soon reported as taking place at his grave, and his canonization was already being sought during the reign of olaf. on 19 april 1101, persuaded by the envoys from eric iii of denmark, pope paschal ii confirmed the " cult of canute " that had arisen, and king canute iv was canonized as a saint under the name san canuto. he was the first dane to be canonized. 19 january is recognised by the catholic church as his feast day. in sweden and finland he is historically, however, partially associated with st. knut ' s day, which in reality was celebrated in the memory of the death of his nephew, canute lavard. the reign of canute has been interpreted differently through the times ; from a violent king who tyrannized his subjects, to a strict but fair ruler who devotedly supported the roman catholic church and fought for justice without regard to his own person. he was never a thoroughly popular saint in denmark, but his sainthood granted the danish monarchy an aura of divine legitimacy. the cause of the rebellion which killed canute is unknown, but has been speculated as originating in fines issued to the peasants breaking the leding of 1085 as specified in the chronicon roskildense, or as a result of his vigorous tithe policy. the document of his donation to lund cathedral was the oldest comprehensive text from denmark, and provided broad insights into danish post - viking age society. the donation might have had the aim of establishing the danish archdiocese of lund according to sweyn ii estridsson ' s wishes, which was finally achieved in 1104. canute ' s son carl became count of flanders from 1119 to 1127, ruling as charles the good. like his father, charles was martyred in a church by rebels ( in bruges, 1127 ). according to niels lund, lecturer in medieval history at the university of copenhagen, canute ' s abortive invasion of england " marked the end of the viking age. " for it was the last time a viking army was to assemble against western europe. in 2008, an x - ray computed tomography was taken of canute, which showed that he was right - handed and of a slender build. it also specified his cause of death as a thrust to the sacrum through the abdomen, negating ælnoth ' s account. he had no injuries indicating he fought against multiple enemies, which can be seen as supporting an account saying he faced his death without a struggle.


of death as a thrust to the sacrum through the abdomen, negating ælnoth ' s account. he had no injuries indicating he fought against multiple enemies, which can be seen as supporting an account saying he faced his death without a struggle. in spain, canute ' s feast day has become a tongue - in - cheek " holiday " for the marijuana legalization movement, appropriating the spanish version of his name, canuto, which coincidentally is also the word for a marijuana cigarette. | this section does not cite any references or sources. ( august 2012 ) | | ancestors of canute iv of denmark | - stefan pajung, knud den hellige ca. 1042 – 1086, danmarkshistorien. dk, aarhus university, 22 january 2010 - bricka, carl frederik, dansk biografisk lexikon, vol. ix [ jyde – køtschau ], 1895, pp. 260 – 263. - knud 4. den hellige at gyldendals abne encyklopædi - cawley, charles, denmark, foundation for medieval genealogy, retrieved august 2012, [ better source needed ] - monarkiet i danmark – kongerækken at the danish monarchy - knud den helliges gavebrev 1085, danmarkshistorien. dk, aarhus university, 6 june 2010 - ct - scanning af knud den hellige afslører nyt om kongemord, ingeniøren, 8 march 2008 - farmer, david hugh ( 1997 ). the oxford dictionary of saints ( 4. ed. ed. ). oxford [ u. a. ] : oxford univ. press. p. 87. isbn 9780192800589. - axelsson, m : tjugo dagar efter jul, published 13 january 2007 ( in swedish ) - the scandinavian remedy : the murder at haraldsted, published 3 of januari 2009, retrieved 8 januari 2012. -, " el pais ", 1 january 2003 | wikimedia commons has media related to : canute iv of denmark | - the oxford illustrated history of the vikings. ed., peter sawyer. oxford university press, new york, 1997. chapter seven : " the danish empire and the end of the viking age " by niels lund. the quote is from page 181. - the oxford dictionary of saints. ed david high farmer. oxford university press


central weather bureau | central weather bureau | | zhongyang qixiang ju | | jurisdiction | | republic of china | | agency executive | | tzay - chyn shin ( ), director - general | | parent agency | | ministry of transportation and communications | the central weather bureau ( chinese : 中 ; pinyin : zhongyang qixiang ju ; often abbreviated to cwb ) is the government meteorological research and forecasting institution of the republic of china ( taiwan ). in addition to meteorology, the central weather bureau also makes astronomical observations, reports on sea conditions, and conducts research into seismology and provides earthquake reports. the central weather bureau is headquartered in taipei city and is administered under the ministry of transportation and communications. while taiwan was under japanese rule, the government set up five weather monitoring stations on the island, located in taipei, taichung, tainan, hengchun, and penghu. on december 19, 1897, the governor - general moved the headquarters to the present location occupied by the eventual successor agency of the japanese " taipei observatory " : the central weather bureau. in 1945 when the kuomintang took control of taiwan the various stations set up by the japanese were incorporated into the new taiwan provincial weather institution, under the chief executive of taiwan province, chen yi. when the position of chief executive was abolished in 1947 ( the new head of local government being the governor of taiwan province ) the institution became an agency of the taiwan provincial government. the central weather bureau itself was established in 1941 in chongqing under the executive yuan of the republic of china. in 1947 ( and again from 1971 onwards ) it was re - assigned to the ministry of transportation and communications. after the kuomintang defeat in the chinese civil war and their subsequent flight to taiwan in 1949, the central weather bureau relocated from mainland china to taiwan. from 1949 to 1958 it was under the control of the taiwan provincial weather institution, then from 1958 onwards it was resurrected to become the principal meteorological organisation of the government. in 1971 the central weather bureau switched from being a part of the taiwan provincial government to the ministry of transportation and communications, under central government authority. the central weather bureau has a number of responsibilities, represented by the various departments. weather forecast center the weather forecast center ( chinese : 中 心 ; pinyin : qixiang yubao zhongxin ) is the department responsible for monitoring actual weather conditions and making short and medium term forecasts concerning the weather. it


forecast center the weather forecast center ( chinese : 中 心 ; pinyin : qixiang yubao zhongxin ) is the department responsible for monitoring actual weather conditions and making short and medium term forecasts concerning the weather. it also issues severe weather advisories for conditions including heavy rain, cold snaps, typhoons and storms, and dense fog. in the case of typhoons, the department closely monitors all tropical storms which might impact the island and issues warnings and predicted typhoon path and severity based on the collected data. the seismological center ( chinese : 地 中 心 ; pinyin : dizhen cebao zhongxin ) of the central weather bureau was founded in 1989, with a mission to monitor seismic activity in and around the island, publish reports on significant earthquakes, study earthquake precursor phenomena, issue tsunami warnings where appropriate, and provide information to the public of earthquake precautions. taiwan is in a seismically active region on the pacific ring of fire, with 44 deadly earthquakes occurring there during the twentieth century. the center has 150 seismological monitoring stations through taiwan, penghu, jinmen and matsu. marine meteorology center the marine meteorology center ( chinese : 海 中 心 ; pinyin : haixiang cebao zhongxin ) was established in 1993 to monitor sea conditions and make predictions about weather at sea for shipping, fisheries, tourism and other interested parties. variables including wave height, tides, sea level variations, sea surface temperature, and ocean currents are measured to provide an accurate picture of current conditions. the center is also responsible for informing the public of tide times, and cooperates with local tourism bureaux and fishermen ' s associations to erect electronic billboards in harbours to inform seafarers of ocean conditions. the bureau also includes the following departments : - the meteorological satellite center ( chinese : 星 中 心 ; pinyin : qixiang weixing zhongxin ), which receives and analyses weather satellite data for observation and prediction purposes. - the astronomical observatory ( chinese : 天 文 ; pinyin : tianwen zhan ), which not only observes astronomical phenomena such as sunspots and eclipses, but also publishes an annual almanac and provides information on astronomy to the public. | wikimedia commons has media related to : central weather bureau roc | - " 南 中 心 ( southern meteorological center ) " ( in chinese ). central weather bureau. - " 博 ( meteorological museum ) " ( in


