grand canyon of pennsylvania ". greyhound bus lines featured a view of the canyon from a leonard harrison lookout on the back cover of its atlantic coast timetable. the bus line ' s chicago to new york city tour had an overnight stay in wellsboro and a morning visit to the canyon for $ 3. more than 300, 000 tourists visited the canyon by the autumn of 1936, and 15, 000 visited leonard harrison over memorial day weekend in 1937. that year more visitors came to the pine creek gorge than to yellowstone national park. in response to the heavy use of the local roads, the ccc widened the highways in the area, and guides from the ccc gave tours of the canyon. a phmc state historical marker honoring the ccc ' s work in the park and county was dedicated on june 3, 1995. near the lookout over the gorge there is a bronze statue of a " tioga county ccc worker ", unveiled on august 14, 1999, as a monument to the achievements of the ccc. after the second world war the state took over operation of the park, and expanded its size beyond the original land donated by harrison : six purchases between 1946 and 1949 increased the park ' s area from 128 acres ( 52 ha ) to 585 acres ( 237 ha ) at a cost of $ 26, 328. the pennsylvania geographic board dropped the word forest and officially named it leonard harrison state park on november 11, 1954. the park was improved in the following decade with the completion of new latrines ( 1963 ) and a new concession stand and visitor center ( 1968 ). pine creek was named a state scenic river on december 4, 1992, which ensured further protection of pine creek gorge in its natural state. in 1997 the park ' s important bird area ( iba ) was one of the first 73 ibas established in pennsylvania. in 2000 the park became part of the hills creek state park complex, an administrative grouping of eight state parks in potter and tioga counties. in 2005 the state began a $ 1. 2 million upgrade of park facilities, including a new maintenance building, the replacement of three pit latrines at the overlook and campground, the addition of showers at the campground, and the conversion of all restrooms to flush toilets. the second half of the 20th century saw great changes in the rail line through the park. regular passenger service on the canyon line ended after the second world war, and in 1960 the second set of train tracks was removed. conrail abandoned the section of the railroad passing through the gorge on september 21


changes in the rail line through the park. regular passenger service on the canyon line ended after the second world war, and in 1960 the second set of train tracks was removed. conrail abandoned the section of the railroad passing through the gorge on september 21, 1988. the right - of - way eventually became the pine creek rail trail, which follows the path of the former pine creek path. the first section of the rail trail opened in 1996 and included the 1 mile ( 1. 6 km ) section in the park : as of 2008 the pine creek rail trail is 63. 5 miles ( 102. 2 km ) long. leonard harrison state park continued to attract national attention in the post - war era. the new york times featured the park and its " breath - taking views of the gorge " as well as its trails and picnic groves in a 1950 article, and in 1966 praised the whitewater boating on pine creek and the park ' s " outstanding look - out points ". the pine creek gorge, including leonard harrison and colton point state parks and a 12 - mile ( 19 km ) section of tioga state forest, was named a national natural landmark ( nnl ) in april 1968. the plaque for the entire nnl is on the lookout terrace of leonard harrison state park. another new york times article on whitewater canoeing in 1973 noted the damage along the creek done by hurricane agnes the year before, and leonard harrison ' s waterfalls. in the new millennium, the two state parks on either side of the pine creek gorge are frequently treated as one. a 2002 new york times article called leonard harrison and colton point state parks " two state parks, divided by a canyon " and noted their " overlooks offer the most spectacular views ". leonard harrison and colton point were each part of the twenty - one state parks chosen by the dcnr pennsylvania bureau of parks for its " twenty must - see pennsylvania state parks " list. they are the only two parks treated as one unit for the list. the dcnr describes the parks together, noting how they " offer spectacular vistas and a fabulous view of pine creek gorge, also known as pennsylvania ' s grand canyon ". it goes on to praise their inclusion in a national natural landmark and state park natural area, hiking and trails, and the pine creek rail trail and bicycling. pine creek gorge leonard harrison state park lies on the east side of the pine creek gorge, also known as the grand canyon of pennsylvania. a sister park, colton point state park, is on the west side,


rail trail and bicycling. pine creek gorge leonard harrison state park lies on the east side of the pine creek gorge, also known as the grand canyon of pennsylvania. a sister park, colton point state park, is on the west side, and the two parks combined form essentially one large park that includes parts of the gorge and creek and parts of the plateau dissected by the gorge. pine creek has carved the gorge nearly 47 miles ( 76 km ) through the dissected allegheny plateau in northcentral pennsylvania. the canyon begins in southwestern tioga county, just south of the village of ansonia, and continues south to near the village of waterville in lycoming county. the depth of the gorge in colton point state park is about 800 feet ( 240 m ) and it measures nearly 4, 000 feet ( 1, 200 m ) across. the pine creek gorge national natural landmark includes colton point and leonard harrison state parks and parts of the tioga state forest along 12 miles ( 19 km ) of pine creek between ansonia and blackwell. this federal program does not provide any extra protection beyond that offered by the land owner. the national park service ' s designation of the gorge as a national natural landmark notes that it " contains superlative scenery, geological and ecological value, and is one of the finest examples of a deep gorge in the eastern united states. " the gorge is also protected by the state of pennsylvania as the 12, 163 - acre ( 4, 922 ha ) pine creek gorge natural area, which is the second largest state natural area in pennsylvania. within this area, 699 acres ( 283 ha ) of colton point and leonard harrison state parks are designated a state park natural area. the state natural area runs along pine creek from darling run in the north ( just below ansonia ) to jerry run in the south ( just above blackwell ). it is approximately 12 miles ( 19 km ) long and 2 miles ( 3. 2 km ) wide, with state forest roads providing all of the western border and part of the eastern border. within the park, pine creek and the walls of the gorge " visible from the opposite shoreline " are also protected by the state as a pennsylvania scenic river. in 1968 pine creek was one of only 27 rivers originally designated as eligible to be included in the national wild and scenic river system, and one of only eight specifically mentioned in the law establishing the program. before pine creek could be included in the federal program, the state enacted its state scenic rivers act, then asked that pine creek be


included in the national wild and scenic river system, and one of only eight specifically mentioned in the law establishing the program. before pine creek could be included in the federal program, the state enacted its state scenic rivers act, then asked that pine creek be withdrawn from the national designation. however, there was much local opposition to its inclusion on the state ' s list, based at least partly on mistaken fears that protection would involve seizure of private property and restricted access. eventually this opposition was overcome, but pennsylvania did not officially include it as one of its own state scenic and wild rivers until november 25, 1992. the state treated pine creek as if it were a state scenic river between 1968 and 1992. it protected the creek from dam - building and water withdrawals for power plants, and added public access points to reduce abuse of private property. geology and climate although the rock formations exposed in leonard harrison state park and the pine creek gorge are at least 300 million years old, the gorge itself formed only about 20, 000 years ago, in the last ice age. pine creek had flowed northeasterly until then, but was dammed by rocks, soil, ice, and other debris deposited by the receding laurentide continental glacier. the dammed creek formed a lake near the present village of ansonia, and the lake ' s glacial meltwater overflowed the debris dam, which caused a reversal of the flow of pine creek. the creek flooded to the south and quickly carved a deep channel on its way to the west branch susquehanna river. the park is at an elevation of 1, 821 feet ( 555 m ) on the allegheny plateau, which formed in the alleghenian orogeny some 300 million years ago, when gondwana ( specifically what became africa ) and what became north america collided, forming pangaea. while the gorge and its surroundings appear mountainous, these are not true mountains : instead years of erosion have made this a dissected plateau, causing the " mountainous " terrain seen today. the hardest of the ancient rocks are on top of the ridges, while the softer rocks eroded away forming the valleys. the land on which leonard harrison state park sits has undergone tremendous change over the last 400 million years. it was once part of the coastline of a shallow sea that covered a great portion of what is now north america. the high mountains to the east of the sea gradually eroded, causing a buildup of sediment made up primarily of clay, sand and gravel. tremendous pressure on the sediment caused the formation of the rocks that are found today in


what is now north america. the high mountains to the east of the sea gradually eroded, causing a buildup of sediment made up primarily of clay, sand and gravel. tremendous pressure on the sediment caused the formation of the rocks that are found today in the pine creek drainage basin : sandstone, shale, conglomerates, limestone, and coal. five major rock formations are present in leonard harrison state park, from the devonian and carboniferous periods. the youngest of these, which forms the highest points in the park and along the gorge, is the early pennsylvanian pottsville formation, a gray conglomerate that may contain sandstone, siltstone, and shale, as well as anthracite coal. low - sulfur coal was once mined at three locations within the pine creek watershed. below this is the late mississippian mauch chunk formation, which is formed with grayish - red shale, siltstone, sandstone, and conglomerate. millstones were once carved from the exposed sections of this conglomerate. together the pottsville and mauch chunk formations are some 300 feet ( 91 m ) thick. next below these is the late devonian and early mississippian huntley mountain formation, which is made of grayish - red shale and olive - gray sandstone. this is relatively hard rock and forms many of the ridges. below this is the red shale and siltstone of the catskill formation, about 760 feet ( 230 m ) thick and some 375 million years old. this layer is relatively soft and easily eroded, which helped to form the pine creek gorge. cliffs formed by the huntley mountain and catskill formations are visible north of the park at barbour rock. the lowest and oldest layer is the lock haven formation, which is gray to green - brown siltstone and shale over 400 million years old. it forms the base of the gorge, contains marine fossils, and is up to 600 feet ( 180 m ) thick. the dominant soil in leonard harrison state park is somewhat excessively drained oquaga channery loam, which is often associated with well drained lordstown channery loam. much of the campground near the eastern boundary is supported by morris gravelly silt loam, which is somewhat poorly drained due to a subsoil fragipan. the oquaga tends to be very strongly acidic ( ph 4. 8 ), morris is strongly acidic ( ph 5. 3 ) and lordstown is moderately acidic ( ph 5. 5 ). all of these soils belong to the inceptisol soil order. the


