. 312. - shores, et al, 1987, p. 218. - " history of partisan and yugoslav navy ". retrieved 2009 - 05 - 05. - " vice admiral joachim lietzmann ". archived from the original on 2009 - 10 - 24. retrieved 2009 - 05 - 05. - david twiston davies ' ' canada from afar


and yugoslav navy ". retrieved 2009 - 05 - 05. - " vice admiral joachim lietzmann ". archived from the original on 2009 - 10 - 24. retrieved 2009 - 05 - 05. - david twiston davies ' ' canada from afar ' '. books. google. com. retrieved 2009 - 06 - 21. - the german fleet at war, 1939 - 1945 - google books. books. google. com. retrieved 2009 - 06 - 21. - f a mason, the last destroyer : hms aldenham, 1942 - 44, london : hale, 1988. - " hms coriolanus ". retrieved 2009 - 06 - 21. - thomas m. barker, " the ljubljana gap strategy : alternative to anvil / dragoon or fantasy? journal of. military history, 56 ( january 1992 ) : 57 - 86 - paul j. freeman, the cinderella front : allied special air operations in yugoslavia during world war ii, air command and staff college, march 1997. url : www. au. af. mil / au / awc / awcgate / acsc / 97 - 0150a. pdf - william klinger, lussino, dicembre 1944 : operazione " antagonise " quaderni, vol xx, centro di ricerche storiche, rovigno, 2009. - " operation ' antagonise ' by vernon copeland ". retrieved 2009 - 05 - 05. - o ' hara, vincent p. ' ' the german fleet at war, 1939 – 1945 ' '. books. google. com. retrieved 2009 - 06 - 21. - cody, j. f. " 21 battalion, the official history of new zealand in the second world war 1939 – 1945, historical publications branch, 1953, wellington ". retrieved 2009 - 06 - 21.


in formal language theory, a grammar ( when the context isn ' t given, often called a formal grammar for clarity ) is a set of production rules for strings in a formal language. the rules describe how to form strings from the language ' s alphabet that are valid according to the language ' s syntax. a grammar does not describe the meaning of the strings or what can be done with them in whatever context — only their form. formal language theory, the discipline which studies formal grammars and languages, is a branch of applied mathematics. its applications are found in theoretical computer science, theoretical linguistics, formal semantics, mathematical logic, and other areas. a formal grammar is a set of rules for rewriting strings, along with a " start symbol " from which rewriting starts. therefore, a grammar is usually thought of as a language generator. however, it can also sometimes be used as the basis for a " recognizer " — a function in computing that determines whether a given string belongs to the language or is grammatically incorrect. to describe such recognizers, formal language theory uses separate formalisms, known as automata theory. one of the interesting results of automata theory is that it is not possible to design a recognizer for certain formal languages. parsing is the process of recognizing an utterance ( a string in natural languages ) by breaking it down to a set of symbols and analyzing each one against the grammar of the language. most languages have the meanings of their utterances structured according to their syntax — a practice known as compositional semantics. as a result, the first step to describing the meaning of an utterance in language is to break it down part by part and look at its analyzed form ( known as its parse tree in computer science, and as its deep structure in generative grammar ). introductory example a grammar mainly consists of a set of rules for transforming strings. ( if it only consisted of these rules, it would be a semi - thue system. ) to generate a string in the language, one begins with a string consisting of only a single start symbol. the production rules are then applied in any order, until a string that contains neither the start symbol nor designated nonterminal symbols is produced. a production rule is applied to a string by replacing one occurrence of its left - hand side in the string by its right - hand side ( cf. the operation of the theoretical turing machine ). the language formed by the grammar consists of all distinct strings that can be generated in this manner. any particular sequence of production