der sturm ( german : the storm ) was a magazine covering the expressionism movement founded in berlin in 1910 by herwarth walden. it ran weekly until monthly in 1914, and became a quarterly in 1924 until it ceased publication in 1932. among the literary contributors were peter altenberg, max brod, richard dehmel, alfred doblin, anatole france, knut hamsun, arno holz, karl kraus, selma lagerlof, adolf loos, heinrich mann, paul scheerbart, and rene schickele. der sturm consisted of pieces such as expressionistic dramas ( i. e. from hermann essig and august stramm ), artistic portfolios ( oskar kokoschka ), essays from artists ( the kandinsky album ), and theoretical writings on art from herwarth walden. the most well - known publications resulting from the magazine were the sturmbucher ( storm - books ), ( e. g. sturmbucher 1 and 2 were works of august stramm – sancta susanna und rudimentar ). postcards were also created featuring the expressionistic, cubist, and abstract art of franz marc, wassily kandinsky, oskar kokoschka, august macke, gabriele munter, georg schrimpf, maria uhden, rudolf bauer and others. the term sturm was branded by walden to represent the way in which modern art was penetrating germany at the time. particularly in the time before outbreak of the world war i, der sturm played a crucial role in the french - german exchange of expressionist artists, which led to a special relationship between berlin and paris. regularly, poems and other texts of french and / or french - speaking expressionists were published ( guillaume apollinaire, blaise cendrars, etc. ). this relationship was renewed after the war despite the hostilities between the two countries caused by the fighting. the gallery the magazine also fostered the galerie der sturm, started by walden to celebrate its 100th edition, in 1912. the gallery became the focus for berlin ' s modern art scene for a decade. starting with an exhibition of fauves and der blaue reiter, followed by the introduction in germany of the italian futurists, cubists and orphists, the gallery was to exhibit edvard munch, georges braque, pablo picasso, albert gleizes, robert delaunay, jean metzinger,


by the introduction in germany of the italian futurists, cubists and orphists, the gallery was to exhibit edvard munch, georges braque, pablo picasso, albert gleizes, robert delaunay, jean metzinger, gino severini, jean arp, paul klee, wassily kandinsky, and kurt schwitters. after the war, walden expanded der sturm into sturmabende, lectures and discussions on modern art, and die sturmbuhne, an expressionist theatre, as well as publishing books and portfolios by leading artists such as oskar kokoschka. despite this, the gallery declined in importance after the war and closed in 1924, leaving the magazine to carry on as a quarterly until it too closed in 1932. however, concerning the exact closing date of the der sturm art gallery ( an offshoot of the magazine ) as maurice gode, wrote in his book " der sturm of hewarth walden or the utopia of an autonomous art ", the author wanted to promote the german " avant - garde " arts by means of both resident and touring exhibitions. accordingly, walden organized, until 1932, more than 200 exhibitions in its premises in berlin plus multiple other touring exhibitions ( wanderausstellungen ) in germany and also in most other major european cities.


| | this article is written like a personal reflection or opinion essay rather than an encyclopedic description of the subject. ( february 2009 ) | direct - to - video ( also known as direct - to - dvd, direct - to - vhs, direct - to - digital, made - for - video, straight - to - video, shot - on - video, or straight - to - dvd ) is the release of a film to the public on home video formats ( historically vhs ) without being released in theaters or broadcast on television. because sufficiently inferior sequels, prequels, or midquels of larger - budget films may be released direct - to - video, references to direct - to - video releases are often pejorative. still, direct - to - video releases have become something of a lifeline for independent filmmakers and smaller companies. reasons for releasing direct - to - video a production studio may decide not to generally release a tv show or film for several possible reasons : poor quality, lack of support from a tv network, negative reviews, controversial nature, or a simple lack of general public interest. studios, limited in the annual number of films to which they grant cinematic releases, may choose to pull the completed film from the theaters, or never exhibit it in theaters at all. studios then generate additional revenue through video sales and rentals. direct - to - video releases have historically carried a stigma of lower technical or artistic quality than theatrical releases. some films released direct - to - video are films which have been completed but were never released in movie theaters. this delay often occurs when a studio doubts a film ' s commercial prospects would justify a full cinema release, or because its release window has closed. a release window refers to a timely trend or personality, and missing that window of opportunity means a film, possibly rushed into production, failed to release before the trend faded. in film - industry slang, such films are referred to as having been " vaulted ". direct - to - video releases can be done for films which cannot be shown theatrically due to controversial content, or because the cost involved in a theatrical release is beyond the releasing company. animated sequels and feature - length episodes of animated series are also often released in this fashion. the walt disney company began making sequels of most of its animated films for video release beginning with the return of jafar ( the sequel to aladdin ) in 1994. universal studios also began their long line of the land before time sequels that same year. studios may also release sequels or spin - offs to


its animated films for video release beginning with the return of jafar ( the sequel to aladdin ) in 1994. universal studios also began their long line of the land before time sequels that same year. studios may also release sequels or spin - offs to a successful live action film straight to dvd. these are commonly referred to as " cheapquels " due to the lack of quality and budget in comparison to the original. examples are the behind enemy lines series of films. the family film segment is a major part of direct - to - video sales. according to the la times, " often, the downfall of live - action family films at the box office is their strength on video. their appeal is to families with young children, who may go to only a couple of movies per year but who will watch many videos multiple times. the teens and young adults who drive blockbuster box - office statistics stay away from family movies. " during the golden age of porn in 1970, many films were released in theatres, some of which became some of the highest grossing films in their release years and in the porn industry altogether. towards the 1980s porn began to shift to video release, because video allowed the producers to work on extremely low budget, and neglect some film elements like script. during the 1990s porn began releasing through paysites on the internet, which made distribution easier to millions of customers around the world, but also created a problem as it became an easy target to piracy and posting in free porn sites. [ original research? ] direct - to - video films screened theatrically occasionally, a studio that makes a movie that was prepared as a direct - to - video film will release it theatrically at the last minute due to the success of another film with a similar subject matter or an ultimate studio decision. batman : mask of the phantasm is an example of this. however, despite the movie ' s critically acclaimed success, its box - office performance was very poor, which has been blamed on its last minute decision to be released theatrically. the film had much better commercial success in its subsequent home video releases. another example which garnered a large cult following is the 2001 psychological thriller donnie darko, which was originally slated for a direct - to - video release. doug ' s 1st movie was also intended as a direct - to - video release, but due to the success of the rugrats movie, it went into the theaters in spring 1999. while the film did poorly with critics, it was a moderate box - office success. other times, a direct -


- to - video release, but due to the success of the rugrats movie, it went into the theaters in spring 1999. while the film did poorly with critics, it was a moderate box - office success. other times, a direct - to - video movie may get a limited theatrical screening in order to build excitement for the actual release of the video such as was done for 2010 ' s justice league : crisis on two earths and planet hulk. as dvds gradually replaced videocassettes, the term " direct - to - dvd " replaced " direct - to - video " in some instances. however, the word " video " does not necessarily refer to vhs cassettes. many publications continue to use the term direct - to - video for dvds or blu - ray discs. the new term sometimes used is dvdp ( " dvd premiere " ). such films can cost as much as $ 20 million ( about a third of the average cost of a hollywood release ) some direct - to - video releases also feature formerly well - known actors, such as jean - claude van damme, ray liotta, steven seagal, wesley snipes, dolph lundgren, ving rhames, val kilmer, rose mcgowan, 50 cent, christian slater, vinnie jones, forest whitaker, steven dorff and cuba gooding, jr.. salaries for such actors range from $ 2 to $ 4 million ( van damme ) to $ 4. 5 to $ 10 million ( seagal ). according to variety, american pie : band camp sold a million copies in one week, despite retaining only two actors from the original trilogy. as of 2005, dvdps collectively grossed over $ 3 billion annually. direct - to - itunes is an online distribution method that avoids all upfront dvd production, marketing and distribution costs as well as upfront cinema distribution and marketing costs. it has revolutionized short film distribution and on occasion has been used for feature length films. apple distributes the film for 30 % of the revenue, while an additional 10 - 15 % may go to the person who formats the film for itunes compatibility. the first independently produced feature length motion picture to pursue the direct - to - itunes marketing scheme was ed burns ' purple violets, which debuted on itunes on november 20, 2007. it was the first feature length film to " premiere exclusively on itunes ". it was distributed exclusively on itunes at a price of us $ 14. 99 for a month before being made available through other distribution channels.


