g., moving from one point vertically upward to another gives a value of — 90. 00 degrees ) are computed based on image voxel sizes ( see f1 ). prefrontal cortex distance measurement ( d - pfc ) a trained and blinded investigator ( f. a. k. ) assessed the shortest distance from the tms coil to the nearest prefrontal cortex by using three different techniques. after determining the d - pfc with all three methods, we elected to use the standard method for testing our hypotheses because it allowed the inclusion of the 8 subjects where the fiducial was not visible. in addition, there were concerns that the fiducials, even when visible, might have been moved from the true site because of hair, gravity, or displacement by the inflatable head holder used while scanning. motor cortex distance measurement ( d - mc ) fiducials were not placed at the scalp position where the motor cortex threshold was determined. because of the difficulty of determining the motor cortex region for thumb control from a structural mri scan, particularly in the coronal plane, 21 we chose not to identify the motor cortex directly. in the clinical trial, however, we determined the prefrontal stimulation location by empirically finding the area of motor cortex for apb and then moving in a parasagittal plane 5 cm forward. thus, the motor cortex stimulation site would theoretically be 5 cm caudal from the prefrontal stimulation site. we therefore decided to use the prefrontal site as the point of reference from which to determine the motor cortex site, using the following algorithm. in order to measure the distance from the coil to the motor cortex, we first counted 16 slices rostral from the corpus callosum ( which was the first slice measured using the standard method ) and copied the vertical line from lateral left eye socket to the skull that was created by the standard method for measuring the prefrontal cortex. we then moved 50 slices ( 5 cm ) caudally, and the vertical line was copied unchanged onto this slice ( the first presumed motor cortex slice ). this provided a point of intersection between the skull and the line. a measurement was taken from that intersection to the nearest cortex. this was recorded as the distance from the coil to the motor cortex in millimeters ( d - mc ). the line was copied onto the next eight rostral contiguous slices, and distance measurements were taken as above. first, using a paired student ' s t - test, we compared whether d


the motor cortex in millimeters ( d - mc ). the line was copied onto the next eight rostral contiguous slices, and distance measurements were taken as above. first, using a paired student ' s t - test, we compared whether d - mc significantly differed from d - pfc. correlational hypotheses were tested by using statview 4. 5, where bivariate plots were performed and a pearson ' s correlation with a fisher ' s r to z ( p - values ) was calculated to determine if significant relationships existed between our hypothesized variables ( p < 0. 05 ). we analyzed the relationship of distance from coil to motor cortex ( d - mc ) with 1 ) percentage output to reach motor threshold ; 2 ) age ; 3 ) distance from coil to prefrontal cortex ( d - pfc ) ; and 4 ) percentage antidepressant clinical response. next, we analyzed the correlation of d - pfc with 1 ) percentage clinical response ; 2 ) age among responders and nonresponders ; and 3 ) percentage output to reach motor threshold. finally, potential relationships between the nondistance measures were tested ( age, percentage output to reach motor threshold, and percentage antidepressant clinical response ). for a full description of this patient sample, see nahas et al. 10 as noted above, there were 11 men and 18 women ; 20 subjects with mri scans were in the active group and 9 in the placebo group. this antidepressant trial had 7 responders and 22 ( 9 placebo ) nonresponders. motor distance and prefrontal distance d - pfc was significantly greater than d - mc ( d - pfc = 14. 4±2. 7 mm, d - mc = 12. 7 ±2. 6 mm, t = — 3. 6, p < 0. 01 ; mean±sd and student ' s paired t - test ). distance and motor threshold mt significantly increased with increasing d - mc ( p < 0. 01, fisher ' s r to z, 29 subjects ; see f2 ). there was no significant relationship between d - pfc and mt ( p = 0. 0525 ). d - mc and d - pfc significantly cross - correlated ( r = 0. 562, p < 0. 01 ). d - mc ( r = 0. 525, p < 0. 01 ) as well as d - pfc ( r = 0. 611, p < 0


correlated ( r = 0. 562, p < 0. 01 ). d - mc ( r = 0. 525, p < 0. 01 ) as well as d - pfc ( r = 0. 611, p < 0. 001 ) significantly increased with age. interestingly, a trend for d - pfc to increase more with age than d - mc was found in this depressed cohort ( see f3 ). in this small group, there was not a significant correlation ( p = 0. 5746 ) between age and d - mc minus d - pfc. there was not a significant correlation between age and mt ( p = 0. 1340 ) or between age and percentage antidepressant response ( p = 0. 1271 ). correlation with clinical antidepressant response there was no correlation between d - mc or d - pfc and percentage clinical response. ( d - pfc did not correlate with percentage clinical response with any of the three measuring methods : fiducial to cortex ( p = 0. 1216 ), skull under fiducial to cortex ( p = 0. 4885 ), or standard ( p = 0. 2029 ). when we examined d - pfc and age, analyzed separately for responders and nonresponders ( see f4 ), the responders were significantly younger ( t = — 2. 430, p = 0. 0258 ), but response did not significantly correlate with d - pfc. there does seem to be a maximum threshold of age and distance, with the responders being younger than 55 years of age and having a d - pfc of less than 17. 00 mm. there was not a significant correlation between percentage output to reach mt and percentage clinical antidepressant response ( p = 0. 1693 ). this is the first study addressing the complicated area of whether and to what degree the distance from coil to motor or prefrontal cortex interacts with motor threshold. this study also examines the relationships between age, prefrontal cortex distance, and clinical antidepressant response. as the first study exploring these questions, it suffers from several methodological shortcomings outlined below. nevertheless, there were several important findings. the estimated distance from tms coil to prefrontal cortex ( d - pfc ) was greater than the distance from coil to motor cortex ( d - mc ). the motor threshold ( mt ) significantly correlated with d - mc, whereas it did not co


distance from tms coil to prefrontal cortex ( d - pfc ) was greater than the distance from coil to motor cortex ( d - mc ). the motor threshold ( mt ) significantly correlated with d - mc, whereas it did not correlate with d - pfc. both motor and prefrontal cortex distances increased with age in this depressed cohort, with d - pfc showing a trend to increase at a faster rate than d - mc. finally, there was not a linear correlation between d - pfc and clinical antidepressant response. all subjects however, who responded were below a critical threshold of age and prefrontal cortex distance. there are several limitations of this study that bear on proper interpretation. the most important of these was difficulty in determining the tms sites on the mri scans. one method used was to place a fiducial at the site of the rtms. when designing the study, we reasoned that this fiducial would enable a relatively precise localization of the actual site of stimulation. using this method alone, however, would have limited an already small sample size, because only about three - fifths of the subjects studied and scanned had fiducials that could be seen on the mri scan. complicating things further, during scanning several of the fiducials appeared to have moved off of the scalp, resulting in a placement that no longer represented the true site of rtms. because of these confounding factors, we felt that using the actual fiducial to measure the distance to nearest cortex in this study was not an accurate method. while trying to develop a more accurate method, we noticed that the prefrontal fiducial was often directly in line with a vertical ( — 90 degree ) line from the lateral center point of the left eye. we found that the fiducial was commonly 20 slices anterior from the corpus callosum and therefore adopted this as the " virtual " location of the rtms coil to start measuring the eight scans. by performing the measurement 4 mm in front of and behind this chosen intersection, we averaged the scalp to cortex distance over the likely prefrontal spot. thus, even if we did not measure directly under the actual tms spot, we were able to obtain a distance measurement that likely represented the average distance of skull to cortex in this region. further, this averaging system of a virtual spot enabled us to utilize all of the scans available for analysis, and the technique often correlated well with the position of the fidu


distance measurement that likely represented the average distance of skull to cortex in this region. further, this averaging system of a virtual spot enabled us to utilize all of the scans available for analysis, and the technique often correlated well with the position of the fiducial. the limitation was that we could not be sure how close to the actual coil stimulation the measurements were performed. despite these difficulties, the standardized method of measuring eight scans and averaging the result does appear to give a rough approximation of the distance to the nearest cortex in the area stimulated. this corresponds to either the left medial frontal gyrus or the left superior frontal gyrus ( talairach coordinates : x plane from — 25 to — 40, y from 50 to 58, z from 20 to 40 ). future studies with more precise fiducial placement, or even mri phase maps of the actual magnetic field3 in all subjects, would improve on the current study. similarly, there was no fiducial over the motor cortex apb area where mt was actually determined. thus, we were forced to empirically determine this spot as well by measuring backward from the prefrontal site. we again measured the motor cortex distance over a relatively large area ( 8 mm ) in order to compensate for the imprecision of our location. because we measured motor cortex distance on 8 slices, the number used as a dependent variable is thus more likely a rough measure of motor cortex atrophy, rather than the exact distance from coil to motor cortex. despite all these factors, the robust correlation of motor threshold with distance to motor cortex is surprising, especially given these limitations in spatial location. future studies with fiducials directly over the true site of optimum apb stimulation are needed. the motor threshold was determined in this study by using visible movement, which is not standard practice but which our group has shown on a different machine to correspond to mt determined by motor evoked potentials. 13 future studies exploring these issues might use electrophysiologically determined mt. similarly, our choice of the percentage change in ham - d as the dependent variable for clinical response is relatively imprecise, but a standard practice. future studies using other behavioral, neuroendocrine, or even brain metabolism measures might better address the correlation between distance and clinical response. finally, the small sample size could have reduced the power of the study such that the relationship between distance to the cortex and percentage response was not statistically significant. our sample was especially small at the extremes of age ( 5 subjects > 55 years old


