. " brandy station returning to the cavalry for the gettysburg campaign, stuart endured the two low points in his career, starting with the battle of brandy station, the largest predominantly cavalry engagement of the war. by june 5, two of lee ' s infantry corps were camped in and around culpeper. six miles northeast, holding the line of the rappahannock river, stuart bivouacked his cavalry troopers, mostly near brandy station, screening the confederate army against surprise by the enemy. stuart requested a full field review of his troops by gen. lee. this grand review on june 5 included nearly 9, 000 mounted troopers and 4 batteries of horse artillery, charging in simulated battle at inlet station, about two miles ( 3 km ) southwest of brandy station. lee was not able to attend the review, however, so it was repeated in his presence on june 8, although the repeated performance was limited to a simple parade without battle simulations. despite the lower level of activity, some of the cavalrymen and the newspaper reporters at the scene complained that all stuart was doing was feeding his ego and exhausting the horses. lee ordered stuart to cross the rappahannock the next day and raid union forward positions, screening the confederate army from observation or interference as it moved north. anticipating this imminent offensive action, stuart ordered his tired troopers back into bivouac around brandy station. army of the potomac commander maj. gen. joseph hooker interpreted stuart ' s presence around culpeper to be indicative of preparations for a raid on his army ' s supply lines. in reaction to this, he ordered his cavalry commander, maj. gen. alfred pleasonton, to take a combined arms force of 8, 000 cavalrymen and 3, 000 infantry on a " spoiling raid " to " disperse and destroy " the 9, 500 confederates. pleasonton ' s force crossed the rappahannock in two columns on june 9, 1863, the first crossing at beverly ' s ford ( brig. gen. john buford ' s division ) catching stuart by surprise, waking him and his staff to the sound of gunfire. the second crossing, at kelly ' s ford, surprised stuart again, and the confederates found themselves assaulted from front and rear in a spirited melee of mounted combat. a series of confusing charges and countercharges swept back and forth across fleetwood hill, which had been stuart ' s headquarters the previous night. after 10 hours of fighting, pleasonton ordered his men to withdraw across the rappahannock. although stuart


of confusing charges and countercharges swept back and forth across fleetwood hill, which had been stuart ' s headquarters the previous night. after 10 hours of fighting, pleasonton ordered his men to withdraw across the rappahannock. although stuart claimed a victory because the confederates held the field, brandy station is considered a tactical draw, and both sides came up short. pleasonton was not able to disable stuart ' s force at the start of an important campaign and he withdrew before finding the location of lee ' s infantry nearby. however, the fact that the southern cavalry had not detected the movement of two large columns of union cavalry, and that they fell victim to a surprise attack, was an embarrassment that prompted serious criticism from fellow generals and the southern press. the fight also revealed the increased competency of the union cavalry, and foreshadowed the decline of the formerly invincible southern mounted arm. stuart ' s ride in the gettysburg campaign following a series of small cavalry battles in june as lee ' s army began marching north through the shenandoah valley, stuart may have had in mind the glory of circumnavigating the enemy army once again, desiring to erase the stain on his reputation of the surprise at brandy station. general lee gave orders to stuart on june 22 on how he was to participate in the march north, and the exact nature of those orders has been argued by the participants and historians ever since, but the essence was that he was instructed to guard the mountain passes with part of his force while the army of northern virginia was still south of the potomac and that he was to cross the river with the remainder of the army and screen the right flank of ewell ' s second corps. instead of taking a direct route north near the blue ridge mountains, however, stuart chose to reach ewell ' s flank by taking his three best brigades ( those of brig. gen. wade hampton, brig. gen. fitzhugh lee, and col. john r. chambliss, the latter replacing the wounded brig. gen. w. h. f. " rooney " lee ) between the union army and washington, moving north through rockville to westminster and on into pennsylvania, hoping to capture supplies along the way and cause havoc near the enemy capital. stuart and his three brigades departed salem depot at 1 a. m. on june 25. unfortunately for stuart ' s plan, the union army ' s movement was underway and his proposed route was blocked by columns of federal infantry, forcing him to veer farther


and his three brigades departed salem depot at 1 a. m. on june 25. unfortunately for stuart ' s plan, the union army ' s movement was underway and his proposed route was blocked by columns of federal infantry, forcing him to veer farther to the east than either he or general lee had anticipated. this prevented stuart from linking up with ewell as ordered and deprived lee of the use of his prime cavalry force, the " eyes and ears " of the army, while advancing into unfamiliar enemy territory. stuart ' s command crossed the potomac river at 3 a. m. on june 28. at rockville they captured a wagon train of 140 brand - new, fully loaded wagons and mule teams. this wagon train would prove to be a logistical hindrance to stuart ' s advance, but he interpreted lee ' s orders as placing importance on gathering supplies. the proximity of the confederate raiders provoked some consternation in the national capital and two union cavalry brigades and an artillery battery were sent to pursue the confederates. stuart supposedly said that were it not for his fatigued horses " he would have marched down the 7th street road [ and ] took abe & cabinet prisoners. " in westminster on june 29, his men clashed briefly with and overwhelmed two companies of union cavalry, chasing them a long distance on the baltimore road, which stuart claimed caused a " great panic " in the city of baltimore. the head of stuart ' s column encountered brig. gen. judson kilpatrick ' s cavalry as it passed through hanover and scattered it on june 30 ; the battle of hanover ended after kilpatrick ' s men regrouped and drove the confederates out of town. stuart ' s brigades had been better positioned to guard their captured wagon train than to take advantage of the encounter with kilpatrick. after a 20 mile trek in the dark, his exhausted men reached dover on the morning of july 1, as the battle of gettysburg was commencing without them. stuart headed next for carlisle, hoping to find ewell. he lobbed a few shells into town during the early evening of july 1 and burned the carlisle barracks before withdrawing to the south towards gettysburg. he and the bulk of his command reached lee at gettysburg the afternoon of july 2. he ordered wade hampton to cover the left rear of the confederate battle lines, and hampton fought with brig. gen. george armstrong custer at the battle of hunterstown before joining stuart at gettysburg. gettysburg and its aftermath when stuart arrived at gettysburg on the afternoon of july 2 — bringing with him the caravan of captured


confederate battle lines, and hampton fought with brig. gen. george armstrong custer at the battle of hunterstown before joining stuart at gettysburg. gettysburg and its aftermath when stuart arrived at gettysburg on the afternoon of july 2 — bringing with him the caravan of captured union supply wagons — he received a rare rebuke from lee. ( no one witnessed the private meeting between lee and stuart, but reports circulated at headquarters that lee ' s greeting was " abrupt and frosty. " colonel edward porter alexander wrote, " although lee said only, ' well, general, you are here at last, ' his manner implied rebuke, and it was so understood by stuart. " ) on the final day of the battle, stuart was ordered to get into the enemy ' s rear and disrupt its line of communications at the same time pickett ' s charge was sent against the union positions on cemetery ridge, but his attack on east cavalry field was repulsed by union cavalry under brig. gens. david gregg and george custer. during the retreat from gettysburg, stuart devoted his full attention to supporting the army ' s movement, successfully screening against aggressive union cavalry pursuit and escorting thousands of wagons with wounded men and captured supplies over difficult roads and through inclement weather. numerous skirmishes and minor battles occurred during the screening and delaying actions of the retreat. stuart ' s men were the final units to cross the potomac river, returning to virginia in " wretched condition — completely worn out and broken down. " the gettysburg campaign was the most controversial of stuart ' s career. he became one of the scapegoats ( along with james longstreet ) blamed for lee ' s loss at gettysburg by proponents of the postbellum lost cause movement, such as jubal early. this was fueled in part by opinions of less partisan writers, such as stuart ' s subordinate, thomas l. rosser, who stated after the war that stuart did, " on this campaign, undoubtedly, make the fatal blunder which lost us the battle of gettysburg. " in general lee ' s report on the campaign, he wrote... the absence of the cavalry rendered it impossible to obtain accurate information.... by the route [ stuart ] pursued, the federal army was interposed between his command and our main body, preventing any communication with him until his arrival at carlisle. the march toward gettysburg was conducted more slowly than it would have been had the movements of the federal army been known. one of the most forceful postbellum defenses of stuart was by col. john


preventing any communication with him until his arrival at carlisle. the march toward gettysburg was conducted more slowly than it would have been had the movements of the federal army been known. one of the most forceful postbellum defenses of stuart was by col. john s. mosby, who had served under him during the campaign and was fiercely loyal to the late general, writing, " he made me all that i was in the war.... but for his friendship i would never have been heard of. " he wrote numerous articles for popular publications and published a book length treatise in 1908, a work that relied on his skills as a lawyer to refute categorically all of the claims laid against stuart. modern scholarship remains divided on stuart ' s culpability. edward g. longacre argues that lee deliberately gave stuart wide discretion in his orders and had no complaints about stuart ' s tardy arrival at gettysburg because he established no date by which the cavalry was required to link up with ewell. the 3½ brigades of cavalry left with the main army were adequate for lee to negotiate enemy territory safely and that his choice not to use these brigades effectively cannot be blamed on stuart. edwin b. coddington refers to the " tragedy " of stuart in the gettysburg campaign and judges that when fitzhugh lee raised the question of " whether stuart exercised the discretion undoubtedly given to him, judiciously, " the answer is no. nevertheless, replying to historians who maintain that stuart ' s absence permitted lee to be surprised at gettysburg, coddington points out that the union commander, maj. gen. george meade, was just as surprised, and the initial advantage lay with lee. eric j. wittenberg and j. david petruzzi have concluded that there was " plenty of blame to go around " and the fault should be divided between stuart, the lack of specificity in lee ' s orders, and richard s. ewell, who might have tried harder to link up with stuart northeast of gettysburg. jeffry d. wert acknowledges that lee, his officers, and fighting by the army of the potomac bear the responsibility for the confederate loss at gettysburg, but states that " stuart failed lee and the army in the reckoning at gettysburg.... lee trusted him and gave him discretion, but stuart acted injudiciously. " although stuart was not reprimanded or disciplined in any official way for his role in the gettysburg campaign, it is noteworthy that his appointment to corps command on september 9, 1863, did not carry