on itunes on november 20, 2007. it was the first feature length film to " premiere exclusively on itunes ". it was distributed exclusively on itunes at a price of us $ 14. 99 for a month before being made available through other distribution channels. the movie, which was produced at a cost of $ 4 million, had premiered at the tribeca film festival in april, where it was reviewed positively, but only received modest distribution offers. at the time of the purple violets release, most studios were not distributing via itunes early in the process and only walt disney studios, which was the first movie studio to distribute via itunes, was distributing at itunes simultaneously with dvd distribution. it was not very common for consumers to make digital movie purchases at the time. the polish brothers ' 2011 for lovers only, which had virtually no production costs and was released to itunes on july 12, is regarded as the first profitable feature length direct - to - itunes product. the direct - to - itunes method is also becoming common with both books and music. when purple violets was released, several short films had already been distributed through itunes. previously, marketing of short films had been prohibitive. however, apple distributed the february 25, 2007 79th academy awards nominees for the animated shorts, live action shorts and documentary shorts as well as half of the 2007 sundance film festival shorts, beginning a new era. the v - cinema and ova markets in japan in japan, direct - to - video titles referred to as " original video " ( オリシナルヒテオ ) carry different connotations, being a niche product rather than a fallback. despite having lower budgets than features intended for theater release, japanese direct - to - video productions are rarely marred by the poor storyline and lower quality production often associated with the dtv market in the us. so - called v - cinema has more respect from the public, and affection from film directors for the greater creative freedoms the medium allows. dtv releases are subject to fewer content restrictions and less creative dictates than other formats. in the case of anime, this is called original video animation ( ova or oav ), and their production values usually fall between those of tv shows and movies. they ' re often used to tell stories too short to fill a full tv season, and were particularly common in the early 1990s. sometimes ovas garner enough interest to justify commissioning a full tv show, such as tenchi muyo!, el hazard, and read or die. with the advent of the 13 episode


full tv season, and were particularly common in the early 1990s. sometimes ovas garner enough interest to justify commissioning a full tv show, such as tenchi muyo!, el hazard, and read or die. with the advent of the 13 episode season format, ovas are less common now. the majority of ovas released in today ' s market are usually continuations or reworkings of recently completed tv show. for instance, the dvd release of a tv show might include a bonus episode that was never broadcast as a sales hook. - b movie - home video - list of disney direct - to - video films - television film - category : direct - to - video films for a list of direct - to - video productions. - alvarez, max j ( 1994 - 12 - 30 ). " big names look for bright lights in videoland ". chicago tribune. retrieved 2010 - 12 - 07. - lerman, laurence ( september 17, 2001 ). " independents ' ' bread and butter ' ". video business 21 ( 38 ). section : video premieres - barlow, aaron ( 2005 ). the dvd revolution : movies, culture, and technology. praeger / greenwood. p. 19. isbn 0 - 275 - 98387 - 0. " films that flop in theaters or which are never theatrically released can prove profitable through longer - term video and dvd sales. " - goodale, gloria ( october 23, 1998 ). " ' straight to video ' picks up steam ". christian science monitor - bernstein, adam ( 2004 - 12 - 12 ). " silent films speak loudly for hughes ". the washington post. tvweek p. y06. - " more films jump straight to dvd ". usa today. august 6, 2003. section : life, p. 03d - cheapquel - urbandictionary. com - matzer, marla ( 1997 - 04 - 16 ). " direct - to - video family films are hitting home ". los angeles times. retrieved 4 june 2011. - justice league : crisis on two earths gets big - screen premieres on two coasts - comicmix. com - february 5, 2010 - berardinelli, james. " dvd ' s scarlet letter ". retrieved 2007 - 01 - 13. - for one example of many uses of the term, see " paramount grows dvdp slate ". retrieved 2007 - 01 - 13. - dvd exclusive online. " stars, money migrate to dvdp ( archived ) ". archived


01 - 13. - for one example of many uses of the term, see " paramount grows dvdp slate ". retrieved 2007 - 01 - 13. - dvd exclusive online. " stars, money migrate to dvdp ( archived ) ". archived from the original on 2006 - 05 - 15. retrieved 2007 - 01 - 13. - carl diorio ( 2004 - 03 - 23 ). " average cost of a film : $ 102. 9 million ". video business online. retrieved 2007 - 01 - 21. the figure cited in the title includes marketing costs ; as of 2004, when this article was written, the average production cost was $ 63. 8 million. - variety. com ( 2005 - 12 - 29 ). " spending on dvds up 10 % ". retrieved 2007 - 01 - 13. - halbfinger, david m. ( 2007 - 10 - 23 ). " facing competition, itunes revs up its film section ". the new york times. retrieved 2011 - 08 - 25. - graser, marc ( 2007 - 10 - 25 ). " ed burns offers ' violets ' on itunes : feature to skip theatrical release ". variety. retrieved 2011 - 08 - 25. - " edward burns - movie going direct to itunes ". contactmusic. com. 2007 - 10 - 25. retrieved 2011 - 08 - 25. - kirsner, scott ( 2007 - 11 - 02 ). " studio ' s digital dilemma : apple calling shots as biz tries to control market ". variety. retrieved 2011 - 08 - 26. - " stana katic and mark polish interview about for lovers only on bloomberg west ". bloomberg news. youtube. 2011 - 08 - 24. retrieved 2011 - 08 - 25. - mike mayo ( 1997 ). videohound ' s video premieres : the only guide to video originals and limited releases. visible ink press. p. 431. isbn 0 - 7876 - 0825 - 4.


existentialism is a term applied to the work of a number of late 19th - and 20th - century philosophers who, despite profound doctrinal differences, shared the belief that philosophical thinking begins with the human subject — not merely the thinking subject, but the acting, feeling, living human individual. in existentialism, the individual ' s starting point is characterized by what has been called " the existential attitude ", or a sense of disorientation and confusion in the face of an apparently meaningless or absurd world. many existentialists have also regarded traditional systematic or academic philosophies, in both style and content, as too abstract and remote from concrete human experience. søren kierkegaard is generally considered to have been the first existentialist philosopher, though he himself did not use the term existentialism. he proposed that each individual — not society or religion — is solely responsible for giving meaning to life and living it passionately and sincerely ( " authentically " ). existentialism became popular in the years following world war ii, and strongly influenced many disciplines besides philosophy, including theology, drama, art, literature, and psychology. definitional issues and background there has never been general agreement on the definition of existentialism. the term is often seen as a historical convenience as it was first applied to many philosophers in hindsight, long after they had died. in fact, while existentialism is generally considered to have originated with kierkegaard, the first prominent existentialist philosopher to adopt the term as a self - description was jean - paul sartre. sartre purports the idea that that which " all existentialists have in common is the fundamental doctrine that existence precedes essence, " as scholar f. c. copleston explains. according to philosopher steven crowell, defining existentialism has been relatively difficult, and he argues that it is better understood as a general approach used to reject certain systematic philosophies rather than as a systematic philosophy itself. although many outside scandinavia consider the term existentialism to have originated from kierkegaard himself, it is more likely that kierkegaard adopted this term ( or at least the term " existential " as a description of his philosophy ) from the norwegian poet and literary critic johan sebastian cammermeyer welhaven. this assertion comes from two sources. the norwegian philosopher erik lundestad refers to the danish philosopher fredrik christian sibbern. sibbern is supposed to have had two conversations in 1841


poet and literary critic johan sebastian cammermeyer welhaven. this assertion comes from two sources. the norwegian philosopher erik lundestad refers to the danish philosopher fredrik christian sibbern. sibbern is supposed to have had two conversations in 1841, the first with welhaven and the second with kierkegaard. it is in the first conversation that it is believed that welhaven came up with " a word that he said covered a certain thinking, which had a close and positive attitude to life, a relationship he described as existential ". this was then brought to kierkegaard by sibbern. the second claim comes from the norwegian historian rune slagstad, who claims to prove that kierkegaard himself said the term " existential " was borrowed from the poet. he strongly believes that it was kierkegaard himself who said that " hegelians do not study philosophy ' existentially ' ; to use a phrase by welhaven from one time when i spoke with him about philosophy ". on the other hand, the norwegian historian anne - lise seip is critical of slagstad, and believes the statement in fact stems from the norwegian literary historian cathrinus bang. existence precedes essence a central proposition of existentialism is that existence precedes essence, which means that the most important consideration for the individual is the fact that he or she is an individual — an independently acting and responsible conscious being ( " existence " ) — rather than what labels, roles, stereotypes, definitions, or other preconceived categories the individual fits ( " essence " ). the actual life of the individual is what constitutes what could be called his or her " true essence " instead of there being an arbitrarily attributed essence used by others to define him or her. thus, human beings, through their own consciousness, create their own values and determine a meaning to their life. although it was sartre who explicitly coined the phrase, similar notions can be found in the thought of existentialist philosophers such as heidegger, and kierkegaard : " the subjective thinker ’ s form, the form of his communication, is his style. his form must be just as manifold as are the opposites that he holds together. the systematic eins, zwei, drei is an abstract form that also must inevitably run into trouble whenever it is to be applied to the concrete. to the same degree as the subjective thinker is concrete, to the same degree


holds together. the systematic eins, zwei, drei is an abstract form that also must inevitably run into trouble whenever it is to be applied to the concrete. to the same degree as the subjective thinker is concrete, to the same degree his form must also be concretely dialectical. but just as he himself is not a poet, not an ethicist, not a dialectician, so also his form is none of theirs directly. his form must first and last be related to existence, and in this regard he must have at his disposal the poetic, the ethical, the dialectical, the religious. subordinate character, setting, etc., which belong to the well balanced character of the esthetic production, are in themselves breadth ; the subjective thinker has only one setting - existence - and has nothing to do with localities and such things. the setting is not the fairyland of the imagination, where poetry produces consummation, nor is the setting laid in england, and historical accuracy is not a concern. the setting is inwardness in existing as a human being ; the concretion is the relation of the existence - categories to one another. historical accuracy and historical actuality are breadth. " soren kierkegaard ( concluding postscript, hong p. 357 - 358 ) it is often claimed in this context that a person defines himself or herself, which is often perceived as stating that they can wish to be something — anything, a bird, for instance — and then be it. according to most existentialist philosophers, however, this would constitute an inauthentic existence. instead, the phrase should be taken to say that the person is ( 1 ) defined only insofar as he or she acts and ( 2 ) that he or she is responsible for his or her actions. for example, someone who acts cruelly towards other people is, by that act, defined as a cruel person. furthermore, by this action of cruelty, such persons are themselves responsible for their new identity ( a cruel person ). this is as opposed to their genes, or ' human nature ', bearing the blame. as sartre writes in his work existentialism is a humanism : "... man first of all exists, encounters himself, surges up in the world – and defines himself afterwards. " of course, the more positive, therapeutic aspect of this is also implied : a person can choose to act in a different way, and to be a good person instead of a cruel person.


