' t die and you also know that when you take your shirt off even though you may hear the sparks that that ' s not lethal. so maybe in a future lecture we can discuss in some more details what it does take to actually execute someone electrically which is very unpleasant but nevertheless we would have to evaluate how long the current should last, how strong the current should be and then also during which parts of the body the current would cause lethal reactions. so i want to be a little bit more quantitative now uh and deepen our knowledge of the van de graaff. slowly we ' re going to understand how the van de graaff works. and today i want to calculate with you how much charge we can put on the van de graaff and what the maximum potential is at the surface. if we charge up the van de graaff, with charge q, then the potential of the surface is an equipotential, is q divided by 4 pi epsilon 0 r. and the electric field right here at the surface would be q divided by 4 pi epsilon 0 r squared. so in this case of spherical symmetry we have that the potential v equals e times r. but we know that e cannot exceed 3 million volts per meter. and so that gives you now a limit on the potential that we can give the van de graaff. so if you substitute in here 3 million volts per meter you can calculate what potential you can maximally reach for a given sphere with a given radius. and if we here have the radius and we here have the voltage, then if the radius of the sphere were 3 millimeters then you could not exceed a voltage of 10 kilovolts. if you did you would get this automatic electric breakdown. you would get a spark. if you have a sphere of 3 centimeters that would be 100 kilovolts and our van de graaff, which has a radius of 30 centimeters, would therefore be 1 million volts. and you could not exceed that. and in practice in fact this one doesn ' t even make it to 1 million volts. the sphere is not perfect. there are imperfections of the sphere. there are areas which have so - to - speak sharp points and so we won ' t make it to 1 million volts. we get a breakdown maybe at a few hundred thousand, maybe 300000 volts. you can now also calculate what the maximum charge is on the van de graaff. because if the maximum potential is 300000 vol


to 1 million volts. we get a breakdown maybe at a few hundred thousand, maybe 300000 volts. you can now also calculate what the maximum charge is on the van de graaff. because if the maximum potential is 300000 volts, you know the radius is. 3 meters, so you can calculate now what the maximum charge is that you can put on the van de graaff using that equation, will give you 10 microcoulombs. and so the maximum potential for our van de graaff is of the order of 300000 volts. so this gives you now a feeling, a quantitative feeling, for numbers, for what the - - can i put this down? so that gives you an idea of what our van de graaff can do, and later we will understand how the charge gets there. but at least you have some feeling now for potentials, and for the charges that are involved. if here ' s my van de graaff and i approach the van de graaff with a sphere which is connected to the earth and if this van de graaff had positive charge on it then the sphere will become negatively charged through induction and so you get field lines which go from the van de graaff to this object, always perpendicular to the equipotentials, so they go like this, and so the electric field here will probably be the strongest, and so the spark will then develop between this sphere and the van de graaff provided that you were close enough. so that you do achieve a electric field close to this sphere of about 3 million volts per meter. and i will show you that later, you will see more sparks today than you ' ve ever seen before in your life, but i want you to appreciate a little bit more about the sparks about lightning before uh i demonstrate that. so you get a little bit more out of it. if i approach the van de graaff not with the sphere but i would walk to the van de graaff being very courageous like this, i ' m also a pretty good conductor, i ' m also connected with the earth, then the chances are that the spark would develop first between my nose and the van de graaff, because that is the smallest curve, the sharpest curvature, the smallest radius, or certainly my head, would be a good candidate for being hit first. if i approach the van de graaff like this with my hand stretched, then chances are of course that


the smallest curve, the sharpest curvature, the smallest radius, or certainly my head, would be a good candidate for being hit first. if i approach the van de graaff like this with my hand stretched, then chances are of course that the sparks will first develop between my fingertips. because it ' s a very small radius and they ' re very close to the vandegraaff, and so that ' s where the discharge will occur. so before we will enjoy some of this, you will enjoy it, i will enjoy it less, um i want to talk a little bit about lightning with you first. because what you ' re going to see in a way is a form of lightning. there are 400000 thunderstorms every day on average on earth. there are about 100 lightning flashes every second. the top of a thundercloud becomes positive and the bottom becomes negative. the physics of that is not so easy, and probably incomplete, and i will not go into the details of the physics, but it does have to do with the flow of water drops. they become elongated, they can become charged because of friction, and they can break off, and they can transport charge. i will simply give you some facts. and so i will accept the fact that the cloud is going to be charged. this is the cloud. positive at the top, negative at the bottom. and here is the earth. because of induction, the earth of course will therefore become positively charged here, and so we ' re going to see field lines, electric field lines, which go from the earth to the cloud, always perpendicular to the equipotentials, something like this. i ' ll give you some dimensions, uh this may be something like 5 kilometers, this vertical distance d is about 1 kilometer. these are typical numbers, of course, it can vary enormously from thunderstorm to thunderstorm. and this height is something typically like 10 kilometers. and this allows us now to make some very interesting calculations to get some feeling for the potential difference between the cloud and the earth. that ' s the first thing we can do. if we make the simplifying assumption that the electric field is more or less constant here, it ' s like having two parallel plates, where the electric field is constant between them, then the potential difference delta v between the bottom of the cloud and the earth, is simply the electric field times the distance d. so this becomes e times d. but if the breakdown occurs at 3 million vol


the electric field is constant between them, then the potential difference delta v between the bottom of the cloud and the earth, is simply the electric field times the distance d. so this becomes e times d. but if the breakdown occurs at 3 million volts per meter - - by the way that ' s dry air, when it - - when there is a thunderstorm it ' s probably not so dry, but let ' s take the 3 million volts per meter, so we get 3 times 10 to the 6, that is for e, and the distance between the cloud and the earth let ' s take 1 kilometers. so that ' s 10 to the 3rd meters, so we get of the order of 3 billion volts between the earth and the clouds. and the values that are typically measured are several hundred million to 1 billion volts, so it is not all that different. you expect that the potential is probably less than what we have calculated because clearly uh these are not flat surfaces, there are trees, here on the ground, there are buildings on the ground, which are like sharp points, where the electric field will be locally higher, and so you will get a discharge at these sharp points first. and that means the potential difference between the cloud and the earth could then be less than the 3 billion that we have calculated here. it ' s only a back of the envelope calculation. the details of the physics of the discharge very complicated. but i want to share with you some facts without giving detailed explanations. the start of the lightning begins when electrons begin to flow from the cloud to the earth. they form a funnel, which is about 1 to 10 meters in diameter and we call that the step leader. the step leader moves about 100 miles per second and so it comes down in about 5 milliseconds. 5 milliseconds from here to here and it takes about half a coulomb to the earth. half a coulomb, for about 5 milliseconds, that means the current is about 100 amperes. the step leader creates a channel of ionized air, full of ions and full of electrons, which is an extremely good conductor. and with - - when this step leader reaches the ground there is this highly conductive channel and the electrons can now very quickly flow from this channel to the ground. and that starts first right here at the surface of the earth. that ' s where the electrons will first go to the earth. and then successively electrons which are higher up in the channel will


can now very quickly flow from this channel to the ground. and that starts first right here at the surface of the earth. that ' s where the electrons will first go to the earth. and then successively electrons which are higher up in the channel will make it down to the earth. and so you ' re going to see electrons going through the channel to the earth but first the electrons are closer to the earth than the electrons farther away and then even farther away. and this is actually where most of the action occurs. the current is now enormously high, 10000 to some 100000 amperes, and you heat the air, get a tremendous amount of light, the ions recombine and you get pressure, heat can produces pressure, and there comes your thunder. and so most of the action is not in the step leader but is in the second phenomenon, which we call the return stroke. which is from the earth to the cloud. and the speed of that return stroke is about 10 to 20 percent of the speed of light. during the return stroke there is about 5 coulombs exchange between the cloud and the earth, and 5 coulombs is a sizable fraction of the total charge that was on the cloud - - on the cloud the first place - - to start with. after a return stroke, maybe 20 milliseconds later, this whole process can start again. you can get a step leader. and you can get the return stroke. however, the step leader will now follow exactly the same path that was made before because that ' s where the air is ionized so that ' s where the conductivity is very high, so that ' s the easiest way to go. and this process can recur 5, 10, maybe 15 times. so what a - appears to you as one lightning bolt in fact could be 10 flashes back and forth between the cloud and the earth. and the - - the real light is not in the step leader, that ' s very little light, but the real light is in the return strokes. so 10 return strokes, which may be 20, 30, 40 milliseconds apart, appear to you and to me only as one flash, which would take place maybe in as little as a tenth of a second. and during these 5 or 10 return strokes you exchange between the cloud and the earth maybe a total of 25 to 50 coulombs, and that of course will lower the potential difference. and if the potential difference becomes too low then the process stops. you have


these 5 or 10 return strokes you exchange between the cloud and the earth maybe a total of 25 to 50 coulombs, and that of course will lower the potential difference. and if the potential difference becomes too low then the process stops. you have to wait now for the clouds to charge up again. and then lightning will strike again. and that can take anywhere from maybe 4, 5, 10, 20 seconds. and then you get another lightning bolt. the study of these - - of this process, of the step leader and of the return stroke, can be done with a camera, which is called the boys camera. let me first explain to you in detail - - in principle how it works. if this is the area on the film that is exposed by your lens suppose that i move the film at a very high speed to the left and suppose the step leader comes down and it sees some light from the step leader, then i may see on the film this. and from here to here would then be the 5 milliseconds which it takes the step leader to go from the cloud to the earth. now the return stroke takes place with way higher speed and so i see a tremendous amount of light because there ' s a lot of light in the return stroke. and of course this is very steep. because it goes 100 times faster up than the step leader came down. and so you can measure these times and so you can get the speed of the return stroke. and then later in time, maybe 30, 40 seconds later, on the film, you may see another return stroke. and you may see another one. and so you can see then how long the time was between the return strokes and you can also calculate their speeds. with a real camera it ' s not really the film that is moving but it is the - - the lens that is moving, and the way these pictures are taken, and i will show you one, is if this is photographic plate, then it is the camera that moves over the plate with a um very high speed, about 3000 revolutions per minute, and so you would get these - - this information then not horizontally but you get it spread out over the film. but you get the same information, you can calculate speeds and times. during the past decade, new forms of lightning have been discovered which occur way above the clouds. way higher up. red colors have been seen. red sprites they are called. and also blue jets. the light is very faint and it occurs only for a