, but stuart acted injudiciously. " although stuart was not reprimanded or disciplined in any official way for his role in the gettysburg campaign, it is noteworthy that his appointment to corps command on september 9, 1863, did not carry with it a promotion to lieutenant general. edward bonekemper wrote that since all other corps commanders in the army of northern virginia carried this rank, lee ' s decision to keep stuart at major general rank, while at the same time promoting stuart ' s subordinates wade hampton and fitzhugh lee to major generals, could be considered an implied rebuke. jeffry d. wert wrote that there is no evidence lee considered stuart ' s performance during the gettysburg campaign and that it is " more likely that lee thought the responsibilities in command of a cavalry corps did not equal those of an infantry corps. " fall 1863 and the 1864 overland campaign lee reorganized his cavalry on september 9, creating a cavalry corps for stuart with two divisions of three brigades each. in the bristoe campaign, stuart was assigned to lead a broad turning movement in an attempt to get into the enemy ' s rear, but general meade skillfully withdrew his army without leaving opportunities to take advantage. on october 13, stuart blundered into the rear guard of the union iii corps near warrenton. ewell ' s corps was sent to rescue him, but stuart hid his troopers in a wooded ravine until the unsuspecting iii corps moved on, and the assistance was not necessary. as meade withdrew towards manassas junction, brigades from the union ii corps fought a rearguard action against stuart ' s cavalry and the infantry of brig. gen. harry hays ' s division near auburn on october 14. stuart ' s cavalry boldly bluffed warren ' s infantry and escaped disaster. after the confederate repulse at bristoe station and an aborted advance on centreville, stuart ' s cavalry shielded the withdrawal of lee ' s army from the vicinity of manassas junction. judson kilpatrick ' s union cavalry pursued stuart ' s cavalry along the warrenton turnpike but were lured into an ambush near chestnut hill and routed. the federal troopers were scattered and chased five miles ( 8 km ) in an affair that came to be known as the " buckland races ". the southern press began to mute its criticism of stuart ' s following his successful performance during the fall campaign. the overland campaign, lt. gen. ulysses s. grant ' s offensive against lee in the spring of 1864, began at


venable wrote of stuart, " he told me he never expected to live through the war, and that if we were conquered, that he did not want to live. " the battle of yellow tavern occurred may 11, at an abandoned inn located six miles ( 10 km ) north of richmond. the confederate troopers tenaciously resisted from the low ridgeline bordering the road to richmond, fighting for over three hours. a countercharge by the 1st virginia cavalry pushed the advancing union troopers back from the hilltop as stuart, on horseback, shouted encouragement while firing his revolver at the union troopers. as the 5th michigan cavalry streamed in retreat past stuart, a dismounted union private, 48 - year - old john a. huff, turned and shot stuart with his. 44 - caliber revolver from a distance of 10 – 30 yards. huff ' s bullet struck stuart in the left side. it then sliced through his stomach and exited his back, 1 inch to the right of his spine. stuart suffered great pain as an ambulance took him to richmond to await his wife ' s arrival at the home of dr. charles brewer, his brother - in - law. stuart ordered his sword and spurs be given to his son. his last whispered words were : " i am resigned ; god ' s will be done. " he died at 7 : 38 p. m. on may 12, the following day, before flora stuart reached his side. he was 31 years old. stuart was buried in richmond ' s hollywood cemetery. upon learning of stuart ' s death, general lee is reported to have said that he could hardly keep from weeping at the mere mention of stuart ' s name and that stuart had never given him a bad piece of information. flora wore the black of mourning for the remainder of her life, and never remarried. she lived in saltville, virginia, for 15 years after the war, where she opened and taught at a school in a log cabin. she worked from 1880 to 1898 as principal of the virginia female institute in staunton, virginia, a position for which robert e. lee had recommended her before his death ten years earlier. in 1907, the institute was renamed stuart hall school in her honor. upon the death of her daughter virginia, from complications in childbirth in 1898, flora resigned from the institute and moved to norfolk, virginia, where she helped virginia ' s widower, robert page waller, in raising her grandchildren. she died in norfolk on may 10, 1923, after striking her head in a fall on a city sidewalk. she is buried


and moved to norfolk, virginia, where she helped virginia ' s widower, robert page waller, in raising her grandchildren. she died in norfolk on may 10, 1923, after striking her head in a fall on a city sidewalk. she is buried alongside her husband and their daughter, little flora, in hollywood cemetery in richmond. legacy and memorials like his intimate friend, stonewall jackson, general j. e. b. stuart was a legendary figure and is considered one of the greatest cavalry commanders in american history. his friend from his federal army days, union maj. gen. john sedgwick, said that stuart was " the greatest cavalry officer ever foaled in america. " jackson and stuart, both of whom were killed in battle, had colorful public images, although the latter seems to have been more deliberately crafted. jeffry d. wert wrote about stuart : stuart had been the confederacy ' s knight - errant, the bold and dashing cavalier, attired in a resplendent uniform, plumed hat, and cape. amid a slaughterhouse, he had embodied chivalry, clinging to the pageantry of a long - gone warrior. he crafted the image carefully, and the image befitted him. he saw himself as the southern people envisaged him. they needed a knight ; he needed to be that knight. a statue of general j. e. b. stuart by sculptor frederick moynihan was dedicated on richmond ' s famed monument avenue at stuart circle in 1907. like general stonewall jackson, his equestrian statue faces north, indicating that he died in the war. in 1884 the town of taylorsville, virginia, was renamed stuart. the british army named two models of american - made world war ii tanks, the m3 and m5, the stuart tank in general stuart ' s honor. a high school in falls church, virginia and a middle school in jacksonville, florida are named for him. in december 2006, a personal confederate battle flag, sewn by flora stuart, was sold in a heritage auction for a world - record price for any confederate flag, for $ 956, 000 ( including buyer ' s premium ). the 34 - inch by 34 - inch flag was hand - sewn for stuart by flora in 1862 and stuart carried it into some of his most famous battles. however, in december of that year it fell from a tent front into a campfire and was damaged. stuart returned it to his wife with a letter describing the accident and telling of his despon


stuart carried it into some of his most famous battles. however, in december of that year it fell from a tent front into a campfire and was damaged. stuart returned it to his wife with a letter describing the accident and telling of his despondency over the banner ' s damage. the flag remained with the stuart family until 1969 when it was given to stuart hall, staunton, virginia, by a granddaughter of the confederate general. the school quietly sold the flag and letter to a private collector in 2000. in 2006, the flag and letter, which had been displayed in a single frame in the stuart hall front parlor, were sold separately at auction. in popular media j. e. b. stuart is a character in the historical adventure novel flashman and the angel of the lord by george macdonald fraser featuring stuart ' s early - career role in the us army at abolitionist john brown ' s raid on harpers ferry. in the long running comic book g. i. combat, featuring " the haunted tank ", published by dc comics from the 1960s through the late 1980s, the ghost of general stuart guided a tank crew ( the tank being, at first, a stuart, later a sherman ) commanded by his namesake " lt. jeb stuart. " errol flynn played stuart in the movie santa fe trail, depicting his antebellum life, confronting john brown in kansas and at harper ' s ferry. the movie has become infamous for its many historical inaccuracies, one of which was that stuart, george armstrong custer, and philip sheridan were firm friends and all attended west point together in 1854. in the 1988 alternate history novel gray victory, author robert skimin depicts stuart surviving his wound from the battle of yellow tavern. after the war, in which the confederacy emerges victorious, he faces a court of inquiry over his actions at the battle of gettysburg. in the alternate - history novel how few remain by harry turtledove, stuart is the commanding confederate general in charge of the occupation and defense of the recently purchased mexican provinces of sonora and chihuahua in 1881, before being mortally wounded by an apache rebel. several short stories in barry hannah ' s collection airships feature stuart as a character. see also - eicher, pp. 517 – 18. - thomas, p. 151 ; davis, p. 237. - life of jeb stuart by mary williamson. christian liberty press, jan 1, 1997 page 1 - wert, pp. 5 – 6, lists the children as nancy anne dabney,


p. 151 ; davis, p. 237. - life of jeb stuart by mary williamson. christian liberty press, jan 1, 1997 page 1 - wert, pp. 5 – 6, lists the children as nancy anne dabney, born in 1818, bethenia pannill in 1819, mary tucker in 1821, david pannill in 1823, william alexander in 1826, john dabney in 1828, columbia lafayette in 1830, james in 1833, an unnamed son who died at the age of three months in 1834, virginia josephine in 1836, and victoria augusta in 1838. thomas, p. 7, claims that james was the youngest son of ten [ unnamed ] children. - thomas, p. 5. - wert, p. 5. - thomas, pp. 11 – 12 ; wert, p. 8. - wert, p. 10. - wert, p. 11 ; davis, p. 19. - thomas, p. 18. - davis, p. 33 ; wert, p. 15. - wert, p. 18. - thomas, pp. 18 – 32 ; davis, p. 27. - wert, pp. 22 – 23. - thomas, pp. 40 – 41. - wert, p. 25. - davis, p. 36. - thomas, pp. 41 – 43 ; davis, p. 37 ; wert, pp. 26 – 29. - wert, pp. 30 – 31. - davis, p. 40 ; wert, pp. 33 – 35. - wert, p. 35. - wert, pp. 37 – 39. - wert, pp. 45, 52 ; davis, pp. 47 – 40. - thomas, p. 95. - wert, pp. 42, 76. - wert, p. 49 ; davis, pp. 51 – 52. - wert, p. 62. - wert, pp. 93 – 101 ; davis, pp. 111 – 30. - wert, pp. 125 – 29 ; davis, pp. 167 – 72. - wert, pp. 136 – 37 ; davis, pp. 183 – 84. - wert, p. 144. - wert, pp. 147 – 50. - wert, pp. 156 – 58 ; davis, pp. 205 – 06. - robertson, p. 235. - wert, pp. 167 – 76 ; thomas, pp. 173 – 80


