this post was written by paige horton, student assistant in special collections and archives. women and wake forest have quite the colorful history. in honor of women ’ s history month we here at special collections dug around and found something very special for you : the deans record group : dean of women ( rg4. 3 ), and women ’ s government association ( rg4. 31 ) collections. the collection itself is made up of minutes, correspondence, and subject files that feature staff, student committees, and societies. the university archives is home to the administrative paperwork available in the finding aid, and the women ’ s government association handbooks can be found in the library catalog. students can get a first - hand look at the women ’ s government association ( wga ) handbooks which details all the guidelines women had to live by at wake forest. the history of wake forest provides an interesting look into the admission of women. women of junior and senior status were officially admitted into wake forest college in 1942. the college came to this decision based on the amount of students they could potentially have : from the baptist junior colleges, young women were graduating and were going to other institutions to complete their college work. among them were not a few who could not find the work desired in meredith college or in any other baptist college for women, and on that account they were going in increasing numbers to the university of north carolina and other institutions, where they could get the instruction they desired. with them often went their brothers and friends, who normally would attend wake forest. if wake forest college would admit them they would go there, since they desired to be in a baptist college. another consideration was that for the duration of the war the income from students ’ fees would be materially lessened by the drafting for the armed services of those who would be regularly among the students of the college, and that this loss might be reduced by the fees of the young women from the junior colleges who would not go to meredith college in any event. in 1943 a board member “ presented a compromise which allowed women to enter wake forest in any class ( previously they had been admitted only at the junior and senior levels ) ; recognized university status for wake forest, giving it the right to develop as it thought best and committed the convention to greater support of wake forest through funding of development programs. ” the admission of women to wake forest college, along with the end of the war, had some unforeseen complications. in spring 1946 the campus total came to 1, 000 students. there


support of wake forest through funding of development programs. ” the admission of women to wake forest college, along with the end of the war, had some unforeseen complications. in spring 1946 the campus total came to 1, 000 students. there wasn ’ t enough space to house all the students but the college and the town worked together to “ provide lodgings of some kind for everyone. ” women stayed in bostwick and hunter dormitories, “ even in the basements and attics. ” the women ’ s government association and the dean of women were created in response to the acceptance of women. according to the 1964 handbook, “ the wga is you. the officers are elected by you and will represent you in all matters pertaining to the life of the women of wake forest college. the wga is not merely a law - making organization, but a group created to help give a sense of unity to all the women of wake forest college. the wga desires to help you, and in turn, needs your support to make your years here a success. ” the wga created a handbook instructing coeds on how they should conduct themselves while at wake forest. some of the rules include : coeds could not ride in cars or airplanes without the written permission of their parents. they were forbidden to enter any man ’ s room or apartment, and fraternity houses were strictly off limits. women could not smoke on the streets, and they were not allowed to possess or use alcoholic beverages. only seniors were permitted to date every night of the week and, in that activity, were forbidden to go to the stadium, the athletic field, and certain dark areas of the grounds. the handbooks have a variety of codes of conduct but here are some of the more interesting ones! 1953 - 1954 : dating in parked cars during the evening is not permitted. a date is considered being in the company of a boy more than fifteen minutes. blue jeans are for picnics and hikes — not to be worn on campus or in the parlors except for unusual circumstances. permission to wear jeans on the campus may be obtained from any member of the council. hose are worn when going to raleigh. 1957 - 1958 : bermuda shorts may be worn to the phone booths, drive - in movies, miniature golf course, through the small parlor when leaving or entering the dorm to and form a car, on picnics, swimming, in the recreation room, and to the farmer ’ s dairy bar. these rules apply except on sundays. bermudas may be


golf course, through the small parlor when leaving or entering the dorm to and form a car, on picnics, swimming, in the recreation room, and to the farmer ’ s dairy bar. these rules apply except on sundays. bermudas may be worn on sundays with raincoats or skirts. 1961 - 1962 : a student may not go to the phone or be in the parlor without wearing shoes. during serenades girls are asked to dress adequately and to be as courteous and considerate as possible. they are also asked to refrain from making excess noise whether they attend the serenade or not. 1962 - 1963 : second semester freshmen may go to the library any night, but must return to the dorm by 10 : 30. during this time she may go to the soda shop to get something, but may not sit down to eat it. 1965 - 1966 : it ’ s a college rule that participation in or inciting a riot ( and this includes panty raids ) is subject to penalty. you ’ ll be considered on a date if you leave the dormitory with a boy after 7 : 30pm. however, you are permitted to go to the library or to one of the science laboratories with a boy without being considered on a date. 1969 - 1970 : you are asked to use good taste in what you wear both on and off campus. sweat shirts and cut offs are discouraged! slacks and shorts are not to be worn in administrative offices in reynolda hall, the chapel, classes, or the magnolia room. please do not wear slacks and shorts on the upper campus before two pm on sundays. 1970 - 1971 : wake forest students are expected to recognize that marijuana, lsd, and other psychedelic drugs are illegal … the university ’ s physicians, counselors, and chaplains are available to students who wish to discuss confidentially matters concerning drug use, subject to the legal limitations on confidential communication. naturally the inclusion of women on campus led to some unforeseen consequences. “ some of the campus hijinks over the years were coeducational in nature. the admission of women to wake forest had initiated an automatic rivalry which was sometimes friendly and on occasion somewhat sour. ” some of these issues were explored publicly. one girl wrote into the og & b saying : “ it seems as if one must look like liz taylor to get a date. have you boys ever realized that you don ’ t look like clark gable? … i believe that if given a chance the girls that aren ’ t so beautiful would prove cute enough for your


as if one must look like liz taylor to get a date. have you boys ever realized that you don ’ t look like clark gable? … i believe that if given a chance the girls that aren ’ t so beautiful would prove cute enough for your adorable personalities … give the wake forest coeds a chance. ” the newspaper received several responses from the male population in varying degrees of dissatisfaction. winston - salem also took notice to this ‘ rivalry ’. in 1966 a reporter for the winston - salem journal surveyed the girls at 8 colleges and universities and reported that they found wake forest men to be “ rude, crude, and unacceptable ” and “ retarded mashers. ” “ since admissions standards for men were lower, women tended to be more ambitious and intelligent, and they found it difficult to locate a marriageable man on the campus, ” ( history of wake forest iv, p. 307 - 308 ). another aspect the collection provides interesting insight into is the creation and upkeep of the societies. the societies the collection offers information on includes the fideles, rigels, petales, les soeurs, s. o. p. h., thymes, laurels, and strings. “ the societies themselves are primarily social in their function. they hope to offer the coed a broader scope of social living and at the same time to make some contribution to the life of the college and the community as well as to the lives of the society members. ” the student affairs committee held open - hearings in order to properly evaluate how the societies were functioning - around campus and this is what they found. it appears that the societies are most important for the girls during their freshman and sophomore years : in other words, they apparently fill a need for entering girls as they orient themselves to ready - made identity groups and make minor loyalties and friendships within the larger loyalty to wake forest college. according to our findings, senior girls rank them at the lower side of the list of factors most important in their collegiate career. apparently there is already operating an unconscious phasing - out of society - identity in the lives of some students who are most mature, more self - reliant, more scholarly. therefore, we recognize the role of societies in this maturing process of the individual student and in their contribution to the loyalty to the academic community, but we think that for those girls who tend to outgrown them, we would encourage a procedure whereby their membership could relapse into an honorary status. overall the deans record group, dean of