past decade, new forms of lightning have been discovered which occur way above the clouds. way higher up. red colors have been seen. red sprites they are called. and also blue jets. the light is very faint and it occurs only for a very short amount of time. it ' s very difficult to photograph. i have not been able to get good slides for today. however, i did see some pictures on the web. and when you log into the web, when you visit the web 8. 02 which you should, then i give you directions how to access slides pictures of the red sprites and of the blue jets. the physics of that is not very well understood. it ' s being researched very heavily. but it ' s way above the clouds. there are also other forms of electric breakdown, of discharge. they are different in the sense that it ' s not an individual spark. but there is a continuous flow of - - of - - of charge. it occurs always from very sharp points. so there is a continuous current actually going on. and some of that you may have seen but you may not remember when we used a carbon arc here. we had two carbon arcs, two carbon rods, and we had a potential difference between them and we got a discharge between them which caused a tremendous amount of light, which we used for projection purposes. so a carbon arc discharge is such a form of discharge whereby you have a continuous current. it ' s not just sparks. if you take grass or trees or brushes for that matter, with thunderstorm activity, they can go into this discharge at their sharp tips. and we call this brush discharge, we call it st. elmo ' s fire, it ' s all the same thing, it ' s also called corona discharge. i normally call it corona discharge. it produces light because the ions when they neutralize produce light. heat makes sound, pressure, and so you can hear this cracking noise of the corona discharges. an airplane that flies or a car that drives, there is friction with the air, and any form of friction can charge things up. and so it ' s not uncommon at night that you can see this corona discharge from the tip of the wings of an airplane. i ' ve also seen it from cars. corona discharge from cars. which charge themselves up simply by driving through the air. the air flow would charge them up. you can hear it, cracking, and you can see it sometimes if it ' s dark enough, you see some


from cars. corona discharge from cars. which charge themselves up simply by driving through the air. the air flow would charge them up. you can hear it, cracking, and you can see it sometimes if it ' s dark enough, you see some light. in general it ' s bluish light. something completely on the side, going back to the lightning bolts, lightning bolts, the discharge, the moving electrons, can cause radio waves. and these radio waves you can receive on your car radio. and all of you have experienced this. driving around, lightning very far away, you can hear it on the radio. so that ' s telling you that there is lightning going on somewhere. after a thunderstorm, something that many of you may not have experienced because in the cities there is always - - always exhaust from cars, that spoils everything, but when you ' re out in the country after a thunderstorm there ' s a very special smell in the air. i love it. and that ' s ozone. o2, o2 in lightning becomes o3. and o3 has a wonderful smell, and you can really smell that. it ' s very typical. i hope that most of you sooner or later in life will have that experience. go to the country after a thunderstorm and you can really smell this ozone. let ' s now look at some slides. the first slide that you will see is one very classic slide made by gary ladd, at kitt peak observatory in arizona, uh what i like about this is that uh these are the observatories, the telescopes, in the domes, and of course when you ' re an astronomer, this is the kind of weather that you can do without. but nevertheless it happens. uh you see here return strokes, the light is definitely due to the return strokes, it ' s very bright. these are step l - leaders that never made it to the earth, and if a step leader doesn ' t make it to the earth you don ' t get a return stroke and so the light as you can see here is much less. and what you think here is only one bolt is probably at least 10, 5 to 10, maybe 15, flashes. all right next slide please. here you see the result of a boys camera exposure. for those of you who are sitting in front you can recognize maybe the empire state building here. and the empire state building is hit here by lightning at the very tip, that ' s the sharp edge, that ' s


of a boys camera exposure. for those of you who are sitting in front you can recognize maybe the empire state building here. and the empire state building is hit here by lightning at the very tip, that ' s the sharp edge, that ' s where you expect it to be hit. this is not taken when the camera was rotating. this is just the exposure the way you and i would see it. not moving camera but here you see the result of the rotating boys camera. and this is the same flash. so here you see the return stroke, the - - the light from the step leader is too faint. you can ' t see that. so here is the return stroke and then this time separation may be 30 or 40 milliseconds, see another stroke, you see another one, and another one, so there ' s 6 here, looks like you see a double one here. and so you have 6 or 7 of these return strokes. and this is the way that you can study speeds and how much charge actually is exchanged between these uh between the clouds and in this case the empire state building. uh the next slide shows you a corona discharge in the laboratory this is a high voltage supply with a very sharp tip - - tip here at the end, the sharp point, and here you see not individual sparks, you don ' t call this lightning but this is what you would call the st. elmo ' s fire, the corona discharge is bluish light. and in fact when you are close to this power supply you can also smell the ozone. it also produces locally ozone. and you can see it. if you make it dark in the laboratory you can see some bluish light. uh when i was a graduate student i had to build power supplies, high voltage power supplies, and i remember when my soldering job was not a very good job that means when i take the solder ironing off then i could draw a little sharp point, the solder, and that would then later cause me problems with corona discharge, that means i would have to redo the soldering so that the radius of the solder joint would become larger, so no sharp points. that ' s enough for the slides right now. benjamin franklin invented the lightning rod. his idea was that through the lightning rod you would get a continuous discharge, corona discharge, between the cloud and the building. and therefore you would keep the potential difference low. and so there would be no danger of lightning. and so he advised king george


idea was that through the lightning rod you would get a continuous discharge, corona discharge, between the cloud and the building. and therefore you would keep the potential difference low. and so there would be no danger of lightning. and so he advised king george the third to put these sharp points on the royal palace and on uh powder houses, ammunition, storage places for ammunition. there was a lot of opposition against franklin. uh they argued that uh a lightning rod will only attract lightning. and that the effect of the discharge, lowering the potential difference, would be insignificant. but nevertheless the king followed franklin ' s advice and after the sharp rods, the lightning rods, were placed, there was a lightning bolt that hit one of the ammunition places at pearl fleet, but there was very little damage. and so we now know that on the one hand the discharge is indeed insignificant. and so the opposition was correct. and in fact you do attract lightning, unlike what franklin had hoped for. however, if your lightning rod is thick enough that it can handle the high current, which is 10000 or 100000 amperes, then the current will go through the lightning rod and therefore there will not be an explosion. so it will not hit the building. so it will be confined to the lightning rod. and so it worked but for different reasons than franklin had in mind, but he had the right intuition. was a very great scientist, and great statesman. and so his lightning rod survived up to today. so now i want to return to the van de graaff and show you some of the things that we have discussed. and the first thing that i would want to do is create some sparks. i run the van de graaff and i will approach it with this small sphere, small radius, and as i come closer and closer, the electric field will build up here and then i would predict that if sparks fly over, that they would go between the van de graaff and this uh this sphere. this sphere is grounded. and so any current that will flow will flow not through walter lewin but will go through the ground, so there ' s no danger that anything will happen to me. at least not yet. you already hear some cracking noise. that means there are already sparks flying around inside there. it ' s very hard to avoid, there are always some sharp edges in there that we cannot remove. this is not an ideal instrument. but i still think i will be able to show you some lightning. by coming closer.


around inside there. it ' s very hard to avoid, there are always some sharp edges in there that we cannot remove. this is not an ideal instrument. but i still think i will be able to show you some lightning. by coming closer. there we go. so what you think is only one spark may well be several like these return strokes, the way i described with lightning. so what you ' re seeing here now is that the electric field locally has become larger than 3 million volts per meter and then you ' re going to this discharge phenomenon that we described, and that gives you then - - that gives you the lightning. what i will do now is i would like you to experience - - although it may not be so fascinating for you - - to experience a corona discharge between a very sharp point that i have here, extremely sharp, and the van de graaff. and the only way that i can convince you that there is indeed going to be a discharge between this point and the van de graaff is by approaching the van de graaff and this cracking noise that you hear now will disappear. and the reason why it will disappear is that if i get a corona discharge between the tip and the van de graaff it will drain current, it will lower the potential and so that cracking noise will disappear. so the sparks which are now flying over will not fly over anymore. you will not be able to see the light. it ' s - - there ' s too much light here. although i can probably see at the tip here this blue light. so i ' m going to approach the van de graaff now. it ' s almost as if i had a lightning rod and i ' m not worried at all because if any current starts flowing it goes through this rod, which is like a lightning rod to the earth. so i ' m not worried at all. i just am very brave, very courageous, approaching the v - the van de graaff, and i want you to listen to that cracking noise. that cracking noise will disappear when i ' m going to be - - draw a current through this sharp point. oh, boy, there i go. and the cracking stops. and i can actually see here some glowing discharge, bluish. will be impossible for you to see. i can come closer, i ' m not worried. and so i ' m draining charge now off the van de graaff thereby lowering the potential of the van de graaff and so