its left - hand side in the string by its right - hand side ( cf. the operation of the theoretical turing machine ). the language formed by the grammar consists of all distinct strings that can be generated in this manner. any particular sequence of production rules on the start symbol yields a distinct string in the language. if there are multiple ways of generating the same single string, the grammar is said to be ambiguous. for example, assume the alphabet consists of a and b, the start symbol is s, and we have the following production rules : then we start with s, and can choose a rule to apply to it. if we choose rule 1, we obtain the string asb. if we then choose rule 1 again, we replace s with asb and obtain the string aasbb. if we now choose rule 2, we replace s with ba and obtain the string aababb, and are done. we can write this series of choices more briefly, using symbols :. the language of the grammar is then the infinite set, where is repeated times ( and in particular represents the number of times production rule 1 has been applied ). formal definition the syntax of grammars - a finite set n of nonterminal symbols, none of which appear in strings formed from g. - a finite set of terminal symbols that is disjoint from n. - a finite set p of production rules, each rule of the form - where is the kleene star operator and denotes set union. that is, each production rule maps from one string of symbols to another, where the first string ( the " head " ) contains an arbitrary number of symbols provided at least one of them is a nonterminal. in the case that the second string ( the " body " ) consists solely of the empty string – i. e., that it contains no symbols at all – it may be denoted with a special notation ( often, e or ) in order to avoid confusion. - a distinguished symbol that is the start symbol. the semantics of grammars the operation of a grammar can be defined in terms of relations on strings : - given a grammar, the binary relation ( pronounced as " g derives in one step " ) on strings in is defined by : - the relation ( pronounced as g derives in zero or more steps ) is defined as the reflexive transitive closure of - a sentential form is a member of that can be derived in a finite number of steps from the start symbol ; that is, a sentential form is


g derives in zero or more steps ) is defined as the reflexive transitive closure of - a sentential form is a member of that can be derived in a finite number of steps from the start symbol ; that is, a sentential form is a member of. a sentential form that contains no nonterminal symbols ( i. e. is a member of ) is called a sentence. - the language of, denoted as, is defined as all those sentences that can be derived in a finite number of steps from the start symbol ; that is, the set. note that the grammar is effectively the semi - thue system, rewriting strings in exactly the same way ; the only difference is in that we distinguish specific nonterminal symbols which must be rewritten in rewrite rules, and are only interested in rewritings from the designated start symbol to strings without nonterminal symbols. for these examples, formal languages are specified using set - builder notation. consider the grammar where,, is the start symbol, and consists of the following production rules : this grammar defines the language where denotes a string of n consecutive ' s. thus, the language is the set of strings that consist of 1 or more ' s, followed by the same number of ' s, followed by the same number of ' s. some examples of the derivation of strings in are : - ( note on notation : reads " string p generates string q by means of production i ", and the generated part is each time indicated in bold type. ) the chomsky hierarchy when noam chomsky first formalized generative grammars in 1956, he classified them into types now known as the chomsky hierarchy. the difference between these types is that they have increasingly strict production rules and can express fewer formal languages. two important types are context - free grammars ( type 2 ) and regular grammars ( type 3 ). the languages that can be described with such a grammar are called context - free languages and regular languages, respectively. although much less powerful than unrestricted grammars ( type 0 ), which can in fact express any language that can be accepted by a turing machine, these two restricted types of grammars are most often used because parsers for them can be efficiently implemented. for example, all regular languages can be recognized by a finite state machine, and for useful subsets of context - free grammars there are well - known algorithms to generate efficient ll parsers and lr parsers to recognize the corresponding languages


for example, all regular languages can be recognized by a finite state machine, and for useful subsets of context - free grammars there are well - known algorithms to generate efficient ll parsers and lr parsers to recognize the corresponding languages those grammars generate. context - free grammars a context - free grammar is a grammar in which the left - hand side of each production rule consists of only a single nonterminal symbol. this restriction is non - trivial ; not all languages can be generated by context - free grammars. those that can are called context - free languages. the language defined above is not a context - free language, and this can be strictly proven using the pumping lemma for context - free languages, but for example the language ( at least 1 followed by the same number of ' s ) is context - free, as it can be defined by the grammar with,, the start symbol, and the following production rules : a context - free language can be recognized in time ( see big o notation ) by an algorithm such as earley ' s algorithm. that is, for every context - free language, a machine can be built that takes a string as input and determines in time whether the string is a member of the language, where is the length of the string. deterministic context - free languages is a subset of context - free languages that can be recognized in linear time. there exist various algorithms that target either this set of languages or some subset of it. regular grammars in regular grammars, the left hand side is again only a single nonterminal symbol, but now the right - hand side is also restricted. the right side may be the empty string, or a single terminal symbol, or a single terminal symbol followed by a nonterminal symbol, but nothing else. ( sometimes a broader definition is used : one can allow longer strings of terminals or single nonterminals without anything else, making languages easier to denote while still defining the same class of languages. ) the language defined above is not regular, but the language ( at least 1 followed by at least 1, where the numbers may be different ) is, as it can be defined by the grammar with,, the start symbol, and the following production rules : all languages generated by a regular grammar can be recognized in linear time by a finite state machine. although, in practice, regular grammars are commonly expressed using regular expressions, some forms of regular expression used in practice do not strictly generate the regular languages and do