the class of 2013 represents the first totally 21st - century educated young people in america. so what you may ask. the “ so what ” is that they are different than previous generations. they grew up with internet service at home, not just at school. by eighth grade, most carried a touchscreen smartphone with wireless internet access. by the time they reached high school, their phones could not only access the internet faster, but could also store an entire library of photographs and digital music files. they have literally been on the crest of the technology tidal wave. as most of them now prepare to go off to college, many of the fields of study they will enter have been revolutionized by the same changes in technology and society that have shaped that generation. for example, math has changed in that there used to be just one way to solve problems, where now there might be four different strategies – a revolutionized education system. what is different about this generation is that information is no longer difficult to ferret out, so there is no longer the same requirement for students to retain information. the old - fashioned rote memorization style of education was based on a world where having data on instant recall was a valuable skill. today instant recall is not only unnecessary, it ’ s downright frowned upon. why clutter one ’ s mind with useless facts when it can better be used to play thanks to google, bing and yahoo search engines? these high school graduates retain less information because they don ’ t have to recall it – they can find it – but reportedly that doesn ’ t make them any less intelligent. education is even shifting its focus away from the retention of information and toward the use of information, because electronically, information is retained for us. but technology isn ’ t the only thing that has shaped the lives of this year ’ s graduates. none of them have any clear memory of a time when the united states wasn ’ t engaged in a war in afghanistan — a war that began in 2002 when they were in first grade. it was always on the news, when as adolescents they would see the list of the people that died that day. despite growing up in a time of turmoil throughout world, they seem to have developed a culture a greater tolerance and diversity than in previous generations. for example, interracial dating, which in earlier times would have ignited controversy and actually was illegal in some states, is something they hardly even notice. part of that is a reflection of the rapidly changing demographics of the nation. from 2000 to 2010, according to the u


##ial dating, which in earlier times would have ignited controversy and actually was illegal in some states, is something they hardly even notice. part of that is a reflection of the rapidly changing demographics of the nation. from 2000 to 2010, according to the u. s. census bureau, the number of people identifying themselves as being of mixed race grew 32 percent. reportedly there is a lot less cliquishness and separatist subgroups that don ’ t interact with each other in high school. they also were educated under the no child left behind mandates for education, which meant standardized tests, beginning in third grade, that meant more to teachers and schools than they meant to the students. students were pressured to do well, and given big incentive rewards for doing well. some have referred to the effect as lake woebegone where all kids are above average, but the intent was to ensure that all were at least proficient in all subjects. time will tell what the generational impact of their times will be, what they will accomplish, and what they will contribute to society, just as every preceding generation has been judged. the one undeniable characteristic of this class of 2013 that is totally dependent on technology is that they will not be attracted to any library that does not appeal to their technology - based life style.


the california community colleges throughout the late 19th century and early 20th century, states established public colleges and universities, funded enrollment expansion, and launched an experiment in social engineering. the result was a transformation of the scope and purpose of american higher education. california can be seen as leading this transformation. california reflected the struggle of most other states to coordinate their respective public institutions. issues of governance, autonomy, funding, and accountability gained greater importance in local and statewide politics. as the need of higher education in american society increased, the number of public institutions grew. the cost to taxpayers advanced these developments, but it differed in its early development of a coherent organizational structure for public higher education. in the progressive era, california established and funded a groundbreaking, geographically dispersed system of public colleges and a multi - campus state university. california progressives created a social contract and an organizational structure that coupled the promise of broad access to public higher education with a desire to develop institutions of high academic quality — an influential model that john douglass, in his book the california idea and american higher education : 1850 to the 1960 master plans, calls “ the california idea. ” a pivotal role california played a pivotal role in the development of community colleges and districts in america. legislation in california produced some of the earliest community colleges in the country. the district college soon became the model for most public community colleges in the nation and other states moved quickly to pass similar legislation. social, political, and economic forces shaped public higher education in california. its major personalities include david starr jordan, benjamin ide wheeler, hiram warren, and clark the first two - year colleges in california began with the recognition by local townspeople that many young high school graduates, unable to take up residence at an often distant college or university ( usually for financial reasons ), might benefit from college level studies. the founders of these institutions tended to be modest about their aspirations. they wanted to make it clear that they were in no sense proposing to compete with four - year generally, these colleges were established by an existing high school district as just one more service offered to the community by the democratic school system. it was not long, however, before the " post high school experience " grew into full - fledged junior colleges. ultimately these institutions became today ' s " comprehensive " california community colleges. some debate the origins of how the junior college came to california, evidence points to william rainey harper, president of the university of chicago. letters authored by harper around 1900 noted that he was working with three california colleges on the junior college idea. however, it was


origins of how the junior college came to california, evidence points to william rainey harper, president of the university of chicago. letters authored by harper around 1900 noted that he was working with three california colleges on the junior college idea. however, it was david starr jordan, president of stanford college, who became the most important figure in the junior college movement in california. jordan ' s friendship and exchanges with harper, as well as his tenacious persuit of the separation from the university ' s lower division, made him one of the most important figures in california ' s two - year college movement. a california law adopted in 1907 ( upward extension law ) allowed high schools to offer " postgraduate " classes. many historians have described this law as the beginning of the california junior college system. the historical record, however, does not support this view. both extended high schools and two - year colleges appear to have existed before the 1907 law. there is some historical evidence that many california high schools were already offering post diploma courses before the law was passed. william rainey harper noted in 1900 that five california colleges were already preparing to convert to junior colleges. these institutions may have converted before 1907 ( witt, p 53 ). the first use of the upward extension law in the state was fresno high school around 1910. with the assistance of universities stanford and berkeley, a principal and instructors were chosen for the first junior college in california. the school provided courses primarily to prepare persons for work in agriculture or industry. in 1913, bakersfield, fullerton, and long beach founded junior colleges. between 1915 - 1916, azuza, chaffey, riverside, sacramento, and santa ana followed suit. by the end of the decade, california had created the most extensive junior college system in the nation ( witt, p. 53 ). the development of districts in california another piece of california legislation passed in 1917, the ballard act, which provided state and county support for junior colleges. this act followed the state funding formula for high schools and provided funding to community colleges on a per - student basis. in 1921, the district junior college law amended the ballard act. this law allowed for the creation of community college districts to fund and administer junior colleges in california ( witt, p. 52 - 53 ). with the establishment of college district boards of education, freestanding institutions of higher education were controlled by the electorate, not by an academic elite. this combination of local control and public funding allowed junior colleges to adapt rapidly to the needs of their districts. local control also contributed