to be very strongly acidic ( ph 4. 8 ), morris is strongly acidic ( ph 5. 3 ) and lordstown is moderately acidic ( ph 5. 5 ). all of these soils belong to the inceptisol soil order. the allegheny plateau has a continental climate, with occasional severe low temperatures in winter and average daily temperature ranges of 20 °f ( 11 °c ) in winter and 26 °f ( 14 °c ) in summer. the mean annual precipitation for the pine creek watershed is 36 to 42 inches ( 914 to 1, 070 mm ). the highest recorded temperature at the park was 104 °f ( 40 °c ) in 1936, and the record low was −30 °f ( −34 °c ) in 1934. on average, july is the hottest month at leonard harrison, january is the coldest, and june the wettest. | climate data for leonard harrison state park | | average high °f ( °c ) | | 30 | average low °f ( °c ) | | 13 | precipitation inches ( mm ) | | 1. 88 | source : the weather channel | descriptions from early explorers and settlers give some idea of what the pine creek gorge was like before it was clearcut. the forest was up to 85 percent hemlock and white pine, with the rest hardwoods. many animal species that are now vanished inhabited the area. a herd of 12, 000 american bison migrated along the west branch susquehanna river in 1773. pine creek was home to large predators such as wolves, lynx, wolverines, panthers, fishers, foxes and bobcats, all save the last three now locally extinct. the area had herds of elk and deer, and large numbers of black bears, river otters, and beavers. in 1794, two of the earliest white explorers to travel up pine creek found so many rattlesnakes on its banks that they had to sleep in their canoe. further upstream, insects forced them to do the same. the virgin forests cooled the land and streams. centuries of accumulated organic matter in the forest soil caused slow percolation of rainfall into the creeks and runs, so they flowed more evenly year - round. pine creek was home to large numbers of fish, including trout, but dams downstream on the susquehanna river have eliminated the shad, salmon, and eels once found in the creek. the clearcutting of forests destroyed habitat for animals, but there was also a great deal of hunting, with bounties paid for large predators. state natural area and wildlife while leonard harrison and colton point state parks and parts


found in the creek. the clearcutting of forests destroyed habitat for animals, but there was also a great deal of hunting, with bounties paid for large predators. state natural area and wildlife while leonard harrison and colton point state parks and parts of the surrounding tioga state forest are now the pine creek gorge national natural landmark, it is their status as part of a pennsylvania state natural area that provides the strongest protection for them. within this natural area, all logging, mining, and oil and gas drilling are prohibited, and only foot trail access is allowed. in 1988 the pennsylvania department of environmental resources, precursor to the dcnr, described it as "... about 95 % state owned, unroaded, and designated the pine creek gorge natural area. it is a place of unique geologic history and contains some rare plant communities, an old growth hemlock stand,... active bald eagle nest [ s ]... and is a major site of river otter reintroduction. departmental policy is protection of the natural values of the canyon from development and overuse, and restoration of the area to as near a natural condition as possible. " the gorge has over 225 species of wildflowers, plants and trees, with scattered stands of old growth forest on some of its steepest walls. the rest of the gorge is covered with thriving second growth forest that can be over one hundred years old. however, since clearcutting, nearly 90 percent of the forest land has burnt at least once. typical south - facing slopes here have mountain laurel below oak and hickory trees, while north - facing slopes tend to have ferns below hemlocks and hardwoods. large chestnuts and black cherry can also be found. the grand canyon of pennsylvania is known for its fall foliage, and leonard harrison state park is a popular place to observe the colors, with the first three weeks of october as the best time to see the leaves in their full color. red leaves are found on red maple, red oak, and black cherry, while orange and yellow leaves are on black walnut, sugar maple, aspen, birch, tulip poplar and chestnut oak, and brown leaves are from beech, white oak, and eastern black oak trees. plants of " special concern " in pennsylvania that are found in the gorge include jacob ' s ladder, wild pea, and hemlock parsley. there are over 40 species of mammals in the pine creek gorge. leonard harrison state park ' s extensive forest cover makes it a habitat for " big woods " wildlife,


the gorge include jacob ' s ladder, wild pea, and hemlock parsley. there are over 40 species of mammals in the pine creek gorge. leonard harrison state park ' s extensive forest cover makes it a habitat for " big woods " wildlife, including white - tailed deer, black bear, wild turkey, red and gray squirrels. less common creatures include bobcats, coyote, fishers, river otters, and timber rattlesnakes. there are over 26 species of fish in pine creek, including trout, suckers, fallfish, and rock bass. other aquatic species include crayfish and frogs. several species have been reintroduced to the gorge. white - tailed deer were imported from michigan and released throughout pennsylvania to reestablish what had once been a thriving population. the current population of deer in pennsylvania are descended from the original stock introduced beginning in 1906, after the lumberman had moved out of the area. the deer population has grown so much that today they exceed their carrying capacity in many areas. river otters were successfully reintroduced in 1983 and now breed in the gorge. despite the fears of anglers, their diet is only 5 percent trout. fishers, medium - sized weasels, were reintroduced to pine creek gorge as part of an effort to establish a healthy population of fishers in pennsylvania. prior to the lumber era, fishers were numerous throughout the forests of pennsylvania. they are generalized predators and will hunt any smaller creatures in their territory, including porcupines. elk have been reintroduced west of the gorge in clinton county and occasionally wander near the west rim of the canyon. coyotes have come back on their own. invasive insect species in the gorge include gypsy moths, which eat all the leaves off trees, especially oaks, and hemlock woolly adelgids, which weaken and kill hemlocks. invasive plant species include purple loosestrife and japanese knotweed. important bird area leonard harrison state park is part of important bird area # 28, which encompasses 31, 790 acres ( 12, 860 ha ) of both publicly and private held land. state managed acreage accounts for 68 percent of the total area and includes leonard harrison and colton point state parks and the surrounding tioga state forest lands. the pennsylvania audubon society has designated all 585 acres ( 237 ha ) of leonard harrison state park as part of the iba, which is an area designated as a globally important habitat for the conservation of bird populations. ornithologists and bird watchers have recorded a total of 128 species


the south. this moderately difficult loop passes reminders of the ccc ' s work in the park, including a plantation of red pines and an old incinerator. - turkey path is a difficult trail, 2 miles ( 3. 2 km ) long ( down and back ), that follows little fourmile run down the side of the canyon, descending over 800 feet ( 240 m ) to pine creek and the rail trail at the bottom of the gorge. it was originally a mule drag used to haul timber to the creek. there are several waterfalls on the trail, which passes through an environmentally sensitive area and is on a steep slope. hikers are encouraged to remain on the path to reduce erosion and protect fragile plant life along the trail. in 2006 a hiker who had left the path slipped near a waterfall and fell to his death. a vista at the halfway point on turkey path was constructed in 1978 by the youth conservation corps. hand rails, steps and observation decks were added to the path in 1993 by the pennsylvania conservation corps. the park website classifies it as a " down and back trail " since there is no bridge across pine creek. however, there is also a turkey path from colton point state park on the west rim of the gorge down to a point on pine creek just upstream of the end of this trail. according to owlett and the dcnr pine creek rail trail map, the creek can be forded with care when the water is low, and the turkey path connects the two parks. - pine creek rail trail is a 63. 4 - mile ( 102. 0 km ) rail trail from wellsboro junction, just north of wellsboro, south through the pine creek gorge to jersey shore : 1 mile ( 1. 6 km ) of this trail is in leonard harrison and colton point state parks. a 2001 article in usa today said the scenic beauty of the grand canyon of pennsylvania made the trail one of " 10 great places to take a bike tour " in the world. camping and picnics camping is a popular pastime at leonard harrison state park, with 3, 511 persons using the rustic camping facilities in 2003. the dcnr classifies camping facilities as " rustic " if they do not have flush toilets or showers. the state has renovated the park camping area since 2003, building modern bathrooms with flush toilets and hot showers, and no longer considers it " rustic ". the park has updated electric sites for rv campers as well. the campground has picnic tables and fire rings. the park has almost 100 picnic tables


2003, building modern bathrooms with flush toilets and hot showers, and no longer considers it " rustic ". the park has updated electric sites for rv campers as well. the campground has picnic tables and fire rings. the park has almost 100 picnic tables for use ; seven of these tables are in shelters. the park hosted some 29, 150 picnickers in 2003. hunting, fishing, and whitewater hunting is permitted on about 250 acres ( 100 ha ) of leonard harrison state park : hunters are expected to follow the rules and regulations of the pennsylvania state game commission. the common game species are ruffed grouse, eastern gray squirrel, wild turkey, white - tailed deer, and black bear ; however, hunting groundhog is prohibited. additional acres of forested woodlands are available for hunting on the grounds of the adjacent tioga state forest. fishing is permitted at the state park, though anglers must descend the turkey path to reach pine creek. this has been designated as approved trout waters by the pennsylvania fish and boat commission, which means the waters will be stocked with trout and may be fished during trout season. other species of fish found in pine creek include smallmouth bass and some panfish. several small trout streams are accessible from within the park, which had 2, 597 anglers in 2003. historically, fishermen of note on the stretch of pine creek in the park include president theodore roosevelt and pennsylvania governor william a. stone. edward gertler writes in keystone canoeing that pine creek " is possibly pennsylvania ' s most famous canoe stream " and attributes this partly to the thousands who decide to boat on it after they " peer into pine creek ' s spectacular abyss from the overlooks of leonard harrison and colton point state parks ". the park contains 1 mile ( 1. 6 km ) of pine creek, which is class 1 to class 2 whitewater here. boaters do not normally start or end their run in the park, which has no launches : it is part of the 16. 8 - mile ( 27. 0 km ) trip from ansonia ( marsh creek ) south to blackwell ( babb creek ). nearby state parks leonard harrison state park is mostly in shippen township, with a small portion in delmar township north of stowell run. it is 10 miles ( 16 km ) west of wellsboro at the western terminus of pennsylvania route 660. the following state parks are within 30 miles ( 48 km ) of the park : - " leonard harrison state park ". geographic names information system. united states geological survey. august 30,