coddington, pp. 199 – 200 ; longacre, pp. 156 – 58 ; wittenberg and petruzzi, pp. 47 – 64. - coddington, pp. 200 – 01 ; wittenberg and petruzzi, pp. 65 – 117 ; longacre, pp. 161, 172 – 79. - wittenberg and petruzzi, pp. 139 – 78 ; longacre, pp. 193 – 202. - sears, gettysburg, pp. 257 – 58. longacre, pp. 215 – 16, argues that a bitter confrontation never took place. - longacre, cavalry at gettysburg, pp. 220 – 31. - longacre, lee ' s cavalrymen, pp. 223 – 37 ; wert, pp. 292 – 98. - wert, p. 300. - coddington, p. 207. - wittenberg and petruzzi, pp. 219 - 28. - longacre, lee ' s cavalrymen, pp. 215 – 16 ; longacre, cavalry at gettysburg, p. 271 ; coddington, pp. 205 – 08 ; wittenberg and petruzzi, pp. 263 – 98 ; wert, pp. 299 – 302. - bonekemper, p. 139. - wert, pp. 308 – 09. - wert, pp. 320 – 21. - wert, pp. 313 – 21 ; davis, pp. 360 – 67. - wert, pp. 338 – 46 ; davis, pp. 378 – 84. - wert, p. 346 ; davis, p. 384. - wert, pp. 346 – 49. - smith, p. 242 ; salmon, p. 283 ; starr, p. 107 ; rhea, pp. 209, 390 ; thomas, p. 292 ; edward g. longacre, writing in a june 2004 civil war times article, claims that huff ' s shot was from 400 yards ( 370 m ) away, an arguably impressive feat with a pistol ; in his book, lincoln ' s cavalrymen ( p. 268 ), longacre states that huff was able to advance " close enough " to stuart to shoot him in the abdomen, although he was not aware at the time that his victim was stuart. private huff was killed a month later at the battle of haw ' s shop. wert, pp. 347 – 58, disputes the possibility that huff fired the mortal shot, stating that the


aware at the time that his victim was stuart. private huff was killed a month later at the battle of haw ' s shop. wert, pp. 347 – 58, disputes the possibility that huff fired the mortal shot, stating that the evidence points to an unnamed trooper in either the 1st or 7th michigan. - smith, p. 357. - smith, p. 244 ; wert, pp. 357 – 62. - lee had been a member of the board of visitors of the school in 1865 – 1870 when he was president of washington college in nearby lexington, virginia. he also had sent two daughters to the school for their educations. wert, p. 368 for recommendation. - wert, pp. 368 – 69. - wert, pp. 371 – 72. - wert, p. 370. - peterson, p. 353. - antique trader, december 27, 2006, p1, p. 15 ( online auction site ) - davis, p. 261. - * ivy press, hsa americana civil war platinum auction catalog # 642, heritage capital corporation, 2006, isbn 1 - 59967 - 090 - 9, pp. 51 – 52. - laurel hill website. - * golden, christopher, bissette, stephen, sniegoski, thomas e., the monster book, simon & schuster, 2000, isbn 0 - 671 - 04259 - 9, p. 278. - adams, richard, traveller : a novel, alfred a. knopf, 1988, isbn 0 - 440 - 20493 - 3. - skimin, robert, gray victory, st. martin ' s press, 1988, isbn 0 - 312 - 01374 - 4. - turtledove, harry, how few remain, volume 1, random house, inc., 1998, isbn 0 - 345 - 40614 - 1, p. 45. - bonekemper, edward h., iii. how robert e. lee lost the civil war. fredericksburg, va : sergeant kirkland ' s press, 1998. isbn 1 - 887901 - 15 - 9. - coddington, edwin b. the gettysburg campaign ; a study in command. new york : scribner ' s, 1968. isbn 0 - 684 - 84569 - 5. - davis, burke. jeb stuart : the last cavalier. new york : random house, 1957. isbn 0 - 517 - 18597


: scribner ' s, 1968. isbn 0 - 684 - 84569 - 5. - davis, burke. jeb stuart : the last cavalier. new york : random house, 1957. isbn 0 - 517 - 18597 - 0. - eicher, john h., and david j. eicher. civil war high commands. stanford, ca : stanford university press, 2001. isbn 0 - 8047 - 3641 - 3. - longacre, edward g. the cavalry at gettysburg. lincoln : university of nebraska press, 1986. isbn 0 - 8032 - 7941 - 8. - longacre, edward g. lee ' s cavalrymen : a history of the mounted forces of the army of northern virginia. mechanicsburg, pa : stackpole books, 2002. isbn 0 - 8117 - 0898 - 5. - perry, thomas d. j. e. b. stuart ' s birthplace : the history of the laurel hill farm. ararat, va : laurel hill publishing, 2008. isbn 978 - 1 - 4382 - 3934 - 7. - peterson, alexander duncan campbell. schools across frontiers : the story of the international baccalaureate and the united world colleges. la salle, il : open court publishing, 2003. isbn 0 - 8126 - 9505 - 4. - rhea, gordon c. the battles for spotsylvania court house and the road to yellow tavern may 7 – 12, 1864. baton rouge : louisiana state university press, 1997. isbn 0 - 8071 - 2136 - 3. - robertson, james i., jr. stonewall jackson : the man, the soldier, the legend. new york : macmillan publishing, 1997. isbn 0 - 02 - 864685 - 1. - salmon, john s. the official virginia civil war battlefield guide. mechanicsburg, pa : stackpole books, 2001. isbn 0 - 8117 - 2868 - 4. - sears, stephen w. chancellorsville. boston : houghton mifflin, 1996. isbn 0 - 395 - 87744 - x. - sears, stephen w. gettysburg. boston : houghton mifflin, 2003. isbn 0 - 395 - 86761 - 4. - smith, derek. the gallant dead : union & confederate generals killed in the civil war. mechanicsburg, pa : stackpole books, 2005. isbn 0 - 8117 - 0132 - 8. - starr, stephen z. the union cavalry in the civil


derek. the gallant dead : union & confederate generals killed in the civil war. mechanicsburg, pa : stackpole books, 2005. isbn 0 - 8117 - 0132 - 8. - starr, stephen z. the union cavalry in the civil war. vol. 2, the war in the east from gettysburg to appomattox 1863 – 1865. baton rouge : louisiana state university press, 1981. isbn 978 - 0 - 8071 - 3292 - 0. - thomas, emory m. bold dragoon : the life of j. e. b. stuart. norman : university of oklahoma press, 1986. isbn 0 - 8061 - 3193 - 4. - wert, jeffry d. cavalryman of the lost cause : a biography of j. e. b. stuart. new york : simon & schuster, 2008. isbn 978 - 0 - 7432 - 7819 - 5. - wittenberg, eric j., and j. david petruzzi. plenty of blame to go around : jeb stuart ' s controversial ride to gettysburg. new york : savas beatie, 2006. isbn 1 - 932714 - 20 - 0. further reading - brown, kent masterson. retreat from gettysburg : lee, logistics, & the pennsylvania campaign. chapel hill : university of north carolina press, 2005. isbn 0 - 8078 - 2921 - 8. - laino, philip, gettysburg campaign atlas. 2nd ed. dayton, oh : gatehouse press 2009. isbn 978 - 1 - 934900 - 45 - 1. - mcclellan, henry b. i rode with jeb stuart : the life and campaigns of maj. gen. jeb stuart. edited by burke davis. new york : da capo press, 1994. isbn 978 - 0 - 306 - 80605 - 6. first published 1958 by indiana university press. - mosby, john singleton. mosby ' s reminiscences and stuart ' s cavalry campaigns. new york : dodd, mead & company, 1887. oclc 26692400. - perry, thomas d. laurel hill teachers ' guide, 2005. - petruzzi, j. david, and steven stanley. the complete gettysburg guide. new york : savas beatie, 2009. isbn 978 - 1 - 932714 - 63 - 0. - wittenberg, eric j., j. david petruzzi, and michael f. nugent. one continuous fight : the retreat from gettysburg and the pursuit of


| classification and external resources | | icd - 9 | | 294. 0, 780. 9, 780. 93 | amnesia ( from greek αμνησια " a " meaning " without ", " μνησια " memory ) is a deficit in memory caused by brain damage, disease, or psychological trauma. amnesia can also be caused temporarily by the use of various sedatives and hypnotic drugs. essentially, amnesia is loss of memory. the memory can be either wholly or partially lost due to the extent of damage that was caused. there are two main types of amnesia : retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia. retrograde amnesia is the inability to retrieve information that was acquired before a particular date, usually the date of an accident or operation. in some cases the memory loss can extend back decades, while in others the person may lose only a few months of memory. anterograde amnesia is the inability to transfer new information from the short - term store into the long - term store. people with this type of amnesia cannot remember things for long periods of time. these two types are not mutually exclusive. both can occur within a patient at one time. case studies, such as that of patient r. b., show that both types of amnesia can occur simultaneously. case studies also show that amnesia is typically associated with damage to the medial temporal lobe. in addition, specific areas of the hippocampus ( the ca1 region ) are involved with memory. research has also shown that when areas of the diencephalon are damaged, amnesia can occur. in people suffering with amnesia the ability to recall immediate information is still retained, [ full citation needed ] and they may still be able to form new memories. however, a severe reduction in the ability to learn new material and retrieve old information can be observed. patients can learn new procedural knowledge. in addition, priming ( both perceptual and conceptual ) can assist amnesiacs in the learning of fresh non - declarative knowledge. amnesic patients also retain substantial intellectual, linguistic, and social skill despite profound impairments in the ability to recall specific information encountered in prior learning episodes. french psychologist theodule - armand ribot was among the first scientists to study amnesia. he proposed ribot ' s law which states that there is a time gradient in retrograde amnesia. the law follows a logical progression of memory - loss due to disease. first, a patient loses the recent memories, then personal memories, and finally intellectual memories. he implied


' s law which states that there is a time gradient in retrograde amnesia. the law follows a logical progression of memory - loss due to disease. first, a patient loses the recent memories, then personal memories, and finally intellectual memories. he implied that the most recent memories were lost first. important case studies case studies played a large role in the discovery of amnesia and the parts of the brain that were affected. the studies gave important insight into how amnesia affects the brain. the studies also gave scientists the resources into improving their knowledge about amnesia and insight into a cure or prevention. there are two extremely important case studies : henry molaison and r. b. henry molaison henry molaison, formerly known as h. m., changed the way people thought of memory. he was a patient who suffered from severe epilepsy. physicians were unable to control his seizures with drugs, so they tried a new approach involving brain surgery. doctors removed his medial temporal lobe bilaterally by doing a temporal lobectomy. his epilepsy did improve, but molaison lost the ability to form new long - term memories ( anterograde amnesia ). he exhibited normal short - term memory ability. if he was given a list of words, he would forget them in about a minute ' s time. in fact, he would forget that he was even given a list in the first place. he was able to learn things through his implicit memory. the psychologists would ask him to draw something on a piece of paper, but to look at the paper using a mirror. though he could never remember ever doing that task, he would improve after doing it over and over again. this showed the psychologists that he was learning and remembering things unconsciously. studies were completed consistently throughout molaison ’ s lifetime to discover more about amnesia. researchers did a 14 - year follow - up study on molaison. they studied him for a period of two weeks to learn more about his amnesia. after 14 years, molaison still could not recall things that have happened since his surgery. however, he can still remember things that happened prior to the operation. researchers also found that, when asked, molaison could answer questions about national or international events, but he could not remember his own personal memories. this case study provided important insight to the areas of the brain that are affected in anterograde amnesia, as well as how amnesia works. patient r. b. after an ischemic episode ( reduction of blood to the brain ) that was


