it is all one big circle : " it cannot be denied that, from a strictly philosophical standpoint, geologists are here arguing in a circle. the succession of organs has been determined by a study of their remains buried in the rocks, and the relative ages of the rocks are determined by the remains of organisms that they contain. " * r. h. article " geology, " encyclopedia britannica, vol. 10, ( 14th ad. ; 1958 ), p. 168. strata dating cannot avoid reasoning in a circle. ( because, at the heart of it, the dating comes from a theory, instead of facts! ) " the rocks do date the fossils, but the fossils date the rocks more accurately. stratigraphy cannot avoid this kind of reasoning, if it insists on using only temporal concepts, because circularity is inherent in the derivation of time scales. " * j e. o ' rourke, " pragmatism versus materialism in stratiqraphy, " american journal of science, january 1976, p. 53. * azar utters a cry for help. " are the authorities maintaining, on the other hand, that evolution is documented by geology and on the other hand, that geology is documented by evolution? isn ' t this a circular argument? " * larry azar, " biologists, help! " bioscience, november 1978, p. 714. you have just completed go to the next chapter in this series,


you ' ve stocked up on the makings of a few great salads : lettuce, peppers, onions, and more. but between shuttling the kids around and running errands, you ' ve pushed the vegetables to the back of your mind - - and to the far corners of the fridge. a week later, you come across your wilted lettuce and moldy tomatoes, and you throw them out. that ' s not an uncommon scene. according to a recent study by the university of arizona, 1. 28 pounds of food ( a third of which is vegetables ) gets tossed out of the average household per day. and a previous government study found that the typical household in the u. s. wastes an average of $ 300 per year letting 150 pounds of fruits and vegetables spoil. to avoid such waste - - and to lead a healthier lifestyle - - plan your meals in advance. spend a few minutes each morning deciding what you ' ll eat for the rest of the day. and when you shop, think about what you can use for the week. ( don ' t load up on too much perishable produce if you ' re planning to dine out or leave town for a few days. ) some planning and storage tips : - don ' t wash berries when you get them - - they ' ll spoil quicker. instead, rinse them just before eating. - choose produce with a long shelf life, such as citrus fruits, apples, or bags of lettuce with an expiration date. and use up your less stable fruits and veggies first. - store vegetables in the refrigerator crisper drawer ; your bag of baby carrots should be tightly sealed and packaged in an extra zipper bag for good measure. tomatoes should be kept on the counter ( not in the refrigerator )


become a fan of h2g2 the greek alphabet is used throughout greece and in the greek part of cyprus. if you are going to these regions, it is worth learning the alphabet, if only to read the signs over shops. the letters of the greek alphabet are also used as handy symbols by mathematicians and scientists. these people pronounce the names of the letters quite differently from greek people, being loosely based on the pronunciation of classical greek. the greek alphabet was developed in about 1000 bc. it was a modification of northern semitic, an alphabet from which hebrew is also derived. the semitic languages ( which include hebrew and arabic ) have a lot of consonantal sounds, while vowels are relatively unimportant. as a result, their alphabet had no symbols for vowels. the greeks changed the alphabet ; consonantal signs which represented sounds not present in greek were re - used for vowel sounds. greek thus became the first alphabet in the world with signs for both vowels and consonants. at the start, the direction of writing was from right to left, but the early greeks adopted an unusual practice of writing every second row in the opposite direction. this was called boustrophedon, literally meaning ' as the ox turns ' because it resembled the way an ox ploughs a field. there is a very good example of this in the greek city of gortys in crete, where the laws of the city were carved on a wall in boustrophedon style and are still there for all to see. around 500 bc, the practice changed to writing from left to right, and this continues to the present day. the roman alphabet used for western european languages, the cyrillic alphabet used for eastern european languages and even the scandinavian runic alphabet are all directly descended from the greek alphabet, so it certainly was the parent of all modern european alphabets. the word alphabet itself comes from the names of the first two greek letters, alpha and beta. there are 24 letters in the alphabet. they can be capitals or lower case. in addition, one of the lower case letters, the sigma, has two different forms. the table shows the modern greek pronunciation. a separate column shows the ancient greek pronunciation if it was different. pay particular attention to b, h, p, x and y. they look the same as letters in the roman alphabet we ' re all familiar with, but in modern greek they are pronounced very differently. | modern pronunciation | | ancient pronunciation | | α | | α | | alpha | | alfa | | a as in


look the same as letters in the roman alphabet we ' re all familiar with, but in modern greek they are pronounced very differently. | modern pronunciation | | ancient pronunciation | | α | | α | | alpha | | alfa | | a as in bath | | γ | | γ | | gamma | | ghamma | | before a or o, this is a sound that does not occur in english, like a soft g, the voiced version of the kh below. before e, i or y it is pronounced y as in yet. | | g | | δ | | δ | | delta | | dhelta | | dh represents the voiced th sound in this and that | | d | | ε | | ε | | epsilon | | epsilon | | e as in pet | | η | | η | | eta | | eeta | | ee as in feet | | ay as in day | | θ | | θ | | theta | | theeta | | th unvoiced as in thin and thanks | | ι | | ι | | iota | | yotta | | ee as in feet ; like y in yes when before vowel | | i as in fit | | ξ | | ξ | | xi | | ksee | | ks as x in fox, never as x in xylophone | | ο | | ο | | omicron | | omicron | | o as in got | | ρ | | ρ | | rho | | ro | | r trilled as in spanish or italian | | σ | | σ or ς | | sigma | | sighma | | s unvoiced as in sauce, not vase. the first lower - case form is for the start or the middle of words, the second for the last letter of words. | | υ | | υ | | upsilon | | eepsilon | | ee as in feet | | slender u as in french tu or german funf | | χ | | χ | | chi | | khee | | kh represents ch sound in scottish word loch | | ψ | | ψ | | psi | | psee | | ps as in copse. the p is pronounced even at the start of words. | | ω | | ω | | omega | | omegha | | o as in got | | o as in pole | combinations of letters some letters are pronounced differently when they appear in combination with other letters. | αι |


words. | | ω | | ω | | omega | | omegha | | o as in got | | o as in pole | combinations of letters some letters are pronounced differently when they appear in combination with other letters. | αι | | e as in pet | | αυ | | af or av ( depending on next letter ) | | ευ | | ef or ev ( depending on next letter ) | | ου | | oo as in moon | | μπ | | b at start of word, mb in middle of word | | ντ | | d at start of word, nd in middle of word | | γκ | | g as in go at start of word, ng in middle of word | | γγ | | ng as in singer | an exception to these is that if the first vowel of any of these two - vowel combinations has an accent mark on it, or if the second vowel has two dots over it, the two vowels are treated separately, and not combined as in the table. thus for example κομπολoι ( worry beads ) is pronounced ' kombol - oh - ee '. greek is a strongly stressed language, even more so than english. the stress is very important, so it is normally marked with an accent over the vowel. ancient greek used three different accents, while modern greek uses only one. in ancient greek, words starting with a vowel or an r had a special sign called a breathing mark. this looked like an apostrophe and was positioned over the first letter, although printers often put it in front of the first letter. a right - facing mark ( like a backwards 9 ) was called a ' rough breathing mark ' and indicated that there was a ' h ' sound before the vowel. a left - facing mark ( like a 9 ) was called a ' smooth breathing mark ' and indicated that there was no ' h ' sound. in modern greek, the ' h ' sound is no longer pronounced at the start of any word, but the breathing marks were still used for historical reasons until about 1970, when they were officially dropped from the language. in ancient greek, in some cases when iota appeared after another vowel ( a diphthong ), it was written using a special little iota under the vowel instead. this was called an iota subscript. these do not occur in modern greek.


back me up - anti cyberbullying campaign & competition this is jasper. at 13, he was getting cyberbullied on line – particularly via x - box. after seven months of bullying that included death threats and being beaten at school, the police became involved. he was in a “ very dark place ". this is troy, friend to both jasper and his bully – he didn ’ t realise his mate could be so cruel. troy says he noticed jasper becoming quiet, depressed and isolated. once troy realised what was going on, he was able to be a supportive friend through the low times. they remain the best of mates. in australia, at least one in ten students say they ’ ve experienced cyberbullying. what is backmeup? the message of the backmeup campaign is that young people can take positive and safe action if they witness cyberbullying, and can support those whose rights have been violated. it ’ s a call to action to the friends, peers and colleagues on the sidelines, because being a witness, and doing nothing, is wrong. cyberbullying is bad for your mental and physical health. in an effort to help young people overcome cyberbullying, the australian human rights commission is helping young people understand the role of bystanders and encouraging them to take ( safe ) actions to support those who are bullied. research shows that peers are present as bystanders in 87 % of bullying situations among young people, suggesting that peers have a pivotal role in effecting a bad situation, simply because they are a witness. while most students dislike and disapprove of bullying and would like to see it stop, less than 20 % of students intervene to help the person being bullied. and without becoming a target themselves, bystanders can take a variety of positive actions. what can bystanders do? a witness to a bullying situation can ask a teacher or trusted adult for help, let the person doing the bullying know that what they are doing is bullying, refuse to join in, and can comfort the student who has been bullied. when positive bystander action occurs, students report a greater sense of safety at school and fewer social and mental health problems. here ’ s some practical things you can do : save it! take a photo, screenshot, make a diary note. the person being bullied may not know how to or the importance of saving the evidence. you can help them by keeping a record of when and where the cyberbullying