of college district boards of education, freestanding institutions of higher education were controlled by the electorate, not by an academic elite. this combination of local control and public funding allowed junior colleges to adapt rapidly to the needs of their districts. local control also contributed to the rise of vocational education, adult education, evening classes, and other innovations that distinguish today ' s community colleges. this new law had an immediate effect as three junior college districts formed soon after, including modesto college in september 1921. eight days later riverside junior college reorganized under a district plan, and two months later sacramento created a college district. california had thirty - one public junior colleges, fourteen of them districts, by 1928. the 1920 ' s and 1930 ' s were a period of increased growth and interest in the community college. by 1930, approximately 150, 000 students were enrolled in the community college system ( witt, p 96 - 113 ). most of that growth took place in illinois, texas, and california. the second world war created a demand for vocational programs. many junior colleges participated in the newly approved civilian pilot training program. the greatest concentration of these programs was in california and texas. this defense effort provided a boon, increase in scope, and new acceptance for junior college vocational programs. in addition, with students facing military draft, junior colleges began offering accelerated degree programs. for example, san bernardino junior college shortened their associate degree to three semesters ( witt, p. 119 ). throughout the nation, despite the fact that the selective service act of 1940 exempted college and university students from the draft, enrollments declined and small private junior colleges closed. conversely, california ' s booming defense industry provided for an establishment of ten new colleges during the war. by 1945, the state had fifty - seven junior colleges ( witt, p. 125 - 128 ). following world war ii, colleges were given a boost with the passage of the gi bill. under the gi bill, any honorably discharged veteran who had served ninety days or was injured in the line of duty was entitled to a free college education. the government would pay for tuition, books, and fees at any approved institution. after the decline in enrollments nationwide, colleges scrambled to meet the demand. once again, california blazed ahead of the nation with the establishment of 18 new public junior colleges in the first five years after the gi bill passage ( witt, by the end of the 1950 ' s, as the baby boom generation was preparing to graduate from high school, california claimed the largest two - year college


of 18 new public junior colleges in the first five years after the gi bill passage ( witt, by the end of the 1950 ' s, as the baby boom generation was preparing to graduate from high school, california claimed the largest two - year college enrollment in america. nearly 300, 000 students were part time or adult education students. about 91, 000 were enrolled in full - time or certificate programs ( witt, the history of california public higher education from statehood to politics and economic forces eventually resulted in the 1960 california master plan for higher education. this plan, formulated by a commission headed by clark kerr, then president of the university of california, remains the controversial basis of california higher education today. by the end of the decade nearly half the states in the nation had adopted similar plans. the controversial plan created a three - tiered system of higher education and placed new restrictions on admissions to state colleges and universities. the upper 41 percent of graduates could enter other state colleges and universities. the remaining students would be diverted to the state ' s junior colleges. many complained that the poorest of students were being relegated to two - year colleges. others felt that the two - year college provided a nurturing environment where students, eliminated from a state university, succeeded. during the 1970 ' s, community colleges nationwide faced a drop in enrollments. california ' s system felt an enormous 9 percent decrease. in addition, on june 6th, 1978, nearly two - thirds of california ' s voters passed proposition 13, reducing the property tax by about 57 %. funding control shifted to the state, with the legislature increasingly involved in community college operations. a priceless treasure due in part to a national recession, two - year colleges experienced a resurgence after nearly four years of stagnant enrollment. in addition, between 1980 and 1990 minority groups fueled the growth in the nation and contributed to the new wave of americans entering colleges. community colleges served as the gateway to higher education for this new wave of students, which called for the restructuring of missions and goals, shared governance, learning styles, and faculty and staff diversity. ironically, this resurgence was temporarily short lived as increased military spending and a long period of economic growth signaled another downturn in enrollments. community colleges looked for new ways to reach out into untapped sections of the community ( high schools, senior citizen centers, and prisons ). these efforts increased enrollments tremendously. during the 1980 ' s, two - year colleges gained increasing attention from the white house, as two - year colleges served more voters and existed


the community ( high schools, senior citizen centers, and prisons ). these efforts increased enrollments tremendously. during the 1980 ' s, two - year colleges gained increasing attention from the white house, as two - year colleges served more voters and existed in most every congressional district. during an interview with a community college delegation, then president ronald reagan called community colleges, " a priceless treasure - - close to our homes and work, providing open doors for millions of our fellow citizens... the original higher education melting pot ( witt, p. 264 ). " tidal wave ii in the 21st century new challenges face california community colleges. the importance, effectiveness, and role of community college education in the competitive california economy is growing. in march of 2000, the state of california ' s little hoover commission undertook a study to determine how well community colleges were meeting state goals. the little hoover commission, formally known as the milton marks " little hoover " commission on california state government organization and economy, is an independent state oversight agency that was created in 1962. the commission ' s mission is to investigate state government operations and, through reports, recommendations and legislative proposals, promote efficiency, economy and improved service. according to the commission, the department of finance projects a 25 percent increase from 1996 enrollment. access to and effectiveness of community colleges is under greater scrutiny due to this projected increase. the commission focused on two issues : first, understanding the evolving mission of the community colleges and the roles community colleges play in post - secondary education ; second, reviewing whether community colleges successfully realize their mission. in short, one of the more significant commission findings was that the success of the community colleges depends on the quality of teaching as well as true access to the educational services that individual students need. the commission ' s findings and recommendations are presented in four sections : - making teaching count : quality teaching is not prioritized in hiring, professional development, or tenure decisions. - ensuring access and benefit for all : colleges fail to identify the potential students they intend to serve, the barriers that prevent those populations from benefiting from the colleges, or how resource decisions can best serve access goals. - aligning funding with purpose : community college funding is baseline and enrollment driven. funding structures do little to encourage individual colleges or the colleges as a system to promote efficiency, cost effectiveness - reinvigorating governance : community college leadership is bifurcated between state and local decision - makers, both of them bound by procedures intended to give all parties a seat at the table. in the absence of leadership


to promote efficiency, cost effectiveness - reinvigorating governance : community college leadership is bifurcated between state and local decision - makers, both of them bound by procedures intended to give all parties a seat at the table. in the absence of leadership this muddled governance mutes responsibility and accountability for the quality and the cost - effectiveness of services offered. william rainey harper ' s plan to revolutionize higher education is still alive in the ever changing california ' s community colleges. the associate degree has become an accepted standard of achievement, and millions of students who would have otherwise been unserved find an open gateway in california ' s on the community college in america. it ' s history, mission, and management. ed. george a. baker iii. greenwood press, 1994. sidney w., and myron roberts. the california community colleges. field educational publications incorporated, 1973. j. a. the california idea and american higher education : 1850 to the 1960 master plan. stanford university press, 2000. doors and open minds : improving access and quality in california ' s community colleges. state of california little hoover commission, march 2000. http : / / www. lhc. ca. gov / lhc. html allen a., james l. wattenbarger, james f. gollattscheck, and joseph e. suppinger. america ' s community colleges : the first century, community college press, 1994. ( p. 34 ).