. this case study provided important insight to the areas of the brain that are affected in anterograde amnesia, as well as how amnesia works. patient r. b. after an ischemic episode ( reduction of blood to the brain ) that was caused from a heart bypass surgery, r. b. lost his memory. unlike molaison, r. b. developed both anterograde and retrograde amnesia. his lesions were restricted to the hippocampus. it wasn ’ t until after his death that researchers had the chance to examine his brain. they found that his lesions were restricted to the ca1 portion of the hippocampus. this case study led to important research involving the role of the hippocampus and the function of memory. there are three generalized categories in which amnesia could be acquired by a person. the three categories are head trauma ( example : head injuries ), traumatic events ( example : seeing something devastating to the mind ), or physical deficiencies ( example : atrophy of the hippocampus ). the majority of amnesia and related memory issues derive from the first two categories as these are more common and the third could be considered a sub category of the first. - head trauma is a very broad range as it deals with any kind of injury or active action toward the brain which might cause amnesia. retrograde and anterograde amnesia are more often seen from events like this, an exact example of a cause of the two would be electroshock therapy, which would cause both briefly for the receiving patient. - traumatic events are more subjective. what is traumatic is dependent on what the person finds to be traumatic. regardless, a traumatic event is an event where something so distressing occurs that the mind chooses to forget rather than deal with the stress. a common example of amnesia that is caused by traumatic events is dissociative amnesia, which occurs when the person forgets an event that has deeply disturbed them. an example would be forgetting what happened to your friends after you see them harmed in a gruesome fashion. - physical deficiencies are different from head trauma as physical lean more toward passive physical issues. the difference would be having surgery that removes part of your brain, this would be active and thus head trauma, while the surgery caused the surrounding areas to atrophy, which is passive. henry molaison is a great example of physical deficiencies as parts of his brain began to atrophy after his surgery. amongst specific causes of amnesia are the following : - electroconvu


surrounding areas to atrophy, which is passive. henry molaison is a great example of physical deficiencies as parts of his brain began to atrophy after his surgery. amongst specific causes of amnesia are the following : - electroconvulsive therapy in which seizures are electrically induced in patients for therapeutic effect can have acute effects including both retrograde and anterograde amnesia. - alcohol can both cause blackouts and have deleterious effects on memory formation. - anterograde amnesia refers to the inability to create new memories due to brain damage, while long - term memories from before the event remain intact. the brain damage can be caused by the effects of long - term alcoholism, severe malnutrition, stroke, head trauma, surgery, wernicke - korsakoff syndrome, cerebrovascular events, anoxia or other trauma. the two brain regions related with this condition are medial temporal lobe and medial diencephalon. anterograde amnesia can ' t be treated with pharmacological methods due to neuronal loss. however, treatment exists in educating patients to define their daily routines and after several steps they begin to benefit from their procedural memory. likewise, social and emotional support is critical to improving quality of life for anterograde amnesia sufferers. - retrograde amnesia refers to inability to recall memories before onset of amnesia. one may be able to encode new memories after the incident. retrograde is usually caused by head trauma or brain damage to parts of the brain besides the hippocampus. the hippocampus is responsible for encoding new memory. episodic memory is more likely to be affected than semantic memory. the damage is usually caused by head trauma, cerebrovascular accident, stroke, tumor, hypoxia, encephalitis, or chronic alcoholism. people suffering from retrograde amnesia are more likely to remember general knowledge rather than specifics. recent memories are less likely to be recovered, but older memories will be easier to recall due to strengthening over time. retrograde amnesia is usually temporary and can be treated by exposing them to memories from the loss. another type of consolidation ( process by which memories become stable in the brain ) occurs over much longer periods of time / days, weeks, months and years and likely involves transfer of information from the hippocampus to more permanent storage site in the cortex. the operation of this longer - term consolidation process is seen in the retrograde amnesia of patients with hippocampal damage who


, months and years and likely involves transfer of information from the hippocampus to more permanent storage site in the cortex. the operation of this longer - term consolidation process is seen in the retrograde amnesia of patients with hippocampal damage who can recall memories from childhood relatively normally, but are impaired when recalling experiences that occurred just a few years prior to the time they became amnesic. ( kirwan et al., 2008 ) - post - traumatic amnesia is generally due to a head injury ( example : a fall, a knock on the head ). traumatic amnesia is often transient, but may be permanent or either anterograde, retrograde, or mixed type. the extent of the period covered by the amnesia is related to the degree of injury and may give an indication of the prognosis for recovery of other functions. mild trauma, such as a car accident that results in no more than mild whiplash, might cause the occupant of a car to have no memory of the moments just before the accident due to a brief interruption in the short / long - term memory transfer mechanism. the sufferer may also lose knowledge of who people are. having longer periods of amnesia or consciousness after an injury may be an indication that recovery from remaining concussion symptoms will take much longer. - dissociative amnesia results from a psychological cause as opposed to direct damage to the brain caused by head injury, physical trauma or disease, which is known as organic amnesia. dissociative amnesia can include : - repressed memory refers to the inability to recall information, usually about stressful or traumatic events in persons ' lives, such as a violent attack or disaster. the memory is stored in long - term memory, but access to it is impaired because of psychological defense mechanisms. persons retain the capacity to learn new information and there may be some later partial or complete recovery of memory. formerly known as " psychogenic amnesia ". - dissociative fugue ( formerly psychogenic fugue ) is also known as fugue state. it is caused by psychological trauma and is usually temporary, unresolved and therefore may return. an individual with dissociative fugue disorder is unaware or confused about his or her identity and will travel in journeys away from familiar surroundings to discover or create new identities. the merck manual defines it as " one or more episodes of amnesia in which patients cannot recall some or all of their past and either lose their identity or form a new identity. the episodes, called fugues, result from trauma


create new identities. the merck manual defines it as " one or more episodes of amnesia in which patients cannot recall some or all of their past and either lose their identity or form a new identity. the episodes, called fugues, result from trauma or stress. dissociative fugue often manifests as sudden, unexpected, purposeful travel away from home. " while popular in fiction, it is extremely rare. - post - hypnotic amnesia occurs when events during hypnosis are forgotten, or where past memories are unable to be recalled. the failure to remember those events is induced by suggestions made during the hypnosis. - lacunar amnesia is the loss of memory about one specific event. - childhood amnesia ( also known as infantile amnesia ) is the common inability to remember events from one ' s own childhood. sigmund freud notoriously attributed this to sexual repression, while modern scientific approaches generally attribute it to aspects of brain development or developmental psychology, including language development. researchers have found that implicit memories cannot be recalled and are hardily described. remembering how to play the piano is a common example of implicit memory. explicit memories, on the other hand, can be recalled and described in words. remembering the first day that you met your piano teacher is an example of explicit memories. - transient global amnesia is a well - described medical and clinical phenomenon. this form of amnesia is distinct in that abnormalities in the hippocampus can sometimes be visualized using a special form of magnetic resonance imaging of the brain known as diffusion - weighted imaging ( dwi ). symptoms typically last for less than a day and there is often no clear precipitating factor or any other neurological deficits. the cause of this syndrome is not clear. the hypothesis of the syndrome includes transient reduced blood flow, possible seizure or an atypical type of migraine. patients are typically amnestic of events more than a few minutes in the past, though immediate recall is usually preserved. - source amnesia is the inability to remember where, when or how previously learned information has been acquired, while retaining the factual knowledge. source amnesia is both part of ordinary forgetting and can be a memory disorder caused by different factors. people suffering from source amnesia can also get confused about the content of what is remembered. this confusion has been loosely termed memory distrust syndrome. individuals who suffer from this syndrome distrust their memory and may be motivated to rely on external ( non - self ) sources. - korsakoff ' s syndrome can result from long - term alcoholism or malnut


confusion has been loosely termed memory distrust syndrome. individuals who suffer from this syndrome distrust their memory and may be motivated to rely on external ( non - self ) sources. - korsakoff ' s syndrome can result from long - term alcoholism or malnutrition. it is caused by brain damage due to a vitamin b1 deficiency and will be progressive if alcohol intake and nutrition pattern are not modified. other neurological problems are likely to be present in combination with this type of amnesia. korsakoff ' s syndrome is also known to be connected with confabulation. it should be noted that the person ' s short - term memory may appear to be normal, however the person may have a difficult time attempting to recall a past story, or with unrelated words, as well as complicated patterns. - drug - induced amnesia is intentionally caused by injection of an amnesiac drug to help a patient forget surgery or medical procedures, particularly those not performed under full anesthesia, or likely to be particularly traumatic. such drugs are also referred to as " premedicants. " most commonly a 2 ' - halogenated benzodiazepine such as midazolam or flunitrazepam is the drug of choice, although other strongly amnestic drugs such as propofol or scopolamine may also be used for this application. memories of the short time - frame in which the procedure was performed are permanently lost or at least substantially reduced, but once the drug wears off, memory is no longer affected. - prosopamnesia is the inability to recognize or remember faces, even in the presence of intact facial recognition capabilities. both acquired and inborn cases have been documented. - situation - specific amnesia can arise in a variety of circumstances ( e. g., committing an offence, child sexual abuse ) resulting in ptsd. it has been claimed that it involves a narrowing of consciousness with attention focused on central perceptual details and / or that the emotional or traumatic events are processed differently from ordinary memories. - transient epileptic amnesia is a rare and unrecognized form of temporal lobe epilepsy, which is typically an episodic isolated memory loss. it has been recognized as a treatment - responsive syndrome congenial to anti - epileptic drugs. acquisition of new memories patients with amnesia can learn new information, particularly non - declarative knowledge. however, some patients with dense anterograde amnesia do not remember the episodes during which they learned or observed the information previously. acquisition of new dec