save it! take a photo, screenshot, make a diary note. the person being bullied may not know how to or the importance of saving the evidence. you can help them by keeping a record of when and where the cyberbullying is happening, and what happened. if it gets really nasty, you might need to get school, work or the police involved. speak up! take positive action in ways that make you feel comfortable and safe. if you feel safe, tell the person bullying to stop. the person may be bullying people because no one has ever stood up to them and called them out on what they are doing. otherwise tell someone you trust like a teacher or parent about what is happening and get advice about how you can help stop the bullying behaviour. be supportive! you could respond by sticking up for the person being bullied in an open way, but if this sounds too challenging or scary, you could also send a private message or text to the person being bullied to show you support them. let them know that they are not alone and that they can get help by talking to a supportive teacher, parent or guardian, organisations that have helped many teens deal with online problems. report it! most sites have ways to report bullying. there is information on the backmeup site that can help you report cyberbullying directly to the website that you are using. check it! the person being bullied might not know about privacy settings. let them know that they can change these so that their info is only viewed by friends and family. also let them know they can block a user or even delete a so - called “ friend ” at any time. make a video and make a difference the commission is inviting 13 – 17 year olds to make a short two minute video about how they can back - up someone who has been cyberbullied. all details are on the something in common website entries close on 15 august 2012 and winners are announced on monday 3 september 2012. ten winners will receive a week - long, all - expenses paid trip to sydney to attend a prestigious film - making workshop at the national institute of dramatic art ( nida ). there are also weekly winners and prizes! entries from the video competition will form part of an ongoing educational strategy that will be used not only by the commission but stakeholders and partners. young people teaching young people – we love that! who is supporting backmeup? this is a project from the australian human rights commission. mtv ’ s ruby rose and former australia ’ s


by the help committee and havre public schools summer can be a risky time for teens. more teens try marijuana for the first time in june and july than any other time of the year, according to a new report from the substance abuse and mental health services administration. each day in june and july, more than 6, 300 youths try marijuana for the first time. that ' s 40 percent more per day than during the rest of the year. the number of new underage drinkers and cigarette smokers also jumps during the summer months. the increase in new marijuana use is likely due to teens having more unsupervised and unstructured time in the summer. research shows that unmonitored teens are four times more likely to use marijuana or engage in other risky behaviors. " youth marijuana use has declined by 11 percent over the past two years. despite the good news, the battle of reducing teen drug use is not yet over, " said john p. walters, director of the office of national drug control policy. " kids may equate summer with freedom, but for parents, it ' s when they need to be even more involved in their teens ' lives. by keeping teens busy, knowing who they ' re with and making sure they ' re supervised, parents can help prevent their teen ' s summer from going to pot. " and marijuana is more harmful than some parents think. marijuana can be addictive and lead to a host of health, social and behavioral problems at a crucial time in kids ' lives - when their bodies and brains are still developing. marijuana use damages lungs, impairs learning and decreases motivation. kids who use marijuana in early adolescence are more likely to engage in risky behaviors, such as delinquency, engaging in sexual activity, driving while high, or riding with someone who is under the influence of drugs or alcohol. they are also more likely to perceive drugs as not harmful and to have more friends who exhibit deviant behavior. havre kids are at greatest risk between 11 and 16 years of age. each year, havre public schools administers the youth risk behavior surveillance assessment to students at the high school, alternative school and middle school. four of the assessment questions address marijuana use. while these questions do not address which season of the year marijuana was used, students are asked " how old were you when you tried marijuana for the first time? " nearly 16 percent of respondents were 11 or 12 years old when they used marijuana for the first time. just over 19 percent of respondents were 13 or 14 years old


students are asked " how old were you when you tried marijuana for the first time? " nearly 16 percent of respondents were 11 or 12 years old when they used marijuana for the first time. just over 19 percent of respondents were 13 or 14 years old. more than 15 percent were 15 or 16 years old. at 17 years of age, the incidence of first - time marijuana use dropped to 2 percent. canterbury consultive services of helena administers the yrbs assessment. in its executive summary, the canterbury researchers asserted that " frequency of alcohol and drug abuse risk behaviors as reported by havre middle school respondents were generally consistent with statewide respondents with little variation over the four - year reporting period. " however, the frequency of these same behaviors " as reported by havre high school respondents were consistently higher than statewide respondents. with the exception of alcohol and cocaine, reported usage apparently increased during the four - year reporting period. " sadly, these findings show that, in general, havre kids experiment with some risky behaviors at a younger age and continue these risky behaviors throughout their youth at a higher rate than other montana children. this should prompt parents to maintain close ties with and supervision of their children throughout adolescence, even though adolescent children desire, seek and need increasing freedom. it can be a tough balancing act for any parent. so how can you stop your teen ' s summer from going to pot? here is a drug - free checklist : set rules. have you set clear rules and let your teen know that marijuana use is unacceptable? set limits with clear consequences for breaking them. be sure to balance this with praise and rewards for good behavior. understand and communicate. have you talked to your teen in the past month about the harmful physical, mental and social effects of marijuana and other illicit drugs on young users? young people who learn about the risks of drugs at home are up to 50 percent less likely to try drugs than their peers who learn nothing from their parents. look for teachable moments in everyday life to keep the conversation ongoing. monitor your teen ' s activities and behaviors. have you checked to see where your teen is, who he is with, and what he is doing? teens who are not regularly monitored by their parents are four times more likely to use drugs. check up on your teens to make sure they are where they say they are. make sure you stay involved in your teen ' s life have you talked to your teen ' s coach, employer and friends lately? stay in touch with the adult supervisors of your child ( camp counselors, coaches, employers


where they say they are. make sure you stay involved in your teen ' s life have you talked to your teen ' s coach, employer and friends lately? stay in touch with the adult supervisors of your child ( camp counselors, coaches, employers ) and have them inform you of any changes in your teen. parents of teens with summer jobs still need to know how their teens are spending disposable income, what type of workplace setting they are in, and who they are working with. engage your teen in summer activities. have you helped plan activities to keep your teen busy? teens who report they are " often bored " are 50 percent more likely to smoke, drink, get drunk and use illegal drugs than teens who aren ' t. teens who are involved in constructive and adult - supervised activities are less likely to use drugs. other adults who influence teens, such as camp counselors, coaches, physicians and employers, can and do play a vital role in keeping teens drug - free during the summer. these adults are well - positioned to reach teens with marijuana - prevention messages, and, just by being role models or mentors, they help prevent drug use. have you planned a family activity with your teen in the coming weeks, such as going to the movies, taking a walk or sharing a meal? teens who spend time, talk and have a close relationship with their parents are much less likely to drink, take drugs or have sex. two - thirds of youth ages 13 to 17 say fear of upsetting their parents or losing the respect of family and friends is one of the main reasons they don ' t smoke marijuana or use other drugs. this proves that parents are still the most powerful influence on their teen when it comes to drugs. the help committee and boys & girls club of the hi - line is committed to supporting a drug - free lifestyle for everyone in the community. for more information on this or related topics, call 265 - 6206.


eastern equine encephalitis ( eee ) is a rare, but serious disease caused by a virus that is carried by many species of swamp breeding mosquitoes. eee virus ( eeev ) occurs in the eastern half of the united states where it causes disease in humans, horses, and some bird species. because of its high mortality rate, eee is regarded as one of the most serious mosquito - borne diseases in the united states. the incubation period for eastern equine encephalitis virus ( eeev ) disease ( the time from infected mosquito bite to onset of illness ) ranges from 4 to 10 days. eeev infection can result in one of two types of illness, systemic or encephalitic ( involving swelling of the brain, referred to below as eee ). the type of illness will depend on the age of the person and other host factors. it is possible that some people who become infected with eeev may be asymptomatic ( will not develop any symptoms ). systemic infection has an abrupt onset and is characterized by chills, fever, malaise, arthralgia, and myalgia. the illness lasts 1 to 2 weeks, and recovery is complete when there is no central nervous system involvement. in infants, the encephalitic form is characterized by abrupt onset ; in older children and adults, encephalitis is manifested after a few days of systemic illness. signs and symptoms in encephalitic patients are fever, headache, irritability, restlessness, drowsiness, anorexia, vomiting, diarrhea, cyanosis, convulsions, and coma. ( more ) the best way to prevent eee is to avoid mosquitoes and prevent mosquitoes from breeding. ( more ) mosquitoes become infected when they feed on infected birds, which may circulate the virus in their blood for a few days. infected mosquitoes can then transmit eee to humans and animals when they bite.