bluish. will be impossible for you to see. i can come closer, i ' m not worried. and so i ' m draining charge now off the van de graaff thereby lowering the potential of the van de graaff and so these crazy sparks that occur here can no longer occur. but now they will. can you hear them? and now you can ' t. if i were crazy then i would develop a corona discharge between the van de graaff and myself. one way i could do that is by approach it with my fingertips as i mentioned earlier, but that may be a little bit too dangerous because i may draw a spark, i may be hit by lightning, which is the last thing that i would want today. however, a corona discharge using these tinsels may be less dangerous. so i get a continuous flow of current which now unfortunately doesn ' t go through the lightning rod but now it goes straight through my body. and i can assure you that i can feel that. it ' s probably a very low current. it may be only a few microamperes. but it ' s not funny. it ' s not pleasant. but anything for my students, what the hell. there we go. ya ya ya ya ya. you see tinsels, i ' m now in a corona discharge and i feel the current through my fingers, it ' s a continuous discharge now. this is st. you can ' t h - ah, there was lightning. boy, you got something for your 27000 dollars. so you saw both corona discharge and you saw lightning. boy, you were luckier than the - - than the first class by the way. clearly lightning can be dangerous, lightning can cause a fire, it can excite, it can explode fumes, if you gas your car just the flow of gasoline can charge up the nozzle, friction can charge things up, that ' s why the nozzle is always grounded, because a spark could cause a major explosion. if you fill a balloon with hydrogen then the flow of hydrogen is friction, can charge up the balloon and a spark can then ignite the hydrogen. and this has led to a classic tragic accident, it ' s a long time ago. but it ' s so classic that i really have to show this to you. hitler was very proud of his large airships. they ' re named after graf zeppelin the germans called them the zeppelins, we call them dirigibles or blimps. and


so classic that i really have to show this to you. hitler was very proud of his large airships. they ' re named after graf zeppelin the germans called them the zeppelins, we call them dirigibles or blimps. and one of the largest ones that hitler ' s germany ever built was the hindenburg, 803 feet long and 7 million cubic feet of hydrogen. and the germans couldn ' t fill their zeppelins with helium because they didn ' t have helium. and the americans were not going to sell them helium, for very good reason. and so they had to fill them with hydrogen. and so the hindenburg which was the name of this zeppelin came over in may, 1937 and when it arrived at lakehurst in new jersey it started a gigantic fire. it came over in 35 hours trans - atlantic and you see here the explosion. may 6 at 7 : 25 in the afternoon. there were 45 passengers on board and 35 died in this fire. the speculation was that this may have been sabotage. it ' s still quite possible. although the official inquiry board concluded that it was st. elmo ' s fire, that as the uh ship moored on this mast here, that a spark flew over and that that caused the uh the explosion, the fire. and it was the end of the dirigibles for germany. napoleon, also not the nicest man on earth, uh had the suspicion when many of his soldiers got sick in egypt that this was the result of marsh gas. and they suspected that this bad air that they could smell when they were near marshes that that was the cause of the disease, bad air in french is mal air, and so they called the disease malaria. and so the way that they tested the air to make sure that the soldiers wouldn ' t get malaria was to build a small gun which was like so, this was a conducting barrel. and they would let some of this marsh gas in the gun and put a cork on here, close it off, and here was a sharp pin, this pin was completely insulated from the barrel, the conducting barrel, and then they would put some charge on here, so that the spark would fly over there. this is really the precursor of the spark plug that we have in our cars. it ' s no different. and so if indeed there was then this marsh gas in there, there might be an explosion and that was a warning then that um there may be danger for the soldiers. well, this morning i was walking


our cars. it ' s no different. and so if indeed there was then this marsh gas in there, there might be an explosion and that was a warning then that um there may be danger for the soldiers. well, this morning i was walking through the building and i was in lobby 7 and i smelled some funny, it was a funny smell, and i was just wondering whether perhaps, who knows, at mit anything can happen, whether uh there was some uh some uh gas there that shouldn ' t be there. and so i brought my uh my special gun which is here, which is uh built after napoleon and uh you see here this uh little sphere and i opened up the cork here and i let some of that air in, building 7, and then i decided that we, you and i would do the test and see whether perhaps there was some uh some gas there that uh may cause some danger. so i would have to cause a discharge then inside the - - the barrel here. i can try to do that by combing my hair uh but that may not be sufficient amount of charge so i can always make sure that there will be a spark inside that gun and use this - - this disk. which has a little bit more charge on it. so here is then this uh lobby 7 gas inside. now of course there ' s one possibility that there was nothing wrong with the air, in which case you will see nothing. and there is another possibility that the air wasn ' t kosher enough and that you may see here small bloop and since it ' s going to be very small at best you have to be very quiet otherwise you won ' t hear anything. and so let ' s first try now with my comb. i have my comb here. to see whether i can generate a spark inside this barrel and that may not work because i ' m not sure that i get enough charge on this comb. no, that doesn ' t work at all. well, let ' s see whether we can use this instrument. i sure hope that we won ' t get malaria. see you tomorrow.


follow this step by step crochet tutorial to create a pineapple shape part 3 / 12. tags : how to crochet a pineapple part 3 / 12, crochet do it yourself, crochet ideas, crochet inspiration, crochet instructions, crochet lessons, crochet pineapple part 3, crocheting a pineapple, handicraft, mikeyssmail grab video code : so, for the line number two as we go back across that way, okay, so we have just done our chain. what we need to do is chain up three so what i do is hold my finger and thumb right where the starting point is up this chain. okay, so right there, and then go one, two, and three okay. so, where your thumb is, that ’ s where your actual needle is going to go into. then what we need to do, this counts as one treble, okay, one double crochet spot. so, what we are going to do is we are going to create two more double trebles into where my thumb and finger are into the same spot. and this will always be the same no matter what line we ’ d go on every time we start a line. and now, what we are going to do is now we are going to chain seven so let ’ s go one, two, three, four, five, six and seven. so now, what we need to do is go back down to this line here and now we need to count over to the sixth empty spot. so, this is where the first one is so we don ’ t count that one so the next stitch is one, two, three, four, five and six. and in the sixth spot, what we are going to do is we are just going to single crochet in so just don ’ t wrap your material on this and just stick it in to the sixth spot just like so, grab your material, pull it through and then pull through two. so, there we go. and now, what we need to do is we now need to chain three so one, two, and three. and going back and looking at this line, we have just come in right here so we don ’ t count that one. and what we want to do is just skip one stitch so we are going skip that one and go into the second available one for another single stitch. and what we need to do now is that if you look


we don ’ t count that one. and what we want to do is just skip one stitch so we are going skip that one and go into the second available one for another single stitch. and what we need to do now is that if you look at here, this is where we are but actually down at the start point. so, we need to create this. do you see how this is similar? so, we need to create the other side of it. so then to do that, you ’ d need to chain another seven so one, two, three, four, five, six, and seven. and what we want to do is we want to now count over the empty spots so this is taken so we don ’ t count that one so it ’ s one and we want to go over to the sixth empty spot so one, two, three, four, five, six. and what we are going to do this time is that we are going to actually double crochet because this is now the center point of your things. we are going to double crochet into that spot so wrap your material around and stick your needle into that spot. so, this is double crochet so pull through two and pull through two. and now, we are going to stick your needle into the exact same hole again for another double crochet. so now, we have two in that same hat hole and what we are going to do is now we are going to just chain one and what we are doing is we are creating the center point as you can see here. see how they are kind of like split in two so that ’ s what we are doing. so, we need to chain one to create that split and they go into the exact theme, same hole for another two double crochet so this is one and two into the same hole. and you see how it looks kind of similar. once you get all your lace work, it ’ ll start pulling out for you. so now, what we need to do is we now need to chain seven again so one, two, three, four five, six and seven. and now, what we need to do on that line is we are going to count over to the sixth empty spot so that spot is taken so we could start here one, two, three, four, five, six okay. and what we are going to be doing is we are just kind of single stitch into that spot. basically, what we are doing is we are creating


is taken so we could start here one, two, three, four, five, six okay. and what we are going to be doing is we are just kind of single stitch into that spot. basically, what we are doing is we are creating the bottom of the next pineapple by doing this. so, what we are going to do is we now chain three so one, two and three. okay, we are going to jump over one so we are going to skip that one going to the second available for the single stitch. and so what we need to do if you remember, we need to chain over another seven so one, two, three, four, five, six and seven. and what happens now is you are going to end up on that very end line. okay, going to the very end stitch for a double crochet so wrap your material around, go into that doubles or into that stitch. and the line is always finished with three double crochets into the same hole. and that ’ s your line completed. so, this is what we have right now and this can tell the lace work is not opening up or anything but you can see that it is exactly the same. and you see that, it ’ s a little whiter, it ’ s more than a foot long and that ’ s because the lace work hasn ’ t been established yet. so, that ’ s your line completed.


palace of holyroodhouseedit profile holyrood palace is built beside the earlier holyrood abbey where kings of scotland were crowned. the abbey, the remains of which can still be seen ( to the left of the palace ) was built by king david i in 1128. much altered over the centuries, reroofing in 1758 with stone slab caused the vaulting to collapse ten years later. the abbey has been a ruin ever since. in the 15th century, the abbot ’ s guest house became used by the kings of scotland as their edinburgh residence in prefernce to edinburgh castle which was deemed uncomfortable. in the 16th century it became the main royal residence with the abbey becoming the chapel royal. the palace as we see it today, is a product of the late 17th century. it was rebuilt as a viceregal residence. the palace has two eleborate gateways, one to the bottom of the royal mile and another leading towards arthur ’ s seat. still in use today, the palace is open to the public and is the official residence in scotland of her majesty the queen. during the queen ' s holyrood week, which usually runs from the end of june to the beginning of july, her majesty carries out a wide range of official engagements in scotland.