. acquisition of new memories patients with amnesia can learn new information, particularly non - declarative knowledge. however, some patients with dense anterograde amnesia do not remember the episodes during which they learned or observed the information previously. acquisition of new declarative information some patients with anterograde amnesia can still acquire some semantic information, even though it might be more difficult and might remain rather unrelated to more general knowledge. h. m. could accurately draw a floor plan of the home in which he lived after surgery, even though he had not lived there in years. the reason patients couldn ’ t form new episodic memories is likely because the ca1 region of the hippocampus was lesioned, and thus the hippocampus couldn ’ t make connections to the cortex. after an ischemic episode following surgery, an mri of patient r. b. showed his hippocampus to be intact except for a specific lesion restricted to the ca1 pyramidal cells. acquisition of new non - declarative information some retrograde and anterograde amnesics are capable of non - declarative memory, including implicit learning and procedural learning. for example, some patients show improvement on the pseudorandom sequences experiment as healthy people do. therefore, procedural learning can proceed independently of the brain system required for episodic memory. according to fmri studies, the acquisition of procedural memories activates the basal ganglia, the premotor cortex and the supplementary motor area, regions which are not normally associated with the formation of episodic memories. this type of dissociation between declarative and procedural memory can also be found in patients with diencephalic amnesia such as korsakoff ’ s syndrome. another example is that some patients, such as k. c. and h. m, who have medial temporal damage and anterograde amnesia, still have perceptual priming. those patients did well in the word fragment completion test. many forms of amnesia fix themselves without being treated. however, there are a few ways to cope with memory loss if that is not the case. one of these ways is cognitive or occupational therapy. in therapy, amnesiacs will develop the memory skills they have and try to regain some they have lost by finding which techniques help retrieve memories or create new retrieval paths. this may also include strategies for organizing information to remember it more easily and for improving understanding of lengthy conversation. another coping mechanism is taking advantage of technological assistance, such as a personal digital device to keep track


techniques help retrieve memories or create new retrieval paths. this may also include strategies for organizing information to remember it more easily and for improving understanding of lengthy conversation. another coping mechanism is taking advantage of technological assistance, such as a personal digital device to keep track of day - to - day tasks. reminders can be set up for appointments, when to take medications, birthdays and other important events. many pictures can also be stored to help amnesiacs remember names of friends, family and co - workers. notebooks, wall calendars, pill reminders and photographs of people and places are low - tech memory aids that can help as well. while there are no medications available to treat amnesia, underlying medical conditions can be treated to improve memory. such conditions include but are not limited to low thyroid function, liver or kidney disease, stroke, depression, bipolar disorder and blood clots in the brain. wernicke – korsakoff syndrome involves a lack of thiamin and replacing this vitamin by consuming thiamin - rich foods such as whole - grain cereals, legumes ( beans and lentils ), nuts, lean pork, and yeast. treating alcoholism and preventing alcohol and illicit drug use can prevent further damage, but in most cases will not recover lost memory. although improvements occur when patients receive certain treatments, there is still no actual cure remedy for amnesia so far. to what extent the patient recovers and how long the amnesia will continue depends on the type and severity of the lesion. see also - gazzaniga, m., ivry, r., & mangun, g. ( 2009 ) cognitive neuroscience : the biology of the mind. new york : w. w. norton & company. - " amnesia. " the gale encyclopedia of science. ed. k. lee lerner and brenda wilmoth lerner. 4th ed. vol. 1. detroit : gale, 2008. 182 - 184. gale virtual reference library. - schacter, daniel. l " psychology " - d. frank benson, " amnesia " - ls., cermak ( 1984 ). the episodic - semantic distinction in amnesia. new york : guilford press. p. 55. - m, kinsbourne ( 1975 ). short - term memory processes and the amnesic syndrome. new york : academic. pp. 258 – 91. - h, weingartner ( 1983 ). forms of cognitive failure. science. pp. 221 : 380 – 2. - rib


- term memory processes and the amnesic syndrome. new york : academic. pp. 258 – 91. - h, weingartner ( 1983 ). forms of cognitive failure. science. pp. 221 : 380 – 2. - ribot, t. ( 1882 ) diseases of memory : an essay in the positive psychology. london : d. appleton and company. - corkin, s., milner, b. & teuber, h. ( 1968 ) further analysis of the hippocampal amnesic syndrome : 14 - year follow - up study on patient h. m. neuropsychologia. 6, 215 - 234. - burgess, n., maguire, e., spiers, h. ( 2001 ) hippocampal amnesia. neurocase. 7, 357 - 382. - myers, david g. psychology. fifth ed. new york : worth publishers, 1998. n. pag. print - benbow, sm ( 2004 ) " adverse effects of ect ". in aif scott ( ed. ) the ect handbook, second edition. london : the royal college of psychiatrists, pp. 170 – 174. - goodwin dw, crane jb, guze sb ( august 1969 ). " alcoholic " blackouts " : a review and clinical study of 100 alcoholics ". am j psychiatry 126 ( 2 ) : 191 – 8. pmid 5804804. - parker es, birnbaum im, noble ep ( december 1976 ). " alcohol and memory : storage and state dependency ". journal of verbal learning and verbal behaviour 15 ( 6 ) : 691 – 702. doi : 10. 1016 / 0022 - 5371 ( 76 ) 90061 - x. - carlson, n. r. ( 19992000 ). memory. psychology : the science of behaviour ( canandian ed., p. 250 ). scarborough, ont. : allyn and bacon canada. - erdogan, serap ( 2010 ). " anterograde amnesia ". psikiyatride guncel yaklasimlar - current approaches in psychiatry 2 ( 2 ) : 174 – 189. retrieved 27 november 2011. - mastin, l. ( 2010 ). the human memory : retrograde amnesia. retrieved from http : / / www. human - memory. net / disorders _ retrograde. html - " memory abnormality. " encyclopædia britannica. en


( 2010 ). the human memory : retrograde amnesia. retrieved from http : / / www. human - memory. net / disorders _ retrograde. html - " memory abnormality. " encyclopædia britannica. encyclopædia britannica online academic edition. encyclopædia britannica inc., 2012. web. 21 apr 2012. - masferrer r, masferrer m, prendergast v, harrington tr ( 2000 ). " grading scale for cerebral concussions " ( [ dead link ] ). bni quarterly ( barrow neurological institute ) 16 ( 1 ). issn 0894 - 5799 - " dissociative fugue. retrieved 7 august 2012 ". my. clevelandclinic. org. retrieved 2012 - 12 - 22. - " the merck manuals online ". merckmanuals. com. retrieved 2012 - 12 - 22. - carlson, neil ( 2007 ). psychology the science of behaviour. toronto : pearson. p. 283. isbn 978 - 0 - 205 - 64524 - 4. - harlene hayne *, fiona jack,, wiley interdisciplinary reviews : cognitive science, march / april 2011 - schacter, d. l., harbluk, j. l., and mclachlen, d. r. ( 1984 ). retrieval without recollection : an experimental analysis of source amnesia. journal of verbal learning and verbal behaviour, 23 ( 5 ) : 593 - 611. - " shaheen emmanuel lakhan : neuropsychological generation of source amnesia : an episodic memory disorder of the frontal brain. journal of medicine, volume 1, issue 1, 2007 ". scientificjournals. org. retrieved 2012 - 12 - 22. - " types of amnesia ". uwaterloo. retrieved 9 april 2012. - walsh rd, jr wharen re, iv tatum wo ( 2011 ). " complex transient epileptic amnesia ". epilepsy & behaviour 20 ( 2 ) : 410 – 413. - nordquist, c. ( 2004 ) what is amnesia? what causes amnesia? medical news today. retrieved from : http : / / www. medicalnewstoday. com / articles / 9673. php - " treating amnesia. neurology now. 4 ( 4 ), pg. 37 ( 2008 ) ". journals. lww. com. doi :


| part of a series on | owenism is the utopian socialist philosophy of 19th century social reformer robert owen and his followers and successors, who are known as owenites. owenism aimed for radical reform of society and is considered a forerunner of the cooperative movement. the owenite movement undertook several experiments in establishment of utopian communities organized according to communitarian and cooperative principles. one of the best known of these efforts, which were largely unsuccessful, was the project at new harmony, indiana, which started in 1825 and was abandoned by 1829. owenism is also closely associated with the development of the british trade union movement, and with the spread of the mechanics ' institute movement. economic thought owen ’ s economic thought grew out of widespread poverty in britain in the aftermath of the napoleonic wars. his thought was rooted in seventeenth century english " moral economy " ideals of “ fair exchange, just price, and the right to charity. ” " utopian socialist ” economic thought such as owen ’ s was a reaction to the laissez - faire impetus of malthusian poor law reform. claeys notes that " owen ’ s ‘ plan ’ began as grandiose but otherwise not exceptionally unusual workhouse scheme to place the unemployed poor in newly built rural communities. " owen ’ s “ plan ” was itself derivative ( and ultimately popularized by ) a number of english trade unionists, such as william thompson and thomas hodgskin, co - founder of the london mechanics institute. when this poverty led to revolt, as it did in glasgow in april 1820, a “ committee of gentlemen ” from the area commissioned the cotton manufacturer and philanthropist, robert owen, to produce a “ report to the county of lanark ” in may 1820, which recommended a new form of form of pauper relief ; the cooperative village. owen ' s villages thus need to be compared with the dickensian " houses of industry " that were created after the passage of the 1834 poor law amendment act. owen ’ s report was to spark a widespread “ socialist ” movement that established co - operatives, labour exchanges, and experimental communities in the united kingdom, the united states, and canada. owen was to disseminate his ideas in north america beginning in 1824. his ideas were most widely received in new york and philadelphia, where he was greeted by nascent working men ’ s parties. owen was no theoretician, and the owenite movement drew on a broad range of thinkers such as william thompson, john gray, abram combe, robert dale owen, george