community perceptions of malaria and vaccines in two districts of mozambique malaria is a leading cause of mortality and morbidity in mozambique, with nearly three - quarters of the country ' s malaria - related deaths occurring in children younger than five years. a malaria vaccine is not yet available, but planning is underway for a possible introduction, as soon as one becomes available. in an effort to inform the planning process, this study explored sociocultural and health communications issues among individuals at the community level who are both responsible for decisions about vaccine use and who are likely to influence decisions about vaccine use. researchers conducted a qualitative study in two malaria - endemic districts in southern mozambique. using criterion - based sampling, they conducted 23 focus group discussions and 26 in - depth interviews. implementation was guided by the engagement of community stakeholders. community members recognize that malaria contributes to high death rates and affects the workforce, school attendance, and the economy. vaccines are seen as a means to reduce the threat of childhood illnesses and to keep children and the rest of the community healthy. perceived constraints to accessing vaccine services include long queues, staff shortages, and a lack of resources at health care facilities. local leaders play a significant role in motivating caregivers to have their children vaccinated. participants generally felt that a vaccine could help to prevent malaria, although some voiced concern that the focus was only on young children and not on older children, pregnant women, and the elderly. probed on their understanding of vaccine efficacy, participants voiced various views, including the perception that while some vaccines did not fully prevent disease they still had important benefits. overall, it would be essential for local leaders to be involved in the design of specific messages for a future malaria vaccine communications strategy, and for those messages to be translated into local languages. acceptance of routine childhood vaccines bodes well for a future malaria vaccine. vaccinating children is a well - established routine that is viewed favourably in mozambique. a communications strategy would need to build on existing immunization efforts and use trusted sources - - - including current government dissemination arrangements - - - to deliver health information. copyright by the authors listed above - made available via biomedcentral ( open access ). please make sure to read our disclaimer prior to contacting 7thspace interactive. to contact our editors, visit our online helpdesk. if you wish submit your own press release, click here.


blending those letters together is your child having trouble blending letters? begin by teaching your child the sound represented by all the alphabet letters. when you come to the vowels, teach just short vowel sounds at first. don ’ t worry about the long vowel sounds yet. a good systematic phonics program such as candy 4way phonics for just $ 9. 97 will introduce plenty of practice with short vowel blending. long vowels will be taught after your child has become proficient and fluent in blending short - vowel words. pronounce each letter sound correctly and have your child repeat the sound. for example, the letter d does not say “ duh. ” it says “ d. ” to print rhyming flashcards for all the letter sounds, go to http : / / www. candy4wayphonics. com / free _ phonics _ stuff. htm the rhyming flashcards found at this webpage give a picture along with each letter sound to help the child associate and remember what each letter sounds like. eventually, cover up the pictures so that the child sees only the letters. have your child loudly “ punch ” the vowels when speaking them aloud so that he can easily hear the distinction between their sounds. hearing and speaking this distinction is vital! after your child can accurately repeat all the letter sounds without the use of pictures, he is ready to blend a beginning consonant with a vowel. using what teachers call “ blend ladders, ” teach your child to blend two letters together in one of two ways : 1 ) using a pointer, point to the beginning consonant letter, have your child say the consonant sound, and then blend that consonant sound into the vowel sound. 2 ) using a pointer, point to the vowel first and have your child repeat the vowel. then, using a pointer, take your child back to the beginning consonant sound and blend that consonant sound into the vowel sound ( see illustration in blue – below ) either way, be sure and use a pointer ( the point of a pencil will work fine ). use the pointer to focus your child ’ s eyes where you want them to be focused. when blending a consonant with a vowel, sweep the pointer under the consonant and then under both the consonant and the vowel at the same time your child blends the two letters together. move your pointer slightly faster than the child pronounces the blend. some children pick up blending right away while others may learn gradually over an extended period of time ( days, weeks, or months. ), and others suddenly


two letters together. move your pointer slightly faster than the child pronounces the blend. some children pick up blending right away while others may learn gradually over an extended period of time ( days, weeks, or months. ), and others suddenly “ get it ” when you least expect it. the key is to present that very first blending lesson every day, twice a day, calmly and patiently always presenting that very first blending lesson as if it ’ s the first time you ’ ve ever given the lesson. your goal is to convince your child he is smart and to give him the time he needs to “ catch on ” to blending, no matter how long that takes. this one skill, blending, will make the difference in your child ’ s reading abilities for the rest of his life! once your child has learned to blend two letters, he will be ready to tack on a third consonant letter in order to read three - letter, short - vowel words. after that, he will need to go through a systematic phonics program that will carry him step - by - step through plenty of practice reading short vowel words that begin with single consonants and then on to short vowel words that begin with consonant digraphs. he ’ ll also need that phonics program to help him through long - vowel sounds and then through all the other phonograms. i guarantee you, the most affordable systematic, step - by - step phonics program out there is candy 4way phonics for just $ 9. 97. why spend $ 200 or $ 300 on a phonics curriculum, when you can spend just $ 9. 97 and receive a complete step - by - step, fun phonics curriculum that includes everything? just look at what you ’ ll receive in printable format as an instant download that you can use as often as you like for as many children as you need : 1 ) an 82 - page ebook entitled : how to teach candy ’ s systematic 4way phonics 2 ) 100 daily, step - by - step 4way phonics lessons loaded with fun rhyme, rhythm, and alliteration 3 ) candy sequenced story readers interwoven into the daily lessons 4 ) colored alphabet rhyming phonics charts with multisensory vowel helps 5 ) colored rhyming alphabet flashcards 6 ) colored lifetime rhyming phonics charts to give your child a lifetime of phonogram retention. 7 ) continuous daily phonics drill free e - mail coaching in addition,


a 21 - year - old army private took his final breath during the early morning hours in camp jackson, s. c. two months later, an inuit woman perished along with nearly all the other adults in her alaskan village. during that same month, a 50 - year - old woman died not long after going to the royal london hospital — the same hospital where, early the next year, a 25 - year - old london man died two days after checking in. the four people had little in common except that 86 years ago they all fell victim to one of the deadliest viruses in history — the 1918 spanish flu, which killed 20 - 40 million people. now scientists hope scraps of their remains could help save the world from future scourges like one that could mutate from a bird flu now spreading in asia. " there is always the fear that another outbreak like the spanish flu can certainly happen again, " said jeffrey taubenberger of the armed forces institute of pathology in washington, who co - authored one of the studies published in this week ' s science. " so if we can learn about the worst virus and how it became so infectious, we can hopefully prevent it from happening again. " finding samples of the long - ago virus proved to be a feat of medical forensics. taubenberger found a lung sample from the soldier ' s remains among the dusty shelves of his own lab at the armed forces institute, a program that began collecting tissue samples from fallen soldiers during the civil war to help advance pathology. he then requested a search at the royal london hospital, which had been collecting similar paraffin - contained samples from civilians for decades. the alaskan woman ' s remains, meanwhile, were extracted when a medical researcher was granted permission to dig in the village ' s mass grave five years ago. the permafrost of the alaskan village had preserved the woman ' s infection in a frozen state. once each sample reached his lab, taubenberger extracted the fragile remains of the influenza virus in each and sequenced a protein that codes how the virus penetrates and infects the human cell. then two teams of microbiologists took the genetic codes and expressed them to re - create the virus ' proteins. then they studied the protein in three - dimensional form, looking for clues to the virus ' origin and what may have made it so deadly. they found the virus contained hallmarks of both human and bird flu viruses and certain features in this combined version somehow made the virus a killing machine. the researchers found that the