west of wellsboro at the western terminus of pennsylvania route 660. the following state parks are within 30 miles ( 48 km ) of the park : - " leonard harrison state park ". geographic names information system. united states geological survey. august 30, 1990. retrieved june 4, 2008. - fermata inc. of austin, texas ( august 2005 ). " pine creek valley early action recommendations " ( pdf ). pennsylvania department of conservation and natural resources. retrieved july 25, 2008. - " find a park : twenty must - see parks ". pennsylvania department of conservation and natural resources. retrieved november 26, 2011. note : despite the title, there are twenty - one parks in the list, with colton point and leonard harrison state parks treated as one. - kent, barry c. ; smith iii, ira f. ; mccann, catherine ( editors ) ( 1971 ). foundations of pennsylvania prehistory. anthropological series of the pennsylvania historical and museum commission 1. harrisburg, pennsylvania : commonwealth of pennsylvania, the pennsylvania historical and museum commission. pp. 4, 7 – 11, 85 – 96, 195 – 201. oclc 2696039. - wallace, paul a. w. ( 2000 ). indians in pennsylvania. harrisburg, pennsylvania : commonwealth of pennsylvania, the pennsylvania historical and museum commission. pp. 4 – 12, 84 – 89, 99 – 105, 145 – 148, 157 – 164. isbn 978 - 0 - 89271 - 017 - 1. note : for a general overview of native american history in the west branch susquehanna watershed, see meginness, john franklin ( 1892 ). " chapter i. aboriginal occupation. ". history of lycoming county, pennsylvania : including its aboriginal history ; the colonial and revolutionary periods ; early settlement and subsequent growth ; organization and civil administration ; the legal and medical professions ; internal improvement ; past and present history of williamsport ; manufacturing and lumber interests ; religious, educational, and social development ; geology and agriculture ; military record ; sketches of boroughs, townships, and villages ; portraits and biographies of pioneers and representative citizens, etc. etc. ( 1st ed. ). chicago, il : brown, runk & co. isbn 0 - 7884 - 0428 - 8. retrieved 2008 - 06 - 17. note : isbn refers to the heritage books july 1996 reprint. url is to a scan of the 1892 version with some ocr typos. - the earliest written record of contact with the susquehannocks comes from captain john smith of


note : isbn refers to the heritage books july 1996 reprint. url is to a scan of the 1892 version with some ocr typos. - the earliest written record of contact with the susquehannocks comes from captain john smith of jamestown, who met members of the tribe near the mouth of the susquehanna river on chesapeake bay in 1608. the tribe controlled the susquehanna drainage basin and are believed to have lived there for at least a few centuries prior to this contact. - owlett, steven e. ( 1993 ). " the land that was ". seasons along the tiadaghton : an environmental history of the pine creek gorge ( 1st ed. ). petaluma, california : interprint. pp. 39, 40, 43, 46, 49, 50. isbn 0 - 9635905 - 0 - 2. - donehoo, dr. george p. ( 1999 ). a history of the indian villages and place names in pennsylvania ( pdf ) ( second reprint ed. ). lewisburg, pennsylvania : wennawoods publishing. pp. 154 – 155, 215 – 219. isbn 1 - 889037 - 11 - 7. retrieved 2008 - 06 - 17. note : isbn refers to a 1999 reprint edition, url is for the susquehanna river basin commission ' s web page of native american place names, quoting and citing the book. - morey, tim. " park spotlight : leonard harrison and colton point state parks ". resource : the pennsylvania department of conservation and natural resources. retrieved 2008 - 07 - 26. - " leonard harrison state park ". pennsylvania department of conservation and natural resources. retrieved 2006 - 10 - 29. - wallace, paul a. w. ( 1987 ). indian paths of pennsylvania ( fourth printing ed. ). harrisburg, pennsylvania : pennsylvania historical and museum commission. pp. 66 – 72, 130 – 132. isbn 0 - 89271 - 090 - x. note : isbn refers to 1998 impression - sexton jr., john l. ( 1883 ). " shippen township ". history of tioga county, pennsylvania with illustrations, portraits and sketches. new york, new york : w. w. munsell & co. pp. 313 – 326. retrieved 2008 - 07 - 23. - " the pennsylvania lumber museum – history ". pennsylvania historical and museum commission. retrieved 2008 - 07 - 22. - taber iii, thomas t. ( 1995 ). " chapter two : the boom — making it all possible ". williams


. - " the pennsylvania lumber museum – history ". pennsylvania historical and museum commission. retrieved 2008 - 07 - 22. - taber iii, thomas t. ( 1995 ). " chapter two : the boom — making it all possible ". williamsport lumber capital ( 1st ed. ). montoursville, pennsylvania : paulhamus litho, inc. pp. 23 – 34. oclc 35920715. - owlett, steven e. ( 1993 ). " the death of a forest ". seasons along the tiadaghton : an environmental history of the pine creek gorge ( 1st ed. ). petaluma, california : interprint. pp. 53 – 62. isbn 0 - 9635905 - 0 - 2. - dillon, chuck ( 2006 ). " nessmuk : the voice for conservation ". pennsylvania ' s grand canyon : a natural & human history ( 2nd ed. ). wellsboro, pennsylvania : pine creek press. pp. 31 – 32. ( no isbn ) - nessmuk ( sears, george washington ) ( 1884 ). " chapter vi camp cookery — how it is usually done, with a few simple hints on plain cooking — cooking fire and outdoor range ". woodcraft ( 1920 ed. ). new york : forest and stream. retrieved 2008 - 08 - 03. - " phmc : historical markers program ( tioga county ) ". pennsylvania historical and museum commission. retrieved 2010 - 10 - 10. - quoted in owlett, steven e. ( 1993 ). " the birth of pennsylvania ' s ' grand canyon ' ". seasons along the tiadaghton : an environmental history of the pine creek gorge ( 1st ed. ). petaluma, california : interprint. p. 67. isbn 0 - 9635905 - 0 - 2. - forrey, william c. ( 1984 ). history of pennsylvania ' s state parks. harrisburg, pennsylvania : bureau of state parks, office of resources management, department of environmental resources, commonwealth of pennsylvania. pp. 14, 90. oclc 17824084. - owlett, steven e. ( 1993 ). " a pine creek odyssey ". seasons along the tiadaghton : an environmental history of the pine creek gorge ( 1st ed. ). petaluma, california : interprint. pp. 12 – 13. isbn 0 - 9635905 - 0 - 2. - owlett, steven e. ( 1993 ). " the birth of pennsylvania ' s '


ed. ). petaluma, california : interprint. pp. 12 – 13. isbn 0 - 9635905 - 0 - 2. - owlett, steven e. ( 1993 ). " the birth of pennsylvania ' s ' grand canyon ' ". seasons along the tiadaghton : an environmental history of the pine creek gorge ( 1st ed. ). petaluma, california : interprint. pp. 65, 67, 68, 72. isbn 0 - 9635905 - 0 - 2. - pennsylvania department of conservation and natural resources ( december 2007 ). a public use map for pine creek rail trail ( map ). 1 " = 2 miles. harrisburg, pennsylvania. - morey, tim. " park spotlight : leonard harrison and colton point state parks ( part 2 ) ". resource : the pennsylvania department of conservation and natural resources. retrieved 2008 - 07 - 26. - cupper, dan ( 1993 ). our priceless heritage : pennsylvania ’ s state parks 1893 – 1993. harrisburg, pennsylvania : commonwealth of pennsylvania, pennsylvania historical and museum commission for pennsylvania department of natural resources, bureau of state parks. pp. 18, 24. isbn 0 - 89271 - 056 - x. - thomas ii, lee ed ( august 18, 1999 ). " statue unveiled at park honoring work of ccc ". the marketplace ( wellsboro, pennsylvania : the gazette and free press courier ). pp. 1, 16. retrieved 2008 - 08 - 12. - " calendar of event : ccc reunion picnic ". pennsylvania department of conservation and natural resources. august 9, 2008. retrieved 2008 - 08 - 12. - " pennsylvania state parks : the ccc years ". pennsylvania department of conservation and natural resources. retrieved 2006 - 11 - 28. - " ccc statues ". national new deal preservation association. november 2007. retrieved 2008 - 08 - 06. - dillon, chuck ( 2006 ). " protection for pine creek ". pennsylvania ' s grand canyon : a natural & human history ( 2nd ed. ). wellsboro, pennsylvania : pine creek press. pp. 51 – 52. ( no isbn ) - " audubon names 73 important bird areas in state ". resource : pennsylvania department of conservation and natural resources. 1997 - 01 - 07 ( vol. 1 no. 3 ). retrieved 2012 - 01 - 05. - " manager named at hills creek lake ". wellsboro gazette. 2000 - 02 - 02. p. 6. retrieved 2009 - 04 - 09


- 01 - 07 ( vol. 1 no. 3 ). retrieved 2012 - 01 - 05. - " manager named at hills creek lake ". wellsboro gazette. 2000 - 02 - 02. p. 6. retrieved 2009 - 04 - 09. note : the eight parks in the hills creek state park complex are cherry springs, colton point, denton hill, hills creek, leonard harrison, lyman run, patterson, and prouty place. - " governor rendell says pa. investing in the future with environmental grants ; safeguarding communities, attracting business investment : 140 critical projects in 50 counties first to receive funding ". press release. pennsylvania department of conservation and natural resources. november 2, 2005. retrieved 2008 - 08 - 06. - owlett, steven e. ( 1993 ). " rails to trails ". seasons along the tiadaghton : an environmental history of the pine creek gorge ( 1st ed. ). petaluma, california : interprint. pp. 87, 88, 92, 94. isbn 0 - 9635905 - 0 - 2. - bryan, curtis townley ( july 16, 1950 ). " pennsylvania ' s grand canyon : camps and picnic areas abound in wilds along pine creek gorge ". the new york times. p. x19. - van dyne, ed ( march 13, 1966 ). " spring means ' white water ' in pennsylvania ". the new york times. p. 458. - " national natural landmark : pine creek gorge ". national park service. retrieved september 30, 2008. - ingram, george ( june 10, 1973 ). " running the rapids ' deliverance ' - style in pennsylvania ". the new york times. p. 542. - " if you go : two state parks, divided by a canyon ". the new york times. november 22, 2002. p. f4. - " 51 great places to hike ". usa today. retrieved june 25, 2011. - " colton point state park ". pennsylvania department of conservation and natural resources. retrieved september 30, 2008. - mcglade, william g. " pennsylvania trail of geology, leonard harrison and colton point state parks, the grand canyon of pennsylvania, geologic features of interest ( park guide 5 ) " ( pdf ). pennsylvania department of conservation and natural resources. retrieved september 30, 2008. - " pine creek gorge ". pennsylvania department of conservation and natural resources. retrieved september 30, 2008. - fergus, charles ( 2002 ). natural pennsylvania :