this post has been first published on access - info : open government data and is actually circulating various e - mailing lists. i think it is a really important initiative and worth reblogging it. open government data project : research project by access info and the open knowledge foundation, in collaboration with the open society information program, to map out and evaluate the current state of initiatives to promote access to government data in formats that can be freely used, reused, and distributed by anyone. the project will also identify the obstacles to accessing and reusing public data and recommendations for future initiatives to address these. on this page you can read more about the issue and find out how you can get involved in the project. what is open government data? the release of databases and other collections of information by government departments in formats that can be freely used, reused and distributed. release is generally proactive, without the need for access to information requests. - an example : in 2007, the uk government released a database with locations of bicycle accidents around the country. this information was linked by members of the public to maps, making it possible for cyclists to plan safer journeys avoiding the black spots. - another example : in australia, in january 2010, government released the national public toilet map which shows the location of more than 14, 000 public and private public toilet facilities with data such as opening hours, availability of baby changing rooms, and accessibility for people with disabilities. sounds funny? think of the possibilities : associations of disabled persons can provide a database for their members to plan journeys ; mothers could access a service by mobile phone to locate the nearest baby changing room. read more in a good article from the economist ( 4 february 2010 ) data and transparency : of governments and geeks what are governments doing to promote this? there are currently a number of exciting initiatives to release government data in bulk, these include : - united states : on 21 may 2009 the us government launched data. gov whose purpose is to give direct public access to machine - readable datasets generated by the executive branch of the us federal government. an initial 47 datasets are on line, of the thousands planned for release. - united kingdom : working with tim berners - lee, one of the inventors of the world wide web, the uk government has created data. gov. uk, a single online access point for government data, launched on 21 january 2010. - australia : the data. australia. gov. au website encourages users to “ make government information even more useful by mashing -


government has created data. gov. uk, a single online access point for government data, launched on 21 january 2010. - australia : the data. australia. gov. au website encourages users to “ make government information even more useful by mashing - up the data to create something new and exciting! ” - new zealand : a portal for accessing government databases is located at data. govt. nz. recent release include a database from the food safety authority with a breakdown of the major causes of food recalls, and total number of recalls 2001 – 2009, and hospital performance data from the ministry of health. - denmark : danish national it and telecom agency has created a meta - portal to link, digitaliser. dk to guide users to available public data. what about civil society initiatives? • at the eu level the public geodata campaign which formed in response to the eu ’ s inspire directive establishing a framework for spatial data infrastructure in europe – activists criticise the directive for its failure to guarantee access to geodata for european citizens and businesses ; • in the uk the free our data campaign which argues that data created with taxpayers money, such as ordinance survey data ( mapping ), should not be sold to the public. in a victory for the campaign, uk ordinance survey ( mapping ) data will be available free of charge from april 2010 ; • in new zealand, an independent website, the open data catalogue, provides a portal to local government datasets in nz ;. • in slovenia the speleological association won access to a database of caving information without having to pay for it ; the information commissioner ruled that when the use of public data was for not for profit purposes, it should be free of charge. • in the united states in december 2007 a group of 30 experts and activists in the us produced the “ open government data principles ”. the principles were adopted in order “ to develop a more robust understanding of why open government data is essential to democracy ” and to develop principles that would enable governments of the world to become “ more effective, transparent, and relevant to our lives ”. it ’ s that easy? not always. there are many potential obstacles to accessing full government data. information that is stored using software that costs money means that it ’ s hard to read. information released in formats that can ’ t be read by computers is difficult to reuse. information is held in proprietary formats which users have to buy. data is subject to copyright or released under restrictive licences. these are issues which are being researched under this


released in formats that can ’ t be read by computers is difficult to reuse. information is held in proprietary formats which users have to buy. data is subject to copyright or released under restrictive licences. these are issues which are being researched under this project and will be the subject of recommendations for future campaigns by activists from the access to information and open government data communities what does this mean for the access to information community? for full enjoyment of the right of access to information and the related right to freedom of expression, people need to have access to government data in formats which can be used by anyone – so preferably in open source formats – and free from copyright, licences, and other restrictions on reuse. if government data is provided to the public in formats which mean that it cannot easily be reused, processed, or have value added, then the right to information is seriously undermined. it sounds rather technical! sometimes it is. as the economist article says, this is “ a geek ’ s dream : plenty for creative types to work on, but a bit baffling to the lay person. ” this project aims to demystify open government data issues and break through the jargon, so that they can be understood by access to information activists and other human rights campaigners. what will be done under this project? access info and the open knowledge foundation will identify and analyse the main initiatives related to open government data. we will analyse what this means for the right of access to information and for other developing fields such as e - government ( electronic access to public services ) and e - democracy ( electronic participation in government decision - making and electronic voting ). based on the research and analysis we will develop recommendations for future activities which could be carried out by the open government data, access to information, and e - government communities together. how do i get involved? go to the open government data project website and tell us about your campaigns or government initiatives in your country. the deadline for sending us information is 15 march 2010. we will then be producing a mapping report with info on the next phase of the campaign. there will be an international meeting to launch the report and discuss next steps in london on 22 april 2010. write to the project coordinators to tell us about your projects and to join the project : - helen darbishire, access info, helen [ at > access - info. org - jonathan gray, open knowledge foundation, at jonathan. gray < at ] okfn. org why is open government data important? 1


join the project : - helen darbishire, access info, helen [ at > access - info. org - jonathan gray, open knowledge foundation, at jonathan. gray < at ] okfn. org why is open government data important? 1. transparency. for a democratic society to function properly citizens need to know what their government is doing. in order to do that they must be able freely to access government data and information and to share that information with other citizens. transparency, therefore, isn ’ t just about access it is also about sharing and reuse — often, to understand material it needs to be analyzed and visualized and this requires that the material be open so that it can be freely used and reused. 2. citizen participation in governance. opening up data means citizens don ’ t have to wait for an election to get involved in what their government is doing. participation in decision - making, 3. optimising the social and commercial value of public data. in a digital age data is a key resource for social and commercial activities. everything from finding your local post office or recycling centre to building a search engine requires access to data much of which is created or held by government. by opening up data for commercial and non - commercial use government can promote business and social enterprise. the open knowledge foundation ( okf ) is a not - for - profit organization founded in 2004 and dedicated to promoting open knowledge in all its forms. ‘ open knowledge ’ is any content, information or data that people are free to use, re - use and redistribute — without any legal, technological or social restriction.


on november 25, 1952, three months after returning from england, pauling finally made a serious stab at a structure for dna. the immediate spur was a caltech biology seminar given by robley williams, a berkeley professor who had done some amazing work with an electron microscope. through a complicated technique he was able to get images of incredibly small biological structures. pauling was spellbound. one of williams ' s photos showed long, tangled strands of sodium ribonucleate, the salt of a form of nucleic acid, shaded so that three - dimensional details could be seen. to pauling the strands appeared cylindrical. he guessed then, looking at these black - and - white slides in the darkened seminar room, that dna was likely to be a helix. no other conformation would fit both astbury ' s x - ray patterns of the molecule and the photos he was seeing. even better, williams was able to estimate the sizes of structures on his photos, and his work showed that each strand was about 15 angstroms across. pauling was interested enough to ask him to repeat the figure, which williams qualified by noting the difficulty he had in making precise measurements. the next day, pauling sat at his desk with a pencil, a sheaf of paper, and a slide rule. new data that summer from alexander todd ' s laboratory had confirmed the linkage points between the sugars and phosphates in dna ; other work showed where they connected to the bases. pauling was already convinced from his earlier work that the various - sized bases had to be on the outside of the molecule ; the phosphates, on the inside. now he knew that the molecule was probably helical. these were his starting points for a preliminary look at dna. he still lacked critical data - he had no decent x - ray images, for instance, and no firm structural data on the precise sizes and bonding angles of the base - sugar - phosphate building blocks of dna - but he went with what he had. it was a mistake. after a few pages of theorizing, using sketchy and sometimes incorrect data, pauling became convinced - as watson and crick had been at first - that dna was a three - stranded structure with the phosphates on the inside. unfortunately, he had no rosalind franklin to set him right.