. finally, the small sample size could have reduced the power of the study such that the relationship between distance to the cortex and percentage response was not statistically significant. our sample was especially small at the extremes of age ( 5 subjects > 55 years old ) and distance to the prefrontal cortex ( 3 subjects > 17 mm ). on a more theoretical note, the magnetic field declines logarithmically with distance, and we tested for correlations that assumed linear relationships. future studies with larger samples might explore whether nonlinear relationships exist between the distance variables and the other factors examined in this study. despite these important limitations, these data provide intriguing results that will require further investigation combining rtms and imaging. motor cortex distance and motor threshold : the distance to motor cortex correlated strongly with the motor threshold, while the prefrontal distance did not ( although there was a nonsignificant trend ). this would imply that the distance from the coil to the nearest cortex is critical in determining the amount of energy required to depolarize the pyramidal tract neurons in the motor cortex. another interpretation, however, is that brain atrophy by neuronal degeneration of cortical neurons may disproportionately alter the excitatory and inhibitory balance, requiring a higher mt. in this interpretation, the increased distance is not the most important variable and instead reflects another process that also alters the motor threshold. the current study cannot distinguish which of these, or even other, explanations lies behind the observed relationship between motor cortex distance and motor threshold. regardless of mechanism, a greater distance to cortex would indicate a higher motor threshold. further studies will be needed to address this question of mechanism. in this study, the skull to motor cortex distance alone accounts for 49. 7 % ( r - correlation value ) of the variance in mt across individuals. presumably other factors such as gyral orientation and intrinsic neuronal excitation ( particularly inhibition ) account for the rest of the variance across individuals. this finding of the importance of distance in determining mt, if confirmed, would imply that the distance is an important variable that might be measured and used as a covariate in studies where the motor threshold is used to examine pharmacology or other questions. 22 lack of direct correlation between prefrontal distance and antidepressant response : the antidepressant mechanisms of action of rtms are unknown. positive clinical effects have been found over both left and right prefrontal cortex, at intensities from 80


direct correlation between prefrontal distance and antidepressant response : the antidepressant mechanisms of action of rtms are unknown. positive clinical effects have been found over both left and right prefrontal cortex, at intensities from 80 % to 110 % mt, and at frequencies from 0. 5 to 20 hz. some have suggested that the studies to date have a trend toward larger antidepressant effects with greater intensity, although this has not been directly examined. 1 an assumption is made, but not formally tested, that stimulation with an intensity sufficient to cause neuronal depolarization is necessary and that low - intensity stimulation would not cause cortical cell depolarization with trans - synaptic effects. in light of these working assumptions in this new field of tms and depression, we hypothesized that increasing skull - to - cortex distance might correlate with clinical antidepressant response. although we failed to find a direct linear relationship, the many limitations of the current study preclude any large interpretation of this negative result. future clinical trials in conjunction with imaging are needed to directly test the assumptions above about the antidepressant effects of tms, intensity, and distance to prefrontal cortex. increase in distance with age : although the motor and prefrontal measurements both increase with age and do correspond to each other, the distance to prefrontal cortex appears to increase faster with age ( though not significantly ) than the distance to motor cortex. this finding of greater prefrontal atrophy with age in a depressed cohort is similar to findings in other studies that have examined depressed subjects compared with age - matched healthy control subjects. 14, 15 although in this study mt also increased with age ( though not significantly ), it may be the case that there is a greater d - pfc in older depressed subjects that is not accounted for by the more modest increase in mt with age. our finding that no individuals older than 55 years or with a prefrontal distance greater than 17 mm responded to rtms is consistent with this idea, although larger studies in elderly depressed subjects are needed to directly test it. some have suggested that older depressed patients do not respond as well to medication therapy. an age - related variable, therefore, such as prefrontal atrophy, itself may confer a resistance to antidepressant response independent of d - pfc. further study is indicated to understand the relationships between distance, age, and antidepressant action. we


, such as prefrontal atrophy, itself may confer a resistance to antidepressant response independent of d - pfc. further study is indicated to understand the relationships between distance, age, and antidepressant action. we have found that the motor threshold measurement used in tms studies is highly dependent on the distance from cortex to skull under the tms coil. further, this distance increases with age, and in a depressed cohort there is prefrontal cortical atrophy that may outpace the motor cortex declines. these distances do not directly correlate with antidepressant clinical response, although tms did not work in older subjects with large prefrontal distances. further work combining tms with imaging will likely expand knowledge of tms brain effects. the authors thank drs. james c. ballenger, jeremy young, george arana, eric wassermann, sarah lisanby, and ulf ziemann for helpful reviews and comments. andrew m. speer assisted in the scanning and rtms for the study. the national alliance for research on schizophrenia and depression and the ted and vada stanley foundation provided grants to dr. george. an abstract of this work was presented at the new research session of the 152nd annual meeting of the american psychiatric association, washington, dc, may 1999. 23


his parents were tescelin, lord of fontaines, and aleth of montbard, both belonging to the highest nobility of burgundy. bernard, the third of a family of seven children, six of whom were sons, was educated with particular care, because, while yet unborn, a devout man had foretold his great destiny. at the age of nine years, bernard was sent to a much renowned school at chatillon - sur - seine, kept by the secular canons of saint - vorles. he had a great taste for literature and devoted himself for some time to poetry. his success in his studies won the admiration of his masters, and his growth in virtue was no less marked. bernard ' s great desire was to excel in literature in order to take up the study of sacred scripture, which later on became, as it were, his own tongue. " piety was his all, " says bossuet. he had a special devotion to the blessed virgin, and there is no one who speaks more sublimely of the queen of heaven. bernard was scarcely nineteen years of age when his mother died. during his youth, he did not escape trying temptations, but his virtue triumphed over them, in many instances in a heroic manner, and from this time he thought of retiring from the world and living a life of solitude and prayer. st. robert, abbot of molesmes, had founded, in 1098, the monastery of citeaux, about four leagues from dijon, with the purpose of restoring the rule of st. benedict in all its rigour. returning to molesmes, he left the government of the new abbey to st. alberic, who died in the year 1109. st. stephen had just succeeded him ( 1113 ) as third abbot of citeaux, when bernard with thirty young noblemen of burgundy, sought admission into the order. three years later, st. stephen sent the young bernard, at the head of a band of monks, the third to leave citeaux, to found a new house at vallee d ' absinthe, or valley of bitterness, in the diocese of langres. this bernard named claire vallee, of clairvaux, on the 25th of june, 1115, and the names of bernard and clairvaux thence became inseparable. during the absence of the bishop of langres, bernard was blessed as abbot by william of champeaux, bishop of chalons - sur - marne, who saw in him the predes


of bernard and clairvaux thence became inseparable. during the absence of the bishop of langres, bernard was blessed as abbot by william of champeaux, bishop of chalons - sur - marne, who saw in him the predestined man, servum dei. from that moment a strong friendship sprang up between the abbot and the bishop, who was professor of theology at notre dame of paris, and the founder of the cloister of st. victor. the beginnings of clairvaux were trying and painful. the regime was so austere that bernard ' s health was impaired by it, and only the influence of his friend william of champeaux, and the authority of the general chapter could make him mitigate his austerities. the monastery, however, made rapid progress. disciples flocked to it in great numbers, desirous of putting themselves under the direction of bernard. his father, the aged tescelin, and all his brothers entered clairvaux as religious, leaving only humbeline, his sister, in the world and she, with the consent of her husband, soon took the veil in the benedictine convent of jully. clairvaux becoming too small for the religious who crowded there, it was necessary to send out bands to found new houses. n 1118, the monastery of the three fountains was founded in the diocese of chalons ; in 1119, that of fontenay in the diocese of auton ( now dijon ) and in 1121, that of foigny, near vervins, in the diocese of laon ( now soissons ), notwithstanding this prosperity, the abbot of clairvaux had his trials. during an absence from clairvaux, the grand prior of cluny, bernard of uxells, sent by the prince of priors, to use the expression of bernard, went to clairvaux and enticed away the abbot ' s cousin, robert of chatillon. this was the occasion of the longest, and most touching of bernard ' s letters. in the year 1119, bernard was present at the first general chapter of the order convoked by stephen of citeaux. though not yet thirty years old, bernard was listened to with the greatest attention and respect, especially when he developed his thoughts upon the revival of the primitive spirit of regularity and fervour in all the monastic orders. it was this general chapter that gave definitive form to the constitutions of the order and the


greatest attention and respect, especially when he developed his thoughts upon the revival of the primitive spirit of regularity and fervour in all the monastic orders. it was this general chapter that gave definitive form to the constitutions of the order and the regulations of the " charter of charity " which pope callixtus ii confirmed 23 december, 1119. in 1120 bernard composed his first work " de gradibus superbiae et humilitatis " and his homilies which he entitles " de laudibus mariae ". the monks of cluny had not seen, with satisfaction, those of citeaux take the first place among the religious orders for regularity and fervour. for this reason there was a temptation on the part of the " black monks " to make it appear that the rules of the new order were impracticable. at the solicitation of william of st. thierry, bernard defended himself by publishing his " apology " which is divided into two parts. in the first part he proves himself innocent of the invectives against cluny, which had been attributed to him, and in the second he gives his reasons for his attack upon averred abuses. he protests his profound esteem for the benedictines of cluny whom he declares he loves equally as well as the other religious orders. peter the venerable, abbot of cluny, answered the abbot of clairvaux without wounding charity in the least, and assured him of his great admiration and sincere friendship. in the meantime cluny established a reform, and suger himself, the minister of louis le gros, and abbot of st. denis, was converted by the apology of bernard. he hastened to terminate his worldly life and restore discipline in his monastery. the zeal of bernard did not stop here ; it extended to the bishops, the clergy, and the faithful, and remarkable conversions of persons engaged in worldly pursuits were among the fruits of his labours. bernard ' s letter to the archbishop of sens is a real treatise " de officiis episcoporum ". about the same time he wrote his work on " grace and free will ". in the year 1128, bernard assisted at the council of troyes, which had been convoked by pope honorius ii, and was presided over by cardinal matthew, bishop of albano. the purpose of this council was to settle certain disputes of the bishops of paris, and regulate other matters of the church of france