( pdf ). pennsylvania department of conservation and natural resources. retrieved september 30, 2008. - " pine creek gorge ". pennsylvania department of conservation and natural resources. retrieved september 30, 2008. - fergus, charles ( 2002 ). natural pennsylvania : exploring state forest natural areas. mechanicsburg, pennsylvania : stackpole books. pp. 189 – 193. isbn 0 - 8117 - 2038 - 1. - " natural areas ". pennsylvania department of conservation and natural resources. retrieved september 30, 2008. - pennsylvania department of conservation and natural resources, bureau of forestry ( pdf ). tioga state forest ( map ). 1 inch is 2 miles. http : / / www. dcnr. state. pa. us / forestry / stateforests / images / fd16 _ map. pdf. retrieved on september 30, 2008. - owlett, steven e. ( 1993 ). " a wild and scenic river? ". seasons along the tiadaghton : an environmental history of the pine creek gorge ( 1st ed. ). petaluma, california : interprint. pp. 75, 76, 80, 82, 84. isbn 0 - 9635905 - 0 - 2. - " pennsylvania scenic rivers program : location map ". pennsylvania department of conservation and natural resources. retrieved september 30, 2008. - owlett, steven e. ( 1993 ). " of brachiopods and glaciers ". seasons along the tiadaghton : an environmental history of the pine creek gorge ( 1st ed. ). petaluma, california : interprint. pp. 27, 28, 31, 34, 36. isbn 0 - 9635905 - 0 - 2. - van diver, bradford b. ( 1990 ). roadside geology of pennsylvania. missoula, montana : mountain press publishing company. pp. 31 – 35, 113 – 115. isbn 0 - 87842 - 227 - 7. - shultz, charles h. ( editor ) ( 1999 ). the geology of pennsylvania. harrisburg and pittsburgh, pennsylvania : pennsylvania geological society and pittsburgh geological society. pp. 372 – 374, 391, 399, 818. isbn 0 - 8182 - 0227 - 0. - shaw, lewis c. ( june 1984 ). pennsylvania gazetteer of streams part ii ( water resources bulletin no. 16 ). prepared in cooperation with the united states department of the interior geological survey ( 1st ed. ). harrisburg, pa : commonwealth of pennsylvania, department of environmental


june 1984 ). pennsylvania gazetteer of streams part ii ( water resources bulletin no. 16 ). prepared in cooperation with the united states department of the interior geological survey ( 1st ed. ). harrisburg, pa : commonwealth of pennsylvania, department of environmental resources. p. 167. oclc 17150333. - berg, t. m. ( 1981 ). " atlas of preliminary geologic quadrangle maps of pennsylvania : tiadaghton " ( pdf ). pennsylvania department of conservation and natural resources, bureau of topographic and geologic survey. retrieved 2008 - 08 - 05. - " map 67 : tabloid edition explanation " ( pdf ). pennsylvania department of conservation and natural resources, bureau of topographic and geologic survey. retrieved 2008 - 06 - 03. - " climate of pennsylvania " ( pdf ). pennsylvania state university, pennsylvania state climatologist. retrieved 2008 - 04 - 12. - " monthly averages for leonard harrison state park ". the weather channel interactive, inc. retrieved march 7, 2009. - dillon, chuck ( 2006 ). " wealth of the forests : lumber ". pennsylvania ' s grand canyon : a natural & human history ( 2nd ed. ). wellsboro, pennsylvania : pine creek press. pp. 23 – 24. ( no isbn ) - dillon, chuck ( 2006 ). " human issues affecting the stream ". pennsylvania ' s grand canyon : a natural & human history ( 2nd ed. ). wellsboro, pennsylvania : pine creek press. p. 46. ( no isbn ) - early accounts of " salmon " in pine creek may have been referring to shad. - owlett, steven e. ( 1993 ). " epilogue ". seasons along the tiadaghton : an environmental history of the pine creek gorge ( 1st ed. ). petaluma, california : interprint. pp. 97 – 98. isbn 0 - 9635905 - 0 - 2. - dillon, chuck ( 2006 ). " the forest today ". pennsylvania ' s grand canyon : a natural & human history ( 2nd ed. ). wellsboro, pennsylvania : pine creek press. pp. 34 – 36. ( no isbn ) - audubon pennsylvania ; department of conservation and natural resources, commonwealth of pennsylvania ( 2004 ). susquehanna river birding and wildlife trail ( searchable database ). harrisburg, pennsylvania. p. 26. retrieved 2008 - 07 - 30. [ dead link ] note : this guide is available both as a book ( page number given ) and website ( url given ). - "


( searchable database ). harrisburg, pennsylvania. p. 26. retrieved 2008 - 07 - 30. [ dead link ] note : this guide is available both as a book ( page number given ) and website ( url given ). - " abbreviated history of pennsylvania ’ s white - tailed deer management ". pennsylvania game commission. retrieved 2010 - 06 - 13. - serfass, tom ; mitcheltree, denise. " fisher " ( pdf ). pennsylvania game commission. archived from the original on april 4, 2006. retrieved 2008 - 08 - 03. - " from the wild bunch : the fisher ". predator conservation alliance. retrieved 2008 - 08 - 03. - doug kibbe ( may 2004 ). " pennsylvania important bird area # 28 " ( pdf ). pennsylvania audubon society. retrieved 2008 - 06 - 17. - robinson, bryan g. ( june 23, 2006 ). " marine dies at pennsylvania grand canyon ". the wellsboro gazette. retrieved 2008 - 07 - 27. - bly, laura ( july 27, 2001 ). " 10 great places to take a bike tour ". usa today. p. 3d. - " the wellsboro area chamber of commerce : pennsylvania grand canyon ". wellsboro area chamber of commerce. retrieved 2008 - 02 - 12. - pennsylvania fish and boat commission ( pfbc ). " 2008 pfbc county maps – tioga county ". retrieved 2008 - 08 - 02. - gertler, edward ( 1985 ). keystone canoeing : a guide to canoeable waters of eastern pennsylvania ( 1st ed. ). silver spring, maryland : seneca press. pp. 304 – 308. isbn 0 - 9605908 - 2 - x. - pennsylvania department of conservation and natural resources ( november 2002 ) ( pdf ). leonard harrison & colton point state parks ( map ). 1 " = 800 feet. http : / / www. dcnr. state. pa. us / stateparks / parks / coltonpoint / coltonpoint _ mini. pdf. retrieved 2008 - 07 - 25. - " find a park by region ( interactive map ) ". pennsylvania department of conservation and natural resources. retrieved november 18, 2011. - michels, chris ( 1997 ). " latitude / longitude distance calculation ". northern arizona university. retrieved 2008 - 04 - 23. - pennsylvania department of transportation, bureau of planning and research, geographic information division ( pdf ). " 2007 general highway map tioga county pennsylvania " ( map ). 1 :


line - of - sight propagation refers to electro - magnetic radiation or acoustic wave propagation. electromagnetic transmission includes light emissions traveling in a straight line. the rays or waves may be diffracted, refracted, reflected, or absorbed by atmosphere and obstructions with material and generally cannot travel over the horizon or behind obstacles. at low frequencies ( below approximately 2 mhz or so ) radio signals travel as ground waves, which follow the earth ' s curvature due to diffraction with the layers of atmosphere. this enables am radio signals in low - noise environments to be received well after the transmitting antenna has dropped below the horizon. additionally, frequencies between approximately 1 and 30 mhz can be reflected by the f1 / f2 layer, thus giving radio transmissions in this range a potentially global reach ( see shortwave radio ), again along multiple deflected straight lines. the effects of multiple diffraction or reflection lead to macroscopically " quasi - curved paths ". however, at higher frequencies and in lower levels of the atmosphere, neither of these effects are significant. thus any obstruction between the transmitting antenna and the receiving antenna will block the signal, just like the light that the eye may sense. therefore, since the ability to visually see a transmitting antenna ( disregarding the limitations of the eye ' s resolution ) roughly corresponds to the ability to receive a radio signal from it, the propagation characteristic of high - frequency radio is called " line - of - sight ". the farthest possible point of propagation is referred to as the " radio horizon ". in practice, the propagation characteristics of these radio waves vary substantially depending on the exact frequency and the strength of the transmitted signal ( a function of both the transmitter and the antenna characteristics ). broadcast fm radio, at comparatively low frequencies of around 100 mhz, are less affected by the presence of buildings and forests. radio horizon the radio horizon is the locus of points at which direct rays from an antenna are tangential to the surface of the earth. if the earth were a perfect sphere and there were no atmosphere, the radio horizon would be a circle. the radio horizon of the transmitting and receiving antennas can be added together to increase the effective communication range. antenna heights above 1, 000, 000 feet ( 189 miles ; 305 kilometres ) will cover the entire hemisphere and not increase the radio horizon. radio wave propagation is affected by atmospheric conditions, ionospheric absorption, and the presence of obstructions, for example mountains or trees. simple formulas that include the effect of the atmosphere give the range as : the simple formulas


increase the radio horizon. radio wave propagation is affected by atmospheric conditions, ionospheric absorption, and the presence of obstructions, for example mountains or trees. simple formulas that include the effect of the atmosphere give the range as : the simple formulas give a best - case approximation of the maximum propagation distance but are not sufficient to estimate the quality of service at any location. earth bulge and atmosphere effect earth bulge is a term used in telecommunications. it refers to the circular segment of earth profile which blocks off long distance communications. since the geometric line of sight passes at varying heights over the earth, the propagating radio wave encounters slightly different propagation conditions over the path. the usual effect of the declining pressure of the atmosphere with height is to bend radio waves down toward the surface of the earth, effectively increasing the earth ' s radius, and the distance to the radio horizon, by a factor around 4 / 3. this k - factor can change from its average value depending on weather. geometric distance to horizon assuming a perfect sphere with no terrain irregularity, the distance to horizon from a high altitude transmitter ( i. e., line of sight ) can readily be calculated. let r be the radius of earth and h be the altitude of a telecommunication station. line of sight distance d of this station is given by the pythagorean theorem ; since the altitude of the station is much less than the radius of the earth, if the height is given in metres, and distance in kilometres, if the height is given in feet, and the distance in miles, the actual service range the above analysis doesn ’ t take the effect of atmosphere on the propagation path of the rf signals into consideration. in fact, the rf signals don ’ t propagate in straight lines. because of the refractive effects of atmospheric layers, the propagation paths are somewhat curved. thus, the maximum service range of the station, is not equal to the line of sight ( geometric ) distance. usually a factor k is used in the equation above k > 1 means geometrically reduced bulge and a longer service range. on the other hand, k < 1 means a shorter service range. under normal weather conditions k is usually chosen to be 4 / 3. that means that, the maximum service range increases by % 15 for h in meters and d in km. for h in feet and d in miles ; but in stormy weather, k may decrease to cause fading in transmission. ( in extreme cases k can be less than 1. ) that is equivalent to a hypothetical decrease in