he was greeted by nascent working men ’ s parties. owen was no theoretician, and the owenite movement drew on a broad range of thinkers such as william thompson, john gray, abram combe, robert dale owen, george mudie, john francis bray, dr william king, and josiah warren. these men rooted their thought in ricardian socialism and the labour theory of value. overall, owenite thought lacked coherence. utopian communities united kingdom - george mudie, a printer, formed an owenite community at spa fields, in the london borough of islington between 1821 and 1824. mudie published a weekly journal, the economist, which ran from 27 january 1821 to 9 march 1822. the printer henry hetherington was a member. mudie moved to orbiston after this community failed. - archibald james hamilton, the radical laird of dalzell and orbiston, owned an estate 8 miles outside of glasgow. he was one of the gentlemen who commissioned robert owens ’ “ report to the county of lanark ”. in 1821, he and several other owenite sympathizers such as abram combe formed the edinburgh practical society that operated a co - operative store, and a school. in addition, hamilton provided his 290 - acre estate, orbiston, for the first owenite co - operative community in the united kingdom, in 1825. the community collapsed in 1827 on the death of its founder. - ralahine community, county clare, ireland ( 1831 - 1833 ) was organized on the estate of john vandeleur by edward t. craig. unlike other owenite communities, workers were paid “ labour notes ” which they could spend in the co - operative store. by this time, owenism had moved on to its labour exchange phase. the experiment ended when vandeleur lost his estate through gambling. - harmony hall community at queenwood farm, hampshire ( 1839 - 1845 ). this is the only other colony than new harmony in indiana founded by robert owen himself. in 1839 his association of classes of all nations acquired five hundred acres at queenwood farm. united states of america - new harmony, indiana ( 1825 – 27 ). founded by robert owen himself. he purchased the community of new harmony from the religious communists known as the rappites. the influential owenite newspaper, " the free enquirer " was published here. - yellow springs, ohio on a site now occupied by antioch college, miami township, greene county ( 1825 ). - nashoba


as the rappites. the influential owenite newspaper, " the free enquirer " was published here. - yellow springs, ohio on a site now occupied by antioch college, miami township, greene county ( 1825 ). - nashoba commune, tennessee ( 1825 – 28 ) was organized by fanny wright to educate and emancipate slaves. to ensure emancipation without financial loss to slaveholders, slaves would buy their freedom and then be transported to the independent settlements of liberia and haiti. - franklin or haverstraw community, haverstraw, rockland county, new york ( 1826 ). - forestville commonwealth, lapham ' s mills, coxsackie, greene county, new york ( 1826 - 1827 ). also known as the " coxsackie community. " founded by dr. samuel underhill, under the influence of dr cornelius blatchly ' s " an essay on common wealths " ( 1822 ). saddled with debt, 27 members decided to join the kendal community, leaving on 23 oct. 1827. - kendal community, ohio, massillon, ohio ( 1825 - 9 ). also known as " friendly association of mutual interests at kendal. " - valley forge community, valley forge, chester county, pa ( 1826 ). also known as " friendly association of mutual interests. " - blue spring community, van buren township, monroe county, indiana ( 1826 ) - promisewell community, munroe county, pa ( 1843 ). also known as the society of one - mentians. - goose pond community, pike county, pa ( 1843 ). an offshoot of promisewell, built on the site of fourierist phalanx " social reform unity. " - hunt ' s colony, spring lake, mukwonago township, waukesha county, wisconsin ( 1843 ). also known as the colony of equality. founded by several english organizations. - when orbiston collapsed in 1827 on the death of its founder, most of the residents moved to upper canada, where they formed the short - lived owenite community of maxwell near sarnia. co - operative movement & labour exchange although the early emphasis in owenism was on the formation of utopian communities, these communities were predicated upon co - operative labour, and frequently, co - operative sales. for example, the edinburgh practical society created by the founders of orbiston operated a co - operative store to raise the capital for the community. abram combe, the leader of that community,


labour, and frequently, co - operative sales. for example, the edinburgh practical society created by the founders of orbiston operated a co - operative store to raise the capital for the community. abram combe, the leader of that community, was to author the pamphlet the sphere for joint stock companies ( 1825 ), which made clear that orbiston was not to be a self - subsistent commune, but a co - operative trading endeavor. for the majority of owenites who did not live in these utopian communities, the working - class owenite tradition was composed of three overlapping institutions : " the cooperative store, the labour exchange and the trade union. " the cooperative ideas of owen and combe were further developed by the brighton doctor, william king, publisher of " the co - operator. " although the paper was only published for two years between 1827 - 9, it served to unify the movement. the next attempt to broaden the cooperative movement was the british association for the promotion of co - operative knowledge ( b. a. p. c. k. ) founded in 1829. it was the successor to the london cooperative society, and served as a clearing house of information for britain ' s 300 cooperatives. it provided pamphlets, lectures and " missionaries " for the movement. it held its quarterly meetings in the london mechanics institute, with frequent lectures from william lovett, and many other radical owenites who would go on to lead the london working men ' s association. b. a. p. c. k. rejected joint stock cooperative efforts as " systems of competition. " its aim was the establishment of an agricultural, manufacturing or trading community. they recognized that the success of cooperation depended upon parliamentary reform, and this proved the basis for working with the radical reformers who would go on to create the chartist movement. the national equitable labour exchange was founded in london in 1832 and spread to several english cities, most notably birmingham, before closing in 1834. beginning from the ricardian socialist view that labour was the source of all value, the exchange issued " labour notes " similar to banknotes, denominated in hours. john gray proposed a national chamber of commerce as a central bank issuing a labour currency. a similar time - based currency would be created by an american owenite, josiah warren, who founded the cincinnati time store. a short - lived labour exchange was also founded in 1836 in kingston, upper canada. political & labour organization robert owen was resolutely apolitical, and initially


by an american owenite, josiah warren, who founded the cincinnati time store. a short - lived labour exchange was also founded in 1836 in kingston, upper canada. political & labour organization robert owen was resolutely apolitical, and initially pursued a non - class based form of community organization. however, as the focus of the movement shifted from the formation of utopian communities to cooperatives, owenites became active in labour organization in both the united kingdom and the united states. in the united kingdom, owenites became further involved in electoral reform ( now envisioned as part of a broader reform movement ). united kingdom between 1829 and 1835, owenite socialism was politicized through two organizations ; the british association for the promotion of co - operative knowledge, and its successor, the national union of the working classes ( founded in 1831, and abandoned in 1835 ). the aim of b. a. p. c. k. was to promote cooperatives, but its members recognized that political reform was necessary if they were to achieve that end. they thus formed a " political union " which was the principal form of political activity in the period before the great reform act of 1832. political unions organized petitioning campaigns meant to sway parliament. the b. a. p. c. k. leadership thus formed the national union of the working classes ( n. u. w. c. ) to push for a combination of owenism and radical democratic political reform. owen himself resisted the n. u. w. c. ' s political efforts at reform, and by 1833, he was an acknowledged leader of the british trade union movement. in february 1834, he helped form britain ’ s first national labour organization, the grand national consolidated trades union. the organisation began to break up in the summer of 1834 and by november, it had ceased to function. it was from this heady mix of working class trade unionism, co - operativism, and political radicalism in the disappointed wake of the 1832 reform bill and the 1834 new poor law, that a number of prominent owenite leaders such as william lovett, john cleave and henry hetherington helped form the london working men ' s association in 1836. the london working men ' s association led the chartist movement demanding universal suffrage. many have viewed owenite socialism and chartism as mutually hostile because of owen ' s refusal to engage in politics. however, chartists and owenites were “ many parts but one body ” in this initial stage. united states of america robert dale


. many have viewed owenite socialism and chartism as mutually hostile because of owen ' s refusal to engage in politics. however, chartists and owenites were “ many parts but one body ” in this initial stage. united states of america robert dale owen emigrated to the united states in 1825 to help his father run new harmony, indiana. after the community dissolved, robert dale owen moved to new york city and became the co - editor of the free enquirer, a socialistic and anti - christian weekly, with frances wright, the founder of the nashoba community, from 1828 to 1832. they also founded a " hall of science " in new york like those being created by owenites in the united kingdom. from this base, owen and wright sought to influence the working men ' s party. the working men ' s party emerged spontaneously out of strike action by journeymen in 1829 who protested having to work more than 10 hours a day. they appointed a committee of fifty to discuss organization, and they proposed running a ticket of journeymen in the legislative elections. at the same time, owen and wright were continuing their own efforts to organize new york city ' s working classes. the two groups uneasily merged, and were encouraged by their success in the elections. to support the movement, george henry evans began publishing the working man ' s advocate. the new party quickly fell victim to factionalism over several controversial proposals. owen ' s controversial contribution was a proposed " state guardianship plan " where children would be removed from their homes at the age of two and placed in government run schools, to protect them from the degeneracy of slum life and allow their optimum development through free schooling. by late 1830, the party was effectively dead. owenism was introduced to upper canada ( now ontario ) in 1835 by the rev. thaddeus osgood, a montreal - based evangelical minister. osgood returned to london in 1829. deep in debt, he was unable to return to canada, and spent the succeeding five years preaching in london ’ s workhouses and prisons. it was in this working class milieu that osgood met and debated with robert owen. although attracted by the “ home colony ” model of poverty relief, osgood was offended by owens ’ anti - religious rhetoric. drawing on owenism, rather than owen, osgood proposed to found “ relief unions ” for the poor when he finally returned to canada in 1835. through osgood ’ s influence, robert owens ’ ideas were widely debated in toronto. os


rhetoric. drawing on owenism, rather than owen, osgood proposed to found “ relief unions ” for the poor when he finally returned to canada in 1835. through osgood ’ s influence, robert owens ’ ideas were widely debated in toronto. osgood ’ s proposal elicited support from across upper canada in early 1836, and petitions for the relief union ’ s incorporation were sent to the assembly and legislative council. significantly, osgood ’ s plan was proposed at the same time as the new lt. governor, sir francis bond head was arriving in toronto. bond head was an assistant poor law administrator, and intent on imposing workhouses for the poor, not owenite colonies. educational philosophy & phrenology the owenite doctrine that character was formed by one ' s social circumstances would initially appear opposed to phrenology ' s theory of innate mental endowments, or faculties. however, early phrenologists were open to the belief that these faculties - and their physical manifestations on the surface of the skull - could be developed. phrenology as a science thus provided a way of diagnosing moral and intellectual strengths and weaknesses, and pointed the way to their correction through repetitive exercise. see also - ronald george garrett ( 1972 ), co - operation and the owenite socialist communities in britain, 1825 - 45, manchester university press nd, isbn 0 - 7190 - 0501 - 9 - claeys, gregory ( 1987 ). machinery, money and the millennium : from moral economy to socialism, 1815 - 60. cambridge : polity press. pp. xviii. - bestor, arthur e. ( 1959 ). backwoods utopias : the sectarian and owenite phases of communitarian socialism in america, 1663 - 1829. philadelphia : university of pennsylvania press. pp. 94 – 132. - harrison, john ( 1969 ). quest for the new world order : robert owen and the owenites in britain and america. new york : charles scribners sons. pp. 63 – 78. - harrison, john ( 1969 ). quest for the new world order : robert owen and the owenites in britain and america. new york : charles scribners sons. pp. 168 – 9. - royle, edward ( 1998 ). robert owen and the commencement of the millennium : the harmony community at queenwood farm, hampshire, 1839 - 1845. manchester : manchester university press. - cherok, richard j. ( 1999 ). " no harmony in kendal : the rise and fall