which had been convoked by pope honorius ii, and was presided over by cardinal matthew, bishop of albano. the purpose of this council was to settle certain disputes of the bishops of paris, and regulate other matters of the church of france. the bishops made bernard secretary of the council, and charged him with drawing up the synodal statutes. after the council, the bishop of verdun was deposed. there then arose against bernard unjust reproaches and he was denounced even in rome, as a monk who meddled with matters that did not concern him. cardinal harmeric, on behalf of the pope, wrote bernard a sharp letter of remonstrance. " it is not fitting " he said " that noisy and troublesome frogs should come out of their marshes to trouble the holy see and the cardinals ". bernard answered the letter by saying that, if he had assisted at the council, it was because he had been dragged to it, as it were, by force. " now illustrious harmeric ", he added, " if you so wished, who would have been more capable of freeing me from the necessity of assisting at the council than yourself? forbid those noisy troublesome frogs to come out of their holes, to leave their marshes... then your friend will no longer be exposed to the accusations of pride and presumption ". this letter made a great impression upon the cardinal, and justified its author both in his eyes and before the holy see. it was at this council that bernard traced the outlines of the rule of the knights templars who soon became the ideal of the french nobility. bernard praises it in his " de laudibus novae militiae ". the influence of the abbot of clairvaux was soon felt in provincial affairs. he defended the rights of the church against the encroachments of kings and princes, and recalled to their duty henry archbishop of sens, and stephen de senlis, bishop of paris. on the death of honorius ii, which occurred on the 14th of february, 1130, a schism broke out in the church by the election of two popes, innocent ii and anacletus ii. innocent ii having been banished from rome by anacletus took refuge in france. king louis le gros convened a national council of the french bishops at etampes, and bernard, summoned thither by consent of the bishops, was chosen to judge between the rival popes. he decided in favour of innocent ii, caused him to


le gros convened a national council of the french bishops at etampes, and bernard, summoned thither by consent of the bishops, was chosen to judge between the rival popes. he decided in favour of innocent ii, caused him to be recognized by all the great catholic powers, went with him into italy, calmed the troubles that agitated the country, reconciled pisa with genoa, and milan with the pope and lothaire. according to the desire of the latter, the pope went to liege to consult with the emperor upon the best means to be taken for his return to rome, for it was there that lothaire was to receive the imperial crown from the hands of the pope. from liege, the pope returned to france, paid a visit to the abbey of st. denis, and then to clairvaux where his reception was of a simple and purely religious character. the whole pontifical court was touched by the saintly demeanor of this band of monks. in the refectory only a few common fishes were found for the pope, and instead of wine, the juice of herbs was served for drink, says an annalist of citeaux. it was not a table feast that was served to the pope and his followers, but a feast of virtues. the same year bernard was again at the council of reims at the side of innocent ii, whose oracle he was ; and then in aquitaine where he succeeded for the time in detaching william, count of poitiers, from the cause of anacletus. in 1132, bernard accompanied innocent ii into italy, and at cluny the pope abolished the dues which clairvaux used to pay to this celebrated abbey - - an action which gave rise to a quarrel between the " white monks " and the " black monks " which lasted twenty years. in the month of may, the pope supported by the army of lothaire, entered rome, but lothaire, feeling himself too weak to resist the partisans of anacletus, retired beyond the alps, and innocent sought refuge in pisa in september, 1133. in the meantime the abbot had returned to france in june, and was continuing the work of peacemaking which he had commenced in 1130. towards the end of 1134, he made a second journey into aquitaine, where william x had relapsed into schism. this would have died out of itself if william could have been detached from the cause of gerard, who had usurped the see of bordeaux and retained that of ang


second journey into aquitaine, where william x had relapsed into schism. this would have died out of itself if william could have been detached from the cause of gerard, who had usurped the see of bordeaux and retained that of angouleme. bernard invited william to the mass which he celebrated in the church of la couldre. at the moment of the communion, placing the sacred host upon the paten, he went to the door of the church where william was, and pointing to the host, he adjured the duke not to despise god as he did his servants. william yielded and the schism ended. bernard went again to italy, where roger of sicily was endeavouring to withdraw the pisans from their allegiance to innocent. he recalled the city of milan, which had been deceived and misled by the ambitious prelate anselm, archbishop of milan, to obedience to the pose, refused the archbishopric of milan, and returned finally to clairvaux. believing himself at last secure in his cloister bernard devoted himself with renewed vigour to the composition of those pious and learned works which have won for him the title of " doctor of the church ". he wrote at this time his sermons on the " canticle of canticles ". in 1137 he was again forced to leave his solitude by order of the pope to put an end to the quarrel between lothaire and roger of sicily. at the conference held at palermo, bernard succeeded in convincing roger of the rights of innocent ii and in silencing peter of pisa who sustained anacletus. the latter died of grief and disappointment in 1138, and with him the schism. returning to clairvaux, bernard occupied himself in sending bands of monks from his too - crowded monastery into germany, sweden, england, ireland, portugal, switzerland, and italy. some of these, at the command of innocent ii, took possession of three fountains abbey, near the salvian waters in rome, from which pope eugenius iii was chosen. bernard resumed his commentary on the " canticle of canticles ", assisted in 1139, at the second general lateran council and the tenth oecumenical, in which the surviving adherents of the schism were definitively condemned. about the same time, bernard was visited at clairvaux by st. malachi, metropolitan of the church in ireland, and a very close friendship was formed between them. st. malachi would gladly have taken the cis


were definitively condemned. about the same time, bernard was visited at clairvaux by st. malachi, metropolitan of the church in ireland, and a very close friendship was formed between them. st. malachi would gladly have taken the cistercian habit, but the sovereign pontiff would not give his permission. he died, however, at clairvaux in 1148. in the year 1140, we find bernard engaged in other matters which disturbed the peace of the church. towards the close of the eleventh century, the schools of philosophy and theology, dominated by the passion for discussion and a spirit of independence which had introduced itself into political and religious questions, became a veritable public arena, with no other motive than that of ambition. this exaltation of human reason and rationalism found an ardent and powerful adherent in abelard, the most eloquent and learned man of the age after bernard. " the history of the calamities and the refutation of his doctrine by st. bernard ", says ratisbonne, " form the greatest episode of the twelfth century ". abelard ' s treatise on the trinity had been condemned in 1121, and he himself had thrown his book into the fire. but in 1139 he advocated new errors. bernard, informed of this by william of st. thierry, wrote to abelard who answered in an insulting manner. bernard then denounced him to the pope who caused a general council to be held at sens. abelard asked for a public discussion with bernard ; the latter showed his opponent ' s errors with such clearness and force of logic that he was unable to make any reply, and was obliged, after being condemned, to retire. he pope confirmed the judgment of the council, abelard submitted without resistance, and retired to cluny to live under peter the venerable, where he died two years later. innocent ii died in 1143. his two successors, celestin ii and lucius, reigned only a short time, and then bernard saw one of his disciples, bernard of pisa, abbott of three fountains, and known thereafter as eugenius iii, raised to the chair of st. peter. bernard sent him, at his own request, various instructions which compose the " book of consideration ", the predominating idea of which is that the reformation of the church ought to commence with the sanctity of the head. temporal matters are merely accessories ; the principal are piety, meditation, or consideration, which ought to precede action.


the predominating idea of which is that the reformation of the church ought to commence with the sanctity of the head. temporal matters are merely accessories ; the principal are piety, meditation, or consideration, which ought to precede action. the book contains a most beautiful page on the papacy, and has always been greatly esteemed by the sovereign pontiffs, many of whom used it for their ordinary reading. alarming news came at this time from the east. edessa had fallen into the hands of the turks, and jerusalem and antioch were threatened with similar disaster. deputations of the bishops of armenia solicited aid from the pope, and the king of france also sent ambassadors. the pope commissioned bernard to preach a new crusade and granted the same indulgences for it which urban ii had accorded to the first. a parliament was convoked at vezelay in burgundy in 1146, and bernard preached before the assembly. the king, louis le jeune, queen eleanor, and the princes and lords present prostrated themselves at the feet of the abbot of clairvaux to receive the cross. the saint was obliged to use portions of his habit to make crosses to satisfy the zeal and ardour of the multitude who wished to take part in the crusade. bernard passed into germany, and the miracles which multiplied almost at his every step undoubtedly contributed to the success of his mission. the emperor conrad and his nephew frederick barbarossa, received the pilgrims ' cross from the hand of bernard, and pope eugenius, to encourage the enterprise, came in person to france. it was on the occasion of this visit, 1147, that a council was held at paris, at which the errors of gilbert de la poree, bishop of poitiers, were examined. he advanced among other absurdities that the essence and the attributes of god are not god, that the properties of the persons of the trinity are not the persons themselves in fine that the divine nature did not become incarnate. the discussion was warm on both sides. the decision was left for the council which was held at reims the following year ( 1148 ), and in which eon de l ' etoile was one of the judges. bernard was chosen by the council to draw up a profession of faith directly opposed to that of gilbert, who concluding by stating to the fathers : " if you believe and assert differently than i have done i am willing to believe and speak as you do ". the consequence of


the council to draw up a profession of faith directly opposed to that of gilbert, who concluding by stating to the fathers : " if you believe and assert differently than i have done i am willing to believe and speak as you do ". the consequence of this declaration was that the pope condemned the assertions of gilbert without denouncing him personally. after the council the pope paid a visit to clairvaux, where he held a general chapter of the order and was able to realize the prosperity of which bernard was the soul. the last years of bernard ' s life were saddened by the failure of the crusade he had preached, the entire responsibility for which was thrown upon him. he had accredited the enterprise by miracles, but he had not guaranteed its success against the misconduct and perfidy of those who participated in it. lack of discipline and the over - confidence of the german troops, the intrigues of the prince of antioch and queen eleanor, and finally the avarice and evident treason of the christian nobles of syria, who prevented the capture of damascus, appear to have been the cause of disaster. bernard considered it his duty to send an apology to the pope and it is inserted in the second part of his " book of consideration ". there he explains how, with the crusaders as with the hebrew people, in whose favour the lord had multiplies his prodigies, their sins were the cause of their misfortune and miseries. the death of his contemporaries served as a warning to bernard of his own approaching end the first to die was suger ( 1152 ), of whom the abbot wrote to eugenius iii : " if there is any precious vase adorning the palace of the king of kings it is the soul of the venerable suger ". thibaud, count of champagne, conrad, emperor of germany, and his son henry died the same year. from the beginning of the year 1153 bernard felt his death approaching. the passing of pope eugenius had struck the fatal blow by taking from him one whom he considered his greatest friend and consoler. bernard died in the sixty - third year of his age, after forty years spent in the cloister. he founded one hundred and sixty - three monasteries in different parts of europe ; at his death they numbered three hundred and forty - three. he was the first cistercian monk placed on the calendar of saints and was canonized by alexander iii, 18 january 1174. pope pius viii bestowed on him the title of doctor of the church. the cis