a concept defined by sartre in being and nothingness as the " in - itself ", of which humans are in the mode of not being. this can be more easily understood when considering it in relation to the temporal dimension of past : one ' s past is what one is in the sense that it co - constitutes oneself. however, to say that one is only one ' s past would be to ignore a significant part of reality ( the present and the future ), while saying that one ' s past is only what one was, would entirely detach it from them now. a denial of one ' s own concrete past constitutes an inauthentic lifestyle, and the same goes for all other kinds of facticity ( having a body — e. g. one that doesn ' t allow a person to run faster than the speed of sound — identity, values, etc. ). facticity is both a limitation and a condition of freedom. it is a limitation in that a large part of one ' s facticity consists of things one couldn ' t have chosen ( birthplace, etc. ), but a condition in the sense that one ' s values most likely will depend on it. however, even though one ' s facticity is " set in stone " ( as being past, for instance ), it cannot determine a person : the value ascribed to one ' s facticity is still ascribed to it freely by that person. as an example, consider two men, one of whom has no memory of his past and the other remembers everything. they have both committed many crimes, but the first man, knowing nothing about this, leads a rather normal life while the second man, feeling trapped by his own past, continues a life of crime, blaming his own past for " trapping " him in this life. there is nothing essential about his committing crimes, but he ascribes this meaning to his past. however, to disregard one ' s facticity when one, in the continual process of self - making, projects oneself into the future, would be to put oneself in denial of oneself, and would thus be inauthentic. in other words, the origin of one ' s projection will still have to be one ' s facticity, although in the mode of not being it ( essentially ). another aspect of facticity is that it entails angst, both in the sense that freedom " produces " angst when limited by facticity, and in the sense that the lack


in the mode of not being it ( essentially ). another aspect of facticity is that it entails angst, both in the sense that freedom " produces " angst when limited by facticity, and in the sense that the lack of the possibility of having facticity to " step in " for one to take responsibility for something one has done also produces angst. what is not implied in this account of existential freedom, however, is that one ' s values are immutable ; a consideration of one ' s values may cause one to reconsider and change them. a consequence of this fact is that one is responsible for not only one ' s actions, but also the values one holds. this entails that a reference to common values doesn ' t excuse the individual ' s actions : even though these are the values of the society of which the individual is part, they are also his / her own in the sense that she / he could choose them to be different at any time. thus, the focus on freedom in existentialism is related to the limits of the responsibility one bears as a result of one ' s freedom : the relationship between freedom and responsibility is one of interdependency, and a clarification of freedom also clarifies that for which one is responsible. the theme of authentic existence is common to many existentialist thinkers. it is often taken to mean that one has to " create oneself " and then live in accordance with this self. what is meant by authenticity is that in acting, one should act as oneself, not as " one " acts or as " one ' s genes " or any other essence requires. the authentic act is one that is in accordance with one ' s freedom. of course, as a condition of freedom is facticity, this includes one ' s facticity, but not to the degree that this facticity can in any way determine one ' s choices ( in the sense that one could then blame one ' s background for making the choice one made ). the role of facticity in relation to authenticity involves letting one ' s actual values come into play when one makes a choice ( instead of, like kierkegaard ' s aesthete, " choosing " randomly ), so that one also takes responsibility for the act instead of choosing either - or without allowing the options to have different values. in contrast to this, the inauthentic is the denial to live in accordance with one ' s freedom. this


), so that one also takes responsibility for the act instead of choosing either - or without allowing the options to have different values. in contrast to this, the inauthentic is the denial to live in accordance with one ' s freedom. this can take many forms, from pretending choices are meaningless or random, through convincing oneself that some form of determinism is true, to a sort of " mimicry " where one acts as " one should. " how " one " should act is often determined by an image one has of how one such as oneself ( say, a bank manager, lion tamer, prostitute, etc. ) acts. this image usually corresponds to some sort of social norm, but this does not mean that all acting in accordance with social norms is inauthentic : the main point is the attitude one takes to one ' s own freedom and responsibility, and the extent to which one acts in accordance with this freedom. the other and the look the other ( when written with a capital " o " ) is a concept more properly belonging to phenomenology and its account of intersubjectivity. however, the concept has seen widespread use in existentialist writings, and the conclusions drawn from it differ slightly from the phenomenological accounts. the experience of the other is the experience of another free subject who inhabits the same world as a person does. in its most basic form, it is this experience of the other that constitutes intersubjectivity and objectivity. to clarify, when one experiences someone else, and this other person experiences the world ( the same world that a person experiences ), only from " over there ", the world itself is constituted as objective in that it is something that is " there " as identical for both of the subjects ; a person experiences the other person as experiencing the same as he or she does. this experience of the other ' s look is what is termed the look ( sometimes the gaze ). while this experience, in its basic phenomenological sense, constitutes the world as objective, and oneself as objectively existing subjectivity ( one experiences oneself as seen in the other ' s look in precisely the same way that one experiences the other as seen by him, as subjectivity ), in existentialism, it also acts as a kind of limitation of one ' s freedom. this is because the look tends to objectify what it sees. as such, when one experiences oneself in the look, one doesn ' t experience oneself as nothing ( no


fear, in the case of angst, no such " constructive " measures are possible. the use of the word " nothing " in this context relates both to the inherent insecurity about the consequences of one ' s actions, and to the fact that, in experiencing one ' s freedom as angst, one also realizes that one will be fully responsible for these consequences ; there is no thing in a person ( his or her genes, for instance ) that acts in her or his stead, and that he or she can " blame " if something goes wrong. therefore, not every choice is perceived as having dreadful possible consequences ( and, it can be claimed, human lives would be unbearable if every choice facilitated dread ). however, this doesn ' t change the fact that freedom remains a condition of every action. angst is often described as a drama an adolescent troubles with during their developmental years. despair, in existentialism, is generally defined as a loss of hope. more specifically, it is a loss of hope in reaction to a breakdown in one or more of the defining qualities of one ' s self or identity. if a person is invested in being a particular thing, such as a bus driver or an upstanding citizen, and then finds his being - thing compromised, he would normally be found in state of despair — a hopeless state. for example, a singer who loses her ability to sing may despair if she has nothing else to fall back on, nothing on which to rely for her identity. she finds herself unable to be what defined her being. what sets the existentialist notion of despair apart from the conventional definition is that existentialist despair is a state one is in even when he isn ' t overtly in despair. so long as a person ' s identity depends on qualities that can crumble, he is considered to be in perpetual despair. and as there is, in sartrean terms, no human essence found in conventional reality on which to constitute the individual ' s sense of identity, despair is a universal human condition. as kierkegaard defines it in either / or : " let each one learn what he can ; both of us can learn that a person ’ s unhappiness never lies in his lack of control over external conditions, since this would only make him completely unhappy. " in works of love, he said : when the god - forsaken worldliness of earthly life shuts itself in complacency, the confined air develops poison, the moment gets stuck and stands


this would only make him completely unhappy. " in works of love, he said : when the god - forsaken worldliness of earthly life shuts itself in complacency, the confined air develops poison, the moment gets stuck and stands still, the prospect is lost, a need is felt for a refreshing, enlivening breeze to cleanse the air and dispel the poisonous vapors lest we suffocate in worldliness.... lovingly to hope all things is the opposite of despairingly to hope nothing at all. love hopes all things – yet is never put to shame. to relate oneself expectantly to the possibility of the good is to hope. to relate oneself expectantly to the possibility of evil is to fear. by the decision to choose hope one decides infinitely more than it seems, because it is an eternal decision. p. 246 - 250 opposition to positivism and rationalism existentialists oppose definitions of human beings as primarily rational, and, therefore, oppose positivism and rationalism. existentialism asserts that people actually make decisions based on subjective meaning rather than purely rationally. the rejection of reason as the source of meaning is a common theme of existentialist thought, as is the focus on the feelings of anxiety and dread that we feel in the face of our own radical freedom and our awareness of death. kierkegaard advocated rationality as means to interact with the objective world ( e. g. in the natural sciences ), but when it comes to existential problems, reason is insufficient : " human reason has boundaries ". like kierkegaard, sartre saw problems with rationality, calling it a form of " bad faith ", an attempt by the self to impose structure on a world of phenomena — " the other " — that is fundamentally irrational and random. according to sartre, rationality and other forms of bad faith hinder people from finding meaning in freedom. to try to suppress their feelings of anxiety and dread, people confine themselves within everyday experience, sartre asserts, thereby relinquishing their freedom and acquiescing to being possessed in one form or another by " the look " of " the other " ( i. e. possessed by another person — or at least one ' s idea of that other person ). existentialism and religion an existentialist reading of the bible would demand that the reader recognize that he is an existing subject studying the words more as a recollection of events. this is