in meters and d in km. for h in feet and d in miles ; but in stormy weather, k may decrease to cause fading in transmission. ( in extreme cases k can be less than 1. ) that is equivalent to a hypothetical decrease in earth radius and an increase of earth bulge. in normal weather conditions, the service range of a station at an altitude of 1500 m. with respect to receivers at sea level can be found as, line - of - sight propagation as a prerequisite for radio distance measurements travel time of radio waves between transmitters and receivers can be measured disregarding the type of propagation. but, generally, travel time only then represents the distance between transmitter and receiver, when line of sight propagation is the basis for the measurement. this applies as well to radar, to real time locating and to lidar. this rules : travel time measurements for determining the distance between pairs of transmitters and receivers generally require line of sight propagation for proper results. whereas the desire to have just any type of propagation to enable communication may suffice, this does never coincide with the requirement to have strictly line of sight at least temporarily as the means to obtain properly measured distances. however, the travel time measurement may be always biased by multi - path propagation including line of sight propagation as well as non line of sight propagation in any random share. a qualified system for measuring the distance between transmitters and receivers must take this phenomenon into account. thus filtering signals traveling along various paths makes the approach either operationally sound or just tediously irritating. impairments to line - of - sight propagation low - powered microwave transmitters can be foiled by tree branches, or even heavy rain or snow. if a direct visual fix cannot be taken, it is important to take into account the curvature of the earth when calculating line - of - sight from maps. the presence of objects not in the direct visual line of sight can interfere with radio transmission. this is caused by diffraction effects : for the best propagation, a volume known as the first fresnel zone should be kept free of obstructions. reflected radiation from the ground plane also acts to cancel out the direct signal. this effect, combined with the free - space r−2 propagation loss to a r−4 propagation loss. this effect can be reduced by raising either or both antennas further from the ground : the reduction in loss achieved is known as height gain. mobile telephones although the frequencies used by mobile phones ( cell phones ) are in the line - of - sight range, they still function in cities. this


or both antennas further from the ground : the reduction in loss achieved is known as height gain. mobile telephones although the frequencies used by mobile phones ( cell phones ) are in the line - of - sight range, they still function in cities. this is made possible by a combination of the following effects : - r−4 propagation over the rooftop landscape - diffraction into the " street canyon " below - multipath reflection along the street - diffraction through windows, and attenuated passage through walls, into the building - reflection, diffraction, and attenuated passage through internal walls, floors and ceilings within the building the combination of all these effects makes the mobile phone propagation environment highly complex, with multipath effects and extensive rayleigh fading. for mobile phone services these problems are tackled using : - rooftop or hilltop positioning of base stations - many base stations ( a phone can typically see six at any given time ) - rapid handoff between base stations ( roaming ) - extensive error correction and detection in the radio link - sufficient operation of mobile phone in tunnels when supported by split cable antennas - local repeaters inside complex vehicles or buildings other conditions may physically disrupt the connection surprisingly without prior notice : - local failure when using the mobile phone in buildings of concrete with steel reinforcement - temporal failure inside metal constructions as elevator cabins, trains, cars, ships see also - anomalous propagation - field strength in free space - knife - edge effect - non - line - of - sight propagation - over - the - horizon radar - radial ( radio ) - rician fading, stochastic model of line - of - sight propagation - christopher haslett, essentials of radio wave propagation, cambridge university press, 2008 052187565x pages 119 - 120 - mean radius of the earth is ≈6. 37 x 106 metres = 6370 km. see earth radius - r. busi : technical monograph3108 - 1967 high altitude vhf and uhf broadcasting stations, european broadcasting union brussels, 1967 - this analysis is for high altitude to sea level reception. in microwave radio link chains, both stations are high altitudes. - article on the importance of line of sight for uhf reception - attenuation levels through roofs - approximating 2 - ray model by using binomial series by matthew bazajian


mercury ( pron. : / / ; latin : mercurius listen ( help · info ) ) is a major roman god, being one of the dii consentes within the ancient roman pantheon. he is the patron god of financial gain, commerce, eloquence ( and thus poetry ), messages / communication ( including divination ), travelers, boundaries, luck, trickery and thieves ; he is also the guide of souls to the underworld. he was considered the son of maia and jupiter in roman mythology. his name is possibly related to the latin word merx ( " merchandise " ; compare merchant, commerce, etc. ), mercari ( to trade ), and merces ( wages ). in his earliest forms, he appears to have been related to the etruscan deity turms, with characteristics and mythology subsequently borrowed from the analogous greek god, hermes. latin writers rewrote hermes ' myths and substituted his name with that of mercury. however, there are at least two myths that involve mercury that are roman in origin. in virgil ' s aeneid, mercury reminds aeneas of his mission to found the city of rome. in ovid ' s fasti, mercury is assigned to escort the nymph larunda to the underworld. mercury, however, fell in love with larunda and made love to her on the way. larunda thereby became mother to two children, referred to as the lares, invisible household gods. mercury has influenced the name of many things in a variety of scientific fields, such as the planet mercury, and the element mercury. the word mercurial is commonly used to refer to something or someone erratic, volatile or unstable, derived from mercury ' s swift flights from place to place. he is often depicted holding the caduceus in his left hand. | practices and beliefs | mercury did not appear among the numinous di indigetes of early roman religion. rather, he subsumed the earlier dei lucrii as roman religion was syncretized with greek religion during the time of the roman republic, starting around the 4th century bc. from the beginning, mercury had essentially the same aspects as hermes, wearing winged shoes ( talaria ) and a winged ( petasos ), or hat, and carrying the caduceus, a herald ' s staff with two entwined snakes that was apollo ' s gift to hermes. he was often accompanied by a cockerel, herald of the new day, a ram or


), or hat, and carrying the caduceus, a herald ' s staff with two entwined snakes that was apollo ' s gift to hermes. he was often accompanied by a cockerel, herald of the new day, a ram or goat, symbolizing fertility, and a tortoise, referring to mercury ' s legendary invention of the lyre from a tortoise shell. like hermes, he was also a god of messages, eloquence and of trade, particularly of the grain trade. mercury was also considered a god of abundance and commercial success, particularly in gaul, where he was said to have been particularly revered. he was also, like hermes, the romans ' psychopomp, leading newly - deceased souls to the afterlife. additionally, ovid wrote that mercury carried morpheus ' dreams from the valley of somnus to sleeping humans. archeological evidence from pompeii suggests that mercury was among the most popular of roman gods. the god of commerce was depicted on two early bronze coins of the roman republic, the sextans and the semuncia. when they described the gods of celtic and germanic tribes, rather than considering them separate deities, the romans interpreted them as local manifestations or aspects of their own gods, a cultural trait called the interpretatio romana. mercury in particular was reported as becoming extremely popular among the nations the roman empire conquered ; julius caesar wrote of mercury being the most popular god in britain and gaul, regarded as the inventor of all the arts. this is probably because in the roman syncretism, mercury was equated with the celtic god lugus, and in this aspect was commonly accompanied by the celtic goddess rosmerta. although lugus may originally have been a deity of light or the sun ( though this is disputed ), similar to the roman apollo, his importance as a god of trade made him more comparable to mercury, and apollo was instead equated with the celtic deity belenus. in celtic areas, mercury was sometimes portrayed with three heads or faces, and at tongeren, belgium, a statuette of mercury with three phalli was found, with the extra two protruding from his head and replacing his nose ; this was probably because the number 3 was considered magical, making such statues good luck and fertility charms. the romans also made widespread use of small statues of mercury, probably drawing from the ancient greek tradition of hermae markers. names and epithets mercury is known to the romans as mercurius and occasionally in


such statues good luck and fertility charms. the romans also made widespread use of small statues of mercury, probably drawing from the ancient greek tradition of hermae markers. names and epithets mercury is known to the romans as mercurius and occasionally in earlier writings as merqurius, mirqurios or mircurios, had a number of epithets representing different aspects or roles, or representing syncretisms with non - roman deities. the most common and significant of these epithets included the following : - mercurius artaios, a combination of mercury with the celtic god artaios, a deity of bears and hunting who was worshiped at beaucroissant, france. - mercurius arvernus, a combination of the celtic arvernus with mercury. arvernus was worshiped in the rhineland, possibly as a particular deity of the arverni tribe, though no dedications to mercurius arvernus occur in their territory in the auvergne region of central france. - mercurius cissonius, a combination of mercury with the celtic god cissonius, who is written of in the area spanning from cologne, germany to saintes, france. - mercurius esibraeus, a combination of the iberian deity esibraeus with the roman deity mercury. esibraeus is mentioned only in an inscription found at medelim, portugal, and is possibly the same deity as banda isibraiegus, who is invoked in an inscription from the nearby village of bemposta. - mercurius gebrinius, a combination of mercury with the celtic or germanic gebrinius, known from an inscription on an altar in bonn, germany. - mercurius moccus, from a celtic god, moccus, who was equated with mercury, known from evidence at langres, france. the name moccus ( " pig " ) implies that this deity was connected to boar - hunting. - mercurius visucius, a combination of the celtic god visucius with the roman god mercury, attested in an inscription from stuttgart, germany. visucius was worshiped primarily in the frontier area of the empire in gaul and germany. although he was primarily associated with mercury, visucius was also sometimes linked to the roman god mars, as a dedicatory inscription to " mars visucius " and visucia, visicius ' female counterpart, was found in gaul. mercury ' s net vulcan created a net


wearing. - the now defunct mercury car brand was named after the roman god. the first logo the mercury brand used was a side profile of mercury ' s head, complete with winged helmet. - the united states ' so called mercury dime, issued from 1916 to 1945, actually features a winged liberty and not the god mercury, but is so named because of the uncanny similarity between the two. | wikimedia commons has media related to : mercurius ( deus ) | - glossary to ovid ’ s fasti, penguin edition, by boyle and woodard at 343 - rupke, the religion of the romans, at 4 - mike campbell. " meaning, origin and history of the name mercury ". behind the name. retrieved 2012 - 01 - 09. - “ mercury and hazel ” explores the analogies of mercury in mythology, metallurgy and astronomy, and the traditional association of mercury with the fast - growing hazel tree. - caesar, gallic war, at 55 - littleton, c. scott ( ed. ) ( 2002 ). mythology : the illustrated anthology of world myth and storytelling ( pp. 195, 251, 253, 258, 292 ). london : duncan baird publishers. isbn 1 - 904292 - 01 - 1. - beard, pompeii : the life of a roman town at 295 - 298 - sear, david r. ( 2000 ). roman coins and their values - the millennium edition. volume i : the republic and the twelve caesars, 280bc - ad96 ( pp. 187 - 189 ). london : spink. isbn 1 902040 35 x - de bello gallico 6. 17 - germania 9 - green, miranda j. ( 1992 ). dictionary of celtic myth and leg, end ( pp. 148 – 149 ). london : thames and hudson. isbn 0 - 500 - 01516 - 3. - alarcao, jorge de ( 1988 ). roman portugal. volume i : introduction ( p. 93 ). warminster : aris and phillips. - esperandieu, e. ( 1931 ). recueil general des bas - relief, statues et bustes de la germanie romaine. paris and brussels. - ariosto, ludovico. orlando furioso, canto xv lines 47 – 64. oxford : oxford up, 1998.