three hundred and forty - three. he was the first cistercian monk placed on the calendar of saints and was canonized by alexander iii, 18 january 1174. pope pius viii bestowed on him the title of doctor of the church. the cistercians honour him as only the founders of orders are honoured, because of the wonderful and widespread activity which he gave to the order of citeaux. the works of st. bernard are as follows : his sermons are also numerous : many other letters, treatises, etc., falsely attributed to him are found among his works, such as the " l ' echelle du cloitre ", which is the work of guigues, prior of la grande chartreuse, les meditations, l ' edification de la maison interieure, etc. apa citation. ( 1907 ). st. bernard of clairvaux. in the catholic encyclopedia. new york : robert appleton company. http : / / www. newadvent. org / cathen / 02498d. htm mla citation. " st. bernard of clairvaux. " the catholic encyclopedia. vol. 2. new york : robert appleton company, 1907. < http : / / www. newadvent. org / cathen / 02498d. htm >. transcription. this article was transcribed for new advent by janet grayson. ecclesiastical approbation. nihil obstat. 1907. remy lafort, s. t. d., censor. imprimatur. + john m. farley, archbishop of new york. contact information. the editor of new advent is kevin knight. my email address is feedback732 at newadvent. org. ( to help fight spam, this address might change occasionally. ) regrettably, i can ' t reply to every letter, but i greatly appreciate your feedback — especially notifications about typographical errors and inappropriate ads.


dangerous levels of climate change could be reached in just over 20 years if nothing is done to stop global warming, a wwf - uk study claims. polar bears are at risk of dying out if the arctic summer sea ice melts at current rates, the earth will be 2c above pre - industrial levels some time between 2026 and 2060, says a paper by dr mark new of oxford university. temperatures in the arctic could rise by three times this amount, he says. it would lead to a loss of summer sea ice and tundra vegetation, with polar bears and other animals dying out. it would also mean a fundamental change in the ways inuit and other arctic residents live. dr new said : " a very robust result from global climate models is that warming due to greenhouse gases will reduce the amount of snow and ice cover in the arctic, which will in turn produce an additional warming as more solar radiation is absorbed by the ground and the ocean. " ice and snow reflect more solar radiation back to space than unfrozen surfaces. according to the wwf, the perennial ice, or summer sea ice, is currently melting at a rate of 9. 6 % per decade and will disappear completely by the end of the century if present trends continue. boreal forests would spread north and overwhelm up to 60 % of dwarf shrub tundra, a critical habitat and vital breeding ground for many birds. " if we don ' t act immediately, the arctic will soon become unrecognisable, " said dr catarina cardoso, head of climate change at wwf - uk. " polar bears will be consigned to history, something that our grandchildren can only read about in books. " dr new ' s paper - arctic climate change with a 2c global warming - is one of four papers contributing to a report by wwf. the papers will be presented at the avoiding dangerous climate change conference in exeter between 1 and 3 february. the conference has been organised by the uk ' s met office.


the research team includes first author bradley bernstein, recipient of a howard hughes medical institute ( hhmi ) physician postdoctoral fellowship who works in the harvard university laboratory of hhmi investigator stuart l. schreiber. other co - authors are from the broad institute of mit and harvard, and affymetrix. their findings are published in the january 28, 2005 issue of cell. " now that the human genome has been sequenced, it is vital to learn how the genome is translated to make living cells and organisms, and how we can use that information to improve human health, " said bernstein, who is an instructor of pathology at brigham & women ' s hospital and harvard medical school. " every one of our cells has the same genome, yet is completely different. muscle cells are different from neurons. they are different because different genes are on. " many scientists believe changes in the regulatory scaffolding surrounding the genome may be as important as changes in the genome itself in causing diseases such as cancer. this regulatory structure, called chromatin, is a key regulator of gene expression in healthy and diseased cells, bernstein said. chromatin is composed of dna spooled around bundles of histone proteins, and resembles a chain of beads which is then compressed into a working chromosome. chemical tags placed on the histones alter the way chromatin is organized, thus allowing the right combination of genes to be turned on. in their study, the researchers analyzed the chromatin structure of the two shortest human chromosomes, numbers 21 and 22, containing about two percent of the human genome. they also sampled additional regions in both the human and mouse gen contact : jennifer donovan howard hughes medical institute


cure for eczema comes closer to realitypublished on : thu, nov 24th, 2011 | skin care | by bionews an effective cure for inflammatory skin conditions like eczema is a step closer to reality, researchers say. scientists have found that a strain of yeast implicated in skin conditions like eczema, can be killed by certain peptides and could provide a new treatment for these debilitating skin conditions. 20 percent of children in the uk suffer from atopic eczema and whilst this usually clears up in adolescence, 7 percent of adults will continue to suffer throughout their lifetime. furthermore, this type of eczema, characterized by dry, itchy, flaking skin, is increasing in prevalence. whilst the cause of eczema remains unknown, one known trigger factor is the yeast malassezia sympodialis. this strain of yeast is one of the most common skin yeasts in both healthy individuals and those suffering from eczema. the skin barrier is more fragile and often broken in those suffering from such skin conditions, and this allows the yeast to cause infection, which then further exacerbates the condition. scientists at karolinska institute in sweden looked for a way to kill malassezia sympodialis without harming healthy human cells. the researchers looked at the effect on the yeast of 21 peptides that had either ; cell - penetrating or antimicrobial properties. cell - penetrating peptides are often investigated as drug delivery vectors and are able to cross the cell membrane, although the exact mechanism for this is unknown. antimicrobial peptides, on the other hand, are natural antibiotics and kill many different types of microbe including some bacteria, fungi and viruses. tina holm and her colleagues added these different peptides types to separate yeast colonies and assessed the toxicity of each peptide type to the yeast. they found that six of the 21 peptides they tested, successfully killed the yeast without damaging the membrane of keratinocytes, human skin cells. “ many questions remain to be solved before these peptides can be used in humans, ” holm said. “ however, the appealing combination of being toxic to the yeast at low concentrations whilst sparing human cells makes them very promising as antifungal agents. ” “ we hope that these peptides in the future can be used to ease the symptoms of patients suffering from atopic eczema and significantly increase their quality of life, ” she added. the study was recently published in the society for applied micro


why champagne is so bubblypublished on : sat, dec 31st, 2011 | food & nutrition | by bionews the unique bubbly fizz and taste that comes on popping the champagne cork is because of trapped carbon dioxide in the drink, a new study has suggested. a new year ’ s themed video produced by the american chemical society, explained henry ’ s law, which is a law of physics that states that the pressure of a gas above a solution is proportional to the concentration of the gas within the solution. for champagne, carbon dioxide is the gas that forms those delightful bubbles. and, in an unopened bottle of champagne, there is equilibrium between the co2 inside the liquid and the gas in the spaces of the cork, the discovery news reported. popping the cork disturbs this equilibrium, which is only regained as the co2 bubbles out. to get raise a perfect toast, make sure to pour on an angle, which preserves up to twice as much co2 compared to pouring into the middle of the glass, according to a 2010 paper in the journal of agricultural food chemistry. the video demonstrated that “ as the bubbles ascend the length of the glass in tiny trains, they drag along molecules of flavor and aroma which explode out of the surface, tickling the nose and stimulating the senses. ” champagne making process includes two fermentations that must be done absolutely accurately to ensure the correct concentration of bubbles in the final product. during the first fermentation, just as for any other kind of wine, yeast eats up sugar molecules in grape juice and releases co2 and ethanol. the second fermentation traps co2 inside the liquid. this procedure is definitely not that easy as during 1600s, when dom perignon is rumoured to have discovered champagne ( or at least helped perfect it ), bottles seldom ended up with no bubbles while in some occasions, co2 levels were so high that bottles exploded. ( ani )


just as the obama administration ditches nasa plans to return to the moon, a group in japan is vowing to send humanoid robots there by 2015. call it a giant leap for droidkind. the space oriented higashiosaka leading association ( sohla ), a satellite - manufacturing consortium in the osaka area, has vowed to put bipedal humanoid bots on the moon in the next five years, according to a jiji press report. sohla is now developing a prototype astro - bot called " maido - kun " that it hopes will follow in the steps of neil armstrong and buzz aldrin ( minus the " dancing with the stars " part ). the robot will be smaller than a person and, if it makes it onto the moon, may do things like record astronomical observations and take geological surveys ( and maybe do a bit of robot moonwalking ). development costs for maido - kun are estimated at $ 10. 6 million, but the idea is being floated in part as an economic stimulus project for small and midsize tech firms in the osaka region. sohla has already worked with japan ' s new energy and industrial technology development organization ( nedo ) and the japan aerospace exploration agency ( jaxa ). in 2009, it launched the maido 1 weather observation microsatellite aboard a jaxa hii - a rocket. sohla wants its robot to hitch a ride on a jaxa rocket bound for the moon in five years. " humanoid robots are glamorous, and they tend to get people fired up, " sohla board member noriyuki yoshida was quoted as saying by pink tentacle. " we hope to develop a charming robot to fulfill the dream of going to space. "