owen and the commencement of the millennium : the harmony community at queenwood farm, hampshire, 1839 - 1845. manchester : manchester university press. - cherok, richard j. ( 1999 ). " no harmony in kendal : the rise and fall of an owenite community, 1825 - 1829 ". ohio history 108 : 26 – 38. - bestor, arthur e. ( 1959 ). backwoods utopias : the sectarian and owenite phases of communitarian socialism in america, 1663 - 1829. philadelphia : university of pennsylvania press. pp. 235 – 42. - morrison, john ( 1914 ). " the toon o ’ maxwell – an owenite settlement in lambton county, ont. ". ontario historical society papers and records xii : 5 – 12. - schrauwers, albert ( 2009 ). union id strength : w. l. mackenzie, the children of peace and the emergence of joint stock democracy in upper canada. toronto : university of toronto press. p. 106. - harrison, john ( 1969 ). quest for the new world order : robert owen and the owenites in britain and america. new york : charles scribners sons. p. 214. - harrison, john ( 1969 ). quest for the new world order : robert owen and the owenites in britain and america. new york : charles scribners sons. p. 201. - claeys, gregory ( 1989 ). citizens and saints : politics and anti - politics in early british socialism. cambridge : cambridge university press. p. 176. - claeys, gregory ( 1989 ). citizens and saints : politics and anti - politics in early british socialism. cambridge : cambridge university press. p. 180. - palmer, bryan d. ( 1980 ). " kingston mechanics and the rise of the penitentiary ". histoire sociale / social history 13 ( 25 ) : 30. - claeys, gregory ( 1989 ). citizens and saints : politics and anti - politics in early british socialism. cambridge : cambridge university press. pp. 184 – 6. - harrison, j. f. c. ( 1969 ) robert owen and the owenites in britain and america, routledge, isbn 0 - 7100 - 6035 - 1, p. 212 - hollis, patricia, class and conflict in nineteenth - century england, 1815 - 1850, birth of modern britain series, international library of sociology and social reconstruction, routledge, 1973, isbn 0 - 7100 - 7419 - 0, p.


212 - hollis, patricia, class and conflict in nineteenth - century england, 1815 - 1850, birth of modern britain series, international library of sociology and social reconstruction, routledge, 1973, isbn 0 - 7100 - 7419 - 0, p. 176 - royle, edward ( 2000 ). " chartists and owenites – many parts but one body. ". labour history review 65 ( 1 ) : 2 – 21. - wilentz, sean ( 1984 ). chants democratic : new york city and the rise of the american working class, 1788 - 1850. new york : oxford university press. pp. 190 – 201. - wilentz, sean ( 1984 ). chants democratic : new york city and the rise of the american working class, 1788 - 1850. new york : oxford university press. p. 179. - wilentz, sean ( 1984 ). chants democratic : new york city and the rise of the american working class, 1788 - 1850. new york : oxford university press. p. 210. - schrauwers, albert ( 2009 ). union is strength : w. l. mackenzie, the children of peace, and the emergence of joint stock democracy in upper canada. toronto : university of toronto press. pp. 35 – 64. - millar, w. p. j. ( 1977 ). " the remarkable rev. thaddeus osgood : a study in the evangelical spirit in the canadas ". histoire sociale - social history 19 : 68.


1911 encyclopædia britannica / ayrshire | ←ayrer, jakob | | 1911 encyclopædia britannica, volume 3 | ayrton, william edward→ | | see also ayrshire on wikipedia, and our 1911 encyclopædia britannica disclaimer. | ayrshire, a south - western county of scotland, bounded n. by renfrewshire, e. by lanarkshire and dumfriesshire, s. e. by kirkcudbrightshire, s. by wigtownshire and w. by the firth of clyde. it includes off its coast the conspicuous rock of ailsa craig, 10 m. w. of girvan, lady island, 3 m. s. w. of troon, and horse island, off ardrossan. its area is 724, 523 acres or 1142 sq. m., its coast - line being 70 m. long. in former times the shire was divided into the districts of cunninghame ( n. of the irvine ), kyle ( between the irvine and the boon ), and carrick ( s. of the doon ), and these terms are still occasionally used. kyle was further divided by the ayr into king ' s kyle on the north and kyle stewart. robert bruce was earl of carrick, a title now borne by the prince of wales. the county is politically divided into north and south ayrshire, the former comprising cunninghame and the latter kyle and carrick. the surface is generally undulating with a small mountainous tract in the north and a larger one in the south and south - east. the principal hills are black craig ( 2298 ft. ), 5 m. south - east of new cumnock ; enoch ( 1865 ft. ), 5 m. east of dalmellington ; polmaddie ( 1750 ft. ) 2 m. south - east of barr ; stake on the confines of ayrshire and renfrewshire, and corsancone ( 1547 ft. ), 3 m. north - east of new cumnock. none of the rivers is navigable, but their varied and tranquil beauty has made them better known than many more important streams. the six most noted are the stinchar ( c soft ), girvan, doon, ayr, irvine and garnock. of these the ayr is the longest. it rises at glenbuck, on


important streams. the six most noted are the stinchar ( c soft ), girvan, doon, ayr, irvine and garnock. of these the ayr is the longest. it rises at glenbuck, on the border of lanarkshire, and after a course of some 38 m. falls into the firth of clyde at the county town which, with the county, is named from it. the scenery along its banks from sorn downwards — passing catrine, ballochmyle, barskimming, sundrum, auchencruive and craigie — is remarkably picturesque. the lesser streams are numerous, but burns ' s verse has given preeminence to the afton, the cessnock and the lugar. there are many lochs, the largest of which is loch doon, 5½ m. long, the source of the river of the same name. from loch finlas, about 20 m. south - east of ayr, the town derives its water - supply. the nith rises in ayrshire and a few miles of its early course belong to the county. geology. — the greater portion of the hilly region in the south of the county forms part of the silurian tableland of the south of scotland. along its north margin there is a belt of elevated ground consisting mainly of old red sandstone strata, while the tract of fertile low ground is chiefly occupied by younger palaeozoic rocks. the silurian belt stretching eastwards from the mouth of loch ryan to the merrick range is composed of grits, greywackes and shales with thin leaves of black shales, containing graptolites of upper llandeilo age which are repeated by folding and cover a broad area. near their northern limit radiolarian cherts, mudstones and lavas of arenig age rise from underneath the former along anticlines striking north - east and south - west. in the ballantrae region there is a remarkable development of volcanic rocks — lavas, tuffs and agglomerates — of arenig age, their horizon being defined by graptolites occurring in cherty mudstones and black shales interleaved in lavas and agglomerates. these volcanic materials are pierced by serpentine, gabbro and granite. the serpentine forms two belts running inland from near bennane head and from burnfoot, being typically developed on balhamie hill near colmonell.


three divisions of this formation are well represented. the lower group of conglomerates and sandstones are well displayed on hadyard hill and on the tract near maybole ; the middle volcanic series on the shore south of the heads of ayr and from the stinchar valley along the old red belt towards dalmellington and new cumnock ; while the upper group, comprising conglomerates and sandstones, form a well - marked synclinal ford at corsancone north - east of new cumnock. the upper old red sandstone appears as a fringe round the south - west margin of the carboniferous rocks of the county, and it rises from beneath them on the shore of the firth of clyde south of wemyss bay. the carboniferous strata of the central low ground form a great basin traversed by faults, all the subdivisions of the system being represented save the millstone grit. round the north and north - east margin there is a great development of volcanic rocks — lavas, tuffs and agglomerates — belonging to the calciferous sandstone series, and passing upwards into the carboniferous limestone. the lower limestones of the latter division are typically represented near dalry and beith, where in one instance they reach a thickness of over 100 ft. they are followed by the coal - bearing group ( edge coals of midlothian ) which have been wrought in the dalry and patna districts and at dailly. the position of the millstone grit is occupied by lavas and tuffs, extending almost continually as a narrow fringe round the northern margin of the coal measures from saltcoats by kilmaurs to the crawfordland water. the workable coals of the true coal measures have a wide distribution from kilwinning by kilmarnock to galston and again in the districts of coylton, dalmellington, lugar and cumnock. these members are overlaid by a set of upper barren red sandstones, probably the equivalents of the red beds of uddingston, dalkeith and wemyss in fife, visible in the ravines of lugar near ochiltree and of ayr at catrine. in various parts of the ayrshire coalfield the coal - seams are rendered useless by intrusive sheets of dolerite as near kilmarnock and dalmellington. in the central part of the field there is an oval - shaped area of red sandstones now grouped with the trias, extending from near tarbolton to