the first - ever lifetime feeding study1 evaluating the health risks of genetically engineered foods was published online on september 19, and the results are troubling, to say the least. this new study joins a list of over 30 other animal studies showing toxic or allergenic problems with genetically engineered foods. web link the study, published in the peer - reviewed journal food and chemical toxicology, found that rats fed a type of genetically engineered corn that is prevalent in the us food supply for two years developed massive mammary tumors, kidney and liver damage, and other serious health problems. web link the research was considered so " hot " that the work was done under strict secrecy. according to a french article in le nouvel observateur, 2 the researchers used encrypted emails, phone conversations were banned, and they even launched a decoy study to prevent sabotage! a two - year long french feeding study designed to evaluate the long - term health effects of a genetically engineered corn found that rats fed monsantos maize developed massive breast tumors, kidney and liver damage, and other serious health problems. the major onslaught of diseases set in during the 13th month female rats that ate genetically engineered corn died 2 - 3 times more than controls, and more rapidly, while the male ge - fed rats had tumors that occurred up to a year - and - a - half earlier than rats not fed ge corn according to results from a 10 - year long feeding study on rats, mice, pigs and salmon, genetically engineered feed causes obesity, along with significant changes in the digestive system and major organs, including the liver, kidneys, pancreas, genitals and more the epa admits theres mounting evidence that monsantos insecticide - fighting yieldgard corn is losing its effectiveness in the midwest. last year, rootworms resistant to the toxin in the genetically designed corn infested fields in iowa, illinois, minnesota and nebraska genetically engineered foods are responsible for development of resistant weeds and pests ; increased pathogenic virulence ; degradation of soil quality ; reduced nutrient content in food ; exponential rise in infertility and birth defects ; and reduced crop yields, and more passing prop 37 is key to expanding sustainable agriculture in north america despite johr ' s stated view, nestle has donated nearly $ 1. 17 million to the " no on 37 coalition, " which is working to prevent the labelling of ge foods in california. so much for listening to consumers... although many organic consumers and natural health activists already understand


scientists have taken a major step forward in the understanding of ovarian cancer, which could improve treatment for patients with the condition. researchers have found that patients with hereditary ovarian cancer - whose tumours are caused by faulty genes - are more likely to experience secondary tumours in their liver and spleen. this is despite the fact that their overall prognosis is better than other patients. in non - hereditary cancer, ovarian tumours tend to remain within the lining of the abdomen and pelvis. a university of edinburgh study suggests that ovarian cancer patients whose tumours spread to the solid organs such as the liver and lungs should be tested for the faulty genes - brca1 and brca2 - to ensure they are given the most appropriate treatment. researchers say this would improve the detection of these faulty genes as current criteria for genetic testing may miss as many as two - thirds of ovarian cancer patients carrying faulty brca genes. patients with hereditary tumours, which account for 10 per cent of ovarian cancers, may also be suitable for trials of a new drug called olaparib, which has fewer side - effects than normal cancer treatments. improving the identification of brca mutations would help relatives of ovarian cancer patients, who may themselves be at increased risk of developing hereditary cancer. the research is published in the journal of clinical oncology. dr charlie gourley, who led the research at the university of edinburgh, said : " we are beginning to understand the importance of tailoring cancer treatments according to the specifics of each patient ' s tumour. these findings demonstrate that tumours which arise because of defects in the brca1 or brca2 genes behave differently to other ovarian cancers. this information should also help us to identify the patients carrying these genetic mutations, give them the most effective treatment for their cancer and offer their relatives genetic counselling. " explore further : new smartphone application improves colonoscopy preparation


latin name – silybum marianum milk thistle is a flowering herb that is native to the mediterranean region. it has been used for thousands of years as an herbal remedy for a variety of ailments, especially liver problems. silymarin, which can be extracted from the seeds ( fruit ) of the milk thistle plant, is believed to be the biologically active part of the herb. the seeds are used to prepare capsules, extracts, and infusions ( strong teas ). a traditional view of milk thistle is as an herbal remedy to help protect the liver and improve its function. milk thistle has been used as a nutritional supplement in the hope of improving liver cirrhosis, chronic hepatitis ( liver inflammation ), and gallbladder disorders. there have been some research studies of milk thistle on liver disease in humans, but these have been small. some promising data have been reported, but study results at this time are mixed. although some studies conducted outside the united states support claims of oral milk thistle to improve liver function, there have been flaws in study design and reporting. to date, there is no conclusive evidence to prove its claimed uses. recent nccam - funded research includes a phase ii study to better understand the use of milk thistle for chronic hepatitis c. additional research, cofunded by nccam and the national institute of diabetes and digestive and kidney diseases, includes studies of milk thistle for chronic hepatitis c and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis, or nash, a fatty, inflamed liver disease that occurs in people who drink little or no alcohol. side effects and cautions summary - milk thistle side effects include a laxative effect, upset stomach, diarrhea, and bloating. - milk thistle can produce allergic reactions, which tend to be more common among people who are allergic to plants in the same family ( for example, ragweed, chrysanthemum, marigold, and daisy ). - tell your health care providers about any complementary and alternative practices you use. give them a full picture of what you do to manage your health to help ensure coordinated and safe care. complementary or alternative therapy should not be used in place of conventional medical care or to delay seeking that care. - agency for healthcare research and quality. milk thistle : effects on liver disease and cirrhosis and clinical adverse effects. evidence report / technology assessment no. 21. rockville, md : agency for healthcare research and quality ; 2000. 01 - e024. - milk


and quality. milk thistle : effects on liver disease and cirrhosis and clinical adverse effects. evidence report / technology assessment no. 21. rockville, md : agency for healthcare research and quality ; 2000. 01 - e024. - milk thistle ( silybum marianum ). in : coates p, blackman m, cragg g, et al., eds. encyclopedia of dietary supplements. new york, ny : marcel dekker ; 2005 : 467 – 482. - milk thistle. natural medicines comprehensive database. accessed on july 3, 2007. - milk thistle ( silybum marianum ), silymarin. natural standard database web site. accessed on june 28, 2007. - milk thistle fruit. in : blumenthal m, goldberg a, brinckman j, eds. herbal medicine : expanded commission e monographs. newton, ma : lippincott williams & wilkins ; 2000 : 257 – 263. - national center for complementary and alternative medicine. hepatitis c and complementary and alternative medicine : 2003 update. national center for complementary and alternative medicine web site. accessed on july 5, 2007. for more information the national center for complementary and alternative medicine ( nccam ) clearinghouse the nccam clearinghouse provides information on cam and nccam, including publications and searches of federal databases of scientific and medical literature. the clearinghouse does not provide medical advice, treatment recommendations, or referrals to practitioners. nih office of dietary supplements web site : ods. od. nih. gov source : national center for complementary and alternative medicine, milk thistle fact sheet created september 2005, updated march 2008


is it “ islamophobic ” to question whether or not the standard picture of muhammad as depicted in muslim texts is historically accurate? certainly many people think so, notably the organization of islamic cooperation ( oic ). the oic is a fifty - six nation body ( plus the palestinian authority ) that, since the demise of the soviet union, comprises the largest voting bloc at the united nations. it has been working for years to compel the un to criminalize “ islamophobia. ” secretary of state hillary clinton held a closed - door meeting with the oic in december 2011, apparently to facilitate just that and figure out ways to circumvent the first amendment ’ s protection of the freedom of speech. journalist claire berlinski notes that “ the neologism ‘ islamophobia ’ did not simply emerge ex nihilo ” : it was invented, deliberately, by a muslim brotherhood front organization, the international institute for islamic thought, which is based in northern virginia. … abdur - rahman muhammad, a former member of the iiit who has renounced the group in disgust, was an eyewitness to the creation of the word. “ this loathsome term, ” he writes, “ is nothing more than a thought - terminating cliche conceived in the bowels of muslim think tanks for the purpose of beating down critics. ” yet the mainstream media has for the most part bought into this perspective, treating all investigation of how islamic jihadists use the texts and teachings of islam to justify violence and supremacism as “ islamophobic, ” however useful it might be to understand the motives and goals of those who have vowed to destroy the u. s. and western civilization. into this atmosphere comes my book did muhammad exist? an inquiry into islam ’ s obscure origins, which doesn ’ t touch directly on terror issues at all, but does demonstrate that islam was political, supremacist, and violent before it was religious — a fact with considerable implications for today ’ s political scene. in broad outline, the accepted story of islam ’ s origins is well known. it begins with an arabian merchant of the quraysh tribe of mecca, known to the world as muhammad, a name that means the “ praised one. ” he rejected the polytheism of his tribe and was given to frequent prayer in the hills and caves outside mecca. in the year 610, when he was forty, he was praying in a cave on mount hira, about two miles from mecca, when he was suddenly


with brilliant plumage and puffed out chests, the mandarin ducks at the wildlife conservation society ’ s prospect park zoo are vying for the attention of the brown females swimming about the discovery trail marsh. this courtship activity might make you think it is spring, but it ’ s happening right now in the middle of winter. although the marsh might be partially frozen over with patches of ice large enough for the ducks to walk across, a series of underwater bubblers keep sections of the water from freezing, so there ’ s plenty room for swimming — and chasing female ducks. visitors who spend some time watching the mandarin ducks will be amused by their courtship behaviors. the males puff up and actually bump their chests together in a show of dominance. occasionally, one of the male mallard ducks will try to get into the act, but the little mandarins are too focused on their courtship to put up with any interference. a few mallards make the marsh their home but are not officially part of the zoo ’ s bird collection. these birds are free to fly in and out as they wish, visiting many of the small bodies of water in prospect park or the brooklyn botanic garden. a few other visitors like the beautiful north american wood ducks often stop by the marsh in winter. these visitors are native species and rival the mandarin ’ s with the beauty of their plumage. many visitors ask about the large cage - like structure at the back of the marsh. normally hidden by leaves, this structure is called an excluder and is meant to keep the local mallards from eating all the food meant for the zoo ducks. most of the zoo ducks are diving ducks, which refers to species that dive underwater to feed. the zoo ’ s diving ducks easily enter and exit the excluder from below the surface to eat. mallards are unable to do this and are too big to squeeze through the bars of the excluder. other marsh residents include the red eared slider turtles. they are very popular during the spring and summer months when they spend their days basking on logs or swimming through the marsh for food pellets tossed by zoo visitors. in the winter these reptiles do not hibernate, but they do become less active in a process called brumation. once outdoor temperatures fall, the turtles move to the bottom of the marsh. if the temperature rises, visitors might see turtles come to the surface to catch a few winter rays, but as soon as the temperature drops, so do the turtles. so even though it ’ s chilly and the trees are bare, there ’