older women who lose weight and gain it back again may be increasing their risk for heart disease, wake forest university researchers report. although cholesterol, blood pressure, triglycerides and blood sugar all improve with weight loss, with weight regain they all return to pre - diet levels and, in some cases, to even higher levels, the researchers found. " for postmenopausal women considering weight loss, maintaining weight loss is just as important as losing weight, " said lead researcher daniel beavers, an assistant professor in the department of biostatistics and public health sciences at wake forest university school of medicine in winston - salem, nc. " even partial weight regain is associated with worsened diabetes and cardiovascular risk factors. " what the study found in an earlier study of these same women, the researchers found that those who regained weight during the year following weight loss regained fat mass to a greater degree than lean mass, beavers said. the report was published in the online edition of the journal of gerontology : medical sciences. for the study, the researchers studied more than 100 postmenopausal obese women while they took part in a five - month weight - loss program. they continued to monitor the women for a year. during the weight - loss program the women lost an average of 25 pounds. after a year, two - thirds of the women had regained at least four pounds, on average regaining about 70 percent of the weight they had lost, the researchers found. " women who regained 4. 4 pounds or more in the year following the weight - loss intervention had several worsened cardiovascular and diabetes risk factors, " beavers said. " what was striking about the women who regained weight was that although they did not return to their full baseline weight on average - - women only regained about 70 percent of lost weight - - several chronic disease risk factors were right back at baseline values and in some cases, particularly for the diabetic risk factors, slightly worse than baseline values, " he added. " meanwhile, women who maintained their weight loss a year later managed to preserve most of the benefits. " maintaining weight loss is key dr. gregg fonarow, professor of cardiology at the university of california, los angeles, said that " this study highlights the importance of not just losing weight, but the need to develop effective and enduring strategies so that this weight loss can be successfully maintained long term. " another expert advises taking a lifestyle approach to dieting. " this small study is a great example of why we need to avoid


losing weight, but the need to develop effective and enduring strategies so that this weight loss can be successfully maintained long term. " another expert advises taking a lifestyle approach to dieting. " this small study is a great example of why we need to avoid fad diets and diet programs, potions and pills that promise quick weight loss, " said samantha heller, an exercise physiologist and clinical nutrition coordinator at the center for cancer care at griffin hospital in derby, conn. most people regain the weight within five years, she said. " this study indicates that regaining as little as five pounds can spell cardiometabolic trouble, especially for postmenopausal women, " heller said. people should be focusing on being healthy, not skinny, she said, and they should create strategies for reaching and maintaining a healthy weight throughout their lifetime. " the roller coaster of weight loss and regain is deleterious both physically and psychologically, " heller said. " while it can be frustrating to take the slower, healthier route to weight loss, the long - term results are ultimately more satisfying and healthier, " she said. " start with simple changes such as swapping seltzer for soda, keeping a daily food record, adding a salad to lunch and substituting a second vegetable for half the starch at dinner. " for more information on healthy diets, visit the u. s. national heart lung and blood institute. ( copyright © 2012 healthday. all rights reserved. )


basketball players, soccer players, and in particular, runners, will often suffer from tibial stress syndrome, commonly referred to as shin splints. the pain of shin splints occurs because the tibia ( shinbone ) and the connective tissues attached to it become overloaded. this happens when athletes train too hard or for too long, or when they suddenly increase the intensity or duration of exercise. for example, when runners add to their mileage, or alter the terrain or incline of their workout, shin splints are a likely result. shin splints may be accompanied by swelling and hardening of the soft tissues. while there are a number of physical therapies and medications one can take to relieve the symptoms of shin splints, one must begin by resting and limiting any stress or load to the shin area. one possible treatment increasingly used by athletes for shin splints is acupuncture. this treatment is most effective when the symptoms first occur. based on the principles of traditional chinese medicine, acupuncture works on the whole body to release a variety of substances including endorphins, serotonin, neuropeptides, and neurotransmitters. acupuncture can promote healing, reduce pain, increase local microcirculation, and attract white blood cells to the area. this can speed the rate of healing, reduce swelling, and disperse bruising. in 2002, researchers conducted a random controlled trial to assess the effectiveness of acupuncture in treating shin splints. forty athletes with shin splints were divided among three treatment groups : standard sports medicine, acupuncture, and a combined group who received both. the patients received at least two treatments per week for three weeks. the acupuncture and combined groups reported significantly lower pain levels during all activities and at rest. for overall effectiveness, acupuncture was rated at 72. 5 %, the combined therapy at 54. 5 %, and standard sports medicine at 46. 5 %. self - medication with anti - inflammatory drugs was also significantly lower in the acupuncture and combined groups. the study revealed that acupuncture could be an effective modality for relieving pain associated with shin splints and for reducing reliance on anti - inflammatory medication. for more information on acupuncture, please contact pacific college of oriental medicine at ( 800 ) 729 - 0941, or visit www. pacificcollege. edu


caring for your bird bird care sheet ( pdf ) the right cage ask your veterinarian as different birds need different cages. here are some must - haves : - the cage must be big enough for your bird to stretch his / her wings and fly - the cage must be made from nontoxic ( nonpoisonous ) material - the cage base must be so hard that your bird can ’ t ruin it by chewing - make sure the cage can ’ t be knocked over or fall - put the cage in an area like a family room, so your pet can be around everyone - birds are very social - avoid drafts and kitchens. kitchen fumes like burnt teflon from a cooking pan can kill a bird. - use non - colored newspapers with soy ink, paper towels, or brown paper - get both fat and thin perches – like manzanita branches. this helps birds exercise their feet and prevents pressure sores. - never use sandpaper perches, they will hurt your pet ’ s feet. - large birds like amazons or african grey birds need a freestanding perch outside the cage. - must be attached, so they can ’ t be tipped over - birds like mirrors and other toys. make sure all toys are made from nontoxic material. - clean cage of any droppings - change water once or more if needed - provide fresh fruits and vegetables, and remove food after a couple hours - if your bird is hand - tamed, take him / her out to play for at least an hour each day breakdown and clean cage with mild soap and make sure you rinse off all the soap. ask your veterinarian to recommend a disinfectant cleaner that you can use to clean the cage each month. birds, like all pets, should see their veterinarian each year. what to feed your bird - birds need a balanced diet - - with food from all the major food groups - birds are one type of pet that benefits from eating many “ people foods ” - birds must have fresh fruit and vegetables daily - never feed your bird a “ seed - only ” diet - never feed your bird houseplants, avocado, cherry pits, rhubarb, apple seeds or raw milk products poisons and dangerous fumes many common household items can hurt or even kill your bird. these include : - overheated teflon cookware - tobacco smoke - lead paints - scented candles or incense - chemical cleaners - aerosol products - some houseplants trimming your


the bark of drimys winteri, forster ( wintera aromatica, murray ). common names and synonyms : winter ' s bark, winter ' s cinnamon, cortex winteri, cortex magellanicus, cortex winteranus. botanical source. — this is a very large ( or very small, according to locality of growth ) evergreen, aromatic tree, varying in size from 6 to 50 feet high. the bark of the trunk is gray and wrinkled ; that of the branches smooth and green. branches rather erect, and scarred by the traces of fallen leaves. the leaves are alternate, oblong, obtuse, with a midrib, but otherwise veinless, glabrous, and finely dotted beneath. the flowers are small, on axillary or somewhat terminal peduncles, which are approximated, usually 1 - flowered and simple ; occasionally divided a little above the base into long pedicels. sepals 2 or 3 ; petals 6, and oblong ; fruits 4 or 6, obovate, baccate, and many - seeded ( l. ). history. — this tree inhabits the southern parts of south america, chili, peril, terra del fuego, etc., and takes its name from its discoverer, capt. winter, who commanded the elizabeth in capt. drake ' s voyage through the straits of magellan in 1578. winter employed it to cure scurvy. owing to the difficulty of obtaining the true bark, and the ease with which other barks, notably canella bark, could be substituted for it, the true bark was lost sight of for many years ; hence the conflicting descriptions in the literature of the drug. forster ( 1773 ) first correctly established its botanical identity. as a remedy for gastric debility and diarrhoea, it is largely employed in south america. description. — the authors of pharmacographia thus describe true winter ' s bark, as found by them upon many examinations : " the bark is in quills, or channelled pieces, often crooked, twisted or bent backward, generally only a few inches in length. it is most extremely thick ( 1 / 10 to 3 / 10 inch ), and appears to have shrunk very much in drying ; bark 1 / 4 inch thick, having sometimes rolled itself into a tube only 3 times as much in external diameter. young pieces have an ashy - gray suberous coat beset with lichens. in older bark the outer coat is sometimes


bark 1 / 4 inch thick, having sometimes rolled itself into a tube only 3 times as much in external diameter. young pieces have an ashy - gray suberous coat beset with lichens. in older bark the outer coat is sometimes whitish and silvery, but often more of a dark rusty - brown, which is the color of the internal substance, as well as of the surface of the wood. the inner side of the bark is strongly characterized by very rough striae, or, as seen under a lens, by small, short, and sharp longitudinal ridges, with occasional fissures indicative of great contraction of the inner layer in drying. in a piece broken or cut transversely, it is easy to perceive that the ridges in question are the ends of rays of the white fiber which diverge toward the circumference in radiate order, a dark - rusty parenchyme intervening between them. no such feature is observable in either canella or cinnamodendron. winter ' s bark has a short, almost earthy fracture ; an intolerably pungent, burning taste, and an odor which can only be described as terebinthinous " — ( pharmacographia, 2d ed., p. 19 ). chemical composition. — winter ' s bark was examined in 1820 by m. henry, who found in it a reddish - brown, inodorous, acrid resin ( 10 per cent ), a pale - yellow volatile oil ( 1. 2 per cent ), tannic acid, oxide of iron, starch, coloring matter, and various salts. the volatile oil appears to be a mixture of several bodies ; p. n. arata and f. canzoneri found the oil from a genuine specimen to contain a sesquiterpene which they named winterene ( c15h24 ) ( amer. jour. pharm., 1890, p. 354 ). action, medical uses, and dosage. — stimulant, aromatic, stomachic, and tonic, and may be substituted in all cases for the canella, cascarilla, and cinnamon barks. it was highly recommended by its discoverer as an antiscorbutic. thirty grains is the dose of the powdered bark. it is seldom used in this country. a vinous tincture ( bark, to sherry wine, ) may be employed in drachm doses. related drugs and substitutes. — another tree


grains is the dose of the powdered bark. it is seldom used in this country. a vinous tincture ( bark, to sherry wine, ) may be employed in drachm doses. related drugs and substitutes. — another tree inhabiting chili, drimys mexicana, sesse ( drimys chilensis, of de candolle ), has a bark possessing analogous virtues. this species and drimys granatensis, linne filius, are regarded as mere varieties of the drimys winteri. the second is now adopted by the french codex as the source of the drug of commerce, which this authority states has the same properties as the original drug from the straits of magellan, and even excels the original drug in keeping qualities. related entries : cinnamodendron cinnamodendron corticosum, miers, of jamaica, has been sold extensively as winter ' s bark, and at one time wholly replaced the true article. canella alba, linne, at one time was erroneously believed to be the source of the commercial drug ( d. hanbury, 1862 ; see his science papers ). the barks of drimys lanceolata and drimys axillaris, forster, both of australia, are aromatic and pungent, and the fruit of the first - named is said to be employed as a condiment. malambo bark is the name of a substitute for winter ' s bark which appeared on the american market about 1856. it was identified by prof. e. s. wayne ( see amer. jour. pharm., 1857, pp. 1 - 8, and d. hanbury, ibid., p. 212 ). king ' s american dispensatory, 1898, was written by harvey wickes felter, m. d., and john uri lloyd, phr. m., ph. d.