least one ' s idea of that other person ). existentialism and religion an existentialist reading of the bible would demand that the reader recognize that he is an existing subject studying the words more as a recollection of events. this is in contrast to looking at a collection of " truths " that are outside and unrelated to the reader, but may develop a sense of reality / god. such a reader is not obligated to follow the commandments as if an external agent is forcing them upon him, but as though they are inside him and guiding him from inside. this is the task kierkegaard takes up when he asks : " who has the more difficult task : the teacher who lectures on earnest things a meteor ' s distance from everyday life — or the learner who should put it to use? " existentialism and nihilism although nihilism and existentialism are distinct philosophies, they are often confused with one another. a primary cause of confusion is that friedrich nietzsche is an important philosopher in both fields, but also the existentialist insistence on the inherent meaninglessness of the world. existentialist philosophers often stress the importance of angst as signifying the absolute lack of any objective ground for action, a move that is often reduced to a moral or an existential nihilism. a pervasive theme in the works of existentialist philosophy, however, is to persist through encounters with the absurd, as seen in camus ' the myth of sisyphus ( " one must imagine sisyphus happy " ), and it is only very rarely that existentialist philosophers dismiss morality or one ' s self - created meaning : kierkegaard regained a sort of morality in the religious ( although he wouldn ' t himself agree that it was ethical ; the religious suspends the ethical ), and sartre ' s final words in being and nothingness are " all these questions, which refer us to a pure and not an accessory ( or impure ) reflection, can find their reply only on the ethical plane. we shall devote to them a future work. " the term " existentialism " was coined by the french, catholic philosopher gabriel marcel in the mid - 1940s. at first, when marcel applied the term to him at a colloquium in 1945, jean - paul sartre rejected it. but later, he changed his mind and, on october 29, 1945, publicly adopted the existentialist label in a lecture to the club maintenant in


him at a colloquium in 1945, jean - paul sartre rejected it. but later, he changed his mind and, on october 29, 1945, publicly adopted the existentialist label in a lecture to the club maintenant in paris. the lecture was published as l ' existentialisme est un humanisme ( existentialism is a humanism ), a short book that did much to popularize existentialist thought. some scholars argue that the term should be used only to refer to the cultural movement in europe in the 1940s and 1950s associated with the works of the philosophers jean - paul sartre, simone de beauvoir, maurice merleau - ponty, and albert camus. other scholars extend the term to kierkegaard, and yet others extend it as far back as socrates. however, the term is often identified with the philosophical views of jean - paul sartre. kierkegaard and nietzsche søren kierkegaard and friedrich nietzsche were two of the first philosophers considered fundamental to the existentialist movement, though neither used the term " existentialism " and it is unclear whether they would have supported the existentialism of the 20th century. they focused on subjective human experience rather than the objective truths of mathematics and science, which they believed were too detached or observational to truly get at the human experience. like pascal, they were interested in people ' s quiet struggle with the apparent meaninglessness of life and the use of diversion to escape from boredom. unlike pascal, kierkegaard and nietzsche also considered the role of making free choices, particularly regarding fundamental values and beliefs, and how such choices change the nature and identity of the chooser. kierkegaard ' s knight of faith and nietzsche ' s ubermensch are representative of people who exhibit freedom, in that they define the nature of their own existence. nietzsche ' s idealized individual invents his or her own values and creates the very terms they excel under. by contrast, kierkegaard, opposed to the level of abstraction in hegel, and not nearly as hostile ( actually welcoming ) to christianity as nietzsche, argues through a pseudonym that the objective certainty of religious truths ( specifically christian ) is not only impossible, but even founded on logical paradoxes. yet he continues to imply that a leap of faith is a possible means for an individual to reach a higher stage of existence that transcends and contains both an aesthetic and ethical value of life. kierkegaard and nietzsche were also


paradoxes. yet he continues to imply that a leap of faith is a possible means for an individual to reach a higher stage of existence that transcends and contains both an aesthetic and ethical value of life. kierkegaard and nietzsche were also precursors to other intellectual movements, including postmodernism, and various strands of psychology. however, kierkegaard believed that an individual should live in accordance with his or her thinking. this point of view is forced upon religious individuals much more often than upon philosophers, psychologists, or scientists. the first important literary author also important to existentialism was the russian fyodor dostoyevsky. dostoyevsky ' s notes from underground portrays a man unable to fit into society and unhappy with the identities he creates for himself. jean - paul sartre, in his book on existentialism existentialism is a humanism, quoted dostoyevsky ' s the brothers karamazov as an example of existential crisis. sartre attributes ivan karamazov ' s claim, " if god did not exist, everything would be permitted " to dostoyevsky himself. other dostoyevsky novels covered issues raised in existentialist philosophy while presenting story lines divergent from secular existentialism : for example, in crime and punishment, the protagonist raskolnikov experiences an existential crisis and then moves toward a christian orthodox worldview similar to that advocated by dostoyevsky himself. early 20th century in the first decades of the 20th century, a number of philosophers and writers explored existentialist ideas. the spanish philosopher miguel de unamuno y jugo, in his 1913 book the tragic sense of life in men and nations, emphasized the life of " flesh and bone " as opposed to that of abstract rationalism. unamuno rejected systematic philosophy in favor of the individual ' s quest for faith. he retained a sense of the tragic, even absurd nature of the quest, symbolized by his enduring interest in cervantes ' fictional character don quixote. a novelist, poet and dramatist as well as philosophy professor at the university of salamanca, unamuno wrote a short story about a priest ' s crisis of faith, saint manuel the good, martyr, which has been collected in anthologies of existentialist fiction. another spanish thinker, ortega y gasset, writing in 1914, held that human existence must always be defined as the individual person combined with the concrete circumstances of his life : " yo soy yo y mis circunstancias " (


. another spanish thinker, ortega y gasset, writing in 1914, held that human existence must always be defined as the individual person combined with the concrete circumstances of his life : " yo soy yo y mis circunstancias " ( " i am myself and my circumstances " ). sartre likewise believed that human existence is not an abstract matter, but is always situated, also many thought his plays were absurd ( " en situacion " ). although martin buber wrote his major philosophical works in german, and studied and taught at the universities of berlin and frankfurt, he stands apart from the mainstream of german philosophy. born into a jewish family in vienna in 1878, he was also a scholar of jewish culture and involved at various times in zionism and hasidism. in 1938, he moved permanently to jerusalem. his best - known philosophical work was the short book i and thou, published in 1922. for buber, the fundamental fact of human existence, too readily overlooked by scientific rationalism and abstract philosophical thought, is " man with man ", a dialogue that takes place in the so - called " sphere of between " ( " das zwischenmenschliche " ). two ukrainian / russian thinkers, lev shestov and nikolai berdyaev, became well known as existentialist thinkers during their post - revolutionary exiles in paris. shestov, born into a ukrainian - jewish family in kiev, had launched an attack on rationalism and systematization in philosophy as early as 1905 in his book of aphorisms all things are possible. berdyaev, also from kiev but with a background in the eastern orthodox church, drew a radical distinction between the world of spirit and the everyday world of objects. human freedom, for berdyaev, is rooted in the realm of spirit, a realm independent of scientific notions of causation. to the extent the individual human being lives in the objective world, he is estranged from authentic spiritual freedom. " man " is not to be interpreted naturalistically, but as a being created in god ' s image, an originator of free, creative acts. he published a major work on these themes, the destiny of man, in 1931. gabriel marcel, long before coining the term " existentialism ", introduced important existentialist themes to a french audience in his early essay " existence and objectivity " ( 1925 ) and in his metaphysical journal ( 1927 ). a dramatist as well as a philosopher, marcel found his philosophical starting point in a