facing criticism, biofuels industry forms new lobby group to influence lawmakers july 25, 2008 the group, known as the alliance for abundant food and energy, was created by archer daniels midland co, dupont co, deere & co, monsanto co and the renewable fuels association. its initial budget is " in the multimillions ", according to the group ' s executive director mark kornblau. " there are critics who are trying to create an either - or decision between food and fuel, " kornblau was quoted as saying by reuters. " we believe this is a false choice. today, more than 90 percent of crops in the united states and around the world are used exclusively for food. " the group will promote genetically modified crops to improve crops yields as a solution to meeting global food needs. it does not aim to curtail biofuel production and will lobby congress to keep subsidies for ethanol and biodiesel production in place. the alliance says that the current run up in food prices is linked to high energy prices, not production of biofuels from feedstocks such as corn and soy. the u. s. agriculture department estimates that one - third of the u. s. corn crop this year will be used to make ethanol. the un ' s food and agriculture organization says that biofuel production has consumed roughly 100 million tons of grains. food prices have doubled in the past three years according to the world bank. the international food policy research institute estimates that biofuels account for more than 30 percent of the increase. environmentalists say ethanol and biodiesel subsidies in europe and the united states have caused market distortions that have displaced biofuel feedstock production into rainforests, tropical savannas, and other biologically - rich ecosystems. biofuels can reduce emissions, but not when grown in place of rainforests ( 7 / 22 / 2008 ) biofuels meant to help alleviate greenhouse gas emissions may be in fact contributing to climate change when grown on converted tropical forest lands, warns a comprehensive study published earlier this month in the journal environmental research letters. analyzing the carbon debt for biofuel crops grown in ecosystems around the world, holly gibbs and colleagues report that " while expansion of biofuels into productive tropical ecosystems will always lead to net carbon emissions for decades to centuries... [ expansion ] into degraded or already cultivated land will provide almost immediate carbon savings. " the results suggest that under the right conditions, biofuels could be part of the effort to reduce humanity ' s


net carbon emissions for decades to centuries... [ expansion ] into degraded or already cultivated land will provide almost immediate carbon savings. " the results suggest that under the right conditions, biofuels could be part of the effort to reduce humanity ' s carbon footprint. beyond high food prices, little to show for $ 11b / yr in biofuel support, says oecd report ( 7 / 17 / 2008 ) government support of biofuel production in rich countries is squandering vast amounts of amounts of money while exacerbating the global food crisis and failing to meaningfully curb greenhouse gas emissions and improve energy security, alleges a new report from the oecd, the club of industrialized nations. palm oil industry moves into the amazon rainforest ( 7 / 9 / 2008 ) malaysia ' s land development authority felda has announced plans to immediately establish 100, 000 hectares ( 250, 000 ) of oil palm plantations in the brazilian amazon. the agency will partner with braspalma, a local company, to form felda global ventures brazil sdn bhd. felda will have a 70 percent stake in the venture. the announcement had been expected. last month najib said malaysia would seek to expand its booming palm oil industry overseas. the country is facing land constraints at home. britain urges ' cautious approach ' on biofuels ( 7 / 7 / 2008 ) britain and the e. u. should exercise caution in pushing for wider use of biofuels, warns a new study commissioned by the u. k. government. biofuel production on abandoned lands could meet 8 % of global energy needs ( 6 / 23 / 2008 ) using abandoned agricultural lands for biofuel production could help meet up to 8 percent of global energy needs without compromising food supplies or diminishing biologically - rich habitats, reports a new study published in the journal environmental science and technology. u. s. may allow corn farming on conservation land ( 6 / 23 / 2008 ) the u. s. department of agriculture may allow farmers to plant corn on million of acres of conservation land to bolster the food supply in response to flooding in the midwest and record high prices spurred by demand for domestic ethanol production, according to a report in the new york times. global commodities boom fuels new assault on amazon ( 6 / 20 / 2008 ) with soaring prices for agricultural goods and new demand for biofuels, the clearing of the world ' s largest rain forest has accelerated dramatically. unless forceful measures are taken, half of


commodities boom fuels new assault on amazon ( 6 / 20 / 2008 ) with soaring prices for agricultural goods and new demand for biofuels, the clearing of the world ' s largest rain forest has accelerated dramatically. unless forceful measures are taken, half of the brazilian amazon could be cut, burned or dried out within 20 years. nestle chairman : biofuels are " ethically indefensible " ( 6 / 14 / 2008 ) the emergence and expansion of biofuels produced from food crops has exacerabted world ' s agriculture and water crisis and is a bigger short - term threat than global warming, argued peter brabeck - letmathe in an editorial published thursday in the wall street journal asia. biofuels expansion in africa may impact rainforests, wetlands ( 5 / 28 / 2008 ) biofuel feedstock expansion in africa will likely come at the expense of ecologically - sensitive lands, reports a new analysis presented by wetlands international at the convention of biological diversity in bonn. half of oil palm expansion in malaysia, indonesia occurs at expense of forests ( 5 / 20 / 2008 ) more than half of the oil palm expansion between 1990 and 2005 malaysia and indonesia occurred at expense of forests, reports a new analysis published in the journal conservation letters. analyzing data from the united nations food and agriculture organization, lian pin koh and david s. wilcove of princeton university found that 55 - 59 percent of oil palm expansion in malaysia and at least 56 percent of that in indonesia occurred at the expense of forests. given that oil palm plantations are biologically impoverished relative to primary and secondary forests, the researchers recommend restricting future expansion to pre - existing cropland and degraded habitats. global ban on biofuels would lead to immediate decline in food prices ( 5 / 16 / 2008 ) a global moratorium on biofuels produced from food crops would result in a significant decline in the price of corn, sugar, cassava and wheat by 2010, reports the international food policy research institute ( ifpri ). record food prices to climb through 2010 ( 3 / 6 / 2008 ) the u. n. expects record high food prices to continue through 2010, driving hunger and poverty in the world ' s poorest countries, said a top u. n. official thursday. un : biofuels are starving the poor by driving up food prices ( 2 / 14 / 2008 ) echoing sentiments increasingly expressed by politicians, scientists, and advocates for the poor, the u. n. food and agriculture organization warned that the world ' s poor


skip to content by leigh macmillan | posted on thursday, jan. 31, 2013 — 9 : 29 am in a wide - ranging lecture that moved from plants to nematode worms to human leukemia, nobel laureate andrew fire, ph. d., outlined his vision for a genomics - based understanding of how organisms respond to novel information. biological responses to foreign information involve an “ immune response ” — mediated in some organisms by rna and in others by proteins and cells, said fire, professor of pathology and genetics at stanford university school of medicine. fire and craig mello, ph. d., were awarded the 2006 nobel prize in physiology or medicine for their discovery of rna interference — an rna - based immune response that allows cells to selectively silence certain genes, for example those of a pathogenic virus. immune responses like rna interference can be “ positive ” and directed against a pathogen, or they can be “ negative ” and directed against the organism itself ( generating autoimmune disorders in humans ). “ we live at this interface between having the immunity good enough to target as many viruses as possible coming from outside, and having it not so effective that it starts to target our own natural products and turn off processes that are very important, ” fire said. in the course of their studies of rna interference, fire and his colleagues began to use high - throughput dna sequencing as a tool to probe all of the rnas produced in response to foreign information. they wondered if dna sequencing might also be applied to the human immune response, in particular to the production of antibodies and t cell receptors. dna sequencing revealed “ lots of sequences ” in a healthy individual – a rich diversity and repertoire of antibodies and receptors. in individuals with leukemia or lymphoma, the sequencing detected the amplification of single clonal receptors. the findings may be useful clinically, fire said, to track the recurrence of such clonal cells and improve monitoring of residual disease after treatment. fire also described using the approach to follow responses to the flu vaccine and to dengue virus infection. “ as we get more sophisticated about this, we should be able to classify antibodies by similarity to each other and … build a way to track diseases, ” fire said. “ i think it ’ s an opportunity to develop sequence - based diagnostics. ” fire was the department of cell and developmental biology distinguished faculty speaker. for a complete schedule of the flexner discovery lecture series and archived video of previous lectures, go to www. mc. vanderbilt. edu / discoveryser


a team of amateurs has discovered evidence for 42 alien planets, including a jupiter - size world that could potentially be habitable, by sifting through data from a nasa spacecraft. forty volunteers with the crowd - sourcing planet hunters project discovered the new planet candidates, which include 15 potentially habitable worlds and ph2 b, a jupiter - size planet that the team confirmed to be in the habitable zone of its parent star. this is the second time planet hunters project, which is overseen by zooniverse, has confirmed a new exoplanet discovery. what ' s more, several candidate planets found by the project may be in the habitable zones of their parent stars. these candidates are awaiting confirmation by professional astronomers. researchers suggested this bonanza of planets in the so - called goldilocks zone around a star, a habitable zone in which conditions are liquid water to exist on a planet ’ s surface and potentially supportlife, could mean there is a " traffic jam " of worlds where life could exist, project officials said. " these are planet candidates that slipped through the net, being missed by professional astronomers and rescued by volunteers in front of their web browsers, ” said the university of oxford ' s chris lintott, who helms the zooniverse, in a statement. “ it ' s remarkable to think that absolutely anyone can discover a planet. ” life on an ' avatar ' - like moon the planet ph2 b was found using data from nasa ' s prolific kepler space telescope and confirmed with 99. 9 percent confidence by observations at the w. m. keck observatory in hawaii. ph2 b is considered much too large to host life. however, any moons orbiting the planet could be strong candidates, astronomers said. the atmospheric temperature on the planet would range between 86 and minus 126 degrees fahrenheit ( 30 and minus 88 degrees celsius ) in the habitable zone. “ any moon around this newly discovered, jupiter - sized planet might be habitable, " stated ji wang, a postdoctoral researcher at yale university. he is lead author of a paper about the discoveries, which has been submitted to the astrophysical journal and is available on the pre - publishing website arxiv. if a theoretical moon were to host life, it would likely have a rocky core, plus a greenhouse atmosphere of some sort that could have liquid water on its surface, the researchers said. " it ’ s very similar to what was depicted in the movie ‘ avatar ’ – the habitable moon pandora around a giant planet,