a strong prejudice remained against mcdowell in the public mind, and he held no further field command during the war. after commanding various military departments to 1882, mcdowell retired from the service, with the rank of major general in the regular army. following service in the mexican and indian wars, burnside resigned his commission in 1853 to manufacture firearms in bristol, rhode island. he later patented a breech - loading carbine and served as treasurer of the illinois central railroad. burnside entered the civil war as a colonel of the 1st rhode island volunteer infantry and commanded a brigade at the battle of first bull run ( 21 july 1861 ), where his command led the flank march to sudley ford and struck the confederates on matthews ’ hill. the fight was severe and burnside ’ s command, running low on ammunition, was given permission to withdraw and resupply. the brigade remained in reserve until joining the retreat to washington. in august 1861 burnside was promoted to brigadier general of volunteers and led a successful expedition against confederate coastal instal - lations in north carolina in january – march 1862. this military success gained him promotion to major general of volunteers and commanding general, ix corps. in august 1862 burnside ’ s ix corps began moving from the carolinas to join maj. gen. john pope ’ s army of virginia. while burnside personally remained at falmouth to forward arriving troops, the ix corps, temporarily commanded by maj. gen. jesse reno, participated in the battles of second bull run ( 29 – 30 august 1862 ) and chantilly ( 1 september 1862 ). on 14 september 1862, maj. gen. george b. mcclellan, commanding the army of the potomac, placed burnside in command of the army ’ s “ right wing, ” comprising the ix and maj. gen. joseph hooker ’ s i corps. at antietam ( 17 september 1862 ) the ix corps ( accompanied by burnside ) was placed on the left of the union army, where it eventually crossed antietam creek at the lower bridge to assault the confederate right flank. however, the timely arrival from harper ’ s ferry of confederates under maj. gen. a. p. hill drove burnside and his command back to the bridge. in november, after president abraham lincoln grew weary of mcclellan ’ s failure to pursue lee aggressively, burnside was offered command of the army of the potomac. he accepted the appointment on 7 november due only to the urging of his friends who did not want hooker to have the position. after his defeat at fredericksburg (


failure to pursue lee aggressively, burnside was offered command of the army of the potomac. he accepted the appointment on 7 november due only to the urging of his friends who did not want hooker to have the position. after his defeat at fredericksburg ( 13 december 1862 ), burnside was relieved the following january and transferred to the western theater. as commander of the army of the ohio ( 25 march – 12 december 1863 ) burnside succeeded in the capture of brig. gen. john hunt morgan ’ s raiders and in the siege of knoxville, tennessee. in january 1864 he returned east to assume command again of the ix corps and participated in lt. gen. ulysses s. grant ’ s overland campaign from wilderness to petersburg. when charges were made that burnside mishandled troops during an attack at petersburg, he was relieved of command and resigned from the army. after the war burnside was successful in engineering and managerial work with several railroads ; served as governor of rhode island in 1866, being twice reelected ; and served as a u. s. senator from rhode island until his death. after graduating from west point, keyes served briefly at posts in virginia, south carolina, florida, and louisiana. during 1844 – 1848 he was assigned to west point, becoming one of the few west point – trained generals not to have participated in the mexican war. transferred west in 1849, keyes was involved in suppressing indian hostilities in california and washington territories until 1860, when he was promoted to lieutenant colonel and assigned as military secretary to lt. gen. winfield scott in washington, d. c. in may 1861 keyes was promoted to brigadier general of volunteers and was in command of a brigade at the battle of first bull run in july. during that battle keyes ’ command arrived on the confederate right flank, but, after committing only half of his command to the attack, he fell back and fought no more that day. in the spring of 1862 keyes was appointed commander of the iv corps, army of the potomac, and in may was promoted to major general of volunteers. after the peninsula campaign ( june – july 1862 ), the iv corps remained in the yorktown area. in early 1863 keyes ’ conduct during a raid against a confederate position was called into question, and he asked for an official investigation, which was refused. he was relieved of command in july and served on a retirement board until his resignation in april 1864. keyes then set out for california where he spent the rest of his life in gold - mining ventures and the wine -


investigation, which was refused. he was relieved of command in july and served on a retirement board until his resignation in april 1864. keyes then set out for california where he spent the rest of his life in gold - mining ventures and the wine - growing business. he died in france in 1895 while on a european tour. tyler, the son of a revolutionary war officer, had planned to attend yale, but instead was appointed to west point. after graduation, he served in new england and later at fort monroe, virginia, where he translated the french artillery drill manual. in 1828 tyler was sent to france to study french artillery tactics further and attended the artillery school at metz. his assignment abroad resulted in his translation and publication of an artillery field manual in 1829. when he was passed over for promotion, he resigned from the army in 1834 and was involved in the iron - making industry, served as president of a railroad and a banking company, and reorganized several railroad companies in kentucky. with the outbreak of the civil war, tyler was commissioned a colonel of the 1st connecticut infantry in april 1861 and the following month was promoted to brigadier general of volunteers. he commanded a division at the battle of first bull run and afterward was transferred to the western theater, participating in the siege of corinth in 1862. tyler was placed in command of the garrison at harper ’ s ferry in early 1863 and later commanded the district of delaware until 1864, when he resigned his commission at age 65. after the war tyler traveled extensively in europe, returning to establish an iron - making company in alabama in 1872. there, he founded the town of anniston, named after his daughter - in - law. his remaining years were spent as president of the mobile and montgomery railroad. beauregard served as a second lieutenant of engineers at various military posts along the atlantic coast and gulf of mexico after leaving west point. during the mexican war he was brevetted a captain and then a major. until the outbreak of the civil war, beauregard spent most of his time in louisiana superintending the construction of forts along the lower mississippi. in 1858 he ran unsuccessfully for mayor of new orleans, and in 1861 he was appointed superintendent of west point. after only four days at the academy beauregard was relieved ( possibly due to his outspoken sympathy for the south ) and later resigned from the army to accept a commission as brigadier general in the confederate army. in april 1861 beauregard commanded the successful confederate attack on fort sumter in charleston harbor and won overnight fame. two months


his outspoken sympathy for the south ) and later resigned from the army to accept a commission as brigadier general in the confederate army. in april 1861 beauregard commanded the successful confederate attack on fort sumter in charleston harbor and won overnight fame. two months later he was assigned command of the confederate army then being organized at manassas junction. beauregard immediately prepared plans to capture washington, but his constant bickering with confederate president jefferson davis over reinforcements and his own grand strategy to win the war created tension between the army commander and the commander in chief. on 21 july 1861, a union army commanded by brig. gen. irvin mcdowell approached manassas and attacked beauregard ’ s left flank. mcdowell ’ s forces drove the confederates to henry hill and a union victory looked assured. at a critical moment, however, confederate reinforcements arrived, struck the union line, and sent the army in full retreat back to washington. beauregard, the “ hero of sumter ” and now of manassas, was promoted to full general. his career seemed on the upswing, but beauregard soon allied himself with president davis ’ opponents and too often made public his distrust and disdain for the government. continued arguments with davis and other southern commanders resulted in his transfer to the western theater in early 1862 as second in command to general albert sidney johnston in the army of the mississippi. after johnston was killed at shiloh, beauregard assumed command of the army. relations between beauregard and davis continued to deteriorate, and beauregard was transferred first to the department of south carolina, georgia, and florida and next to the department of north carolina and virginia as commander. he served in the latter position until early 1865, when he was relieved and placed in command of the department of the west as a figurehead. after the war, beauregard was offered commands in the romanian and egyptian armies but declined both. instead, he returned to new orleans where he played a prominent role in business, civil engineering, and political affairs ; was president of two railroads ; and was adjutant general of louisiana for ten years. johnston ’ s father, peter johnston, had served in the american revolution with henry “ lighthouse ” lee ( the father of robert e. lee ), and both sons were classmates at west point. johnston served with distinction in the seminole and mexican wars, being wounded five times during the latter. after the mexican war he was chief of the topographical engineers in texas and during 1855 – 1860 was assigned as a lieutenant colonel of