, introduced important existentialist themes to a french audience in his early essay " existence and objectivity " ( 1925 ) and in his metaphysical journal ( 1927 ). a dramatist as well as a philosopher, marcel found his philosophical starting point in a condition of metaphysical alienation : the human individual searching for harmony in a transient life. harmony, for marcel, was to be sought through " secondary reflection ", a " dialogical " rather than " dialectical " approach to the world, characterized by " wonder and astonishment " and open to the " presence " of other people and of god rather than merely to " information " about them. for marcel, such presence implied more than simply being there ( as one thing might be in the presence of another thing ) ; it connoted " extravagant " availability, and the willingness to put oneself at the disposal of the other. marcel contrasted secondary reflection with abstract, scientific - technical primary reflection, which he associated with the activity of the abstract cartesian ego. for marcel, philosophy was a concrete activity undertaken by a sensing, feeling human being incarnate — embodied — in a concrete world. although jean - paul sartre adopted the term " existentialism " for his own philosophy in the 1940s, marcel ' s thought has been described as " almost diametrically opposed " to that of sartre. unlike sartre, marcel was a christian, and became a catholic convert in 1929. in germany, the psychologist and philosopher karl jaspers — who later described existentialism as a " phantom " created by the public — called his own thought, heavily influenced by kierkegaard and nietzsche, existenzphilosophie. for jaspers, " existenz - philosophy is the way of thought by means of which man seeks to become himself... this way of thought does not cognize objects, but elucidates and makes actual the being of the thinker. " jaspers, a professor at the university of heidelberg, was acquainted with martin heidegger, who held a professorship at marburg before acceding to husserl ' s chair at freiburg in 1928. they held many philosophical discussions, but later became estranged over heidegger ' s support of national socialism. they shared an admiration for kierkegaard, and in the 1930s, heidegger lectured extensively on nietzsche. nevertheless, the extent to which heidegger should be considered an existentialist is debatable. in being and time he presented a method of rooting philosophical explanations


freedom trilogy had appeared, as had beauvoir ' s novel the blood of others. works by camus and sartre were already appearing in foreign editions. the paris - based existentialists had become famous. sartre had traveled to germany in 1930 to study the phenomenology of edmund husserl and martin heidegger, and he included critical comments on their work in his major treatise being and nothingness. heidegger ' s thought had also become known in french philosophical circles through its use by alexandre kojeve in explicating hegel in a series of lectures given in paris in the 1930s. the lectures were highly influential ; members of the audience included not only sartre and merleau - ponty, but raymond queneau, georges bataille, louis althusser, andre breton, and jacques lacan. a selection from heidegger ' s being and time was published in french in 1938, and his essays began to appear in french philosophy journals. heidegger read sartre ' s work and was initially impressed, commenting : " here for the first time i encountered an independent thinker who, from the foundations up, has experienced the area out of which i think. your work shows such an immediate comprehension of my philosophy as i have never before encountered. " later, however, in response to a question posed by his french follower jean beaufret, heidegger distanced himself from sartre ' s position and existentialism in general in his letter on humanism. heidegger ' s reputation continued to grow in france during the 1950s and 1960s. in the 1960s, sartre attempted to reconcile existentialism and marxism in his work critique of dialectical reason. a major theme throughout his writings was freedom and responsibility. camus was a friend of sartre, until their falling - out, and wrote several works with existential themes including the rebel, the stranger, the myth of sisyphus, and summer in algiers. camus, like many others, rejected the existentialist label, and considered his works to be concerned with facing the absurd. in the titular book, camus uses the analogy of the greek myth of sisyphus to demonstrate the futility of existence. in the myth, sisyphus is condemned for eternity to roll a rock up a hill, but when he reaches the summit, the rock will roll to the bottom again. camus believes that this existence is pointless but that sisyphus ultimately finds meaning and purpose in his task,


is condemned for eternity to roll a rock up a hill, but when he reaches the summit, the rock will roll to the bottom again. camus believes that this existence is pointless but that sisyphus ultimately finds meaning and purpose in his task, simply by continually applying himself to it. the first half of the book contains an extended rebuttal of what camus took to be existentialist philosophy in the works of kierkegaard, shestov, heidegger, and jaspers. simone de beauvoir, an important existentialist who spent much of her life as sartre ' s partner, wrote about feminist and existentialist ethics in her works, including the second sex and the ethics of ambiguity. although often overlooked due to her relationship with sartre, de beauvoir integrated existentialism with other forms of thinking such as feminism, unheard of at the time, resulting in alienation from fellow writers such as camus. paul tillich, an important existentialist theologian following kierkegaard and karl barth, applied existentialist concepts to christian theology, and helped introduce existential theology to the general public. his seminal work the courage to be follows kierkegaard ' s analysis of anxiety and life ' s absurdity, but puts forward the thesis that modern humans must, via god, achieve selfhood in spite of life ' s absurdity. rudolf bultmann used kierkegaard ' s and heidegger ' s philosophy of existence to demythologize christianity by interpreting christian mythical concepts into existentialist concepts. maurice merleau - ponty, an existential phenomenologist, was for a time a companion of sartre. his understanding of husserl ' s phenomenology was far greater than that of merleau - ponty ' s fellow existentialists. [ vague ] it has been said that his work humanism and terror greatly influenced sartre. however, in later years they were to disagree irreparably, dividing many existentialists such as de beauvoir, who sided with sartre. colin wilson, an english writer, published his study the outsider in 1956, initially to critical acclaim. in this book and others ( e. g. introduction to the new existentialism ), he attempted to reinvigorate what he perceived as a pessimistic philosophy and bring it to a wider audience. he was not, however, academically trained, and his work was attacked by professional philosophers for


new existentialism ), he attempted to reinvigorate what he perceived as a pessimistic philosophy and bring it to a wider audience. he was not, however, academically trained, and his work was attacked by professional philosophers for lack of rigor and critical standards. influence outside philosophy film and television the french director jean genet ' s 1950 fantasy - erotic film un chant d ' amour shows two inmates in solitary cells whose only contact is through a hole in their cell wall, who are spied on by the prison warden. reviewer james travers calls the film a, "... visual poem evoking homosexual desire and existentialist suffering, " which "... conveys the bleakness of an existence in a godless universe with painful believability " ; he calls it "... probably the most effective fusion of existentialist philosophy and cinema. " stanley kubrick ' s 1957 anti - war film paths of glory " illustrates, and even illuminates... existentialism " by examining the " necessary absurdity of the human condition " and the " horror of war ". the film tells the story of a fictional world war i french army regiment ordered to attack an impregnable german stronghold ; when the attack fails, three soldiers are chosen at random, court - martialed by a " kangaroo court ", and executed by firing squad. the film examines existentialist ethics, such as the issue of whether objectivity is possible and the " problem of authenticity ". neon genesis evangelion, commonly referred to as evangelion or eva, is a japanese science - fiction animation series created by the anime studio gainax and was both directed and written by hideaki anno. existential themes of individuality, consciousness, freedom, choice, and responsibility are heavily relied upon throughout the entire series, particularly through the philosophies of jean - paul sartre and søren kierkegaard. episode 16 ' s title, " the sickness unto death, and … " ( に る 、 そして shi ni itaru yamai, soshite ) is a reference to kierkegaard ' s book, the sickness unto death. on the lighter side, the british comedy troupe monty python have explored existentialist themes throughout their works, from many of the sketches in their original television show, monty python ' s flying circus, to their 1983 film monty python ' s the meaning of life. some contemporary films dealing with


comedy troupe monty python have explored existentialist themes throughout their works, from many of the sketches in their original television show, monty python ' s flying circus, to their 1983 film monty python ' s the meaning of life. some contemporary films dealing with existentialist issues include fight club, i ♥ huckabees, waking life, the matrix, ordinary people, and life in a day. likewise, films throughout the 20th century such as the seventh seal, ikiru, taxi driver, harold and maude, high noon, easy rider, one flew over the cuckoo ' s nest, a clockwork orange, groundhog day, apocalypse now, badlands, and blade runner also have existentialist qualities. the matrix has been compared with another movie, dark city where the issues of identity and reality are raised. in dark city, the inhabitants of the city are situated in a world controlled by demiurges, much like the prisoners in plato ' s cave, in which prisoners see a world of shadows reflected onto a cave wall, rather than the world as it actually is. notable directors known for their existentialist films include ingmar bergman, francois truffaut, jean - luc godard, michelangelo antonioni, akira kurosawa, terrence malick, stanley kubrick, andrei tarkovsky, hideaki anno, wes anderson, woody allen, and christopher nolan. charlie kaufman ' s synecdoche, new york focuses on the protagonist ' s desire to find existential meaning. similarly, in kurosawa ' s red beard, the protagonist ' s experiences as an intern in a rural health clinic in japan lead him to an existential crisis whereby he questions his reason for being. this, in turn, leads him to a better understanding of humanity. existential perspectives are also found in literature to varying degrees since 1922. louis - ferdinand celine ' s journey to the end of the night ( voyage au bout de la nuit, 1932 ) celebrated by both sartre and beauvoir, contained many of the themes that would be found in later existential literature, and is in some ways, the proto - existential novel. jean - paul sartre ' s 1938 novel nausea was " steeped in existential ideas ", and is considered an accessible way of grasping his philosophical stance. between 1910 and 1960, other authors such as albert camus, franz kafka, rainer maria rilke, t. s. eliot, herman hesse and jack kerouac, composed literature or poetry that contained