| | this article needs additional citations for verification. ( august 2011 ) | | ancient region of anatolia | traditional rural pontic house | ethnic groups | | pontic greeks, laz, hemsin, chepni, turks | | historical capitals | | amasya, neocaesarea, sinope, trabzon | | notable rulers | | mithradates eupator | the modern definition of the pontus : the area claimed for the " republic of pontus " after world war i, based on the extent of the six local greek orthodox bishoprics. pontus ( pron. : / / ; greek : ποντος, " sea " ) is a historical greek designation for a region on the southern coast of the black sea, located in modern - day northeastern turkey. the name was applied to the coastal region in antiquity by the greeks who colonized the area, and derived from the greek name of the black sea : ποντος ευξεινος pontos euxeinos ( " hospitable sea " ), or simply pontos. having originally no specific name, the region east of the river halys was spoken of as the country εν ποντοι en pontoi, " on the [ euxeinos ] pontos ", and hence acquired the name of pontus, which is first found in xenophon ' s anabasis. the extent of the region varied through the ages, but generally it extended from the borders of colchis ( modern georgia ) until well into paphlagonia in the west, with varying amounts of hinterland. several states and provinces bearing the name of pontus or variants thereof were established in the region in hellenistic, roman and byzantine times. pontus is known for the residence of the amazons, with the name amasia not only used for a city ( amasya ) but for all of pontus in greek mythology. mythological inhabitants the amazons were an all female tribe warriors, well known in greek mythology. they are said to have lived mainly in pontus with some also living in taurica ( see crimea ) which is also an important place with pontic greeks. pontus became their area of residence, a kingdom for the amazon women, as amasya, a city in pontus, itself is named after the legendary amazon women. early inhabitants considering that the anatolian peninsula lies near to sinai peninsula, which is the isthmus across which various species of


for the amazon women, as amasya, a city in pontus, itself is named after the legendary amazon women. early inhabitants considering that the anatolian peninsula lies near to sinai peninsula, which is the isthmus across which various species of hominids have migrated out of africa and into asia, pontus in particular has probably been inhabited by known and unknown tribes of various species and ethnicities throughout its history. the caucasian kartvelian languages, such as laz, probably represent the tongues of the earliest - known inhabitants of the area. according to some researchers, one of the early pontic tribes were called the leucosyri. other names for the earliest - known, probably caucasian, tribes that inhabited the area include the moskhians, the mares, the makrones, the mossynoikians, the tibarenians, the tzans ( armenian : chaniuk, probably the laz ), and the chaldians ( armenian : khaghtik ). in light of the strong possibility that indo - european languages originated in the anatolian peninsula, tribes speaking indo - european languages such as armenian, hittite, or another anatolian language may have inhabited the area more or less contemporaneously with tribes speaking caucasian languages. regardless of that possibility, though, the historical record makes clear that seafaring greeks, speakers of a different indo - european language, began colonizing the area at a later date, displacing caucasian tribes in the process. ancient greek colonization the first travels of greek merchants and adventurers to the pontian region occurred probably from around 1000 bc, whereas their settlements would become steady and solidified cities only by the 8th and 7th centuries bc as archaeological findings document. this fits in well with a foundation date of 731 bc as reported by eusebius of caesarea for sinope, perhaps the most ancient of the greek colonies in what was later to be called pontus. the epical narratives related to the travels of jason and the argonauts to colchis, the tales of heracles ' navigating the black sea and odysseus ' wanderings into the land of the cimmerians, as well as the myth of zeus constraining prometheus to the caucasus mountains as a punishment for his outwitting the gods, can all be seen as reflections of early contacts between early greek colonists and the local, probably caucasian, peoples. the earliest known written description of pontus, however


prometheus to the caucasus mountains as a punishment for his outwitting the gods, can all be seen as reflections of early contacts between early greek colonists and the local, probably caucasian, peoples. the earliest known written description of pontus, however, is that of scylax of korianda, who in the 7th century bc described greek settlements in the area. persian empire expansion by the 5th or 6th centuries bc, pontus had become officially a part of the achaemenid empire, which probably meant that the local greek colonies were paying tribute to the persians. when the athenian commander xenophon passed through pontus around a century later in 401 - 400 bc, in fact, he found no persians in pontus. pontus came out from persian domination when the kingdom of cappadocia separated from the achaemenid empire, taking pontus with it as one of its provinces. subsequently, pontus itself separated from the kingdom of cappadocia under mithridates i ktistes ( " ktistes ", κτιστης meaning " the founder ", constructor in greek ) in 302 bc and became independent. as the greater part of the kingdom he eventually established lay within the immense region of cappadocia, which in early ages extended from the borders of cilicia to the euxine ( black sea ), the kingdom as a whole was at first called " cappadocia towards the pontus ", but afterwards simply " pontus ", the name cappadocia being henceforth restricted to the southern half of the region previously included under that title. kingdom of pontus the kingdom of pontus extended generally to the east of the halys river. the persian dynasty which was to found this kingdom had during the 4th century bc ruled the greek city of cius ( or kios ) in mysia, with its first known member being ariobarzanes i of cius and the last ruler based in the city being mithridates ii of cius. mithridates ii ' s son, also called mithridates, would become mithridates i ktistes of pontus. during the troubled period following the death of alexander the great, mithridates ktistes was for a time in the service of antigonus, one of alexander ' s successors, and successfully maneuvering in this unsettled time managed, shortly after 302 bc, to create the kingdom of pontus which would be ruled by his descendants mostly bearing the same


in the service of antigonus, one of alexander ' s successors, and successfully maneuvering in this unsettled time managed, shortly after 302 bc, to create the kingdom of pontus which would be ruled by his descendants mostly bearing the same name, until 64 bc. thus, this persian dynasty managed to survive and prosper in the hellenistic world while the main persian empire had fallen. this kingdom reached its greatest height under mithridates vi or mithridates eupator, commonly called the great, who for many years carried on war with the romans. under him, the realm of pontus included not only pontic cappadocia but also the seaboard from the bithynian frontier to colchis, part of inland paphlagonia, and lesser armenia. despite ruling lesser armenia, king mithridates vi was an ally of armenian king tigranes the great, to whom he married his daughter cleopatra. eventually, however, the romans defeated both king mithridates vi and his son - in - law, armenian king tigranes the great, during the mithridatic wars, bringing pontus under roman rule. roman province with the subjection of this kingdom by pompey in 64 bc, in which little changed in the structuring of life, neither for the oligarchies that controlled the cities nor for the common people in city or hinterland, the meaning of the name pontus underwent a change. part of the kingdom was now annexed to the roman empire, being united with bithynia in a double province called pontus and bithynia : this part included only the seaboard between heraclea ( today eregli ) and amisus ( samsun ), the ora pontica. the larger part of pontus, however, was included in the province of galatia. hereafter the simple name pontus without qualification was regularly employed to denote the half of this dual province, especially by romans and people speaking from the roman point of view ; it is so used almost always in the new testament. the eastern half of the old kingdom was administered as a client kingdom together with colchis. its last king was polemon ii. in ad 62, the country was constituted by nero a roman province. it was divided into the three districts : pontus galaticus in the west, bordering on galatia ; pontus polemoniacus in the centre, so called from its capital polemonium ; and pontus cappadocicus in the east, bordering


was divided into the three districts : pontus galaticus in the west, bordering on galatia ; pontus polemoniacus in the centre, so called from its capital polemonium ; and pontus cappadocicus in the east, bordering on cappadocia ( armenia minor ). subsequently, the roman emperor trajan moved pontus into the province of cappadocia itself in the early 2nd century ad. in response to a gothic raid on trebizond in 457 ad, the roman emperor diocletian decided to break up the area into smaller provinces under more localized administration. - galatian pontus, also called diospontus, later renamed helenopontus by constantine the great after his mother. it had its capital at amisus, and included the cities of sinope, amasia, andres, ibora, and zela as well. - pontus polemoniacus, with its capital at polemonium ( also called side ), and including the cities of neocaesarea, argyroupolis, comana, and cerasus as well. - cappadocian pontus, with its capital at trebizond, and including the small ports of athanae and rhizaeon. this province extended all the way to colchis. byzantine province and theme the byzantine emperor justinian further reorganized the area in 536 : - pontus polemoniacus was dissolved, with the western part ( polemonium and neocaesarea ) going to helenopontus, comana going to the new province of armenia ii, and the rest ( trebizond and cerasus ) joining the new province of armenia i magna with its capital at justinianopolis. - helenopontus gained polemonium and neocaesarea, and lost zela to armenia ii. the provincial governor was relegated to the rank of moderator. - paphlagonia absorbed honorias and was put under a praetor. by the time of the early byzantine empire, trebizond became a center of culture and scientific learning. in the 7th century, an individual named tychicus returned from constantinople to establish a school of learning. one of his students was the early armenian scholar anania of shirak. under the byzantine empire, the pontus came under the armeniac theme, with the westernmost parts ( paphlagonia ) belonging to the bucellarian theme. progressively, these large early themes were divided into smaller ones, so that