inattentive type of adhd children diagnosed with the predominantly inattentive type of adhd have trouble focusing on any one thing and may get bored with a task after only a few minutes. however, if they are doing something they really enjoy, they usually have no trouble paying attention. but focusing deliberate, conscious attention to organizing and completing a task or learning something new is difficult. homework is particularly hard for these children. they will forget to write down an assignment, or leave it at school. they will forget to bring a book home, or bring the wrong one. the homework, if finally finished, will be full of mistakes. it is often accompanied by frustration for the child and their parents. inattentive children are rarely impulsive or hyperactive, but have a significant problem paying attention. they often appear to be daydreaming, “ spacey, ” easily confused, slow moving, and lethargic. they may process information more slowly and less accurately than other children. this child has a hard time understanding what he or she is supposed to do when a teacher gives oral or even written instructions. mistakes are frequent. the child may sit quietly and appear to be working, but in reality is not fully attending to or understanding the task and the instructions. children with this form of adhd often get along better with other children than the more impulsive and hyperactive forms, as they may not have the same sorts of social problems common with the other forms of adhd. because of this, their problems with inattention are often overlooked. indicators of inattention : - not giving close attention to details or making careless mistakes in schoolwork, work, or other play activities. - becoming easily distracted by irrelevant sights and sounds - failing to pay attention to instructions and making careless mistakes, not finishing work, chores or duties - losing or forgetting things like toys, pencils, books, assignments and tools needed for a task - having trouble organizing activities, often skipping from one uncompleted activity to another - not appearing to listen when spoken to directly - avoiding or disliking things that take a lot of mental effort for a long period of time combined type of adhd children exhibiting hyperactivity, impulsivity and inattention are considered to have the combined type of adhd, which combines all of the above symptoms. disorders related to add / adhd grohol, j. ( 2007 ). symptoms of attention deficit disorder ( adhd ). psych central. retrieved on may 19, 2013,


new research shows that daily physical activity may reduce the risk of alzheimer ’ s disease and cognitive decline, even in people over the age of 80. according to researchers at rush university medical center, all physical activity — whether it is exercise or household chores, such as cooking or cleaning — are associated with a reduced risk of alzheimer ’ s. “ these results provide support for efforts to encourage all types of physical activity even in very old adults who might not be able to participate in formal exercise, but can still benefit from a more active lifestyle, ” said dr. aron s. buchman, lead author of the study and associate professor of neurological sciences at rush. to measure total daily physical activity, researchers from rush asked 716 individuals who did not have dementia to wear a device called an actigraph, which monitors activity, on their non - dominant wrist continuously for 10 days. all exercise and other physical activity was recorded. study participants, who had an average age of 82, also were given annual cognitive tests during the study to measure memory and thinking abilities. participants also self - reported their physical and social activities. those participating in the study were individuals from the rush memory and aging project, an ongoing community study of common chronic conditions of old age. in followup studies, it was discovered that 71 participants developed alzheimer ’ s disease. the research found that people in the bottom 10 percent of daily physical activity were more than twice as likely ( 2. 3 times ) to develop alzheimer ’ s disease as people in the top 10 percent of daily activity. the study also showed that those in the bottom 10 percent of intensity of physical activity were almost three times ( 2. 8 times ) as likely to develop alzheimer ’ s disease as people in the top 10 percent of the intensity of physical activity. “ since the actigraph was attached to the wrist, activities like cooking, washing the dishes, playing cards and even moving a wheelchair with a person ’ s arms were beneficial, ” said buchman. “ these are low - cost, easily accessible and side effect - free activities people can do at any age, including very old age, to possibly prevent alzheimer ’ s. ” source : rush university medical center


individual differences | methods | statistics | clinical | educational | industrial | professional items | world psychology | gonadotropin - releasing hormone 1 ( gnrh1 also called lhrh ) is a peptide hormone responsible for the release of fsh and lh from the anterior pituitary. gnrh1 is synthesized and released by the hypothalamus. the identity of gnrh1 was clarified by the 1977 nobel laureates roger guillemin and andrew v. schally : gnrh1 as a neurohormoneedit gnrh1 is considered a neurohormone, a hormone produced in a specific neural cell and released at its neural terminal. a key area for production of gnrh1 is the preoptic area of the hypothalamus, that contains most of the gnrh1 - secreting neurons. gnrh1 is secreted in the portal bloodstream at the median eminence. the portal blood carries the gnrh1 to the pituitary gland, which contains the the gonadotrope cells, where gnrh1 activates its own receptor, gonadotropin - releasing hormone receptor ( gnrhr ), located in the cell membrane. gnrh1 is degradated by proteolysis within a few minutes. control of fsh and lhedit at the pituitary, gnrh1 stimulates the synthesis and secretion of follicle - stimulating hormone ( fsh ) and luteinizing hormone ( lh ). these processes are controlled by the size and frequency of gnrh1 pulses, as well as by feedback from androgens and estrogens. there are differences in gnrh1 secretion between males and females. in males, gnrh1 is secreted in pulses at a constant frequency, but in females the frequency of the pulses varies during the menstrual cycle and there is a large surge of gnrh1 just before ovulation. gnrh1 secretion is pulsatile in all vertebrates, and is necessary for correct reproductive function. thus, a single hormone, gnrh1, controls a complex process of follicular growth, ovulation, and corpus luteum maintenance in the female, and spermatogenesis in the male. gnrh1 activity is very low during childhood, and is activated at puberty. during the reproductive years, pulse activity is


growth, ovulation, and corpus luteum maintenance in the female, and spermatogenesis in the male. gnrh1 activity is very low during childhood, and is activated at puberty. during the reproductive years, pulse activity is critical for successful reproductive function as controlled by feedback loops. however, once a pregnancy is established, gnrh1 activity is not required. pulsatile activity can be disrupted by hypothalamic - pituitary disease, either dysfunction ( i. e., hypothalamic suppression ) or organic lesions ( trauma, tumor ). elevated prolactin levels decrease gnrh1 activity. in contrast, hyperinsulinemia increases pulse activity leading to disordery lh and fsh activity, as seen in polycystic ovary syndrome ( pcos ). gnrh1 formation is congenitally absent in kallmann syndrome. the gnrh1 neurons are regulated by many different afferent neurons, using several different transmitters ( including norepinephrine, gaba, glutamate ). for instance, dopamine appears to decrease gnrh1 activity. gnrh1 in other organsedit gnrh1 is found in organs outside of the hypothalamus and pituitary and its role in other life processes is poorly understood. for instance, there is likely to be a role for gnrh1 in the placenta and in the gonads. gnrh1 is available as gonadorelin hydrochloride ( factrel ) for injectable use. studies have described it being used via an infusion pump system to induce ovulation in patients with hypothalamic hypogonadism. agonists and antagonistsedit while gnrh1 has been synthesized and become available, its short half - life requires infusion pumps for its clinical use. modifications of the decapeptide structure of gnrh1 have led to gnrh1 analog medications that either stimulate ( gnrh1 agonists ) or suppress ( gnrh1 antagonists ) the gonadotropins. it is important to note that, through downregulation, agonists are also able to exert a prolonged suppression effect. | hormones and endocrine glands - edit | hypothalamus : - trh - crh - gnrh - ghrh - somatostatin - dopamine | posterior pit


physical environment is subject to continuous modification from natural causes, such as tectonic forces, temperature extremes, fire, wind and river erosion, vegetation processes, and animal action. no less than natural agents, human actions can result in widespread and irreversible environmental change. many of these processes occur insidiously over prolonged periods. in such instances, the effects often are cumulative. other human actions may be more sudden and concentrated, resulting in immediate and noticeable change. whether continuous or precipitous, these human actions frequently have degraded the affected environment. the nineteenth century, a time of british consolidation in gangetic india, witnessed both types of phenomena. traditional environmental alterations continued, while imported technologies introduced new, more threatening agents of change. agents of continuous change the banaras region, like most of the gangetic plain, has been continuously populated for some twenty - five hundred years. in the process local residents established an important urban center, maintained its streets and buildings, connected it to other communities, supplied its industrial needs, and fed its population. throughout this time human occupation affected the surroundings in a variety of ways. land use and resource depletion. over the centuries while banaras city grew, its inhabitants exploited the adjoining terrain and its resources. they cultivated the land to near capacity ; hunted wildlife ; raised livestock ; and extracted timber, fuel, stone, sand, clay, and groundwater. those materials and supplies which were unavailable locally were imported and brought in by road or stream. as banaras continued to grow and prosper, surrounding lands strained to supply the rising needs of the city and its visitors. by 1800 the region ' s resource base was becoming strained. the town itself was built on the site of the legendary forest of bliss. but by the nineteenth century, according to diana eck, townspeople retained only memories of the once luxuriant woods. one central neighborhood came to be known as the " cut - down forest " ( eck 1982 : 29 ). in the countryside, too, large tracts had been cleared for farming, leaving only isolated trees and planted groves. the extensive fields in place by 1800 blanketed what was once a natural habitat of dense forest. the original cover included stands of valuable trees, such as sal ( shorea robusta ) shisham ( dalbergia sissoo ), jaman ( eugenia jambolana ), mahua ( bassia latifolia ), ber ( ziziphus jujuba ), pipal ( ficus religiosa