australian bureau of statistics 4725. 0 - aboriginal and torres strait islander wellbeing : a focus on children and youth, apr 2011 latest issue released at 11 : 30 am ( canberra time ) 23 / 05 / 2012 reissue | page tools : print page print all rss search this product | housing and community facilities : community facilities this article is part of a comprehensive series released as aboriginal and torres strait islander wellbeing : a focus on children and youth. note : in this section ' children ' refers to people aged 0 – 14 years. the terms ' youth ' and ' young people ' refer to people aged 15 – 24 years. data presented are from the abs national aboriginal and torres strait islander social survey, 2008 ( cat. no. 4714. 0 ). community facilities such as public playing fields, schools and health care clinics contribute to greater community cohesiveness and are important for child and youth development and wellbeing. in the 2008 national aboriginal and torres strait islander social survey ( natsiss ), information about access to community facilities was collected, however information about the quality of the facilities was not collected. in 2008, most aboriginal and torres strait islander children and young people had access to facilities such as a school ( 95 % ), outdoor playing fields or play areas ( 95 % ), supermarket / shop with fresh food ( 95 % ), community centre ( 85 % ), police station ( 84 % ), or health care clinic ( 81 % ) located in their suburb, town or community. aboriginal and torres strait islander children and youth living in non - remote areas were more likely than those in remote areas to have access to some key community facilities, such as a hospital ( 76 % compared with 56 % ), a pharmacy or chemist ( 91 % compared with 42 % ), a community hall / centre ( 88 % compared with 73 % ) and a police station ( 86 % compared with 78 % ). 5. 1 access to selected community facilities ( a ) ( b ) by remoteness, aboriginal and torres strait islander people aged 0 – 24 years — 2008 ( a ) respondents could report more than one locally available community facility. ( b ) not all community facilities are shown in this graph. ( c ) difference between non - remote and remote areas is not statistically significant. ( d ) difference between non - remote and remote areas is statistically significant. source : 2008 national aboriginal and torres strait islander social survey this page last updated 22 may 2012 unless otherwise noted, content on this website is licensed under a creative commons at


description - colorado is well known for its national forests and parks which include 14, 000 - foot mountains, world - class ski resorts, semiarid deserts, ancient indian ruins and wide open plains. approximately 36 percent of the state of colorado is designated public land. colorado has 13 national forests that are grouped into 6 administrative units : arapaho and roosevelt national forests ; grand mesa, uncompahgre and gunnison national forests ; medicine bow and routt national forests ; pike and san isabel national forests ; san juan and rio grande national forests and white river national forest. colorado also has 8 national parks and monuments of which rocky mountain national park, mesa verde national park and great sand dunes national park are the best known. copyright : usda forest service maroon bells from west maroon creek - colorado ' s national forests and parks offer and incredible array of year round recreation activities. recreation - skiing, snowmobiling, cross - country skiing and snowshoeing are popular winter activities. colorado offers skiers the opportunity of lift service at many world class ski resorts or wilderness experience in several backcountry hut systems. summer activities include hiking, road biking, camping, fishing, rock climbing, mountaineering, backpacking, rafting, kayaking and mountain biking. the wide variety of geographic terrain includes deep canyons, high mountains and semiarid deserts, that offer everyone exciting recreation opportunities. climate - the climate in colorado varies tremendously from hot dusty summer days on the plains and deserts to frigidly cold winter blizzards. colorado is known for its thunderstorms which form over the rocky mountains and then head across the eastern plains, often reaching 10, 000 feet or more in height. lightning is a serious threat, particularly on mountain peaks, lakes and open fields. summertime temperatures routinely reach 90 degrees on the plains and the 80s in the mountains. cool weather is always possible at night or at higher elevations. it is not uncommon to need both shorts and a jacket on the same day. the winter routinely brings severe winter driving conditions with icy roads and limited visibility. temperatures range from the 40s and 50s on the plains to well below zero in the mountains. proper winter clothing and food is necessary to avoid hypothermia and one should be prepared to spend an unexpected night out if traveling in the backcountry or on the highways. the national forests and parks are located primarily in the western half of the state. arapaho roosevelt national forests, pike san isabel national forests and rocky mountain national park


vaccines with mercury can cause autism, but removing the metal is uneconomical for developing countries such as india in the 1980s, worried parents and medical researchers in the us alleged that mercury in vaccines was responsible for the growing number of autism cases among children in the country. the issue was debated in medical circles, wheels moved in many western countries, but developing countries still don ’ t have a choice — because without mercury, vaccination is expensive. there was pressure on the us government for legislation against mercury in vaccines. at the same time, a combative vaccine industry brandished studies vouching the safety of mercury in vaccines. nonetheless, the us states of iowa and california passed legislations in favour of mercury - free vaccines. the uproar was not restricted to the us : the danish parliament, in 1992, banned the heavy metal from vaccines. the uk has recently passed a similar legislation. at the root of the problem is thimerosal : this preservative with a 50 per cent mercury constituent is a key ingredient of multi - dose vaccines. these vials are about 10 times cheaper than single - dose vials, making it easier for international agencies to procure vaccines for programmes in developing countries including india. in 2000, for instance, about 80 per cent of vaccines administered globally were supplied in multi - dose vials. but these vials require preservatives because they are used over longer periods. thimerosal fits this requirement. so, it ’ s not surprising that international bodies such as the world health organization ( who ) and unicef recommend this preservative. even those vaccine manufacturers based in developed countries who make mercury - free vaccines for domestic consumption use this heavy metal in their products for developing countries. what are the implications? most vaccines used for the country ’ s universal immunisation programme ( uip ) have a thimerosal content of 25 µg per five millilitres. half of that, 12. 5 µg, is mercury. a six - week old infant in many parts of the country is administered two vaccines, dpt ( diphtheria, pertussis and tetanus ) and hepatitis b. t his exposes the child to 25 µg of mercury. infants getting vaccinated at a private clinic are also administered the haemophilus influenza type b vaccine, as per the indian academy of paediatricians ’ protocol. this results in a total exposure of 37. 5 µg. according to the us environment protection agency,