classmates at west point. johnston served with distinction in the seminole and mexican wars, being wounded five times during the latter. after the mexican war he was chief of the topographical engineers in texas and during 1855 – 1860 was assigned as a lieutenant colonel of the 1st cavalry. promoted to brigadier general, johnston became quartermaster general of the u. s. army, a position he held until may 1861. upon the secession of virginia from the union, he resigned his commission and became a brigadier general and soon after a general in the confederate service. in july 1861 general johnston, commanding the army of the shenandoah, eluded a union force under maj. gen. robert patterson in the shenandoah valley and rushed to reinforce beauregard ’ s army of the potomac at manassas junction. johnston assumed overall command but elected to allow beauregard to command the confederate forces actually engaged. although the senior commander on the field, johnston received less publicity for his role during the battle than the more colorful, self - promoting beauregard. in the spring of 1862 johnston moved his army to the peninsula, between the james and york rivers, when union forces under maj. gen. george b. mcclellan landed at fort monroe. at the battle of fair oaks ( 31 may 1862 ) he was twice wounded and carried from the field. johnston had recovered sufficiently by november to report for duty. by that time general robert e. lee was commanding johnston ’ s forces, and he was assigned authority over the territory between the appalachians and the mississippi river. this authority was vague, with department heads reporting directly to richmond rather than to johnston. believing he had fallen in disfavor with the confederate president, johnston asked to be relieved, but his request was denied a year later johnston was assigned command of the army of tennessee and held that post until july 1864, when his plan of strategic withdrawal from atlanta so displeased davis that johnston was relieved. he saw no more active service until he returned to duty in february 1865 to oppose sherman ’ s march north. after his surrender to sherman on 26 april 1865, johnston went into retirement until 1879, when he was elected to the u. s. congress and later served as u. s. commissioner of railroads. having received the brevets of captain and major during the mexican war, jackson resigned his commission in 1852 to become an instructor at the virginia military institute. at the beginning of the civil war he was appointed first to the rank of colonel, then brigadier general. early on the morning of 21 july


major during the mexican war, jackson resigned his commission in 1852 to become an instructor at the virginia military institute. at the beginning of the civil war he was appointed first to the rank of colonel, then brigadier general. early on the morning of 21 july 1861 jackson commanded a brigade of virginians near manassas junction on the confederate right flank. when the union assault struck the confederate left, jackson marched toward the fighting and placed his command on henry hill, where his brigade stood firm and served as a rallying point for others. it was there that he and his brigade earned the sobriquet “ stonewall. ” afterward, jackson was promoted to major general. in november jackson was sent to the shenandoah valley, where the following year he waged what became known as the valley campaign against three federal armies ( may – june 1862 ). after defeating his adversaries and forcing the federal government in washington to delay reinforcements to the union army then threatening richmond, jackson joined confederate forces in the seven days ’ battles ( 25 june – 1 july 1862 ). in late august jackson ’ s lightning - like turning movement against maj. gen. john pope ’ s army of virginia was a crucial factor in the victory that followed at second bull run ( 29 – 30 august 1862 ). in the maryland campaign jackson captured the federal garrison at harper ’ s ferry before rejoining lee at sharpsburg in the battle of antietam ( 17 september 1862 ). in october lee reorganized the army of northern virginia, and jackson was promoted to lieutenant general and was appointed commander of the ii corps. he commanded the right wing in the confederate victory at fredericksburg ( 13 december 1862 ), and his career reached its high point in the famous flank march around the union army at chancellorsville ( 1 – 4 may 1863 ). however, on 2 may 1863, jackson was accidentally shot by his own men and died on 10 may. known as shanks because of his long, skinny legs, evans served his pre – civil war years in the army on the frontier fighting hostile indian tribes. in february 1861 he resigned to accept a major ’ s commission with the military forces of south carolina. after the surrender of fort sumter in april, evans accepted a captain ’ s commission in the confederate cavalry and was shortly thereafter promoted to lieutenant colonel and later colonel. he was assigned command of an infantry brigade in brig. gen. pierre g. t. beauregard ’ s army of the potomac. in camp and field evans had an attachment to strong drink, often keeping an aide nearby


colonel and later colonel. he was assigned command of an infantry brigade in brig. gen. pierre g. t. beauregard ’ s army of the potomac. in camp and field evans had an attachment to strong drink, often keeping an aide nearby with a small keg of whiskey, which evans referred to as his “ barreletta. ” at the battle of first bull run evans ’ small brigade was placed on the confederate left and was able to hold off the union ’ s flank attack long enough for reinforcements to arrive. although his command was eventually forced to fall back, his delaying tactic allowed the confederates time to shift additional forces from manassas to the battlefield, which resulted in a confederate victory. in october 1861, while his brigade was stationed near leesburg, virginia, evans ’ forces defeated a union attempt to cross the potomac river in a fight called the battle of ball ’ s bluff. the action resulted in his promotion to brigadier general. evans went on to participate in the 1862 battles of second bull run, south mountain, and antietam and in november was transferred to kinston, north carolina. after he retreated in the face of a superior union force, evans was tried for intoxication and acquitted. later, when charges of disobedience of orders were made against him, evans was again acquitted. he was then relieved of command, and, although later reinstated, the remainder of his military career was obscure. throughout 1863 evans served in various military positions in mississippi and georgia and in the spring of 1864 transferred to south carolina. following the war, evans settled in alabama, where he became a high school principal. return to contents


neurosis – the most frequent violation of mental health. he brings not only the patient discomfort. however, modern medicine can successfully treat it, but it is best to avoid the development of neurosis. what is neurosis? neurosis – a violation of health, which makes adaptation of the organism to conditions of living environment, distorts human perception of events and leads to the development of nervous system diseases. often decreases efficiency and a sense of joy to life. violates the patient ' s ability to communicate with others and to purposeful activity. in a healthy person there is no such things as irritability, aspiration complain, fear of something, inability to concentrate, fatigue in the absence of intensive work. but in these cases we are talking about is not neurosis, but about coming features. they occur in 70 % of the people. if some of these diseases are observed for a long time or are particularly strong, then we perceive them as an illness or neurosis, or any somatic disease. neurosis sometimes manifests itself in another way : can cause violations of the digestive system in the form of stomach pains or cramps. can also manifest palpitation or feeling of heaviness in the heart. sometimes in neurosis there are headaches, sweating, trembling, feeling of weakness, trouble breathing. one sign of neurosis may be a violation of the sexual ability. dr. josyann abisaab is full of insight into the issues. scientists have found that neurosis occurs in 16 % of women and 8 % of men. in addition, it was found that heavy neurosis occurs in 10 % of people, and neurosis mild to moderate suffer up to 20 % of the people. easy neurosis times occurs in each of us. remember, whether you do not have to return to his apartment, from which you left a few minutes ago in order to make sure you shut it or put out the light on or off the gas. at the same time understand the futility of his actions and knew that the house is all right. however, in such cases, we are not talking about neurosis, but of passing nervousness. how to protect yourself from neurosis? many people believe that they must strictly adhere to certain principles in life. these guidelines are so stringent that they impose on the person significant limitations, often unnecessarily. if a person is prone to neurosis, can not withstand its own


people believe that they must strictly adhere to certain principles in life. these guidelines are so stringent that they impose on the person significant limitations, often unnecessarily. if a person is prone to neurosis, can not withstand its own principles, his inner conflict arises. warning neurosis actually is the ability to rights to avoid ' the origin of internal conflict. " great importance for the prevention of neurosis and has a correct way of life. experience shows that the various troubles, because of which it may be a neurosis, we easier to confront, if you are in good condition. good physical condition promotes mental health. in addition, the proper division of time devoted to work, leisure, entertainment and well as nutrition – all of it is acceptable for the prevention of neurosis. for a man prone to neurosis, is very harmful alcohol consumption, smoking, black coffee craze. and in conclusion i would like to add. external factors themselves may not lead to a neurosis. most often depends on the person, how they will act on it. and more so depends on it, will the impact of these factors to the emergence of neurosis. if you want to avoid this disease, you should get rid of those traits of your character, that obstruct your life and contribute to the creation of unsolvable situations, otherwise you should seek medical advice immediately.


people the world over speak of the " space age " as beginning with the launching of the russian sputnik on 4 october 1957. yet americans might well set the date hack at least to july 1955 when the white house, through president eisenhower ' s press secretary, announced that the united states planned to launch a man - made earth satellite as an american contribution to the international geophysical year. if the undertaking seemed bizarre to much of the american public at that time, to astrophysicists and some of the military the government ' s decision was a source of elation : after years of waiting they had won official support for a project that promised to provide an invaluable tool for basic research in the regions beyond the upper atmosphere. six weeks later, after a statement came from the pentagon that the navy was to take charge of the launching program, most americans apparently forgot about it. it would not again assume great importance until october 1957. every major scientific advance has depended upon two basic elements, first. imaginative perception and, second, continually refined tools to observe, measure. and record phenomena that support, alter, or demolish a tentative hypothesis. this process of basic research often seems to have no immediate utility, hut, as one scientist pointed out in 1957, it took samuel langley ' s and the wright brothers ' experiments in aerodynamics to make human flight possible, and hans bethe ' s abstruse calculations on the nature of the sun ' s energy led to the birth of the hydrogen bomb. just as isaac newton ' s laws of gravity, motion, and thermodynamics furnished the principles upon the application of which the exploration of outer space began and is proceeding. in space exploration the data fed back to scientists from instrumented satellites have been of utmost importance. the continuing improvement of such research tools opens up the prospect of greatly enlarging knowledge of the world we live in and making new applications of that knowledge. in the decade before sputnik. however, laymen tended to ridicule the idea of putting a man - made object into orbit about the earth. even if the feat were possible, what purpose would it serve except to show that it could be done? as early as 1903, to be sure. konstantin tsiolkovskiy, a russian scientist, had proved mathematically the feasibility of using the reactive force that lifts a rocket to eject a vehicle into space above the pull of the earth ' s gravity. twenty years later romanian - born hermann oberth had independently worked out similar formulas, but before