( dalbergia sissoo ), jaman ( eugenia jambolana ), mahua ( bassia latifolia ), ber ( ziziphus jujuba ), pipal ( ficus religiosa ), neem ( azadirachta indica ), pagun [ * ] ( bombax ceiba ), banyan ( ficus bengalensis ), tamarind ( tamarindus indica ), and babul ( acacia arabica ). apart from isolated stands near villages, few of these trees remained in the nineteenth century. grasses and shrubs, too were continuously grazed and harvested for manufacturing bricks ( troup 1921, 2 : 8 ; 3 : 4, 147, 231 ; stebbing 1922 – 26 : glossary ; r. l. singh 1971 : 204 ). this large - scale devegetation of the countryside put an enormous strain on the soil resources. no longer compacted by broad root systems, topsoils were swept away by floods and blown off by winds. and depletion of leguminous trees and shrubs deprived the earth of the nitrogen - fixing action of roots, leaving soils deficient in bacterial content. the stresses of repeated cropping and traditional shallow tillage minimized soil rotation, accelerated nutrient depletion, and reduced fertility. finally, with firewood growing scarcer owing to devegetation, manure was employed as fuel, reducing the input of fertilizer ( crooke 1897 : 322 – 34 ). the familiar cycle of deforestation, reduction of biotic diversity, soil erosion, reduction of fertility, and decline in productivity certainly was manifest in the banaras region. the responses to this process were equally common : extension of cultivation to terrains previously considered " wastelands " or " barren " lands ; increased irrigation ; or multiple cropping. as was noted above, british observers asserted that banarsi cultivators increasingly adopted irrigation and multiple cropping techniques. reclamation of barren land also occurred but was severely limited by availability. already by the end of the eighteenth century most such land had been plowed and sown. although varying perceptions of what constitutes wasteland render that term ambiguous, figures confirm that little such terrain was available by the 1840s. it appears that the amount may have decreased somewhat between 1848 and 1872 ( from 19 to 15 percent ), but stabilized at the latter level through the rest of the century. there is some evidence, meanwhile, that farmers were simultaneously abandoning previously productive lands. in 1788 jonathan


the amount may have decreased somewhat between 1848 and 1872 ( from 19 to 15 percent ), but stabilized at the latter level through the rest of the century. there is some evidence, meanwhile, that farmers were simultaneously abandoning previously productive lands. in 1788 jonathan duncan had already noted the desertion of formerly productive fields. nearly a hundred years later the provincial land - settlement report of 1872 estimated that 5 percent of cultivated land had been recently abandoned ( shakespear 1848 : 169 – 70 ; colvin 1872, appendix : 16 ; k. p. mishra 1975 : 85 ). in sum, despite an ostensibly stable population, pressure on farmland was demonstrably heightening. the measures taken to compensate for erosion and soil depletion aggravated the situation. each of the three alternatives employed — reclamation, irrigation, and multiple cropping — was intensive, adding further stresses on finite resources. religious activity and environmental pollution. the processes described above were principally rural and resulted from land use intensification. their effects were to degrade a limited resource base. such phenomena have been common to many societies and typical for much of agrarian north india. considerably less typical and far more controversial have been the alleged ecological consequences of religious activity in banaras. as the principal focal point of hindu pilgrimage and the leading center of brahmin ritual observance, banaras has drawn enormous numbers of visitors throughout the year and on special occasions. it is principally the ganges that affords this distinction, and it is on its banks that most activity occurs. primarily as a result of the vast number of participants, the riparian environment has been affected. crowding, sewage generation, and the influx of ill visitors have caused serious public health concern since the beginning of the colonial period. other actions may have contributed in small ways to riverine pollution, but their effects have been consistently overstated. throughout british rule, hindu religious practices were termed responsible for the pollution of the river and the adjoining areas. for centuries throngs of pilgrims have converged on banaras. in addition to the daily arrival of hindus seeking personal salvation, sea - sonal fairs or eclipses drew occasional crowds of a hundred thousand or more. these congregants required food, drink, and other substantive needs, adding further pressure on overtaxed resources ( hamilton 1820 : 301 ; nevill 1909a : 66 – 67 ; 1909b : 85 ; oude and rohilkund railway 1875 : 1169 ; 1878 : 1057 ; k. p. mishra 1975 : 67 )


the banaras municipal board asserted its right to close burning ghats or cemeteries deemed problematic. within days, after reassessing the effective threat posed by the ghats and gauging popular feeling, the magistrate repealed the proclamation ( bharat jiwan [ 23 september ] in svn for 1912 : 898 ). disposal of human and animal bodies in the ganges was another source of english consternation. although these acts occurred, it is unlikely that their volume could have appreciably affected the quality of the water. modern residents of banaras, including the present maharaja, insist that the above allegations are inaccurate and overstated ( n. kumar communication, march 1986 ). but if the burning ghats were unlikely sources of pollution, other long - term human actions measurably affected the quality of the ganges and its banks. the dumping of waste, sewage, and industrial effluent into the river ; the bathing of persons and cattle ; the washing of clothes and vessels ; and emissions of noxious smoke represented real hazards. in addition, poor drainage allowed accumulation of stagnant waters in ponds ( bharat jiwan [ 1 may ] in svn for 1893 : 191 ; gopalkrishnan 1985 : 3 – 4 ). as early as 1864 the calcutta review noted that the " water is of deadly influence, and the vapour from which fills the air with fever - breeding and cholera - breeding miasma. " the journal called for immediate steps to improve drainage in the vicinity of the ghats ( calcutta review 1864 : 293 ). sensitized by the press, authorities and local residents feared the percolation of toxins and pollutants into the groundwater. in response, in 1886 concerned citizens formed a local pollution - prevention society, the kashi ganga prasadini sabha. the sabha ' s primary objective was to eliminate river contamination, undertake a drainage scheme, and purify drinking water. nevill reported that the project was completed in 1892. but in february 1893 the bharat jiwan of banaras complained that drains had yet to be constructed and that wastewater continued to flow through city streets. and k. s. muthiah, writing in 1911, confirmed the failure to implement its scheme ( nevill 1909a : 262 – 63 ; administration report 1896 – 97 : 167 ; bharat jiwan [ 6 february ] in svn for 1893 : 69 ; muthiah 1911 : 164 ). perhaps the greatest immediate threat to public health was posed by the


placed additional stress on local resources and accelerated riverfront pollution. the modern transportation network and other newly established public works also had a more direct impact on regional environment. roads and railways were superimposed on the rural landscape. first their construction, then their operation and maintenance, resulted in pronounced and usually permanent modifications of the terrain ( varady 1981, 1985a, 1985b ). public works construction. from the 1830s to the end of the century northern india underwent a period of intense public - works construction. cognizant of the benefits of improved communications, the ruling east india company initiated a vigorous program for road improvement. even earlier, in the first years of british administration, collector jonathan duncan had authorized road improvements near the city. the first major project was a complete renovation of the old imperial highway connecting bengal to the punjab. renamed the grand trunk road, this throughfare was graded, then metaled ( paved ) with crushed limestone. other provincial roads to ghazipur, jaunpur, allahabad, mirzapur, and sasaram soon received similar attention. during the decade 1840 – 1850 alone the british constructed some fifty thousand kilometers of roads throughout their indian territories ( abbott 1846 : 56 – 74 ; sanyal 1930 : 3 ). even before the provincial road network was completed, the government turned its attention to railways. by the mid - 1840s entrepreneurs and administrators had discussed the idea in england, and soon they took the first steps to actuate their decisions. by 1854 the first train of the east indian railway company ( eir ) left howrah to initiate the line that would parallel the grand trunk road to delhi and the punjab. for the next eight years the tracks crept toward banaras. construction continued northward through bengal up to the ganges, and then via bhagalpur and patna along the southern bank to mughal sarai, across the river from banaras. after the completion in 1862 of the 860 - kilometer route from calcutta, construction continued on to mirzapur, eventually to join the branch descending from kanpur ( east indian railways 1853 – 63 ; bengal past and present 1908 : 55 – 61 ; varady 1981 : 51 ). building roads and railway lines was both labor intensive and resource intensive. in each case, after rights of ways were secured the surface needed preparation. gangs of thousands of beldar s [ * ] ( laborers ) from the nearby countryside were hired. housed in meager shacks, underfed, and overworked, these laborers commonly were ill. epidemics among road and rail


needed preparation. gangs of thousands of beldar s [ * ] ( laborers ) from the nearby countryside were hired. housed in meager shacks, underfed, and overworked, these laborers commonly were ill. epidemics among road and rail gangs were frequent and destructive. there are records of camps of ten thousand losing up to a third of the workers to cholera and other diseases. worse, the contagion often spread to nearby towns ( varady 1981 : 188 – 89 ; united provinces public health dept. 1903 ). the work teams were employed to clear jungles of vegetation, excavate tree roots, flatten roadbeds, lay gravel or limestone, dig drainage ditches, construct embankments and berms, and bridge streams and nalla s. additionally, railways required placement of creosoted sleepers ( ties ) every seventy - five centimeters ( bingham 1858 : 3 – 21 ; muir 1858 : 277 – 79 ). the quantities of materials required were prodigious. to complete eighty kilometers of railway tracks in banaras district, the contractor executed 1. 2 million cubic meters of earthwork and 6, 000 cubic meters of brickwork ; in addition, 210, 000 cubic meters of ballast were used. limestone, gravel, and sand were obtained from neighboring floodplains and carted to the sites. the effects of such large - scale removal have not been studied, but elsewhere quarrying of stream beds has seriously affected flow and drainage patterns ( purser 1859 : 563 ; davis 1985 : 1 – 5 ). in the case of rail lines, vast amounts of timber were used for sleepers. based on figures used by tucker for the rajputana railway, tracks in banaras district alone would have required a hundred thousand sleepers. although some hardwood sal remained available in the region, stands were too depleted to furnish the railways ' s needs. instead, the wood was imported, either from england or from the upper gangetic tracts northeast of delhi, forested with deodar ( cedrus deodara ). the demand on himalayan timber resources was thus considerable, especially since sleepers needed replacement every five years ( tucker 1983 : 160 – 61 ; east indian railways 1856 : 505 ; 1859a : 531 ). although timber was not available in banaras, local firewood and charcoal supplies were employed to make burnt - clay ballast and to bake the bricks used for bridges, stations, and culverts. in any case, as a calcutta correspondent wrote to the