rocky core, plus a greenhouse atmosphere of some sort that could have liquid water on its surface, the researchers said. " it ’ s very similar to what was depicted in the movie ‘ avatar ’ – the habitable moon pandora around a giant planet, polyphemus, " wang added. a telltale dim volunteers spotted ph2 b by watching its parent star. as the planet passed in front of the star, the apparent brightness from earth dimmed. this is one of two commonly used techniques for finding exoplanets ; the other is looking for wobbles in a star ' s gravityas a planet speeds around it. excluding ph2 b, citizen scientists recently discovered 42 planetary candidates, with 20 of those likely in their respective stars ' habitable regions. " these detections nearly double the number of gas giant planet candidates orbiting at habitable zone distances, " the paper stated. planet hunters includes participation from oxford, yale and several other institutions. volunteers pour over data from kepler. once the strongest candidates are identified, professional astronomers take a look at them. planet hunters has found 48 candidate planets so far. the first confirmed planet, ph1, was revealed in october 2011. to learn how to participate in the planet hunters project, visit : http : / / www. planethunters. org / - 9 exoplanets that could host alien life - alien planet quiz : are you an exoplanet expert? - exoplanet art : the illustrations of lynette cook


first person | new research directly ties a deficiency of vitamin d in older adults to mobility limitations and other disabilities. the findings of the six - year study put a name on the culprit behind some of the most significant physical problems that plague american seniors. results from the wake forest baptist medical center research effort are among the earliest that looked at insufficient levels of vitamin d and the onset of mobility limitations in older adults, according to medical news today. the north carolina researchers published their conclusions in the journal of gerontology : medical sciences. their project utilized data from the national institute on aging ' s health, aging, and body study. researchers defined subjects ' limitations as any difficulty walking several blocks or climbing a flight of stairs. they considered disability to mean the inability to perform these activities. denise k. houston, ph. d., of wake forest university served as study director. the school indicates that the initial goals included a pilot study to find cost - effective ways to identify individuals at elevated risk for functional decline with insufficient vitamin d levels and gathering data useful for an eventual full - scale randomized trial. the more than 3, 000 subjects consisted of black and white men and women between ages 70 and 79. researchers noted around a 30 percent elevated risk of limitations in mobility for those with low levels of vitamin d. the same group had nearly a two - fold greater risk of mobility disability. vitamin d is crucial to muscle function. having an insufficient amount has already been linked to disorders such as high blood pressure, bone - density thinning, cardiovascular disease, and lung disease. individuals get vitamin d from sun exposure, from foods rich in the vitamin, or from supplements. the mayo clinic suggests that as little as 10 minutes of daily sun exposure can prevent deficiencies. however, older adults tend to spend less time outdoors than average. houston recommends that individuals older than 70 get 800 international units of vitamin d each day, either through diet or by taking supplements. for several years, i have struggled with getting adequate levels of vitamin d. although i undergo blood work every few months due to having crohn ' s disease, until i experienced significant bone thinning, the tests never included vitamin d levels. when the doctor ordered the measurement, the extent of the deficiency was shocking. the crohn ' s & colitis foundation of america indicates a vitamin d deficiency can result in increased disease activity and a reduced quality of life for patients with crohn ' s disease and ulcerative colitis, the most common inflammatory bowel diseases. due to extreme deficiency


223 years ago this weekend, fletcher christian and 17 other sailors held the domineering captain bligh at bayonet point against the mast of his majesty ’ s armed vessel bounty in the most famous mutiny in history. one month ago, national geographic embarked on a journey through their footsteps, but with the very different goal of studying the pristine coral reefs of the area ( read blogs ). bligh was set adrift in the ship ’ s small launch with 18 loyal shipmates, a compass, his journals, some tools, supplies, cutlasses, and food, rum, wine, and water. he navigated the castaways through the open sea some 3000 miles to safety in timor, and then continued to britain to begin his attempts to bring all the mutineers to justice at the gallows. fletcher christian led the bounty back to “ otaheite ” where they once again enjoyed laid back island life ( and women ) until fear of discovery drove them to find a new home where they ’ d never be discovered by the british law. that island was pitcairn. 50 descendants of the mutineers and their tahitian wives live there to this day. in 1957 national geographic ’ s luis marden voyaged to pitcairn and discovered the last remnants of the bounty in the waters of the island ’ s bay ( read original article, see photos ). now, over the past several weeks, ng explorer - in - residence enric sala has led an expedition to survey the sea - life in the area ’ s nearly un - touched waters ( read blogs, see photos ). in the gallery above, see photos from this most recent expedition, meet some of the locals, see some of the sights, and get a sense of what remains on pitcairn island more than two centuries after the legendary mutiny. more from the pitcairn islands expedition


the reason behind west nile ’ s appearance [ audio ] cases of west nile virus are on the rise throughout the united states. in the garden state alone there have been fifteen confirmed cases of the virus afflicting people, one of which resulted in the death of a burlington county man. so why is the virus making so much noise this late into the summer? robert kent, administrator of the department of environmental protection ’ s office of mosquito control coordination says the age of insects is one of the factors for the spread of west nile. “ we ’ re dealing with an old mosquito population that ’ s been flying for a great portion of the summer, and this gives west nile virus the opportunity to accumulate in the mosquito population. and as the mosquitoes continue to feed on birds the virus is amplified. ” once a mosquito takes blood from a bird infected with west nile, it ’ s able to metabolize the virus into something that is transferable and could be spread through other blood meals ( humans ). “ from our stepped up surveillance it ’ s suggesting that one in ten mosquitoes might be positive for west nile virus. ” while it may sound scary kent says compared to the average seasonal flu west nile ’ s affects aren ’ t as prevalent. he notes symptoms don ’ t appear in everyone. “ well believe it or not about 80 % of the people who have west nile virus don ’ t know they have it. there ’ s no symptoms whatsoever, but of the remaining 20 percent it could be quite severe. ” kent says those who do experience symptoms could have anything from a mild fever and headache, all the way to serious symptoms such as extreme fever, paralysis and neuro - invasive symptoms. kent points out though it ’ s usually the very young and very old who are vulnerable to west nile, they have had middle age and young adult individuals who fell ill. he suggests anyone who suspects they have symptoms, contact their physician who will decide if samples should be sent to trenton for testing.


organic foods are mainstream what does organic mean? why does organic cost more? is organic better for my health? these questions are becoming more common now that " organics " have hit the mainstream supermarkets, delis, and " fast food " chains. organic foods no longer solely exist in health - food stores. according to the united states department of agriculture ( usda ), organic agricultural products like fruits, vegetables, and grains must be grown without the use of pesticides, synthetic fertilizers, radiation, or bioengineering. organic meats, poultry, eggs, and dairy products are manufactured from livestock that are not fed or injected with antibiotics or growth hormones, live in natural living conditions appropriate for their species, and are fed only organic feed. october 2002 was the rollout of the new national standards for organics. to receive the usda organic seal, a product ' s label must contain 95 - 100 % organic ingredients. labels that state 100 % organic contain only organic ingredients, whereas, labels stating organic contain at least 95 % organic ingredients. " made with organic ingredients " are food products containing at least 70 % organic ingredients. if the product is made with less than 70 % organic ingredients, these ingredient may be listed on the side of the package, but " organic " claims may not be on the front of the package. when making these claims, not only must the ingredients be certified organic but all processing and handling must also follow organic protocols. the checkbook is often a driving factor when making food purchases. costs of organic items vary from pennies above to double a conventional item ' s typical price. this price difference is a result of increased levels of labor and management required to comply with organic certifications mandated by the usda. keep your refrigerator stocked and your pocket full by purchasing organics in bulk and from your local farmers market. twelve produce items nick - named the " dirty dozen " have been shown to contain significantly higher levels of pesticide residues than other produce items even after thorough washing. pesticides may have harmful effects on children ' s developing bodies. the " dirty dozen " foods include : apples, cherries, grapes, nectarines, peaches, pears, raspberries, strawberries, bell peppers, celery, potatoes, and spinach. conventional meat, poultry, and dairy products have been linked to increased bacterial resistance in humans. organic foods are shown to have higher levels of phytonutrients. phytonutrients are linked to many health benefits ranging from battling