had proved mathematically the feasibility of using the reactive force that lifts a rocket to eject a vehicle into space above the pull of the earth ' s gravity. twenty years later romanian - born hermann oberth had independently worked out similar formulas, but before the l950s, outside a very small circle of rocket buffs, the studies of both men remained virtually unknown in the english - speaking world. neither had built a usable rocket to demonstrate the validity of his theories, and, preoccupied as each was with plans for human journeys to the moon and planets, neither had so much as mentioned an unmanned artificial satellite. 1 indeed until communication by means of radio waves had developed far beyond the techniques of the 1930s and early l940s, the launching of an inanimate body into the heavens could have little appeal for either the scientist or the romantic dreamer. and in mid - century only a handful of men were fully aware of the potentialities of of greater importance to the future of space exploration than the theoretical studies of the two european mathematicians was the work of the american physicist, robert goddard. while engaged in post - graduate work at princeton university before world war i, goddard had demonstrated in the laboratory that rocket propulsion would function in a vacuum, and in 1917 he received a grant of $ 5, 000 from the smithsonian institution to continue his experiments. under this grant the smithsonian published his report of his theory and early experiments, method of reaching extreme altitudes. in 1918 he had successfully developed a solid - fuel ballistic rocket in which, however, even the united states army lost interest after the armistice. convinced that rockets would eventually permit travel into outer space, goddard after the war had continued his research at clark university, seeking to develop vehicles that could penetrate into the ionosphere. in contrast to tsiolkovskiy and oberth, he set himself to devising practical means of attaining the goal they all three aspired to. in 1926 he successfully launched a rocket propelled by gasoline and liquid oxygen, a " first " that ranks in fame with the wright brothers ' kitty hawk flights of 1903. with the help of charles lindbergh after his dramatic solo transatlantic flight. goddard obtained a grant of $ 5, 000 from daniel guggenheim and equipped a small laboratory in new mexico where he built several rockets. in 1937, assisted by grants from the daniel and florence guggenheim foundation, he launched a rocket that reached an altitude of 9, 000 feet. although not many people in the united states knew much about his work, a few had followed it as closely as his secretiveness


assisted by grants from the daniel and florence guggenheim foundation, he launched a rocket that reached an altitude of 9, 000 feet. although not many people in the united states knew much about his work, a few had followed it as closely as his secretiveness allowed them to ; among them were members of the american interplanetary space society, organized in 1930 and later renamed the american rocket society. with the coming of world war ii goddard abandoned his field experiments, but the navy employed him to help in developing liquid propellants for jato, that is, jet - assisted takeoff for aircraft. when the nazi " buzz " bombs of 1943 and the supersonic " vengeance " missile - the " v - 2s " that rained on london during 1944 and early 1945 - awakened the entire world to the potentialities of rockets as weapons, a good many physicists and military men studied his findings with attention. by a twist of fate, goddard, who was even more interested in astronautics than in weaponry, died in 1945, fourteen years before most of his countrymen acknowledged manned space exploration as feasible and recognized his basic contribution to it by naming the government ' s new multi - million - dollar experimental station at beltsville, maryland, " the goddard space flight center. " 3 ( photo courtesy of mrs. robert h. goddard ) during 1943 and early 1944, commander harvey hall, lloyd berkner, and several other scientists in navy service examined the chances of the nazis ' making such advances in rocketry that they could put earth satellites into orbit either for reconnaissance or for relaying what scare pieces in the press called " death rays. " while the investigators foresaw well before the first v - 2 struck britain that german experts could build rockets capable of reaching targets a few hundred miles distant, study showed that the state of the art was not yet at a stage to overcome the engineering difficulties of firing a rocket to a sufficient altitude to launch a body into the ionosphere. the region between 50 and 250 miles above the earth ' s surface. in the process of arriving at that conclusion members of the intelligence team, like tsiolkovskiy and oberth before them, worked out the mathematical formulas of the velocities needed. once technology had progressed further, these men knew, an artificial earth - circling satellite would be entirely feasible. more important, if it were equipped with a transmitter and recording devices, it would provide an invaluable means of obtaining information about outer space. 4 at the end of the war, when most americans wanted to forget


satellite would be entirely feasible. more important, if it were equipped with a transmitter and recording devices, it would provide an invaluable means of obtaining information about outer space. 4 at the end of the war, when most americans wanted to forget about rockets and everything military, these men were eager to pursue rocket development in order to further scientific research. in 1888 simon newcomb, the most eminent american astronomer of his day, had declared : - " we are probably nearing the limit of all we can know about astronomy. " in 1945, despite powerful new telescopes and notable advances in radio techniques, that pronouncement appeared still true unless observations made above the earth ' s atmosphere were to become possible. only a mighty rocket could reach beyond the blanket of the earth ' s atmosphere ; and in the united states only the armed services possessed the means of procuring rockets with sufficient thrust to attain the necessary altitude. at the same time a number of officers wanted to experiment with improving rockets as weapons. each group followed a somewhat different course during the next few years, but each gave some thought to launching an " earth - circling spaceship, ' ' since, irrespective of ultimate purpose, the requirements for launching and flight control were similar. the character of those tentative early plans bears examination, if only because of the consequences of their rejection. " operation paperclip. " the first official army project aimed at acquiring german know - how about rocketry and technology, grew out of the capture of a hundred of the notorious v - 2s and out of interrogations of key scientists and engineers who had worked at the nazi ' s rocket research and development base at peenemuende. hence the decision to bring to the united states about one hundred twenty of the german experts along with the captured missiles and spare parts. before the arrival of the germans, general donald putt of the army air forces outlined to officers at wright field some of the nazi schemes for putting space platforms into the ionosphere ; when his listeners laughed at what appeared to be a tall tale, he assured them that these were far from silly vaporings and were likely to materialize before the end of the century. still the haughtiness of the germans who landed at wright field in the autumn of 1945 was not endearing to the americans who had to work with them. the navy wanted none of them, whatever their skills. during a searching interrogation before the group left germany a former german general had remarked testily that had hitler not been so pig - headed the nazi team might now


americans who had to work with them. the navy wanted none of them, whatever their skills. during a searching interrogation before the group left germany a former german general had remarked testily that had hitler not been so pig - headed the nazi team might now be giving orders to american engineers ; to which the american scientist conducting the questioning growled in reply that americans would never have permitted a hitler to rise to power. 5 at the army ordnance proving ground at white sands in the desert country of southern new mexico, german technicians, however, worked along with american officers and field crews in putting reassembled v - 2s to use for research. as replacing the explosive in the warhead with scientific instruments and ballast would permit observing and recording data on the upper atmosphere. the army invited other government agencies and universities to share in making high - altitude measurements by this means. assisted by the german rocketeers headed by wernher von braun, the general electric company under a contract with the army took charge of the launchings. scientists from the five participating universities and from laboratories of the armed services designed and built the instruments placed in the rockets ' noses. in the course of the next five years teams from each of the three military services and the universities assembled information from successful launchings of forty instrumented v - 2s. in june 1946 a v - 2, the first probe using instruments devised by members of the newly organized rocket sonde research section of the naval research laboratory, carried to an altitude of sixty - seven miles a geiger - counter telescope to detect cosmic rays, pressure and temperature gauges, a spectrograph, and radio transmitters. during january and february 1946 nrl scientists had investigated the possibility of launching an instrumented earth satellite in this fashion, only to conclude reluctantly that engineering techniques were still too unsophisticated to make it practical ; for the time being, the laboratory would gain more by perfecting instruments to be emplaced in and recovered from v - 2s. as successive shots set higher altitude records, new spectroscopic equipment developed by the micron waves branch of the laboratory ' s optics division produced a number of excellent ultraviolet and x - ray spectra, measured night air glow, and determined ozone concentration. 6 in the interim the army ' s " bumper " project produced and successfully flew a two - stage rocket consisting of a " wac corporal " missile superimposed on a v - 2. after each launching, an unofficial volunteer panel of scientists and technicians, soon known as the upper atmosphere rocket research panel, discussed the findings. indeed