cheddar method, and their effort was most successful. cheddar cheese of first - rate quality is now made in ayrshire, and the annual cheese show at kilmarnock is the most important in scotland. the ayrshire breed of cows are famous for the quantity and excellence of their milk. great numbers of cattle, sheep and pigs are raised for the market, and the ayrshire horse is in high repute. other industries. — ayrshire is the principal mining county in scotland and has the second largest coalfield. there is a heavy annual output also of iron ore, pig iron and fire - clay. the chief coal districts are ayr, dalmellington, patna, maybole, drongan, irvine, coylton, stevenston, beith, kilwinning, dalry, kilbirnie, dreghorn, kilmarnock, galston, hurlford, muirkirk, cumnock and new cumnock. ironstone occurs chiefly at patna, coylton, dalry, kilbirnie, dreghorn and cumnock, and there are blast furnaces at most of these towns. a valuable whetstone is quarried at bridge of stair on the ayr — the water - of - ayr stone. the leading manufactures are important. at catrine are cotton factories and bleachfields, and at ayr and kilmarnock extensive engineering works, and carpet, blanket and woollens, boot and shoe factories. cotton, woollens, and other fabrics and hosiery are also manufactured at dalry, kilbirnie, kilmaurs, beith and stewarton. an extensive trade in chemicals is carried on at irvine. near stevenston works have been erected in the sandhills for the making of dynamite and other explosives. there are large lace curtain factories at galston, newmilns and darvel, and at beith cabinet - making is a considerable industry. shipbuilding is conducted at troon, ayr, irvine and fairlie, which is famous for its yachts. the leading ports are ardrossan, ayr, girvan, irvine and troon. fishing is carried on in the harbours and creeks, which are divided between the fishery districts of greenock and ballantrae. communications. — the glasgow & south - western railway owns most of the lines within the shire, its system serving all the industrial towns, ports and seaside resorts


is a parliamentary burgh of the kilmarnock group. under the county council special water districts, drainage districts, and lighting and scavenging districts have been formed. the county forms a sheriffdom, and there are resident sheriffs - substitute at ayr and kilmarnock, who sit also at irvine, beith, cumnock and girvan. the shire is under school - board jurisdiction, but there are a considerable number of voluntary schools, besides secondary schools at ayr, irvine, kilmarnock and beith, while kilmarnock dairy school is a part of the west of scotland agricultural college established in 1899. in addition to grants earned by the schools, the county and borough councils expend a good deal of money upon secondary and technical education, towards which contributions are also made by the glasgow and west of scotland technical college and the kilmarnock dairy school. the technical classes, subsidized at various local centres, embrace instruction in agriculture, mining, engineering, plumbing, gardening, and various science and art subjects. history. — traces of roman occupation are found in ayrshire. at the time of agricola ' s campaigns the country was held by the damnonii, and their town of vandogara has been identified with a site at loudoun hill near darvel, where a serious encounter with the scots took place. on the withdrawal of the romans, ayrshire formed part of the kingdom of strathclyde and ultimately passed under the sway of the northumbrian kings. save for occasional intertribal troubles, as that in which the scottish king alpin was slain at dalmellington in the 9th century, the annals are silent until the battle of largs in 1263, when the pretensions of haakon of norway to the sovereignty of the isles were crushed by the scots under alexander iii. a generation later william wallace conducted a vigorous campaign in the shire. he surprised the english garrison at ardrossan, and burned the barns of ayr in which the forces of edward i. were lodged. robert bruce is alleged to have been born at turnberry castle, some 12 m. s. w. of ayr. in 1307 he defeated the english at loudoun hill. cromwell paid the county a hurried visit, during which he demolished the castle of ardrossan and is said to have utilized the stones in rearing a fort at ayr. between 1660 and 1688 the sympathies of the county were


. cromwell paid the county a hurried visit, during which he demolished the castle of ardrossan and is said to have utilized the stones in rearing a fort at ayr. between 1660 and 1688 the sympathies of the county were almost wholly with the covenanters, who suffered one of their heaviest reverses at airds moss — a morass between the ayr and lugar, — their leader, richard cameron, being killed ( 20th of july 1680 ). the county was dragooned and the highland host ravaged wherever it went. the hanoverian succession excited no active hostility if it evoked no enthusiasm. antiquarian remains include cairns in galston, sorn and other localities ; a road supposed to be a work of the romans, which extended from ayr, through dalrymple and dalmellington, towards the solway ; camps attributed to the norwegians or danes on the hills of knockgeorgan and dundonald ; and the castles of loch doon, turnberry, dundonald, portencross, ardrossan and dunure. there are ruins of celebrated abbeys at kilwinning and crossraguel, and of alloway ' s haunted church, famous from their associations. - james paterson, " history of the county of ayr. " transactions of ayrshire and galloway archaeological associations, edinburgh, 1879 - 1900. - john smith, prehistoric man in ayrshire ( london, 1895 ). - william robertson, history of ayrshire ( edinburgh, 1894 ). - archibald sturrock, " on the agriculture of ayrshire, " transactions of highland and agricultural society. - d. landsborough, contributions to local history ( kilmarnock, 1878 ).


how strong are you? you ' ll be amazed to learn how much force your body ' s joints and muscles actually support on a daily basis. this interactive segment from discovery channel takes you inside the body and explains how much strength your bones and muscles really possess. adrenaline and strength when we feel fear or are faced with a sudden dangerous situation, the human body undergoes an amazing change. the stressor - - for example, the sight of your son pinned beneath a car - - stimulates the hypothalamus. this region of the brain is responsible for maintaining the balance between stress and relaxation in your body. when it ' s alerted to danger, it sends out a chemical signal to your adrenal glands, activating the sympathetic system, which sends the body into an excited state. these glands release adrenaline ( epinephrine ) and noradrenaline ( norepinephrine ), hormones that create the state of readiness that helps a human confront danger. together, these hormones raise heart rate, increase respiration, dilate the pupils, slow down digestion and - - perhaps most importantly - - allow muscles to contract. all of these changes in our normal physical state prepare us to face danger head - on. combined, they make us more agile, allow us to take in more information and help us use more energy. but adrenaline ' s effect on muscles accounts for amazing strength. adrenaline acts on muscles, allowing them to contract more than they can when the body is in a calm or neutral state. when adrenaline is released by the adrenal medulla - - an interior region of the adrenal glands, which are located just above your kidneys - - it allows blood to flow more easily to your muscles. this means that more oxygen is carried to your muscles by the extra blood, which allows your muscles to function at elevated levels. skeletal muscles - - those attached to bones by tendons - - are activated by electrical impulses from the nervous system. when they ' re stimulated, muscles contract, meaning they shorten and tighten. this is what happens when you lift an object, run or throw a punch. adrenaline also facilitates the conversion of the body ' s fuel source ( glycogen ) into its fuel ( glucose ). this carbohydrate gives energy to muscles, and a sudden burst of glucose also allows muscles to strengthen further. so does this mean that we have superhuman strength that is unlocked when we ' re confronted with danger? that ' s one way to put it. some theorize


gives energy to muscles, and a sudden burst of glucose also allows muscles to strengthen further. so does this mean that we have superhuman strength that is unlocked when we ' re confronted with danger? that ' s one way to put it. some theorize that we normally use only a small percentage of our muscles ' capabilities. when we are confronted with danger, we transcend the limitations of our muscles and simply act. the rush of adrenaline, which accounts for a sudden increase in strength, helps to facilitate a person lifting a car. in other words, when confronted with extreme stress, we involuntarily use our muscles beyond the limitations of their normal voluntary use. this theory is supported by what happens when a person is electrocuted. someone who is shocked can be thrown a notable distance from where the shock took place. but this is not due to the electric shock. instead, it ' s a sudden and violent contraction of the person ' s muscles as a result of the electrical charge flowing through the body. this demonstrates a potential for muscle contraction that isn ' t utilized under normal circumstances. in much the same way that people can ' t throw themselves across the room, they also can ' t normally lift a car - - the resources aren ' t available without the threat. but why don ' t we possess superhuman strength all the time? wouldn ' t it be beneficial? read the next page to find out why it ' s better that we only have bursts of strength.


losing stream in our battle to predict and prevent invasive species invasive species - - plants, animals, and microbes introduced to regions beyond their native range - - carry a global price tag of $ 1. 4 trillion dollars. they are responsible for the loss of natural resources and biodiversity, damages to infrastructure, and an uptick in infectious diseases. not all non - native species pose a threat. scientists around the world have spent the last several decades teasing apart the conditions that set the stage for debilitating invaders, like giant hogweed, zebra mussels, or gray squirrels. a number of hypotheses have emerged to help predict how natural areas will respond to introduced plants, animals, and microbes. an analysis of 371 invasion studies using six dominant invasion hypotheses has revealed their predictive power is weakening. the paper ' s authors - - jonathan jeschke, lorena gomez aparicio, sylvia haider, tina heger, christopher lortie, petr pysek, and david strayer - - found empirical support for all six hypotheses declining, with recent studies showing the lowest levels of support. hypotheses that were too broad or omitted ecosystem interactions fared among the worst, plants proved easier to predict than animals, and, contrary to popular belief, diverse ecosystems were not inherently resistant against invaders. the study was published in the open - access journal neobiota. the paper ' s authors comment : " the observed decline effect means our confidence in making sound policy and management decisions based on the six analyzed hypotheses is lower today than it was in the past. scientists were overly optimistic about the predictive power of these hypotheses. given that invasive species are an expensive and ever growing problem, this is a situation that needs to be addressed. " similar " decline effects " have been noted in other disciplines, among them pharmacological research, psychology, and animal behavior. the effect has been attributed to publication bias, inadequate sample sizes, and a tendency of early tests of hypotheses to pick study organisms or systems where positive results are expected. lead author jonathan jeschke, of technische universitat munchen, concludes : " the decline effect is both worrying and fascinating. it ' s a phenomenon that should be investigated across disciplines, as medical and psychological researchers have shown its effects can be strong, and it can distort the predictive power of hypotheses. " the paper ' s authors offer four solutions to improve


s a phenomenon that should be investigated across disciplines, as medical and psychological researchers have shown its effects can be strong, and it can distort the predictive power of hypotheses. " the paper ' s authors offer four solutions to improve current hypotheses in invasion biology : ( 1 ) existing gaps in empirical tests of hypotheses should be filled. the study revealed crucial gaps in empirical studies, showing that most studies have focused on terrestrial plants but have ignored other organisms and aquatic habitats. ( 2 ) existing hypotheses should be specified for groups of organisms and habitats. ( 3 ) interactions of invasive species with their new ecosystems should be regularly considered. the study shows that hypotheses considering such interactions are better supported by empirical evidence than other hypotheses. ( 4 ) revised hypotheses should be rejected if they do not work. those hypotheses that still lack empirical support after specification for groups of organisms and habitats ( solution 2 ), consideration of invader - ecosystem interactions ( solution 3 ), or another form of revision should be discarded. scientists should not waste time and resources to continue working with these hypotheses. instead, fresh ideas and novel hypotheses are needed to further our understanding of biological invasions - - something that is essential to effective management in today ' s rapidly changing world.