languages generated by a regular grammar can be recognized in linear time by a finite state machine. although, in practice, regular grammars are commonly expressed using regular expressions, some forms of regular expression used in practice do not strictly generate the regular languages and do not show linear recognitional performance due to those deviations. other forms of generative grammars many extensions and variations on chomsky ' s original hierarchy of formal grammars have been developed, both by linguists and by computer scientists, usually either in order to increase their expressive power or in order to make them easier to analyze or parse. some forms of grammars developed include : - tree - adjoining grammars increase the expressiveness of conventional generative grammars by allowing rewrite rules to operate on parse trees instead of just strings. - affix grammars and attribute grammars allow rewrite rules to be augmented with semantic attributes and operations, useful both for increasing grammar expressiveness and for constructing practical language translation tools. recursive grammars a recursive grammar is a grammar which contains production rules that are recursive. for example, a grammar for a context - free language is left - recursive if there exists a non - terminal symbol a that can be put through the production rules to produce a string with a as the leftmost symbol. all types of grammars in the chomsky hierarchy can be recursive. analytic grammars though there is a tremendous body of literature on parsing algorithms, most of these algorithms assume that the language to be parsed is initially described by means of a generative formal grammar, and that the goal is to transform this generative grammar into a working parser. strictly speaking, a generative grammar does not in any way correspond to the algorithm used to parse a language, and various algorithms have different restrictions on the form of production rules that are considered well - formed. an alternative approach is to formalize the language in terms of an analytic grammar in the first place, which more directly corresponds to the structure and semantics of a parser for the language. examples of analytic grammar formalisms include the following : - the language machine directly implements unrestricted analytic grammars. substitution rules are used to transform an input to produce outputs and behaviour. the system can also produce the lm - diagram which shows what happens when the rules of an unrestricted analytic grammar are being applied. - top - down parsing language ( tdpl ) : a highly minimalist analytic grammar formalism developed in the early 1970s to study the behavior


lm - diagram which shows what happens when the rules of an unrestricted analytic grammar are being applied. - top - down parsing language ( tdpl ) : a highly minimalist analytic grammar formalism developed in the early 1970s to study the behavior of top - down parsers. - link grammars : a form of analytic grammar designed for linguistics, which derives syntactic structure by examining the positional relationships between pairs of words. - parsing expression grammars ( pegs ) : a more recent generalization of tdpl designed around the practical expressiveness needs of programming language and compiler writers. see also - chomsky, noam ( 1956 ). " three models for the description of language ". ire transactions on information theory 2 ( 2 ) : 113 – 123. doi : 10. 1109 / tit. 1956. 1056813. - chomsky, noam ( 1957 ). syntactic structures. the hague : mouton. - ginsburg, seymour ( 1975 ). algebraic and automata theoretic properties of formal languages. north - holland. pp. 8 – 9. isbn 0 - 7204 - 2506 - 9. - harrison, michael a. ( 1978 ). introduction to formal language theory. reading, mass. : addison - wesley publishing company. p. 13. isbn 0 - 201 - 02955 - 3. - sentential forms, context - free grammars, david matuszek - grune, dick & jacobs, ceriel h., parsing techniques – a practical guide, ellis horwood, england, 1990. - earley, jay, " an efficient context - free parsing algorithm, " communications of the acm, vol. 13 no. 2, pp. 94 - 102, february 1970. - knuth, donald ( july 1965 ). " on the translation of languages from left to right ". information and control 8 : 707 – 639. retrieved 29 may 2011. - joshi, aravind k., et al., " tree adjunct grammars, " journal of computer systems science, vol. 10 no. 1, pp. 136 - 163, 1975. - koster, cornelis h. a., " affix grammars, " in algol 68 implementation, north holland publishing company, amsterdam, p. 95 - 109, 1971. - knuth, donald e., " semantics of context - free languages, " mathematical systems theory, vol. 2 no