. conventional meat, poultry, and dairy products have been linked to increased bacterial resistance in humans. organic foods are shown to have higher levels of phytonutrients. phytonutrients are linked to many health benefits ranging from battling the common cold to improving cardiovascular health. organic foods have made their way into the mainstream food markets and are here to stay. a survey conducted in august 2005 for whole foods market found 65 percent of americans saying they had tried organic foods and beverages. this is up from 54 percent in similar surveys conducted in 2003 and 2004. as science reveals more about the health benefits of organics, the demand for these foods will increase, and the prices at food markets will likely go down. in the meantime, when you find yourself with a few extra pennies for food shopping, consider using the change to purchase organic produce from the " dirty dozen " list. reasons to buy organic... - organic farming practices do not contaminate our water supply. - organic foods have higher levels of some nutrients. - organic farming methods help prevent soil erosion. - animals are treated more humanely under organic conditions. - organic farmers help cultivate nutrient rich soil. - organic farming practices are better for the health of farmers and their families. - buying organic supports small family farms across the country. - organic farming promotes biodiversity. for more information on organic foods visit : - dill garlic salmon ( new! ) - pan seared striped bass with asian dill slaw - rosemary and lemon pan seared chicken breast - pan seared rosemary salmon skewers - portobello and spinach bolognese - thyme and wild mushroom risotto - potato gnocchi with zucchini and thyme sauce - herbed goat cheese and roasted vegetable sandwich with herbed tomato couscous - pumpkin and thyme gnocchi - thyme and lemon seared salmon - summer chicken stir fry with brown rice - mediterranean chicken salad pita - vegetable pad thai - caribbean chicken soup - aztec cilantro couscous - gazpacho soup - chicken quesadilla with pico de gallo - sweet potato fries - turkey burger - asian - flavored coleslaw with rice vinegar and ginger - tofu breakfast burritos - heart healthy and planet friendly black bean burrito - sweet potato portobello mushroom wrap with savory yogurt dressing - heart healthy turkey cranberry sandwich - lentil and spinach wrap - butternut squash bisque - heart - healthy avocado pita


farmed salmon escapes fish raised in aquaculture production can cause serious harm when unintentionally or intentionally released from aquaculture facilities. escaped fish can harm wild fish populations, other species and the ecosystem. fish in open net pens escape in small numbers even during normal operations, and can escape in large quantities when nets are damaged by storms or predators, such as sharks and sea lions. atlantic salmon escapes on the u. s. and canadian west coasts are common ; there were 350, 000 known escapes in 1997 and farmed atlantic salmon have been found thousands of miles away from the closest salmon aquaculture facilities. in the pacific ocean, escaped non - native atlantic salmon have already been found breeding near aquaculture operations in both british columbia and south america. escapes are a significant concern because they occur on a regular basis. escaped fish potentially travel great distances and are a threat to the long - term health and fitness of native populations. in early 2009, oceana publicized a massive escape that took place on december 31, 2008. we revealed that the escape involved about 750, 000 salmon and trout and that some of the escaped salmon were infected with the isa virus. moreover, reports of salmon escapes in chile range upwards of 10 million a year. the escape of farmed salmon from their cages is one of the most serious environmental problems resulting from open - water aquaculture operations. escaped salmon generate various ecological effects including predation and competition with native species, hybridization and transmission of diseases to native wild fish. also, many of the native species affected by escaped salmon are the target species for artisanal fishing, causing economic losses in this sector estimated at $ 5 million annually. currently, regulation of salmon escape in chile is very weak. essentially the only requirement is that farming companies prepare a contingency plan. this has proved to be ineffective in mitigating and even in reporting of escapes. some companies have insured themselves against escapes which some people believe have led the companies to seek reimbursement ( when market prices are down ) by negligently permitting massive escapes.


the samurai dominated japanese society for 700 years, and the vision of this class permeates japanese culture. ever present is the samurai ' s sword — as a tool, a companion, and a symbol. the samurai sword is both a technical marvel and a significant cultural object. as a technology, it involves a large system of craftsmen, distinct stages of and for the materials, and a long apprenticeship to develop the necessary skills. culturally, the sword is surrounded by a history of legend, prescribed behaviors, and complex status relationships. like a many - faceted diamond, a close examination of this one tool can give us a wide perspective on japanese culture. to study the relationship between the samurai and his sword, we will study the whole of samurai history. the role the sword has played has changed over time, but so have the times brought out different aspects of that many - layered relationship. the sword makes the samurai, makes him its wielder as much as he makes it his weapon. how was the technology of the sword appropriate to the samurai, and what roles did it play? we will spend considerable time exploring the psyche of the samurai, particularly with respect to zen anti - ideology. how is zen reflected in the samurai and in his sword? we will also follow japanese history as it revolves around samurai. by what fire is the samurai ' s identity forged, and what of today ' s society can its gleaming edge cut apart? | ses # | | topics | | readings | | questions | | 1 | | introduction to japan | | | storry, richard. fig. 1 - 2 and " the silent warrior. " the way of the samurai. london, england : orbis books, 1978, pp. 7 - 17. isbn : 9780856134043. suzuki, daisetz. " zen and swordsmanship i. " chapter v in zen and japanese culture. princeton, nj : princeton university press, 1970, pp. 89 - 93. isbn : 9780691017709. | 2 | | the katana | | kapp, leon, hiroko kapp, and yoshindo yoshihara. " a craft reborn, " and " the sword. " the craft of the japanese sword. new york, ny : kodansha international, 1987, pp. 17 - 27, 53 - 55 and 61 - 94. isbn : 9780870117985. | | ( pdf ) | | 3 | | the samurai ' s cultural origins | |


kodansha international, 1987, pp. 17 - 27, 53 - 55 and 61 - 94. isbn : 9780870117985. | | ( pdf ) | | 3 | | the samurai ' s cultural origins | | | tsunoda, ryusaku, william t. bary, and donald keene. sources of japanese tradition, vol. i : from earliest times to 1600. new york, ny : columbia university press, 1964. please read one of : - pp. 21 - 26 - pp. 14 - 17 and 27 - 29 - pp. 17 - 18, 29 - 30 and 274 - 276 beaseley, w. g. " buddhism and shinto. " in the japanese experience : a short history of japan. berkeley, ca : university of california press, 2000, pp. 42 - 47. isbn : 9780520225602. storry, richard. " the samurai emerges. " the way of the samurai. london, england : orbis books, 1978, pp. 18 - 41. isbn : 9780856134043. | 4 | | the code of the samurai | | | heike monogatari [ the tale of the heike ]. translated by kitagawa hiroshi and bruce t. tsuchida. tokyo, japan : university of tokyo press, 1975. chapter 1, p. 5 ; chapter 9, pp. 519 - 523 ; chapter 11, pp. 676 - 689. isbn 1 : 9780860081883 and isbn 2 : 9780860081890. tsunemoto, tamamoto. hagakure : the book of the samurai. vol. i. tokyo, japan : hokuseido press, 1980, sections 2 - 5, 9 and 12, pp. 35 - 40. isbn : 9780893461690. | 5 | | zen and the samurai | | please read one of : | - hoffman, yoel. " the haiku, " " death poems and zen buddhism, " and poems by kozan ichikyo, suzuki shosan, taigen sofu, takuan soho, zoso royo, and basho. japanese death poems. rutland, vt : c. e. tuttle, 1986, pp. 22 - 27, 65 - 76, 108, 117 - 19, 129 and 143. isbn : 9780804831796. - storry,


. rutland, vt : c. e. tuttle, 1986, pp. 22 - 27, 65 - 76, 108, 117 - 19, 129 and 143. isbn : 9780804831796. - storry, richard. " zen and the sword. " the way of the samurai. london, england : orbis books, 1978, pp. 43 - 61. isbn : 9780856134043. - suzuki, daisetz. " what is zen? " and " zen and the samurai. " chapters i, iv in zen and japanese culture. princeton, nj : princeton university press, 1970, pp. 7 - 15 and 70 - 85. isbn : 9780691017709. | 6 | | civil war and unification | | | yoshikawa, eiji. taiko. new york, ny : kodansha international, 1992, pp. 653 - 663. isbn : 9784770015709. please read one of : - beaseley, w. g. " the unifiers. " chapter 7 in the japanese experience : a short history of japan. berkeley, ca : university of california press, 2000, pp. 116 - 127. isbn : 9780520225602. - berry, mary elizabeth. " the sword hunt. " and " freezing the social order. " chapter 5 in hideyoshi. cambridge, ma : council on east asian studies at harvard university, 1989, pp. 102 - 111. isbn : 9780674390263. | 7 | | giving up the gun | | perrin, noel. chapters 1 - 4 in giving up the gun : japan ' s reversion to the sword. boston, ma : d. r. gordine, 1988. isbn : 9780879237738. | | ( pdf ) | | 8 | | the tokugawa state | | | storry, richard. " the armed mandarins. " the way of the samurai. london, england : orbis books, 1978, pp. 63 - 77. isbn : 9780856134043. sadler, a. l. " the legacy of ieyasu. " in the maker of modern japan : the life of shogun tokugawa. rutland, vt : c. e. tuttle, 1978, pp. 387 - 398. isbn : 9780804812979. the lab for this module is to


after you ' ve entered data, you may find that you need another column to hold additional information. for example, your worksheet might need a column after the date column, for order ids. or maybe you need another row, or rows. you might learn that buchanan, suyama, or peacock made more sales than you knew. that ' s great, but do you have to start over? of course not. to insert a single column, click any cell in the column immediately to the right of where you want the new column to go. so if you want an order - id column between columns b and c, you ' d click a cell in column c, to the right of the new location. then, on the home tab, in the cells group, click the arrow on insert. on the drop - down menu, click insert sheet columns. a new blank column is inserted. to insert a single row, click any cell in the row immediately below where you want the new row to go. for example, to insert a new row between row 4 and row 5, click a cell in row 5. then in the cells group, click the arrow on insert. on the drop - down menu, click insert sheet rows. a new blank row is inserted. excel gives a new column or row the heading its place requires, and changes the headings of later columns and rows. click play to watch the process of inserting a column and a row in a worksheet. in the practice you ' ll learn how to delete columns and rows if you no longer need them.