clinic are also administered the haemophilus influenza type b vaccine, as per the indian academy of paediatricians ’ protocol. this results in a total exposure of 37. 5 µg. according to the us environment protection agency, the human body can, in a day, safely tolerate 0. 1 µg of mercury for every kg of its body weight. so, an average six - week infant, weighing 7 kg, can tolerate an exposure of 0. 7 µg of mercury. the child is exposed to mercury levels much higher than this recommended amount on innoculation day. the risk of mercury is even higher for the undernourished — and underweight — indian children. at a who meet of the global advisory committee on vaccine safety in 2003, it was pointed out that little is known of susceptibility to thimerosal in infants who weigh less than 2. 5 kg. moreover, children are less equipped to handle the toxic load because they do not produce sufficient levels of bile, needed to remove mercury from the body. however, many experts contend that ethyl mercury used in vaccines is not as toxic as methyl mercury, commonly blamed for maladies such as the minamata disease. but there are others who dispute this argument. thimerosal was developed in the 1930s by the us - based vaccine major, el lilly and company. for years the company has manipulated studies to demonstrate the safety of this mercury - based preservative. in fact, when thimerosal was introduced, the company did have it tested, but only on 22 patients with terminal meningitis. and quite conveniently meningitis was blamed for the death of all those injected with the preservative. more recently, eli lilly used the us government ’ s paranoia against bio - terrorism to its advantage. along with other vaccine companies, it persuaded the us government to introduce a clause in the homeland security act — brought in response to the 9 / 11 attacks — stipulating that these companies can be challenged only in vaccine courts, and not in civil courts. anxious to ensure vaccine supplies against any anthrax or smallpox attacks, the us government complied. on vaccination day, a child ’ s exposure to mercury is many times more than safety levels permit. undernourished indian children are at greater risk the clause substantially reduces eli lilly ’ s — and other vaccines companies ’ — liability if it were to lose a thimerosal - related litigation. in such an event, the company would have


. undernourished indian children are at greater risk the clause substantially reduces eli lilly ’ s — and other vaccines companies ’ — liability if it were to lose a thimerosal - related litigation. in such an event, the company would have to pay us $ 5 billion in damages, six times less than what it would be liable for if the case was fought in a civil court. thimerosal has other supporters as well in the us. in 2004, the us health authority, institute of medicine ( iom ), came out with a report, which claimed to have used epidemiological studies from around the world, to suggest that there were no links between the preservative and autism. but as journalist david kirby notes in evidence of harm — a compelling study on the politics of mercury in vaccines — many experts who had exonerated thimerosal had received research grants and even donations from vaccine manufacturers. while many us experts gave a clean chit to thimerosal, cases of autism increased in the country. in the early 1980s, only one among 10, 000 children in the us was autistic. by the late 1990s, one in 500 children had the disease ; currently there is one autistic child per 166 newborns in the us. experts who incriminate thimerosal for this rise point out that mercury in vaccines more than doubled between 1988 and 1992. they also cite the contrasting example of denmark, where autism afflicts one in 13, 000 children — the country banned thimerosal in vaccines in 1992. in another study, david geier and mark geier of medcon, inc — a us - based private research laboratory — evaluated neurodevelopment disorders reported to the country ’ s vaccine adverse event reporting system. they categorised the data into groups of those who had been administered dpt vaccines with thimerosal and those who received thimerosal - free vaccines between 1997 and 2001. the former demonstrated a significantly higher incidence of autism, speech disorder, mental retardation, personality disorders and thinking abnormalities. the evidence against mercury has not always been epidemiological. for example, a study by mary hornig of the mailman school of public health, columbia university, published in molecular psychiatry in june 2004, just months after the iom report, showed that thimerosal caused autism - like damage in genetically - susceptible mice. another study by boyd haley of the university of kentucky, usa, showed that mercury reduced an


in molecular psychiatry in june 2004, just months after the iom report, showed that thimerosal caused autism - like damage in genetically - susceptible mice. another study by boyd haley of the university of kentucky, usa, showed that mercury reduced an essential protein in nerve cells, tubulin. the protein is important for the growth of neurons and its depletion has been linked to the alzheimer ’ s disease. thimerosal has also been implicated in other nerve disorders. for instance in 2003, david baskin of the department of neurosurgery at baylor college of medicine demonstrated that this preservative can cause membrane and dna damage, and kill nerve cells, even when administered in small amounts. the debate has some positive fallout in the us. w ith legislation to remove mercury from vaccines, the levels of the heavy metal in vaccines administered to infants in their first six - months has currently come down to 3 µg from 187. 5 µg in the 1980s. experts are waiting to see if this intervention reduces the incidence of autism. the debate can, however, compound the vaccine - related predicaments of developing countries like india, especially with the increasing awareness on the link between mercury and autism. a senior - delhi - based paediatrician sums this apprehension quite aptly : “ the fear of mercury in vaccines might deter people from innoculating their children ”. but what about alternatives to thimerosal? we do have alternative preservatives like 2 - phenoxyethanol. drug manufacturers around the world are also considering the use of other preservatives like benzalkonium chloride and benzethonium chloride. but says varaprasad reddy, ceo of shantha biotechnics, a hyderabad - based pharmaceutical company, “ we have manufactured vaccines withot thimerosal. it ’ s not difficult to produce them. but the who does not permit us to supply such vaccines to the unicef ”. besides, the use of these alternatives would require a complete change in the licensing regime. for, indian pharmacoepia — a document that contains guidelines on drug constituents — makes it mandatory for vaccines to have mercury. that ’ s not all. extensive safety data would be needed for licensing. in fact, in the us, 2 - phenoxyethanol is used in dpt vaccines manufactured by aventis pasteur. but a study dating back to 2000 indicates that this preservative also has neurotoxic properties.


, in the us, 2 - phenoxyethanol is used in dpt vaccines manufactured by aventis pasteur. but a study dating back to 2000 indicates that this preservative also has neurotoxic properties. occupational exposure to this chemical for more than a year can lead to cognitive impairments. there are some other alternatives as well for example, the u niject device developed by the international ngo path, obviates the need for preservative - dependant multi - dose vials. but many experts are not too sure if the device could be a viable alternative. the device is costlier than even conventional single - dose vaccines, says reddy. the latter costs about rs 25 per vial, while the new device costs as much as rs 34. apathy and concern there is another problem far graver than costs of alternative preservatives. many experts do not see the need to shift over to mercury - free vaccines. one of them suresh jadhav, executive director, serum institute of india ltd, pune, asserts, “ there is no proof of the harm done by vaccines, only perceptions. using mercury - free, single - dose vaccines is also not feasible as multi - dose vaccines are far cheaper, ” he adds. indian pharmacoepia is quite categorical that even single - dose vaccines contain thimerosal. reddy agrees that this anomaly should be corrected, but is not sure that this would make much difference considering the expenses involved in manufacturing single - dose vaccines. there are other problems. it ’ s not incumbent on vaccine manufacturers to put down information about the presence of thimerosal in the literature that accompanies the vaccine vials. so, some of the vaccines produced in the country such as those produced by, gsk bharat biotech do not mention the presence of preservative. this lack makes it difficult for parents to take the kind of action taken by their counterparts in the us. the union minister of health and family welfare is not totally impervious to such problems. the national technical advisory group on immunisation, a body of this ministry, is supposed to convene a meeting soon to assess the safety data related to vaccines. if needed, the group will put an alternative vaccination strategy in place. but this meeting is long overdue. “ there should be policy changes. but these should be implemented quickly without creating a scare, ” suggests a senior paediatrician. other experts assert that the government