grammars, " in algol 68 implementation, north holland publishing company, amsterdam, p. 95 - 109, 1971. - knuth, donald e., " semantics of context - free languages, " mathematical systems theory, vol. 2 no. 2, pp. 127 - 145, 1968. - knuth, donald e., " semantics of context - free languages ( correction ), " mathematical systems theory, vol. 5 no. 1, pp 95 - 96, 1971. - notes on formal language theory and parsing, james power, department of computer science national university of ireland, maynooth maynooth, co. kildare, ireland. jpr02 - birman, alexander, the tmg recognition schema, doctoral thesis, princeton university, dept. of electrical engineering, february 1970. - sleator, daniel d. & temperly, davy, " parsing english with a link grammar, " technical report cmu - cs - 91 - 196, carnegie mellon university computer science, 1991. - sleator, daniel d. & temperly, davy, " parsing english with a link grammar, " third international workshop on parsing technologies, 1993. ( revised version of above report. ) - ford, bryan, packrat parsing : a practical linear - time algorithm with backtracking, master ’ s thesis, massachusetts institute of technology, sept. 2002.


french conquest of algeria the french conquest of algeria took place between 1830 and 1847. using an 1827 diplomatic slight by hussein dey, the ruler of the ottoman regency of algiers, against its consul as a pretext, france invaded and quickly seized algiers in 1830, and rapidly took control of other coastal communities. amid internal political strife in france, decisions were repeatedly taken to retain control over the territory, and additional military forces were brought in over the following years to quell resistance in the interior of the country. algerian resistance forces were divided between forces under ahmed bey at constantine, primarily in the east, and nationalist forces in kabylie and the west. treaties with the nationalists under ` abd al - qadir enabled the french to first focus on the elimination of the remaining ottoman threat, achieved with the 1837 capture of constantine. al - qadir continued to give stiff resistance in the west. finally driven into morocco in 1842 by large - scale and heavy - handed french military action, he continued to wage a guerilla war until the moroccan government, under french diplomatic pressure following its defeat in the first franco - moroccan war, drove him out of morocco. he surrendered to french forces in 1847. the conquest of algeria was initiated in the last days of the bourbon restoration by charles x as an attempt to increase his popularity amongst the french people, particularly in paris, where many veterans of the napoleonic wars lived. he believed he would bolster patriotic sentiment and turn eyes away from his domestic policies by " skirmishing against the dey ". the territory now known as algeria was only partially under the ottoman empire ' s control in 1830. the dey ruled the entire regency of algiers, but only exercised direct control in and around algiers, with beyliks established in a few outlying areas, including oran and constantine. the remainder of the territory ( including much of the interior ), while nominally ottoman, was effectively under the control of local arab and berber tribal leaders. the dey acted largely independently of the ottoman emperor, although he was supported by ( or controlled by, depending on historical perspective ) turkish janissary troops stationed in algiers. the territory was bordered to the west by the sultanate of morocco and to the east by the ottoman regency of tunis. the western border, nominally the tafna river, was particularly porous since there were shared tribal connections that crossed it. the fan affair in 1795 - 1796, the french republic had contracted to purchase wheat for the french army from two jewish merchants in algiers, and charles x was apparently uninteres