way of grasping his philosophical stance. between 1910 and 1960, other authors such as albert camus, franz kafka, rainer maria rilke, t. s. eliot, herman hesse and jack kerouac, composed literature or poetry that contained, to varying degrees, elements of existential or proto - existential thought. since the late 1960s, a great deal of cultural activity in literature contains postmodernist as well as existential elements. books such as do androids dream of electric sheep? ( 1968 ) ( now republished as blade runner ) by philip k. dick, slaughterhouse - five by kurt vonnegut, and fight club by chuck palahniuk all distort the line between reality and appearance while simultaneously espousing existential themes. ideas from such writers as fyodor dostoyevsky, michel foucault, franz kafka, friedrich nietzsche, søren kierkegaard, herbert marcuse, gilles deleuze, arthur schopenhauer, and eduard von hartmann permeate the works of modern novelists such as chuck palahniuk, crispin glover, and charles bukowski, and one often finds in their works a delicate balance between distastefulness and beauty. jean - paul sartre wrote no exit in 1944, an existentialist play originally published in french as huis clos ( meaning in camera or " behind closed doors " ), which is the source of the popular quote, " hell is other people. " ( in french, " l ' enfer, c ' est les autres " ). the play begins with a valet leading a man into a room that the audience soon realizes is in hell. eventually he is joined by two women. after their entry, the valet leaves and the door is shut and locked. all three expect to be tortured, but no torturer arrives. instead, they realize they are there to torture each other, which they do effectively by probing each other ' s sins, desires, and unpleasant memories. existentialist themes are displayed in the theatre of the absurd, notably in samuel beckett ' s waiting for godot, in which two men divert themselves while they wait expectantly for someone ( or something ) named godot who never arrives. they claim godot to be an acquaintance, but in fact hardly know him, admitting they would not recognize him if they saw him. samuel beckett, once asked who or what godot is, replied, " if i knew, i would have said so


claim godot to be an acquaintance, but in fact hardly know him, admitting they would not recognize him if they saw him. samuel beckett, once asked who or what godot is, replied, " if i knew, i would have said so in the play. " to occupy themselves, the men eat, sleep, talk, argue, sing, play games, exercise, swap hats, and contemplate suicide — anything " to hold the terrible silence at bay ". the play " exploits several archetypal forms and situations, all of which lend themselves to both comedy and pathos. " the play also illustrates an attitude toward human experience on earth : the poignancy, oppression, camaraderie, hope, corruption, and bewilderment of human experience that can be reconciled only in the mind and art of the absurdist. the play examines questions such as death, the meaning of human existence and the place of god in human existence. tom stoppard ' s rosencrantz & guildenstern are dead is an absurdist tragicomedy first staged at the edinburgh festival fringe in 1966. the play expands upon the exploits of two minor characters from shakespeare ' s hamlet. comparisons have also been drawn to samuel beckett ' s waiting for godot, for the presence of two central characters who almost appear to be two halves of a single character. many plot features are similar as well : the characters pass time by playing questions, impersonating other characters, and interrupting each other or remaining silent for long periods of time. the two characters are portrayed as two clowns or fools in a world that is beyond their understanding. they stumble through philosophical arguments while not realizing the implications, and muse on the irrationality and randomness of the world. jean anouilh ' s antigone also presents arguments founded on existentialist ideas. it is a tragedy inspired by greek mythology and the play of the same name ( antigone, by sophocles ) from the 5th century bc. in english, it is often distinguished from its antecedent by being pronounced in its original french form, approximately " ante - gon. " the play was first performed in paris on 6 february 1944, during the nazi occupation of france. produced under nazi censorship, the play is purposefully ambiguous with regards to the rejection of authority ( represented by antigone ) and the acceptance of it ( represented by creon ). the parallels to the french resistance and the nazi occupation have been drawn. antigone rejects


the play is purposefully ambiguous with regards to the rejection of authority ( represented by antigone ) and the acceptance of it ( represented by creon ). the parallels to the french resistance and the nazi occupation have been drawn. antigone rejects life as desperately meaningless but without affirmatively choosing a noble death. the crux of the play is the lengthy dialogue concerning the nature of power, fate, and choice, during which antigone says that she is, "... disgusted with [ the ]... promise of a humdrum happiness. " she states that she would rather die than live a mediocre existence. critic martin esslin in his book theatre of the absurd pointed out how many contemporary playwrights such as samuel beckett, eugene ionesco, jean genet, and arthur adamov wove into their plays the existentialist belief that we are absurd beings loose in a universe empty of real meaning. esslin noted that many of these playwrights demonstrated the philosophy better than did the plays by sartre and camus. though most of such playwrights, subsequently labeled " absurdist " ( based on esslin ' s book ), denied affiliations with existentialism and were often staunchly anti - philosophical ( for example ionesco often claimed he identified more with ' pataphysics or with surrealism than with existentialism ), the playwrights are often linked to existentialism based on esslin ' s observation. psychoanalysis and psychotherapy a major offshoot of existentialism as a philosophy is existentialist psychology and psychoanalysis, which first crystallized in the work of otto rank, freud ' s closest associate for 20 years. without awareness of the writings of rank, ludwig binswanger was influenced by freud, edmund husserl, heidegger, and sartre. a later figure was viktor frankl, who briefly met freud and studied with jung as a young man. his logotherapy can be regarded as a form of existentialist therapy. the existentialists would also influence social psychology, antipositivist micro - sociology, symbolic interactionism, and post - structuralism, with the work of thinkers such as georg simmel and michel foucault. foucault was a great reader of kierkegaard even though he almost never refers this author, who nonetheless had for him an importance as secret as it was decisive. an early contributor to existentialist psychology in the united states was rollo may, who was strongly influenced by


of kierkegaard even though he almost never refers this author, who nonetheless had for him an importance as secret as it was decisive. an early contributor to existentialist psychology in the united states was rollo may, who was strongly influenced by kierkegaard and otto rank. one of the most prolific writers on techniques and theory of existentialist psychology in the usa is irvin d. yalom. yalom states that aside from their reaction against freud ' s mechanistic, deterministic model of the mind and their assumption of a phenomenological approach in therapy, the existentialist analysts have little in common and have never been regarded as a cohesive ideological school. these thinkers - who include ludwig binswanger, medard boss, eugene minkowski, v. e. gebsattel, roland kuhn, g. caruso, f. t. buytendijk, g. bally and victor frankl - were almost entirely unknown to the american psychotherapeutic community until rollo may ' s highly influential 1985 book existence - and especially his introductory essay - introduced their work into this country. a more recent contributor to the development of a european version of existentialist psychotherapy is the british - based emmy van deurzen. anxiety ' s importance in existentialism makes it a popular topic in psychotherapy. therapists often offer existentialist philosophy as an explanation for anxiety. the assertion is that anxiety is manifested of an individual ' s complete freedom to decide, and complete responsibility for the outcome of such decisions. psychotherapists using an existentialist approach believe that a patient can harness his anxiety and use it constructively. instead of suppressing anxiety, patients are advised to use it as grounds for change. by embracing anxiety as inevitable, a person can use it to achieve his full potential in life. humanistic psychology also had major impetus from existentialist psychology and shares many of the fundamental tenets. terror management theory, based on the writings of ernest becker and otto rank, is a developing area of study within the academic study of psychology. it looks at what researchers claim to be the implicit emotional reactions of people confronted with the knowledge that they will eventually die. logical positivist philosophers, such as rudolf carnap and alfred ayer, assert that existentialists are often confused about the verb " to be " in their analyses of " being ". specifically, they argue that the verb is transitive and pre - fixed to a predicate ( e