. under the byzantine empire, the pontus came under the armeniac theme, with the westernmost parts ( paphlagonia ) belonging to the bucellarian theme. progressively, these large early themes were divided into smaller ones, so that by the late 10th century, the pontus was divided into the themes of chaldia, which was governed by the gabrades family, and koloneia. after the 8th century, the area experienced a period of prosperity, which was brought to an end only by the seljuk conquest of asia minor in the 1070s and 1080s. restored to the byzantine empire by alexios i komnenos, the area was governed by effectively semi - autonomous rulers, like the gabras family of trebizond. empire of trebizond following constantinople ' s loss of sovereignty to the fourth crusade in 1204, the pontus retained independence as the empire of trebizond under the komnenos dynasty. through a combination of geographic remoteness and adroit diplomacy, this remnant managed to survive, until it was conquered by the ottomans in 1461 after the fall of constantinople itself. this political adroitness included becoming a vassal state at various times to both georgia and to various inland turkic rulers. in addition, the empire of trebizond became a renowned center of culture under its ruling komnenos dynasty. ottoman vilayet | distribution of nationalities in trebizond vilayet | official ottoman statistics, 1910 | | 1, 047, 889 | ecumenical patriarchate statistics, 1912 | | 957, 866 under the subsequent ottoman rule which began with the fall of trebizond, particularly starting from the 17th century, some of the region ' s pontic greeks became muslim through the devsirme system. but at the same time some valley ' s inhabited by greeks converted by own will, most notably those in the of - valley ; and large communities ( around 25 % of the population ) of christian pontic greeks remained throughout the area ( including trabezon and kars in northeastern turkey / the russian caucasus ) until the 1920s, and in parts of georgia and armenia until the 1990s, preserving their own customs and dialect of greek. one group of islamicized greeks were called the kromli - they numbered between 12, 000 and 15, 000, were suspected of secretly having remained christians, and lived in villages including krom, imera, livadia, prdi, alitinos, mokh


greeks were called the kromli - they numbered between 12, 000 and 15, 000, were suspected of secretly having remained christians, and lived in villages including krom, imera, livadia, prdi, alitinos, mokhora, and ligosti. a remarkable change during the last period of the ottoman empire is the creation of " the republic of pontus " and the " ponto - armenian federation " that did not take place as it was aimed to be and had as a result the genocide of at least 353, 000 pontian greeks at the same time that the armenian genocide took place. the number is based at facts from the relatives of murdered persons, red cross, french, and american reports from that period. mentioned three times in the new testament, inhabitants of pontus were some of the very first converts to christianity. acts 2 : 9 mentions them present during the day of pentecost. acts 18 : 2 mentions a jewish couple from pontus that had converted to christianity. and 1 peter 1 : 1, peter the apostle addresses the pontians in his letter as the " elect " and " chosen ones ". as early as the first council of nicea, trebizond had its own bishop. subsequently, the bishop of trebizond was subordinated to the metropolitan bishop of poti. then during the 9th century, trebizond itself became the seat of the metropolitan bishop of lazica. famous pontians - strabo, a greek historian, geographer, and philosopher. - evagrius ponticus, a greek theologian / monk of the 4th century - chrysanthos theodoridis singer - a. i. bezzerides, an american novelist and screenwriter. famous for writing humphrey bogart movies, and co - creator of the tv series the big valley. born in samsun. - mike lazaridis, ceo of research in motion and creator of blackberry phones. see also notes and references - bryer, anthony a. m. ( 1980 ), the empire of trebizond and the pontos, london : variorum reprints, isbn 0 - 86078 - 062 - 7 - ramsay macmullen, 2000. romanization in the time of augustus ( yale university press ) - ποντος, henry george liddell, robert scott, a greek - english lexicon, on perseus - ευξεινος, william j. slater, lexicon to pin


augustus ( yale university press ) - ποντος, henry george liddell, robert scott, a greek - english lexicon, on perseus - ευξεινος, william j. slater, lexicon to pindar, on perseus - meyer, geschichte d. konigr. pontos ( leipzig, 1879 ) - hewsen, 40 - 41 - hewsen, 43 - hewsen, 46 - remco bouckaert ; philippe lemey, michael dunn, simon j. greenhill, alexander v. alekseyenko, alexei j. drummond, russell d. gray, marc a. suchard, quentin d. atkinson ( 24 ). " mapping the origins and expansion of the indo - european language family ". science 337 ( 6097 ) : 957 – 960. doi : 10. 1126 / science. 1219669. - hewsen, 39 - 40 - hewsen, 39 - hewsen, 40 - hewsen, 41 - hewsen, 41 - 42 - hewsen, robert h. ( 2009 ). " armenians on the black sea : the province of trebizond ". in richard g. hovannisian. armenian pontus : the trebizond - black sea communities. costa mesa, ca : mazda publishers, inc. pp. 42, 37 – 66. isbn 1 - 56859 - 155 - 1. - hewsen, 47 - hewsen, 49 - hewsen, 48 - pentzopoulos, dimitri ( 2002 ). the balkan exchange of minorities and its impact on greece. c. hurst & co. publishers. pp. 29 – 30. isbn 978 - 1 - 85065 - 702 - 6. - hewsen, 54


radio music ripping | | this article needs additional citations for verification. ( november 2008 ) | the term ripping ( slang term for digital media extraction ) can also apply to radio. new software, techniques and cloud services now makes it possible to extract the songs played on the radio and digitally save them on separate audio tracks. available techniques make it possible to rip the music from internet radio broadcasts, satellite radio broadcasts and fm radio broadcasts. ripping is more than simply recording the audio. the key aspect of ripping is disambiguation. when ripping songs from any source, the songs should be split into separate tracks or files, and the songs should be tagged. otherwise, you are simply recording or dubbing the audio. internet radio popular audio formats for internet radio include aac, aac +, and mp3. many am / fm stations simulcast online use the more efficient aac format while internet only stations more typically use mp3. the shoutcast database featured 34, 281 online radio stations covering almost every conceivable music genre. cloud recording services such as dar. fm can record from all of these formats. most pc based internet radio ripping software is built for shoutcast - style of streams as this mp3 based protocol offers the widest selection of internet radio stations. such wide selection of music is one of the major advantages for recording songs from internet radio compared to fm and satellite radio as well as the fact that it works with cloud services that do not require a separate audio receiver. the disadvantages may include fairly low audio quality in the saved mp3s, which varies from stream to stream. to begin the recording process, the software connects to the audio stream over tcp. the stream is then buffered 15 – 30 seconds ahead. some internet radio ripping software, utilize special metadata that is being broadcast along with actual song content. these programs are generally more successful in determining the boundaries of songs ( providing for a cleaner mp3 cut ) as well as correctly identifying the song in question. such metadata, however, is available for only a subset of internet radio stations, commonly associated with the shoutcast standard. the existence of open directories of shoutcast - compliant radio stations such as shoutcast enables internet radio rippers to provide an abundant selection of recordable radio stations that are reasonably expected to emit detailed song metadata. the metadata also helps avoiding commercials from being recorded along with the songs. satellite radio timetrax has developed software that can record the audio broadcast on xm satellite radio. the software saves songs as individual mp3 files after identifying the name and the artist


. the metadata also helps avoiding commercials from being recorded along with the songs. satellite radio timetrax has developed software that can record the audio broadcast on xm satellite radio. the software saves songs as individual mp3 files after identifying the name and the artist. timetrax is both a software and hardware solution : the timetrax software can interface with any pc - compatible satellite receiver, and the adapter box is necessary to allow certain receivers to interface with a pc. the xm pcr was the first device to allow audio stream ripping from xm radio. the device itself is simple enough : an xm " can " ( the actual receiver and decoding hardware ) is enclosed in a box with a usb interface chip and audio connector. the pcr plugs into a pc usb port and line - in jack. timetrax, or some other similar software, then controls the radio and records the incoming audio. after a legal battle, the timetrax software is no longer being sold. to end the problem for good, xm discontinued the xm pcr receiver. however, timetrax almost immediately released a hardware companion product that turned virtually any device capable of receiving xm satellite radio and its primary competitor at the time, sirius satellite radio. timetrax went on to also include the ability to rip and tag music from the online music streaming services that were being provided by both xm and sirius. notably, timetrax went on to extend its technology in a seamless package for fm radio, and further, any music source. it developed this portion of its technology hardware and software offering with swedish company popcatcher. timetrax was the first company that offered music ripping ( aka audio disambiguation, ripping and tagging, de - aggregation ) for the 3 largest and widespread music distribution methods : satellite radio, internet streaming and traditional broadcast. the original timetrax software was developed by scott maclean, a canadian citizen. it went viral and a corporation and formal management team along with funding were brought in the form the enterprise around maclean ' s discovery. the company was led by business executive elliott frutkin. fm radio there are three ways of ripping songs from an fm broadcast. radio data system some fm receivers are capable of receiving a data stream known as radio data system or rds. this provides artist and title information that can be shown on the display of a compatible fm receiver. a compatible receiver, connected to the computer, can tag saved audio streams with this data. the disadvantage of rds is


radio data system or rds. this provides artist and title information that can be shown on the display of a compatible fm receiver. a compatible receiver, connected to the computer, can tag saved audio streams with this data. the disadvantage of rds is that the title may change before or after the song itself changes, causing the recording process to miss part of the beginning or end of the song. in the near future rds will include a new feature called rt + or radio text plus. as well as providing discrete text fields for artist, album & track title, rt + includes ' item running ' and ' item toggle ' bits which can be used to accurately mark the track transitions and dj / commercial interruptions, aiding the process of recording, filenaming and id3 tagging. separating music from non - music swedish company popcatcher has patented a technology that enables distinguishing between music, chatter and commercials. it is a self - learning process that first identifies the broadcasting habits of a given radio station. popcatcher is designed to automatically exclude commercials and dj patter from the recording, which results in " cleaner " audio files. the process is fully independent from the internet. however, it does not recognize the names and the artists of the recorded songs. manual tagging certain recording packages allow you to set markers in the file, which you can use later to split the file into separate tracks. this process can be tedious and time consuming, but has the advantage of being the only truly reliable way to ensure that the song is captured as accurately as possible without cutting off the beginning or end of a track. legal issues this expanding way of ripping music may lead to ‘ strong legal debates ’ in a near future, even if it is permitted to record music from the radio for private use in most countries. in germany it is allowed. there even is a campaign to put focus on it. it ' s called tauschnix, which in essence stands for : no need to download via filesharing. see link below. european context the eu passed in may 2001 the information society directive which has since then been transposed into the national laws of most of the member states. article 5 – 2 / b of the directive states that “ [ member states may provide for exceptions or limitations to the reproduction right provided for ] in respect of reproductions on any medium made by a natural person for private use and for ends that are neither directly nor indirectly commercial, on condition that the rightholders receive fair compensation which takes account of the application or non -