, was particularly porous since there were shared tribal connections that crossed it. the fan affair in 1795 - 1796, the french republic had contracted to purchase wheat for the french army from two jewish merchants in algiers, and charles x was apparently uninterested in paying off the republic ' s debt. these merchants, who had debts to hussein dey, the ottoman ruler of algiers, claimed inability to pay those debts until france paid its debts to them. the dey had unsuccessfully negotiated with pierre deval, the french consul, to rectify this situation, and he suspected deval of collaborating with the merchants against him, especially when the french government made no provisions for repaying the merchants in 1820. deval ' s nephew alexandre, the consul in bone, further angered the dey by fortifying french storehouses in bone and la calle against the terms of prior agreements. after a contentious meeting in which deval refused to provide satisfactory answers on 29 april 1827, the dey struck deval with his fan. charles x used this slight against his diplomatic representative to first demand an apology from the dey, and then to initiate a blockade against the port of algiers. the blockade lasted for three years, and was primarily to the detriment of french merchants who were unable to do business with algiers, while barbary pirates were still able to evade the blockade. when france in 1829 sent an ambassador to the dey with a proposal for negotiations, he responded with cannon fire directed toward one of the blockading ships. the french then determined that more forceful action was required. following the failure of the ambassador ' s visit, charles appointed as prime minister jules, prince de polignac, a hardline conservative, an act that outraged the liberal french opposition, which was then in a majority in the chamber of deputies. polignac opened negotiations with muhammad ali of egypt to essentially divide up north africa. ali, who was strongly under british influence ( in spite of nominally being a vassal of the ottomans ), eventually rejected this idea. as popular opinion continued to rise against polignac and the king, they came to the idea that a foreign policy victory such as the taking of algiers would turn opinion in their favour again. invasion of algiers admiral duperre took command in toulon of an armada of 600 ships and then headed for algiers. following a plan for the invasion of algeria originally developed under napoleon in 1808, general de bourmont then landed 34, 000 soldiers 27 kilometres ( 17 mi ) west of algiers, at sidi ferr


of 600 ships and then headed for algiers. following a plan for the invasion of algeria originally developed under napoleon in 1808, general de bourmont then landed 34, 000 soldiers 27 kilometres ( 17 mi ) west of algiers, at sidi ferruch, on 14 june 1830. to face the french, the dey sent 7, 000 janissaries, 19, 000 troops from the beys of constantine and oran, and about 17, 000 kabyles. the french established a strong beachhead and pushed toward algiers, thanks in part to superior artillery and better organization. on 19 june the french defeated the dey ' s army at the battle of staoueli, and entered algiers on 5 july after a three - week campaign. the dey accepted capitulation in exchange for his freedom and the offer to retain possession of his personal wealth. five days later, he went into exile in naples with his family. the turkish janissaries also quit the territory, leaving for turkey. the dey ' s departure ended 313 years of ottoman rule of the territory. while the french command had nominally agreed to preserve the liberties, properties, and religious freedoms of the inhabitants, french troops immediately began plundering the city, arresting and killing people for arbitrary reasons, seizing property, and desecrating religious sites. by mid - august, the last remnants of turkish authority were summarily deported without opportunity to liquidate significant assets. one estimate indicates that more than fifty million francs of assets were diverted into private hands during the plunder. this activity had a profound effect on future relations between the french occupiers and the natives. a french commission in 1833 wrote that " we have sent to their deaths on simple suspicion and without trial people whose guilt was always doubtful... we massacred people carrying safe conducts... we have outdone in barbarity the barbarians ". one important side effect of the expulsion of the turks was that it created a power vacuum in significant parts of the territory, from which resistance to french occupation immediately began to arise. hardly had the news of the capture of algiers reached paris than charles x was deposed during the three glorious days of july 1830, and his cousin louis - philippe, the " citizen king ", was named to preside over a constitutional monarchy. the new government, composed of liberal opponents of the algiers expedition, was reluctant to pursue the conquest begun by the old regime. however, the victory was enormously popular, and the new government of louis - philippe only withdrew