the fight against malaria, which used to be a localised issue especially in third world countries has been featuring in international conferences such as the g8, world bank and the international monetary fund ( i m f ) as a global threat to development, growth and poverty reduction. countries facing the malaria pandemic relies mostly on foreign aid and grants to fund the fight against malaria. despite this, many citizens from these countries cannot afford the recommended drugs due to their high costs or access health facilities and have now turned to alternative medicine commonly known as herbal treatment. herbal cure is as old as man and has been used for cure long before modern medicine came up. despite its acclaimed magic in treatment of almost all diseases, herbal medicine field is now facing a crisis. the influx of “ ape ’ and “ quack ” doctors in this field have reduced the quality and effectiveness of drugs being sold, while ripping off victims their hard earned money in exchange of non – performing cure. this unfolding scene of herbal doctors in every market and roadsides has forced most governments such as kenya to raise its concern with a promise to rattle illegal practitioners and review the legal rules regulating the herbal sector in the country. it has promised stringent action and measures so as to lock out unqualified practitioners. many deaths have been witnessed especially in poverty riddled areas and majority of people have died of diseases such as malaria, typhoid and amoeba even after getting herbal treatment in roadside clinics. poverty levels continue to escalate especially among the poor, due to the impact of fake herbal treatment whose cost is pocket friendly to poor people. drugs resistance in the fight against malaria is also a common problem and many governments have moved swiftly to search of long term solutions for instance in kenya, the government shifted from the use of sulfadoxinepyrimethamine ( sp ) treatment to artemisin based combination therapy called coartem due to drug resistance. some fruits of cure are being witnessed after this shift. if our people are willing to fight poverty, diseases and under – development, then the best ways lies in making their governments responsible in ensuring there ’ s provision of a vibrant healthy scheme affordable to all, starting of mobile clinics where clinics and dispensaries do not exist and legalising the herbal sector to allow only qualified desirable practitioners are some of the ways forward. other practices such as embracing indoors residual spraying ( irs ) initiative can help in rolling back and eradicating malaria. this will protect the poor and propel poor countries to development without donor dependency. by kamau


educational games not found on a computer do you think kids spend too much time looking at a computer screen these days? i do. any game i can find my kids that doesn ' t involve a computer is a game i want to get them. the trick is understanding your child enough to know what he or she really likes, and then getting that thing for them. educational games for younger children look for the classics : ants in your pants or mr. potatohead. games with lots of activity and funny things happening always go over well, and children learn more than you think. remember that education isn ' t just what you read in a book, especially for younger children ; hand - eye coordination, physical coordination, and socialization all play a part in education. but don ' t discount the more cerebral things. if you want to vary things, read stories to your children, and then whip out the candyland game ; only let them roll the dice if they can answer questions about the story you read. reward the best questions with a piece of candy, in honor of the game. when you ' re playing with games involving physical activity and board games, things that get boring after a while, look for ways to spice them up with educational twists. educational games for middle children middle children - they ' re the ones from about 6 to 12, and they ' re hard to entertain! turn off the television, and try some games like clue, scrabble, or pictionary. remember that if you ' re trying to teach things, the best way to do it is by mixing both verbal information and physical activity. some of the best educational games to play are the host a mystery party games, where your guests ( in this case, children ) get to act out a mystery and solve it. remember, while you play, that they are children. let them know what the rules are, but give them input. if they want to play scrabble and allow sponge bob characters to be words, go with it. if they want to play clue upside down, let them. one of the most important things you can encourage in middle children is their creativity, which too often is stifled by both school and home. don ' t let that happen ; just let them go with it. educational games for older children these kids are easier, as long as you can get their minds off the opposite sex. try anything that challenges their minds : scrabble ( more strict on the rules this time ), boggle, host a mystery parties for them and


older children these kids are easier, as long as you can get their minds off the opposite sex. try anything that challenges their minds : scrabble ( more strict on the rules this time ), boggle, host a mystery parties for them and their friends - or really, any game that gives them an excuse to have a party. keep them involved in sports and outdoor activities ; the first thing that goes in today ' s teens is the physical exercise. dungeons and dragons or other role - playing games are also good for teens, teaching them how to think ahead, how to deal with unexpected situations, and how to tell a story. don ' t let any of their games consume their minds, but let them experiment, and encourage their fun. educational games for grownups. just like teens, adults need to keep their minds active, and games are a great way to do it. get involved in the games your kids play - play along with them. you ' ll learn something, and your kids will love your involvement. in addition, people who are getting older need the stimulation of new learning to keep their minds active and young ; just like with muscles, if you don ' t use the brain, it gets stiff and out of shape. educate yourself for your entire life, and teach your kids to do the same. most popular articles - real estate - hot tubs - home improvement


comprehensive condom use programs i. definition of the prevention area unprotected sex is the leading cause of hiv transmission, accounting for more than 80 percent of the total number of infections. male and female condoms, when worn correctly, serve as an impermeable barrier to the sexual exchange of secretions that carry hiv and a number of other sexually transmitted infections ( stis ), providing protection against transmission. in recent guidance on hiv prevention, the u. s. president ' s emergency plan for aids relief ( pepfar ) recommends programming that combines multiple, evidence - based approaches to increase availability, accessibility, acceptability, and use of condoms in targeted groups and in the general population. comprehensive condom programming remains an essential component of combination prevention programs. ii. epidemiological justification for the prevention area condoms, both male and female versions, are the most effective barrier method currently available to sexually active individuals who require protection from hiv and other stis and from unwanted pregnancies. male condoms reduce the risk of hiv by 80 percent or more when used correctly and consistently. modeling studies indicate female condoms can provide the same level of protection against hiv infection, although evidence is limited. consistent and correct use of male latex condoms is associated with lower rates of transmission among higher - risk groups, notably sex workers, men who have sex with men, and serodiscordant couples. in countries with concentrated epidemics ( e. g., thailand ), programs promoting 100 percent condom use in the commercial sex industry have lowered overall prevalence levels. while the impact of condom use is unknown at the population level in mixed and generalized epidemics, condom programming remains an important aspect of the overall prevention portfolio. iii. core programmatic components components of comprehensive condom programs are identified by the united nations population fund as well as by pepfar in its recent guidance on prevention : - create demand : understanding the local environment and characteristics of specific client groups is necessary to target individuals at higher risk and the venues they frequent. demand can be accelerated by promoting condoms along with treatment and prevention, particularly for serodiscordant couples and for dual protection. - increase supply and availability : this is important for both male and female condoms in low and middle income countries. managing the pipeline is critical to maintaining a constant supply of condoms. advocacy for female condoms at both the international and national levels will increase demand, reduce production costs, and increase supply. - ensure high quality and low cost : making both male latex condoms and nitrile female condoms available for free or at very low cost