two - stage rocket consisting of a " wac corporal " missile superimposed on a v - 2. after each launching, an unofficial volunteer panel of scientists and technicians, soon known as the upper atmosphere rocket research panel, discussed the findings. indeed the panel coordinated and guided the research that built up a considerable body of data on the nature of the upper atmosphere. nevertheless, because the supply of v - 2s would not last indefinitely, and because a rocket built expressly for research would have distinct advantages, the nrl staff early decided to draw up specifications for a new sounding rocket. although the applied physics laboratory of the johns hopkins university. under contract with the navy ' s bureau of ordnance and the office of naval research, was modifying the " wac corporal " to develop the fin - stabilized aerobee research rocket, nrl wanted a model with a sensitive steering mechanism and gyroscopic controls. in august 1946 the glenn l. martin company won the contract to design and construct a vehicle that would meet the nrl requirements. 7 four months before the army ordnance department started work on captured v - 2s, the navy bureau of aeronautics had initiated a more ambitious research scheme with the appointment of a committee for evaluating the feasibility of space rocketry. unmistakably inspired by the ideas of members of the navy intelligence team which had investigated nazi capabilities in rocketry during the war, and, like that earlier group, directed by the brilliant harvey hall, the committee embarked upon an intensive study of the physical requirements and the technical resources available for launching a vessel into orbit about the earth. by 22 october 1945, the committee had drafted recommendations urging the bureau of aeronautics to sponsor an experimental program to devise an earth - orbiting " space ship " launched by a single - stage rocket, propelled by liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen, and carrying electronic equipment that could collect and transmit back to earth scientific information about the upper atmosphere. here was a revolutionary proposal. if based on the speculative thinking of navy scientists in 1944, it was now fortified by careful computations. designed solely for research, the unmanned instrumented satellite weighing about two thousand pounds and put into orbit by a rocket motor burning a new type of fuel should he able to stay aloft for days instead of the seconds possible with vertical probing rockets. nazi experts at peenemuende, for all their sophisticated ideas about future space flights, had never thought of building anything comparable. 8 the recommendations to the bureau of aeronautics quickly led to exploratory contracts with the jet propulsion laboratory of the california institute of technology and the


unit of the douglas aircraft company and a forerunner of the rand corporation of california. 11 like the scientists of the bureau of aeronautics committee, project rand mathematicians and engineers declared technology already equal to the task of launching a spaceship. the ship could be circling the earth, they averred, within five years, namely by mid - 1951. they admitted that it could not be used as a carrier for an atomic bomb and would have no direct function as a weapon, but they stressed the advantages that would nevertheless accrue from putting an artificial satellite into orbit : " to visualize the impact on the world, one can imagine the consternation and admiration that would be felt here if the united states were to discover suddenly that some other nation had already put up a successful satellite. " 12 officials at the pentagon were unimpressed. theodore von karman, chief mentor of the army air forces and principal author of the report that became the research and development bible of the service, advocated research in the upper atmosphere but was silent about the use of an artificial satellite. nor did vannevar bush have faith in such a venture. the most influential scientist in america of his day and in 1946 chairman of the joint army and navy research and development board. bush was even skeptical about the possibility of developing within the foreseeable future the engineering skills necessary to build intercontinental guided missiles. his doubts, coupled with von karman ' s disregard of satellite schemes, inevitably dashed cold water on the proposals and helped account for the lukewarm reception long accorded them. 13 still the veto of a combined navy - army air forces program did not kill the hopes of advocates of a " space ship. " while the navy and its contractors continued the development of a scale model 3, 000 - pound - thrust motor powered by liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen, project rand completed a second study for the army air forces. but after mid - 1947, when the air force became a separate service within the newly created department of defense, reorganization preoccupied its officers for a year or more, and many of them, academic scientists believed, shared general lemay ' s indifference to research not immediately applicable to defense problems. at buaer, on the other hand, a number of men continued to press for money to translate satellite studies into actual experiments. unhappily for them, a technical evaluation group of civilian scientists serving on the guided missiles committee of the defense department ' s research and development board declared in march 1948 that " neither the navy nor the usaf has as yet established either a military or a scientific


c, the launcher for the first successful american satellite. thus money denied the navy for scientific research was made available to the army for a military rocket. 17 early in 1949 the air force requested the rand corporation, the recently organized successor to project rand, to prepare further utility studies. the paper submitted in 1951 concentrated upon analyzing the value of a satellite as an " instrument of political strategy, " and again offered a cogent argument for supporting a project that could have such important psychological effects on world opinion as an american earth satellite. 18 not until october 1957 would most of the officials who had read the text recognize the validity of that point. in the meantime, research on the upper atmosphere had continued to nose forward slowly at white sands and at the naval research laboratory in washington despite the transfer of some twenty " first line people " from nrl ' s rocket sonde research section to a nuclear weapons crash program. while the navy team at white sands carried on probes with the aerobee, by then known as " the workhorse of high altitude research, " 19 a bumper - wac under army aegis - a v - 2 with a wac - corporal rocket attached as a second stage - made a record - breaking flight to an altitude of 250 miles in february 1949. shortly afterward tests began on the new sounding rocket built for nrl by the glenn l. martin company. named " neptune " at first and then renamed " viking, " the first model embodied several important innovations : a gimbaled motor for steering, aluminum as the principal structural material, and intermittent gas jets for stabilizing the vehicle after the main power cut off. reaction motors incorporated supplied the engine, one of the first three large liquid - propelled rocket power plants produced in the united states. viking no. l, fired in the spring of 1949, attained a 50 - mile altitude ; viking no. 4, launched from shipboard in may 1950, reached 104 miles. modest compared to the power displayed by the bumper - wac, the thrust of the relatively small single - stage viking nevertheless was noteworthy. 20 it was proposed in 1946 and was to have launched a satellite by 1951. while modifications to each viking in turn brought improved performance, the electron optics branch at nrl was working out a method of using ion chambers and photon counters for x - ray and ultraviolet wavelengths, equipment which would later supply answers to questions about the nuclear composition of solar radiation. equally valuable was the development of an electronic tracking device known as a " single - axis phase - comparison angle - tracking unit, " the ant


- ray and ultraviolet wavelengths, equipment which would later supply answers to questions about the nuclear composition of solar radiation. equally valuable was the development of an electronic tracking device known as a " single - axis phase - comparison angle - tracking unit, " the antecedent of " minitrack, " which would permit continuous tracking of a small instrumented body in space. when the next to last viking, no. 11, rose to an altitude of 158 miles in may 1954, the radio telemetering system transmitted data on cosmic ray emissions, just as the viking 10, fired about two weeks before, had furnished scientists with the first measurement of positive ion composition at an altitude of 136 miles. 21 this remarkable series of successes achieved in five years at a total cost of less than $ 6 million encouraged nrl in 1955 to believe that, with a more powerful engine and the addition of upper stages, here was a vehicle capable of launching an earth satellite. an " earth circling satellite ", 1951. essential though this work was to subsequent programs, the naval research laboratory in the late l940s and the l950s was hampered by not having what john p. hagen called " stable funding " for its projects. hagen, head of the atmosphere and astrophysics division., found the budgetary system singularly unsatisfactory. nrl had been founded in 1923, but a post - world - war - ii reorganization within the navy had brought the office of naval research into being and given it administrative control of the laboratory ' s finances. onr allotted the laboratory a modest fixed sum annually, but other navy bureaus and federal agencies frequently engaged the laboratory ' s talents and paid for particular jobs. the arrangement resembled that of a man who receives a small retainer from his employer but depends for most of his livelihood on fees paid him by his own clientele for special services. nrl ' s every contract, whether for design studies or hardware, had to be negotiated and administered either by onr or by one of the permanent navy bureau - in atmospheric research, it was by the navy bureau of aeronautics. the cancellation of a contract could seriously disrupt nrl functioning, as the years 1950 to 1954 illustrated. 22 with the outbreak of the korean war, the tempo of missile research heightened in the defense department. while the navy was working on a guided missile launchable from shipboard and a group at nrl on radio interferometers for tracking it, rocketeers at redstone arsenal in alabama were engaged in getting the " bugs " out of a north american aviation engine


navy was working on a guided missile launchable from shipboard and a group at nrl on radio interferometers for tracking it, rocketeers at redstone arsenal in alabama were engaged in getting the " bugs " out of a north american aviation engine for a ballistic missile with a 200 - mile range, and rand was carrying on secret studies of a military reconnaissance satellite for the air force. in june 1952 nrl got approval for the construction of four additional vikings similar to viking no. 10 to use in ballistic missile research, but eleven months later buaer withdrew its support and canceled the development contract for a high - performance oxygen - ammonia engine that was to have replaced the less powerful viking engine ; this cancellation postponed by over three years the availability of a suitable power plant for the first stage of the future vanguard rocket. similarly in 1954 lack of funds curtailed an nrl program to design and develop a new liquid - propelled aerobee - hi probing rocket. at the request of the western development division of the air force in july 1954, the laboratory investigated the possible use of an improved viking as a test vehicle for intercontinental ballistic missiles, icbms. the study, involving a solution of the " reentry problem, " that is, how to enable a missile ' s warhead to return into the atmosphere without disintegrating before reaching its target, produced the design of an m - i0 and m - 15 viking, the designations referring to the speeds, measured by mach number, at which each would reenter the atmosphere. but the air force later let the development contracts to private industry. 23 in these years the department of defense was unwilling to spend more than token sums on research that appeared to have only remote connection with fighting equipment. the creation of the national science foundation in may 1950 tended to justify that position, for one of the new agency ' s main functions was to encourage and provide support for basic research chiefly by means of grants - in - aid to american universities. the mission of the army, navy, and air force was national defense, that of the foundation the fostering of scientific discovery. it was a responsibility of the foundation to decide what lines of fundamental research most merited public financial aid in their own right, whereas other federal agencies must by law limit their basic research to fields closely related to their practical missions. while the foundation ' s charter forbade it to make grants for applied research and development - the very area in which the military would often have welcomed assistance - any government department could ask the national academy of sciences for help on scientific problems