speculation in expanding the french zone of occupation. over a ten - year period they created large agricultural tracts, built factories and businesses, and bought cheap local labor. clauzel also attempted to extend french influence into oran and constantine by negotiating with the bey of tunis to supply " local " rulers that would operate under french administration. the bey refused, seeing the obvious conflicts inherent in the idea. the french foreign ministry objected to negotiations clauzel conducted with morocco over the establishment of a moroccan bey in oran, and in early 1831 replaced him with baron berthezene. berthezene was a weak administrator opposed to colonisation. his worst military failure came when he was called to support the bey at medea, whose support for the french and corruption had turned the population there against him. berthezene led troops to medea in june 1831 to extract the bey and the french garrison. on their way back to algiers they were continually harassed by kabyle resistance, and driven into a panicked retreat that berthezene failed to control. french casualties during this retreat were significant ( nearly 300 ), and the victory fanned the flames of resistance, leading to attacks on colonial settlements. the growing colonial financial interests began insisting on a stronger hand, which louis - philippe provided in duke rovigo at the end of 1831. rogivo regained control of bone and bougie ( present - day bejaia ), cities that clauzel had taken and then lost due to resistance by the kabyle people. he continued policies of colonisation of the land and expropriation of properties. his suppression of resistance in algiers was brutal, with the military presence extended into its neighborhoods. he was recalled in 1833 due to the overtly violent nature of the repression, and replaced by baron voirol. voirol successfully established french occupation in oran, and another french general, louis alexis desmichels, was given an independent command that gained control over arzew and mostaganem. on 22 june 1834, france formally annexed the occupied areas of algeria, which had an estimated muslim population of about two million, as a military colony. the colony was run by a military governor who had both civilian and military authority, including the power of executive decree. his authority was nominally over an area of " limited occupation " near the coast, but the realities of french colonial expansion beyond those areas ensured continued resistance from the local population. the policy of limited occupation was formally abandoned in 1840 for one of complete control. voirol was


over an area of " limited occupation " near the coast, but the realities of french colonial expansion beyond those areas ensured continued resistance from the local population. the policy of limited occupation was formally abandoned in 1840 for one of complete control. voirol was replaced in 1834 by jean - baptiste drouet, comte d ' erlon, who became the first governor of the colony, and who was given the task of dealing with the rising threat of ` abd al - qadir and continuing french failures to subdue ahmed bey, constantine ' s ruler. the rise of ` abd al - qadir the superior of a religious brotherhood, muhyi ad din, who had spent time in ottoman jails for opposing the bey ' s rule, launched attacks against the french and their makhzen allies at oran in 1832. in the same year, tribal elders in the territories near mascara chose muhyi ad din ' s son, twenty - five - year - old ` abd al - qadir, to take his place leading the jihad. abd al - qadir, who was recognized as amir al - muminin ( commander of the faithful ), quickly gained the support of tribes in the western territories. in 1834 he concluded a treaty with general desmichels, who was then military commander of the province of oran. in the treaty, which was reluctantly accepted by the french administration, france recognized abd al - qadir as the sovereign of territories in oran province not under french control, and authorized abd al - qadir to send consuls to french - held cities. the treaty did not require abd al - qadir to recognize french rule, something glossed over in its french text. abd al - qadir used the peace provided by this treaty to widen his influence with tribes throughout western and central algeria. while d ' erlon was apparently unaware of the danger posed by abd al - qadir ' s activities, general camille alphonse trezel, then in command at oran, did see it, and attempted to separate some of the tribes from abd al - qadir. when he succeeded in convincing two tribes near oran to acknowledge french supremacy, abd al - qadir dispatched troops to move those tribes to the interior, away from french influence. trezel countered by marching a column of troops out from oran to protect the territory of those tribes on 16 june 1835. after exchanging threats, abd al - qadir withdrew his consul from oran and ejected


interior, away from french influence. trezel countered by marching a column of troops out from oran to protect the territory of those tribes on 16 june 1835. after exchanging threats, abd al - qadir withdrew his consul from oran and ejected the french consul from mascara, a de facto declaration of war. the two forces clashed in a bloody but inconclusive engagement near the sig river. however, when the french, who were short on provisions, began withdrawing toward arzew, al - qadir led 20, 000 men against the beleaguered column, and in the battle of macta routed the force, killing 500 men. the debacle led to the recall of comte d ' erlon. general clausel was appointed a second time to replace d ' erlon. he led an attack against mascara in december of that year, which abd al - qadir, with advance warning, had evacuated. in january 1836 he occupied tlemcen, and established a garrison there before return to algiers to plan an attack against constantine. abd al - qadir continued to harry the french at tlemcen, so additional troops under thomas robert bugeaud, a veteran of the napoleonic wars experienced in irregular warfare were sent from oran to secure control up to the tafna river and to resupply the garrison. abd al - qadir retreated before bugeaud, but decided to make a stand on the banks of the sikkak river. on july 6, 1836, bugeaud decisively defeated al - qadir in the battle of sikkak, losing less than fifty men to more than 1, 000 casualties suffered by abd al - qadir. the battle was one of the few formal battles al - qadir engaged in ; after the loss he restricted his actions as much as possible to guerilla - style attacks. ahmed bey had continuously resisted any attempts by the french or others to subjugate constantine, and continued to play a role in resistance against french rule, in part because he hoped to eventually become the next dey. clausel and ahmed had tangled diplomatically over ahmed ' s refusal to recognize french authority over bone, which he considered to still be ottoman territory, and clausel decided to move against him. in november 1836 clausel led 8, 700 men into the constantine beylik, but was repulsed in the battle of constantine ; the failure led to clausel ' s recall. he was replaced by the comte de damremont, who