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history of writing in vietnam until the beginning of the 20th century, government and scholarly documents in vietnam were written in classical chinese ( called chu nho " confucian script, " or chu han " chinese script " ), using chinese characters with vietnamese approximation of chinese pronunciations. at the same time popular novels and poetry in vietnamese were written in the chu nom script, which used chinese characters for sino - vietnamese vocabulary and an adapted set of characters for the native vocabulary. the terms chu han ( " han script " ) and chu nho ( pronounced [ ɲɔ ] " confucian script " ) are largely interchangeable. both mean writing of chinese in chinese characters. however in modern vietnamese usage chu han can also refer to characters in the modern chinese or japanese languages - for example in reference by the journal of the linguistics academy of vietnam to the introduction of pinyin in the prc in 1958. the term chu ( " character " ) is in regular use in vietnamese, for example " chu thap " means the chinese " 10 " character ( 十, vietnamese thap, used as the " cross " in chu thap đo " red cross " ). the ideogram for chu ( " script " ) is normally not found in chinese printed texts and unicode character 21a38 may also may fail to display in html browsers ) and is sometimes substituted by the character for tu ( " character " ), the characters nho ( " confucian " ) and han ( 漢 ) are part of the common chinese - japanese - korean - sinovietnamese character set. chu nho is often capitalized in vietnamese texts. nho is written and pronounced with a different tone from chu nho, " miniscule font ". the term han tu ( [ haːn ] 漢, " a chinese character " ) is mainly used in typographic, calligraphic and lexical contexts, and used in vietnamese to describe sino - vietnamese characters, as well as japanese kanji or modern chinese hanzi. the term han tu is still used in relation to individual ideograms, ( or chinese hanzi or japanese kanji ) ; an individual character is distinguished as " chu, " for example " chu vat ( ) " for the chinese character " thing " ( ) pronounced " vat " in vietnamese. han - viet or " sino - vietnamese " is a term which is used by modern scholars in relation to vietnam ' s chinese - language texts to


) " for the chinese character " thing " ( ) pronounced " vat " in vietnamese. han - viet or " sino - vietnamese " is a term which is used by modern scholars in relation to vietnam ' s chinese - language texts to emphasize local characteristics and particularly the phonology of the chinese written in vietnam, though in regard to syntax and vocabulary this sino - vietnamese was no more different from chinese used in beijing than medieval english latin was different from the latin of rome. the term " han - viet transliteration " is also used for chinese place names in vietnam. the term chu nom ( " script for talking " ) refers to the former transcription system for vernacular vietnamese - language texts, written using a mixture of original chinese characters and locally coined nom characters not found in chinese to phonetically represent vietnamese sounds. " however the character set for chu nom is extensive, up to 20, 000, and both arbitrary in composition and inconsistent in pronunciation. han - nom may mean either both han and nom taken together, as in the research remit of hanoi ' s han - nom institute, or refer to texts which are written in a mixture of han and nom, or refer to some han texts with parallel nom translations. there is a significant orthographic overlap between han and nom and many characters are used in both han and nom with the same reading. the term quoc ngu ( 國 語 " national language " ) means vietnamese written in romanized script. this is different from the historical term quoc am ( 國 " national sound " ) meaning chu nom, found in the title of the 16th century poetry collection quoc am thi tap. the chinese domination no writings in chinese by vietnamese writers survive from the chinese domination. in imperial vietnam ( 939 - 1919 ), formal writings were, in most cases, done in classical chinese. this was true both of the language of government and administration, and also of entry into government and administration by the wholly chinese - language confucian examination system in vietnam. chinese was also the language of medicine, astrology, religion, science and high literature such as poetry. vietnamese existed only as an oral language, before the creation of the nom script to preserve and circulate less serious poetry and narrative literature. these writings are indistinguishable from contemporaneous classical chinese works produced in china, korea, or japan. as are the first poems in chu nho by the monk khuong viet and


less serious poetry and narrative literature. these writings are indistinguishable from contemporaneous classical chinese works produced in china, korea, or japan. as are the first poems in chu nho by the monk khuong viet and the nam quoc son ha by general ly thuong kiet. localisation and sino - xenic pronunciation in vietnam chinese text han van ( han van / 漢 文 ) was read with the vocalization of chinese text as such, equivalent to the chinese on - readings in japanese kambun ( 漢 文 ), or the assimilated vocalizations in korean hanmun ( 한문 ). this occuring alongside entry of sino - vietnamese vocabulary into the vernacular vietnamese language. and creating, in samuel martin ' s term, a sinoxenic dialect. the sinologist edwin g. pulleyblank was the one of the first linguists to actively employ " sino - vietnamese " to recover the earlier history of chinese. period of coexistence of two languages and two scripts from the 13th century the dominance of chinese writing - chu nho - began to be challenged by a system of modified and invented characters modeled loosely on chinese characters called chu nom, which, unlike the system of chu nho ( or chu han ), allowed for the expression of purely vietnamese words, was created in vietnam at least as early as the 13th century. during the ming dynasty occupation of vietnam chu nom printing blocks, texts and inscriptions were destroyed, so that the earliest surviving texts are from after the period. while designed for native vietnamese speakers, chu nom required the user to have a fair knowledge of chu han, and thus chu nom was used primarily for literary writings by cultural elites ( such as the poetry of nguyen du and ho xuan huong ), while almost all other official writings and documents continued to be written in chu nho ( or chu han ) as han van ( classical chinese ) until the 20th century. french colonial period the use of classical chinese, and its written form, chu nho ( or chu han ), died out in vietnam early in the 20th century during the middle years of french indochina. at this time there were briefly four competing writing systems in vietnam ; chu nho, chu nom, quoc ngu, and french. although the first romanized script quoc ngu newspaper, gia dinh bao, was founded in 1865, vietnamese nationalists continued to use chu nom until after the first world war when quoc


chu nom, quoc ngu, and french. although the first romanized script quoc ngu newspaper, gia dinh bao, was founded in 1865, vietnamese nationalists continued to use chu nom until after the first world war when quoc ngu became the favoured language of the vietnamese independence movement. some scholars still study it today although its application is mostly confined to the historic context of vietnamese texts. use of quoc ngu for education in both north and south vietnam from 1945 - 1975, and then all of vietnam since 1975, has rendered most vietnamese unable to read earlier vietnamese texts, whether written in chinese chu nho, or vernacular chu nom. han nom institute is the national centre for academic research into both han and nom texts. since the mid - 1990s a small resurgence in teaching of chinese characters, both for chu nho and the additional characters used in chu nom, to enable the study of vietnam ' s history has emerged. additionally many vietnamese study han tu characters as part of learning modern japanese and chinese. the significance of the characters has occasionally entered western depiction of vietnam ; for instance novelist e. m. nathanson mentions the characters in a dirty distant war ( 1987 ). - asian & pacific quarterly of cultural and social affairs - volumes 20 - 21 cultural and social centre for the asian and pacific region 1988 - page 7 "... known script that was used by the vietnamese, the " southerners, " to transcribe their language, in contrast to the chinese ideographs ( called chu han i. e., " chinese script, " or chu nho i. e. " confucian script " ) of the " northerners, " the chinese. " - vietnam 10 - page 522 nick ray, yu - mei balasingamchow, iain stewart - 2009 " for centuries, the vietnamese language was written in standard chinese characters ( chu nho ). around the 13th century, the vietnamese devised their own writing system called chu nom ( or just nom ), which was created by combining two chinese words or by using single chinese characters for their phonetic value. both writing systems were in use until the 20th century – official business and scholarship was conducted in chu nho, while chu nom was used for popular literature. the latin - based quoc ngu script, widely used since wwi, was developed in the 17th century by alexandre de rhodes ( see the boxed text, right ). quoc ngu served to undermine the position of mandarin officials, whose


. the latin - based quoc ngu script, widely used since wwi, was developed in the 17th century by alexandre de rhodes ( see the boxed text, right ). quoc ngu served to undermine the position of mandarin officials, whose power was based on traditional scholarship in chu nho and chu nom, scripts that were largely inaccessible to the masses. " - nguyen đinh hoa vietnamese london oriental and african language library vol. 9. john benjamins publishing company 1997 page 6 " 1. 7 writing systems - the language has made use of three different writing systems : first, the chinese characters,... 1. 7. 1 chu nho or chu han - chinese written symbols, shared with japanese and korean — the two other asian cultures that were... indeed from the early days of chinese rule ( 111 b. c. to a. d. 939 ) the chinese governors taught the vietnamese not only chinese calligraphy, but also the texts of chinese history, philosophy and classical literature ( while the spoken language... " - ngon ngu & đoi song ( language and life magazine ) hoi ngon ngu hoc viet nam ( linguistics academy of vietnam ) 2006 nos 125 / 134 - page 35 - " phien am tu mau " la bo chu cai la tinh dung đe chu am ( pho thong ) cho chu han, đuoc chinh phu trung quoc cong bo nam 1958. " translation " pinyin zibiao " is the latin alphabet used to give the pronunciation ( putonghua ) to chinese kanji, promulgated by the chinese government in 1958. - unicode character 21a38 - ai nguyen, tu đien cong nghe thong tin đien tu vien thong anh - viet english - vietnamese information technology dictionary. nha xuat ban khoa hoc va ky thuat ban tu đien. science and technology publishing house 2000 page 838 "... minuscule chu nho, chu thuong trong in an, ky tu thuong. " - effective designs of the computer - assisted chinese learning program for beginning learners of chinese characters mt lu, g hallman, j black 2010 " a character is a logograph used in written taiwanese ( hanji ), written japanese ( kanji ), written chinese ( hanzi ), written korean ( hanja ), and written vietnamese ( han tu ). a logograph is a grapheme which represents a word or a mor