to their practical missions. while the foundation ' s charter forbade it to make grants for applied research and development - the very area in which the military would often have welcomed assistance - any government department could ask the national academy of sciences for help on scientific problems. the academy, founded in 1863 as a self - perpetuating body advisory to but independent of the government, included distinguished men in every scientific field. when its executive unit, the national research council, agreed to sponsor studies for federal agencies, the studies sometimes involved more applied than pure research. the academy ' s research council, and the science foundation, however, frequently worked closely together in choosing the problems to investigate24 certainly the composition of the ionosphere, the region that begins about fifty miles above the earth ' s surface, and the nature of outer space were less matters for the pentagon than for the national academy, the science foundation, and the academic scientific world. indeed, the panel of volunteers which analyzed the findings from each instrumented v - 2 shot and later appraised the results of aerobee, viking, and aerobee - hi flights contained from the first some future members of the academy. among the participants over the years were homer j. stewart and william h. pickering of cal tech ' s jet propulsion laboratory, milton w. rosen, homer e. newell, jr., and john w. townsend, jr., of nrl, and james a. van allen of the applied physics laboratory of the johns hopkins university and later a professor at the state university of iowa. under van allen ' s chairmanship, the panel on upper atmosphere rocket research came to be a strong link between university physicists and the department of defense, a more direct link in several respects than that afforded by civilian scientists who served on advisory committees of the dod ' s research and development board. 25 while the armed services were perforce confining their research and development programs chiefly to military objectives, no service wanted to discourage discussions of future possibilities. in the autumn of 1951 several doctors in the air force and a group of physicists brought together by joseph kaplan of the university of california, los angeles, met in san antonio, texas, for a symposium on the physics and medicine of the upper atmosphere. the participants summarized existing knowledge of the region named the " aeropause, " where manned flight was not yet possible, and examined the problems of man ' s penetrating into that still unexplored area. the papers published in book form a year later were directly instrumental, kaplan believed, in arousing


effects of the radiation from outer space upon living cells. in communications, john r. pierce, whose proposal of 1952 gave birth to telstar a decade later, 28 discussed the utility of a relay for radio and television broadcasts. data obtainable in the realm of geodesy. according to major john o ' keefe of the army map service, would throw light on the size and shape of the earth and the intensity of its gravitational fields, information which would be invaluable to navigators and mapmakers. the meteorologist eugene bollay of north american weather consultants spoke of the predictable gains in accuracy of weather forecasting. perhaps most illuminating to the nonscientifically trained reader was homer e. newell ' s analysis of the unknowns of the ionosphere which data accumulated over a period of days could clarify. confusing and complex happenings in the atmosphere, wrote newell, were " a manifestation of an influx of energy from outer space. what was the nature and magnitude of that energy? much of the incoming energy was absorbed in the atmosphere at high altitudes. from data transmitted from a space satellite five hundred miles above the earth, the earth - hound scientist might gauge the nature and intensity of the radiation emanating from the sun, the primary producer of that energy. cosmic rays. meteors, and micrometeors also brought in energy. although they probably had little effect on the upper atmosphere, cosmic rays, with their extremely high energies, produced ionization in the lower atmosphere. low - energy particles from the sun were thought to cause the aurora and to play a significant part in the formation of the ionosphere. sounding rockets permitted little more than momentary measurements of the various radiations at various heights, but with a satellite circling the earth in a geomagnetic meridian plane it should be possible to study in detail the low - energy end of the cosmic ray spectrum, a region inaccessible to direct observation within the atmosphere and best studied above the geomagnetic poles. batteries charged by the sun should be able to supply power to relay information for weeks or months. contrary to what an indifferent public might have expected from rocket " crackpots, " the document noted that " to create a satellite merely for the purpose of saying it has been done would not justify the cost. rather, the satellite should serve useful purpose - purposes which can command the respect of the officials who sponsor it, the scientists and engineers who produce it, and the community who pays for it. " the appeal was primarily to the scientific community, but the intelligent


, the satellite should serve useful purpose - purposes which can command the respect of the officials who sponsor it, the scientists and engineers who produce it, and the community who pays for it. " the appeal was primarily to the scientific community, but the intelligent layman could comprehend it. and its publication in an engineering journal in february 1955 gave the report a diversified audience. 29 a number of men in and outside government service meantime had continued to pursue the satellite idea. in february 1952 aristid v. grosse of temple university, a key figure in the manhattan project in its early days, had persuaded president truman to approve a study of the utility of a satellite in the form of an inflatable balloon visible to the naked eye from the surface of the earth. aware that wernher von braun, one of the german - born experts from peenemuende, was interested, the physicist took counsel with him and his associates at redstone arsenal in huntsville, alabama. fifteen months later grosse submitted to the secretary of the air force a description of the " american star " that could rise in the west. presumably because the proposed satellite would be merely a show piece without other utility, nothing more was heard of it. 30 a series of articles in three issues of collier ' s, however, commanded wide attention during 1952. stirred by an account of the san antonio symposium as kaplan described it over the lunch table, the editors of the magazine engaged wernher von braun to write the principal pieces and obtained shorter contributions from kaplan, fred l. whipple, chairman of the harvard university department of astronomy, heinz haber of the air force space medicine division, the journalist willy ley, and others. the editors ' comment ran : " what are we waiting for? ", an expression of alarm lest a communist nation preempt outer space before the united states acted and thereby control the earth from manned space platforms equipped with atomic bombs. on the other hand, von braun ' s articles chiefly stressed the exciting discoveries possible within twenty - five years if america at once began building " cargo rockets " and a wheel - shaped earth - circling space station from which american rocket ships could depart to other planets and return. perhaps because of severe editing to adapt material to popular consumption, the text contained little or no technical data on how these wonders were to be accomplished ; the term " telemetry " nowhere appeared. but the articles, replete with illustrations in color, and a subsequent walt disney film fanned public interest and led to an change of letters between von braun


on how these wonders were to be accomplished ; the term " telemetry " nowhere appeared. but the articles, replete with illustrations in color, and a subsequent walt disney film fanned public interest and led to an change of letters between von braun and s. fred singer, a brilliant young physicist at the university of maryland. 31 at the fourth congress of the international astronautics federation in zurich, switzerland, in summer 1953, singer proposed a minimum orbital unmanned satellite of the earth, mouse, based upon a study prepared two years earlier by members of the british interplanetary society who had predicated their scheme on the use of a v - 2 rocket. the upper atmosphere rocket research panel at white sands in turn discussed the plan in april 1954, and in may singer again presented his mouse proposal at the hayden planetarium ' s fourth space travel symposium. on that occasion harry wexler of the united states weather bureau gave a lecture entitled, " observing the weather from a satellite vehicle. " 32 the american public was thus being exposed to the concept of an artificial satellite as something more than science fiction. by then, commander george hoover and alexander satin of the air branch of the office of naval research had come to the conclusion that recent technological advances in rocketry had so improved the art that the feasibility of launching a satellite was no longer in serious doubt. hoover therefore put out feelers to specialists of the army ballistic missile agency at huntsville. there von braun, having temporarily discarded his space platform as impractical, was giving thought to using the redstone rocket to place a small satellite in orbit. redstone, a direct descendant of the v - 2, was, as one man described it, a huge piece of " boiler plate. " sixty - nine feet long, seventy inches in diameter, and weighing 61, 000 pounds, its power plant using liquid oxygen as oxidizer and an alcohol - water mixture as fuel. a new redstone engine built by the rocketdyne division of north american aviation, inc., and tested in 1953 was thirty percent lighter and thirty - four percent more powerful than that of the v - 2. 33 if commander hoover knew of the futile efforts of buaer in 1947 to get army air forces collaboration on a not wholly dissimilar space program, that earlier disappointment failed to discourage him. and as he had reason to believe he could now get navy funds for a satellite project, he had no difficulty in enlisting von braun ' s interest. at a meeting in washington arranged by frederick c. durant,


disappointment failed to discourage him. and as he had reason to believe he could now get navy funds for a satellite project, he had no difficulty in enlisting von braun ' s interest. at a meeting in washington arranged by frederick c. durant, iii, past president of the american rocket society, hoover, satin, von braun, and david young from huntsville discussed possibilities with durant, singer. and fred whipple, the foremost american authority on tracking heavenly bodies. the consensus of the conferees ran that a slightly modified redstone rocket with clusters of thirty - one loki solid - propellant rockets for upper stages could put a five - pound satellite into orbit at a minimum altitude of 200 miles. were that successful, a larger satellite equipped with instruments could follow soon afterward. whipple ' s judgment that optical tracking would suffice to trace so small a satellite at a distance of 200 miles led the group to conclude that radio tracking would be needless. 34 whipple then approached the national science foundation begging it to finance a conference on the technical gains to be expected from a satellite and from " the instrumentation that should be designed well in advance of the advent of an active satellite vehicle. " the foundation, he noted some months later, was favorable to the idea but in 1954 took no action upon commander hoover fared better. he took the proposal to admiral frederick r. furth of the office of naval research and with the admiral ' s approval then discussed the division of labor with general h. t. toftoy and von braun at redstone arsenal. the upshot was an agreement that the army should design and construct the booster system, the navy take responsibility for the satellite, tracking facilities, and the acquisition and analysis of data. no one at onr had consulted the naval research laboratory about the plan. in november 1954 a full description of the newly named project orbiter was sent for critical examination and comment to emmanuel r. piore, chief scientist of onr, and to the government - owned jet propulsion laboratory in pasadena which handled much of the army ballistic missile agency ' s research. before the end of the year, the office of naval research had let three contracts totaling $ 60, 000 for feasibility analyses or design of components for subsystems. called a " no - cost satellite, " orbiter was to be built largely from existing hardware. 36 during the spring of 1953 the united states national committee drafted a statement which the international council later adopted, listing the fields of inquiry which igy programs should encompass - oceanographic phenomena, polar