against him. in november 1836 clausel led 8, 700 men into the constantine beylik, but was repulsed in the battle of constantine ; the failure led to clausel ' s recall. he was replaced by the comte de damremont, who led an expedition that successfully captured constantine the following year, although he was killed during the siege and replaced by sylvain charles, comte valee. al - qadir ' s resistance renewed in may 1837, general thomas robert bugeaud, then in command of oran, negotiated the treaty of tafna with al - qadir, in which he effectively recognized al - qadir ' s control over much of the interior of what is now algeria. al - qadir used the treaty to consolidate his power over tribes throughout the interior, establishing new cities far from french control. he worked to motivate the population under french control to resist by peaceful and military means. seeking to again face the french, he laid claim under the treaty to territory that included the main route between algiers and constantine. when french troops contested this claim in late 1839 by marching through a mountain defile known as the iron gates, al - qadir claimed a breach of the treaty, and renewed calls for jihad. throughout 1840 he waged guerilla war against the french in the provinces of algiers and oran, which valee ' s failures to adequately deal with led to his replacement in december 1840 by general bugeaud. bugeaud instituted a strategy of scorched earth, combined with fast - moving cavalry columns not unlike those used by al - qadir to progressively take territory from al - qadir. the troops ' tactics were heavy - handed, and the population suffered significantly. al - qadir was eventually forced to establish a mobile headquarters that was known as a smala or zmelah. in 1843 french forces successfully raided this camp while he was away from it, capturing more than 5, 000 fighters and al - qadir ' s warchest. al - qadir was forced to retreat into morocco, from which he had been receiving some support, especially from tribes in the border areas. when french diplomatic efforts to convince morocco to expel al - qadir failed, the french resorted to military means with the first franco - moroccan war in 1844 to compel the sultan to change his policy. eventually hemmed between french and moroccan troops on the border in december 1847, al - qadir chose to surrender to the french,


##ed to military means with the first franco - moroccan war in 1844 to compel the sultan to change his policy. eventually hemmed between french and moroccan troops on the border in december 1847, al - qadir chose to surrender to the french, under terms that he be allowed to enter exile in the middle east. the french violated these terms, holding him in france until 1852, when he was allowed to go to damascus. - a global chronology of conflict : from the ancient world to the modern middle..., by spencer c. tucker, 2009 p. 1154 - a global chronology of conflict : from the ancient world to the modern middle..., by spencer c. tucker, 2009 p. 1167 - " algeria, colonial rule ". encyclopædia britannica. encyclopædia britannica. p. 39. retrieved 2007 - 12 - 19. - abun - nasr, jamil, p. 249 - abun - nasr, p. 250 - ruedy, p. 47 - ruedy, p. 48 - ruedy, p. 49 - ruedy, p. 50 - ruedy, p. 52 - wagner, p. 235 - wagner, pp. 237 - 239 - wagner, p. 240 - wagner, pp. 241 - 243 - abun - nasr, jamil ( 1987 ). a history of the maghrib in the islamic period. cambridge university press. isbn 978 - 0 - 521 - 33767 - 0. - priestley, herbert ingram ( 1966 ). france overseas : a study of modern imperialism. routledge. isbn 978 - 0 - 7146 - 1024 - 5. - ruedy, john douglas ( 2005 ). modern algeria : the origins and development of a nation ( second ed. ). bloomington, indiana : indiana university press. isbn 978 - 0 - 253 - 21782 - 0. - wagner, moritz ; pulszky, francis ( translator ) ( 1854 ). the tricolor on the atlas : or, algeria and the french conquest. london : t. nelson and sons.