was not available in banaras, local firewood and charcoal supplies were employed to make burnt - clay ballast and to bake the bricks used for bridges, stations, and culverts. in any case, as a calcutta correspondent wrote to the times in 1862, " the want of india is daily becoming more and more a want of wood. " in the banaras region, as in the rest of northern india, the railways clearly were agents of deforestation ( east indian railways 1859a : 531 ; 1862 : 555 ). road and railway operation and maintenance. devegetation and resource depletion were two important results of road and rail construction. once in place, the networks continued to affect the surrounding environment. first, roads and railways, by their very presence, interrupted natural landscape. in the interest of efficiency and directness, they both sought linearity. rather than skirting streams, it was cheaper to cross them. in nearby son district the eir alone constructed 240 bridges and culverts in 1860. primary and secondary roadways also crossed rivers and streams whenever they were encountered. these interruptions interfered with drainage and flow patterns. runoff characteristics, already altered by devegetation, were further disturbed. instead of being stored in soils, water was lost to agriculture. puddles and ponds were formed alongside thoroughfares, providing breeding habitats for disease vectors. similarly, culverts silted up with lost topsoil. after heavy monsoon rains rushing waters created gullies and arroyos, further hastening soil erosion ( east indian railways 1859b : 1189 – 90 ; colvin gazette [ 15 april ] in svn for 1890 : 251 ; hindostan [ 15 august ] in svn for 1902 : 527 ; varady 1985b : 2 – 3 : whitcombe 1972 : 12 ). partly from weather extremes, and partly from the relentless action of hoofed, wheeled, or rail traffic, surfaces needed constant repair and maintenance. like the original construction, this activity required extensive labor and supplies. metaled roads were paved smooth with ten centimeters of pounded limestone. before long the road rutted and became impassable, demanding full resurfacing. railbeds were similarly affected by rain, flooding, and heavy wear. patrolling work crews added ballast and replaced broken and rotten sleepers. upkeep of the nineteenth - century transportation network placed a continual drain on stone, sand, and timber resources. locomotives, moreover, required fuel. for much of the century engines burned wood


the bereghinya planitia quadrangle ( v - 8 ) of venus is bounded by 25º and 50º n. latitude, 0º and 30º e. longitude. it is one of 62 quadrangles covering the entire planet at a scale of 1 : 5, 000, 000. the quadrangle derives its name from the plains region bereghinya planitia, most of which falls within the boundaries of the quadrangle. bereghinya are benevolent protective female spirits in east slavic mythology. these spirits were considered as guardians of the home, and traditional homes commonly had carvings of bereghinya around their windows. in addition, these spirits were associated with riverbanks, so some of them were envisioned as being women with fish tails, similar to mermaids. the bereghinya planitia quadrangle comprises mostly plains materials that have been highly modified by younger structures, mostly related to coronae. the map area contains all or part of 22 named coronae, 4 named deformation belts, and 2 major lava channel systems having extensive associated volcanic flows. in addition, other valles, a deformation belt, and coronae occur within the quadrangle but are unnamed. the quadrangle hosts 24 impact craters and 6 bright splotches believed due to explosive destruction of bolides in the atmosphere. many of the impact craters have associated dark halos or parabolas, and four are accompanied by fields of secondary craters. also present is a complex array of faults, fractures, and wrinkle ridges. the quadrangle is geologically the quadrangle is geologically interesting primarily because of the large population of coronae, many of which are connected to each other by belts of closely spaced, complex wrinkle ridges producing a spiderlike pattern in which the " bodies " are coronae and the " legs " are the connecting belts. these coronae were named " arachnoids " by members of the soviet venera team. the problems of more than local interest include the kinematics and dynamics of the arachnoids, the structural and volcanic evolution of the coronae, and the age of the widespread background plains relative to structures and other material units. download this map as a pdf document ( 44 x 35 inches ; 28. 4 mb ) download the accompanying pamphlet as a 19 - page pdf document ( 304 kb ) | help | pdf help | geopubs main page | other planetary maps | | privacy statement | disclaimer | accessibility | | geologic division | astrogeology research program | this


- manual testing - test management - test automation - test templates - testing resources types of testing - page 3 contd.. adhoc testing is a commonly used term for software testing performed without planning and documentation. the tests are intended to be run only once, unless a defect is discovered. exploratory testing is a method of manual testing that is described as simultaneous learning, design and execution. testing which covers all combination ' s of input values and preconditions for an element of the software under test. a sanity test is a narrow regression test that focuses on one or a few areas of functionality. sanity testing is usually narrow and deep. testing few functions / parameters and checking all their main features. in which one can perform testing on an overall application ( all features ) initially to check whether the application is proper in terms of availability and usability. sanity testing is done by test engineer. in software industry, smoke testing is a wide and shallow approach whereby all areas of the application are tested, without getting into too deep. smoke testing originated in the hardware testing practice of turning on a new piece of hardware for the first time and considering it a success if it does not catch fire and smoke. when a build is received, a smoke test is run to ascertain if the build is stable and it can be considered for further testing. smoke testing is done by developer or white box engineers. soak testing involves testing a system with a significant load extended over a significant period of time, to discover how the system behaves under sustained use. for example, in software testing, a system may behave exactly as expected when tested for 1 hour. however, when it is tested for 3 hours, problems such as memory leaks cause the system to fail or behave randomly.


name variations edit about pineapple edit wikipedia article about pineapple on wikipedia the pineapple ( ananas comosus ) is a tropical plant and its fruit, native to brazil, bolivia, and paraguay. the plant is a bromeliad ( family bromeliaceae ), a short, herbaceous perennial with 30 or more trough - shaped and pointed leaves 30 – 100 cm long, surrounding a thick stem. the leaves of the smooth cayenne cultivar mostly lack spines except at the leaf tip, but the spanish and queen cultivars have large spines along the leaf margins. the fruit was named " pineapple " because of its resemblance to a pine cone. the native tupi word for the fruit was anana, meaning " excellent fruit ". this word became the source of the word ananas, which is the word for pineapple in many languages. its natural pollinators are hummingbirds. the word " pineapple, " is derived from the word pina, which was used to describe a pine cone by the spanish. later, it was introduced to the hawaiian islands which are now the leading producers of this fruit. today, in the united states the pineapple can be marketed as fresh or canned and it is most widely used as tropical canned fruit in recipes. ( wellness encyclopedia of food and nutrition, 1992 ) there are four types of pineapples mainly found in the marketplace. these include the gold, smooth cayenne, red spanish and sugar loaf. they are sold fresh and canned and all have a sweet flavor. the gold variety features an extra sweet flavor, golden color, and higher vitamin c content. select pineapples with a nice fragrant smell. if possible choose pineapples that have been jet shipped from hawaii or central america because they will be the freshest. avoid those pineapples with sour or fermented odors. it is really ripe if you can easily pull one of the leaves out of the top. store at room temperature for 1 or 2 days before serving to allow the pineapple to become softer and sweeter. store in the refrigerator for 3 to 5 days or cut pineapple into chunks and store for up to 7 days. cut up pineapple also freezes well. - fruit & vegetable of the month : pineapple by the us centers for disease control & prevention, public domain government resource — original source of recipe


the term parasitic battery draw refers to the electrical devices that continue to draw current from the battery when the ignition key is in the off position. as a rule of thumb normal parasitic draws are below 50 milliamps, however it is always best to refer to the original vehicle manufacturers specifications for recommended limits. before a parasitic draw test can be performed the batteries state of charge must be greater than 75 %. before testing a battery it is very important to follow some simple safety rules. always wear eye protection and keep open flames away from the battery. if using a battery charger, always confirm that the charger is off before connecting or disconnecting the charger. batteries produce hydrogen gas which is extremely flammable ; do not smoke while servicing a battery. batteries should only be charged in well ventilated areas. the electrolyte in the battery contains sulfuric acid, latex gloves are highly recommended. testing for parasitic draw to perform the parasitic draw test you will need a digital amp meter capable of reading milliamps and a minimum of 10 amps. be certain that your meter has a fuse intended to protect the meter for the rare occurrence of an abnormally high amp 1. insure that all accessories are off and the ignition switch is in the off position. 2. remove the negative battery cable from the battery. 3. set amp meter switch to the highest rating ( 10 amps or higher ). 4. connect amp meter as illustrated in figure 1. 5. the reading may start as high as 6 amps, this is normal. when the battery cable was disconnected the vehicles electronics lost power, these devices will draw a higher current when they are reconnected. the current will drop as the numerous electronic devises “ awaken ”. on some late model vehicles this may take 20 minutes or longer. 6. as the reading decreases and stabilizes adjust the amp meter down to read in the milliamp range. this reading will be the vehic les parasitic draw. high parasitic reading should you determine that the parasitic draw exceeds the vehicles limit it will be necessary to determine the circuit that is creating the draw. this is best accomplished by using the process of elimination. check lamp circuits ( glove box, courtesy, trunk etc. ) for bulbs that are illuminated when they should be off. to check the trunk lamp it may be necessary to get in the trunk. make certain that you have a helper. and more importantly make certain that your helper is your friend! if a visual inspection fails, isolate circuits by removing fuse