reproduction right provided for ] in respect of reproductions on any medium made by a natural person for private use and for ends that are neither directly nor indirectly commercial, on condition that the rightholders receive fair compensation which takes account of the application or non - application of technological measures referred to in article 6 [ ie. digital rights management ] to the work or subject - matter concerned ”. in short, copying music from the radio for private use is permissible if the artists receive a “ fair compensation ”. in case of a lawsuit against radio music ripping technologies, the whole debate will be about the meaning of the term “ fair compensation ”. it can be argued that radio stations are already paying a “ fair compensation ” to artists as they know their songs might be copied. moreover, in an increasing number of eu member states, importers are charged a private copying levy on the purchase of recordable media ( mp3 players, writable cds or dvds ). the tax or levy is usually administrated by copyright collectives. however, at the time of digital copies, the outcome of such a lawsuit is far from being certain if it should occur. uk context beginning in 1981, the british phonographic industry began a campaign against so - called " home taping ", or recording songs from the radio onto cassettes, due to fears that home taping would decrease album sales. iconic of the campaign is a picture of the silhouette of a cassette tape, with two crossed bones underneath, with the words " home taping is killing music " written across the top, and the words " and it ' s illegal " printed in smaller letters at the bottom. us context the doctrine of fair use should make it legal to record songs from the radio for private use. [ original research? ] traditionally, the recording industry expressed little or no concern with individuals who recorded music from the radio on a cassette recorder. however, the digital format in this case changes the whole issue since it does not degrade over time and can be easily copied. that popcatcher has developed a technology that automatically removes commercials may lead to a legal case similar to replaytv ’ s and sonicblue ’ s. in 2001 these dvr manufacturers had issued a digital video recorder equipped with a commercial advance feature enabling the automatic removing of commercials from recorded programming. they were sued by 28 companies of the entertainment industry in the usa until they ran out of money to pay the expensive litigation. in 2003, they filed for chapter 11 bankruptcy. the case itself has never been judged. the audio home


| 16th chief justice of the united states | september 26, 1986 – september 3, 2005 | appointed by | | ronald reagan | | preceded by | | warren burger | | succeeded by | | john roberts | | associate justice of the supreme court of the united states | january 7, 1972 – september 26, 1986 | appointed by | | richard nixon | | preceded by | | john marshall harlan ii | | succeeded by | | antonin scalia | | united states assistant attorney general for the office of legal counsel | | preceded by | | frank wozencraft | | succeeded by | | ralph erickson | | born | | william donald rehnquist october 1, 1924 milwaukee, wisconsin, u. s. | died | | september 3, 2005 arlington, virginia, u. s. | alma mater | | stanford university william hubbs rehnquist ( october 1, 1924 – september 3, 2005 ) was an american lawyer, jurist, and political figure who served as an associate justice of the supreme court of the united states and later as the 16th chief justice of the united states. considered a conservative, rehnquist favored a conception of federalism that emphasized the tenth amendment ' s reservation of powers to the states. under this view of federalism, the supreme court of the united states, for the first time since the 1930s, struck down an act of congress as exceeding its power under the commerce clause. rehnquist served as chief justice for nearly 19 years, making him the fourth - longest - serving chief justice after john marshall, roger taney, and melville fuller, and the longest - serving chief justice who had previously served as an associate justice. the last 11 years of rehnquist ' s term as chief justice ( 1994 – 2005 ) marked the second - longest tenure of a single unchanging roster of the supreme court, exceeded only between february 1812 and september 1823. he is the eighth longest - serving justice in supreme court history. early life rehnquist was born william donald rehnquist in milwaukee, wisconsin, on october 1, 1924. he grew up in the suburb of shorewood. his father, william benjamin rehnquist, was a paper salesman ; his mother, margery peck rehnquist, was a translator and homemaker. rehnquist changed his middle name to hubbs, a family name, because a numerologist told his mother he would be successful with a middle initial of h. his paternal grandparents immigrated from sweden. rehnquist graduated from shorewood high school in 1942. he


his middle name to hubbs, a family name, because a numerologist told his mother he would be successful with a middle initial of h. his paternal grandparents immigrated from sweden. rehnquist graduated from shorewood high school in 1942. he attended kenyon college, in gambier, ohio, for one quarter in the fall of 1942, before entering the u. s. army air forces. he served from march 1943 – 1946, mostly in assignments in the united states. he was put into a pre - meteorology program and was assigned to denison university until february 1944, when the program was shut down. he served three months at will rogers field in oklahoma city, three months in carlsbad, new mexico, and then went to hondo, texas for a few months. he was then chosen for another training program, which began at chanute field, illinois, and ended at fort monmouth, new jersey. the program was designed to teach the maintenance and repair of weather instruments. in the summer of 1945, he went overseas and served as a weather observer in north africa. after the war ended, rehnquist attended stanford university with assistance under the provisions of the g. i. bill. in 1948, he received both a bachelor of arts and a master of arts degree in political science. in 1950, he attended harvard university, where he received another master of arts, this time in government. he later returned to stanford, and graduated from the stanford law school in the same class as sandra day o ' connor, with whom he would later serve on the supreme court. they briefly dated at stanford. it has been said that rehnquist graduated first in his class, probably based on the fact that he was class valedictorian during graduation ceremonies, but stanford ' s official position is that the law school did not rank students in 1952. law clerk at the supreme court rehnquist went to washington, d. c. to work as a law clerk for justice robert h. jackson during the court ' s 1952 – 1953 term. there, he wrote a memorandum arguing against federal court - ordered school desegregation while the court was considering the landmark case of brown v. board of education, which was later decided in 1954. rehnquist ' s 1952 memo, entitled " a random thought on the segregation cases ", defended the " separate - but - equal " doctrine. in that memo, rehnquist said : i realize that it is an unpopular and unhumanitarian position, for which i have


, entitled " a random thought on the segregation cases ", defended the " separate - but - equal " doctrine. in that memo, rehnquist said : i realize that it is an unpopular and unhumanitarian position, for which i have been excoriated by " liberal " colleagues, but i think plessy v. ferguson was right and should be reaffirmed. to the argument that a majority may not deprive a minority of its constitutional right, the answer must be made that while this is sound in theory, in the long run it is the majority who will determine what the constitutional rights of the minority are. in both his 1971 hearing for associate justice and his 1986 hearing for chief justice of the united states, rehnquist alleged that the memorandum reflected the views of justice jackson rather than his own views. rehnquist said, " i believe that the memorandum was prepared by me as a statement of justice jackson ' s tentative views for his own use. " elsie douglas, long - time secretary and confidante of justice jackson, stated during rehnquist ' s 1986 hearings that his allegation was " a smear of a great man, for whom i served as secretary for many years. justice jackson did not ask law clerks to express his views. he expressed his own and they expressed theirs. that is what happened in this instance. " at his 1986 hearings for chief justice, rehnquist tried to put further distance between himself and the 1952 memo : " the bald statement that ' plessy was right and should be reaffirmed ', was not an accurate reflection of my own views at the time. " however, rehnquist acknowledged defending plessy in arguments with fellow law clerks. some commentators have concluded that the memo reflected rehnquist ' s own views rather than those of justice jackson. a biography on jackson corroborates this explanation, stating that jackson instructed his clerks to express their own views, not his. in any event, while later serving on the supreme court, rehnquist made no effort to reverse or undermine the brown decision, and frequently relied upon it as precedent. rehnquist stated in 1985 that there was a " perfectly reasonable " argument against brown v. board and in favor of plessy, even though he now saw the court ' s decision in brown as correct. in a memorandum to justice jackson about terry v. adams, which involved the right of african - americans to vote in an allegedly private texas election, rehnquist wrote : the


even though he now saw the court ' s decision in brown as correct. in a memorandum to justice jackson about terry v. adams, which involved the right of african - americans to vote in an allegedly private texas election, rehnquist wrote : the constitution does not prevent the majority from banding together, nor does it attaint success in the effort. it is about time the court faced the fact that the white people of the south do not like the colored people. the constitution restrains them from effecting this dislike through state action, but it most assuredly did not appoint the court as a sociological watchdog to rear up every time private discrimination raises its admittedly ugly head. in another memorandum to justice jackson regarding the same case ( terry ), rehnquist wrote : clerks began screaming as soon as they saw this that ' now we can show those damn southerners, etc. ' i take a dim view of this pathological search for discrimination and as a result i now have something of a mental block against the case. nevertheless, rehnquist recommended to justice jackson that the supreme court should agree to hear the terry case. after leaving jackson ' s employ, rehnquist wrote an article in the december 13, 1957 u. s. news & world report arguing that justices ' votes are influenced by their law clerks ' ideologies. an empirical assessment conducted by peppers and zorn in 2008 supported rehnquist ' s view. private practice rehnquist moved to phoenix, arizona, where he was in private law practice from 1953 to 1969. during these years, he was active in the republican party and served as a legal advisor to barry goldwater ' s 1964 presidential campaign, including collaborating with harry jaffa on goldwater ' s speeches. many years later, during the 1971 hearing for associate justice and later during the 1986 senate hearings on his chief justice nomination, several people came forward to complain about what they viewed as rehnquist ' s attempts to discourage minority voters in arizona elections when rehnquist served as a " poll watcher " in the early 1960s. rehnquist denied the charges, and " vincent maggiore, then chairman of the phoenix - area democratic party, said he had never heard any negative reports about rehnquist ' s election day activities. ' all of these things ', he said, ' would have come through me. ' " justice department when president richard nixon was elected in 1968, rehnquist returned to work in washington. he served as assistant attorney general of the office of legal counsel,