add to my links, based on koch et al. 2002 ( pmid 12124289 ). as shown in this picture, dna fragments with a complementary 3 ' ( three prime ) overhang can be ligated to the unzipping construct. if dna is attached to a surface ( e. g. a coverglass ) at one end and to another surface ( e. g. a microsphere ) in the middle, the dna can be unzipped if there is a nick between the two attachments. this was first shown by bockelmann, essevaz - roulet, and heslot in the mid - 1990s ( pmid 9342340 ). we describe here a versatile adaptation first described in koch et al. 2002 ( pmid 12124289 ). compared to dna constructs for end - to - end dna stretching ( see, e. g. labeling dna by pcr unzipping constructs are more challenging to produce. the method we describe here has a significant stretch of double - stranded dna ( dsdna ) between the first and second attachment labels ( dig and biotin ). a simpler construct can be made by directly hybridizing two end - labeled dna oligos, producing a fork construct. ( see, e. g. koch _ lab : protocols / fork unzipping constructs. ) however, this produces shorter tethered particles, which was disadvantageous for the optical tweezers systems we were using. the key to this method is that unzipping of a variety of downstream dna molecules can be carried out with very little modification to the protocol. this versatility was leveraged by jiang et al. 2004 ( pmid 16337600 ), shundrovsky et al. 2006 ( pmid 16732285 ), and johnson et al. 2007 ( pmid 17604719 ). - the anchoring segment ( typically about 1 kilobase pairs ( kb ) in length ) is convenient for producing long initial tethers. however, the structural stability of this dsdna anchoring segment sets an upper limit of below 60 pn ( to assure that the dsdna anchoring segment does not undergo force - induced melting or " overstretching " ). - as shown in figure above, the complementary overhang is provided by the biotin - labeled strand of the " insert duplex " ( or " adapter duplex " ). this is for a 3 ' overhang. for a 5 ' overhang, the bottom strand will be


disunion follows the civil war as it unfolded. in a violent denouement to the enormous set - piece battles of second bull run and antietam in the summer of 1862, that fall cavalry clashes raged across northern virginia. in dozens of farm villages and crossroads communities, roving bands of union and confederate horsemen engaged in a series of brief and often bloody skirmishes. one such fight took place near the hamlet of little washington on nov. 8, 1862. the action began when a squadron of union army regulars collided with an enemy picket composed of a georgia lieutenant and 10 of his men. the yankees charged the outnumbered rebels, but the rebels “ gallantly met the onset, falling back slowly to a narrow lane, stubbornly contesting the ground, ” reported an unidentified confederate in a pamphlet published during the war. the mingled sounds of battle were heard by the main body of georgia troops at their nearby camp, who hurriedly formed a column and rode to the relief of their endangered comrades. among the first to saddle up was one of georgia ’ s most admired horse soldiers, will delony. raw aggression coursed through the veins of this beau ideal of a southern cavalryman. “ his full brown or mahogany beard and high massive forehead, intellectual face and eagle eyes, marked him as a man among men, resembling the finer full - bearded engravings i have seen of stonewall jackson, ” noted one georgian soldier, wiley c. howard. that day delony was to prove himself worthy of such a comparison. indeed, what occurred next was “ one of the bloodiest little fights that the history of our great struggle for right and liberty will ever record, ” howard wrote. the unidentified confederate observer reported that “ delony, putting spurs to his horse, left the column behind and dashed up into the melee, and hand to hand with his own boys, nearly all of whom had been cut down, was delivering his blows right and left. ” howard remembered that delony “ was fighting like a mad boar with a whole pack of curs about him, having his bridle hand dreadfully hacked, his head gashed and side thrust. ” the bluecoats called on him to surrender, but delony barked back at the federals to lay down their own arms instead : “ surrender! by god! i am the best man! ” and felled one enemy soldier with a blow of his sword. suddenly delony was attacked by another saber - swinging federal. “ his new antagonist ’ s blows were dexterously dealt, and an instant parry


god! i am the best man! ” and felled one enemy soldier with a blow of his sword. suddenly delony was attacked by another saber - swinging federal. “ his new antagonist ’ s blows were dexterously dealt, and an instant parry saved his head ; a quick, heavy blow, partially warded off, fell broadside and deadened his sword arm, causing it to fall by his side, ” howard reported. but just then the column of georgians thundered upon the scene, led by pvt. jimmie clanton, mounted “ on a little keen black charger. ” he made a beeline for the federal cavalryman, who was raising his sword to send the vulnerable delony to his maker. clanton, “ with upraised gleaming sabre, arrests the fatal blow by cleaving the confident antagonist ’ s head in twain, and half raising it for another stroke, a pistol shot sends the noble lad, too, reeling from his saddle dangerously wounded. ” the rebel column tore into the yankees. the unidentified confederate reported that the federals “ began to yield and give ground, when a body of our dismounted men gained their flanks. ” he added, “ here our artillery came dashing up and completed the success and sent them scampering down the road at a most inconvenient speed. ” the next day in camp, delony sat on a log in camp with his head and hand bandaged. howard recalled that he “ showed me a small metallic flask, which he carried in his inside coat pocket, near the region of the heart and lungs, which showed an entire saber point thrust nearly a quarter of an inch wide clear through the metal. ” delony remarked “ that he had sometimes felt that he would hate for his wife, in case he fell in battle, to know that it was there ; but, with a humorous smile said he now thought it a good idea for every man to have one on him at the vulnerable spot where the cold steel struck with such force. ” neither howard nor delony mentioned if the flask was full or empty before the enemy saber pierced it. chances are delony had taken a deep draught before the fight ; his habitual drinking had prompted several officers to express concern to delony ’ s colonel, thomas r. r. cobb. delony ’ s fondness of the flask disturbed cobb very much. “ i don ’ t know what to do about it, ” he confessed in a letter to his wife. no evidence exists that del


, thomas r. r. cobb. delony ’ s fondness of the flask disturbed cobb very much. “ i don ’ t know what to do about it, ” he confessed in a letter to his wife. no evidence exists that delony drank before he joined the military. an honor graduate from the university of georgia and a successful attorney in athens, he raised a cavalry company known as the georgia troopers in 1861. the rank and file elected him captain, a common practice in the volunteer army. delony and his men then joined the “ georgia legion, ” a force of artillery, cavalry and infantry designed loosely around a roman legion and organized by colonel cobb, a popular and charismatic leader ( in fact, the unit became better known as “ cobb ’ s legion ” ). the concept of a legion proved impractical, and it was not used as such during the war. the cavalry from cobb ’ s legion served with gen. robert e. lee ’ s army of northern virginia, where delony proved himself a caring leader. howard exclaimed, “ how his men loved him, and how he stood by them, contending always for their rights and looking after their comforts, when others would treat them indifferently! his heart and purse were ever open to their needs. ” as he showed that day in little washington, delony was at his very best in combat. he could always be found in the hottest part of a battle, and inspired the ranks by his deeds. “ he was a game fighter and dared to attempt anything, ” howard said, “ even though it seemed impossible to others. ” howard recalled delony ’ s actions on june 9, 1863, at brandy station — the largest cavalry battle of the war. by this time delony had advanced to lieutenant colonel, and pierce m. b. young had replaced cobb as colonel. at one point during the engagement, the georgians charged federal cavalry, “ and soon their splendid line was all broken and each man of us was fencing and fighting for the time his individual foe, the fiery and impetuous onslaught of the southron was too much for the steady courage of the northman, and quick and fast as the blows fell and the cold steel slashed, the most of the enemy were making to their rear. ” howard observed delony “ smiting yankees right and left as he charged along in advance. he sat on his charger grandly, his fine physique and full mahogany beard flowing, he looked a very titan war god, flushed with the


” howard observed delony “ smiting yankees right and left as he charged along in advance. he sat on his charger grandly, his fine physique and full mahogany beard flowing, he looked a very titan war god, flushed with the exuberance and exhilaration of victory. he called to me to rally with others of his old company about him and on he led us pressing the retreating foe. ” on they charged until caught in devastating cross - fire by dismounted federals. colonel young ordered delony to withdraw. “ but, ” howard wrote, “ shaking his head and lion - like beard delony said, ‘ young, let ’ s charge them, ’ and in two or three minutes five horses fell and a number of our men had been shot. by this time, however, the enemy ’ s whole line in sight were giving way and on we went, those not unhorsed or crippled. so fierce and fast was the fighting, we had not time to accept surrender offered by many yankees — just rode on and left them behind. ” several weeks later, in pennsylvania during the gettysburg campaign, delony led a similar charge mounted on his bay, marion. this time he went up against union forces led by the newly minted brigadier general george armstrong custer in a cavalry fight at hunterstown on july 2, 1863. federal lead struck marion, and the horse toppled onto delony. he extricated himself with great difficulty and barely managed to escape the enemy. his luck ran out at the battle of jack ’ s shop, in virginia, on sept. 22, 1863. a minie ball struck delony in the left thigh, and, in a gettysburg repeat, his horse was also hit and fell on top of him. this time, though, he could not get away and fell into federal hands. transported to nearby culpeper for a brief stay, he was then carried by ambulance to washington. he was admitted to stanton general hospital and given a bed in a ward full of union boys, where he befriended one of convalescing soldiers, john a. wright of the 140th pennsylvania infantry. delony ’ s wound turned gangrenous. on oct. 2, 1863, surgeons informed that his condition was mortal. wright recalled that delony then asked him to read from the bible. “ the 14th chapter of john was selected, and the reader began : ‘ let not your heart be troubled … ’ ” delony broke down. “ ‘ oh, i could die in peace, i


##ony then asked him to read from the bible. “ the 14th chapter of john was selected, and the reader began : ‘ let not your heart be troubled … ’ ” delony broke down. “ ‘ oh, i could die in peace, i could died in peace, ’ he sobbed, ‘ if only i were home with my wife and children. but it is so hard to die away from home and among strangers. ” delony was transferred to another hospital later that day, and died that night. he was 38 years old. union authorities buried his remains in a numbered grave in the hospital cemetery. they were later disinterred and returned to his family in athens. wright survived the war and became a minister, perhaps the last man touched directly by the charismatic delony. sources : ulysses r. brooks, “ stories of the confederacy ” ; wiley c. howard, “ sketch of cobb legion cavalry and some incidents and scenes remembered ” ; william b. mccash, “ thomas r. r. cobb : the making of a southern nationalist ” ; william g. delony military service record, national archives and records service ; the war of the rebellion : a compilation of the official records of the union and confederate armies ; george f. price, “ across the continent with the fifth cavalry ” ; john f. stegeman, “ these men she gave : civil war diary of athens, georgia ” ; robert l. stewart, “ history of the one hundred and fortieth regiment pennsylvania volunteers ” ; francis s. reader, “ some pioneers of washington county, pa. : a family history. ” ronald s. coddington is the author of “ faces of the civil war ” and “ faces of the confederacy. ” his new book, “ african american faces of the civil war, ” was published in august. he writes “ faces of war, ” a column for the civil war news.