for female condoms at both the international and national levels will increase demand, reduce production costs, and increase supply. - ensure high quality and low cost : making both male latex condoms and nitrile female condoms available for free or at very low cost at key distribution points frequented by men and women ( e. g., marketplaces, hair salons, workplaces ) can increase use. - address acceptability : confront prevailing cultural myths and inaccuracies using media campaigns and behavior change strategies - - education and individual training - - to target specific groups and communities, as well as larger audiences. female condoms have unique advantages for women ( greater control and dual protection ) and men ( increased sexual pleasure ). programs can capitalize on these features. - conduct monitoring and evaluation. iv. current status of implementation experience meta - analyses and well - designed evaluations have shown that when coupled with education and counseling, condom promotion programs can be effective in increasing male condom use among youth and among such marginalized groups as sex workers, men who have sex with men, and serodiscordant couples. successful condom programs employ multiple strategies, such as ensuring high coverage in accessible venues, training people on how to use condoms, building negotiation skills and self - efficacy, and working within social networks. condom programs have been implemented using mass media campaigns, community - level initiatives, and interpersonal outreach. they have also targeted people in the general population who engage in higher - risk sex ( e. g., multiple partners, concurrent partners, commercial sex ) in high - prevalence settings. although these initiatives have shown success, male condom use between longstanding sexual partners, such as married couples, does not persist over time. demand for condoms exceeds availability ; only a quarter of the total number of male condoms needed is available. female condoms are even less available, due primarily to high cost and policymaker bias. greater international funding and support for both male and female condoms must be increased to reduce the current gap and meet future needs. this study reviewed data from 14 longitudinal studies of sexually active serodiscordant heterosexual couples. in 13 of the studies, all the participants were 100 percent condom users, while the cohort in one study comprised those who never used condoms. overall, the studies showed that consistent condom use for all acts of penetrative vaginal intercourse was associated with an 80 percent reduction in hiv seroconversion. the authors note a lack of detail in the studies ( e. g., on correct use ), and there were inconsiste


all acts of penetrative vaginal intercourse was associated with an 80 percent reduction in hiv seroconversion. the authors note a lack of detail in the studies ( e. g., on correct use ), and there were inconsistencies in terminology about condom use across the different studies. there was also a lack of information on disease - free exposure time, the review found. the results imply that condom use is less effective for hiv prevention than it is for pregnancy prevention. recommendations for future studies include improving the way that condom use is coded to give more detailed information. this meta - analysis concludes that structural - level condom distribution interventions are effective in preventing both hiv and sexually transmitted infections. structural interventions improve the availability, acceptability, and accessibility of male condoms. the analysis shows that structural - level interventions are particularly effective for increased condom acquisition, carrying, and use ; abstinence or delayed sexual debut in young people ; and reduced incidence of sexually transmitted infections. limitations of the meta - analysis include extreme heterogeneity in the studies, exclusion of some important studies for methodological reasons, and a cut - off point of september 2007, after which other relevant studies were published. this synthesis with links to abstracts places research on condoms, both male and female, in the wider context of integrating family planning and hiv prevention services. links to research papers and other documents demonstrate that the correct and consistent use of latex male condoms reduces the risk of hiv transmission by an estimated 80 to 90 percent. other studies show that interventions targeted at both long - standing and serodiscordant couples significantly improve self - reported condom use rates ; concentrated counseling can increase acceptability of condoms ; and condom use has increased in high - risk groups, especially if condoms are widely available where risky sex takes place. condom use is among a range of hiv - related indicators in this report on 23 countries in sub - saharan africa. the report illustrates great variation in use, but in all countries more men than women reported ever using a condom and using one in the previous 12 months. similarly, condom use during high - risk sex varied widely across sub - saharan africa, while condom use at first intercourse among those aged 15 to 24 varied but was low overall. detailed tables present country - level data with figures for two time points where available. this report is based on expert interviews and an extensive literature search. it highlights the unique nature of female condoms as a means of protection from hiv that women can initiate. female condoms are not readily available and awareness of this method of hiv prevention


where available. this report is based on expert interviews and an extensive literature search. it highlights the unique nature of female condoms as a means of protection from hiv that women can initiate. female condoms are not readily available and awareness of this method of hiv prevention is low, the authors write. the way to stimulate demand for female condoms is to ensure high - quality female condom programming, including creative solutions to distribution ; training for both providers and consumers ; and promotion through civil society organizations that work with vulnerable population. the report makes recommendations to u. s. agencies involved in female condom programming to promote their integration into hiv prevention and family planning efforts, expand technical assistance, and scale up programming efforts. the scope of female condom promotion should be widened to the general public to avoid stigmatization of female condoms and supports the removal of hallmarked funding for abstinence - based hiv prevention programs. over 100 studies were reviewed to compile this summary of data on male - to - male sex, including condom use, in low - and middle - income countries. asia accounted for the highest proportion of recent research, and there were also new studies from sub - saharan africa revealing epidemics of hiv among men who have sex with men. however, the authors found there is still a paucity of information from other regions, and latin american studies were less extensive than anticipated. this newly available data should be used in the development of future interventions, but more systematic data collection would improve the evidence base for hiv prevention planning, the authors conclude. this report stresses the importance of male and female condoms and other forms of contraception in hiv prevention and advocates scaled up access as well as integration into wider prevention strategies. expanding access to condoms continues to face cultural and policy barriers and wide regional variations in condom use persist, the report finds. one section is dedicated to how programs address barriers to use and to improve rates of condom use among young people, those in long - term partnerships, serodiscordant couples, sex workers, and other socially marginalized groups. the section highlights specific issues such as gender - based violence as an obstacle to condom use and the experience of 100 percent condom use programs. this is a systematic review of 28 interventions targeting female sex workers. the interventions are presented in four categories : structural interventions, behavioral interventions incorporating condom promotion, provision of vaginal microbicide, and treatment for sexually transmitted infection. the evidence supports condom promotion as a hiv risk reduction strategy when combined with other sexual risk reduction and better access to treatment for sexually transmitted infections. condom promotion interventions targeted at sex


, provision of vaginal microbicide, and treatment for sexually transmitted infection. the evidence supports condom promotion as a hiv risk reduction strategy when combined with other sexual risk reduction and better access to treatment for sexually transmitted infections. condom promotion interventions targeted at sex workers and their clients can result in significant increases in condom use, according to this systematic review of 62 studies in sub - saharan africa and asia. the evidence in support of such interventions with long - term partners who are not serodiscordant, and also with young people, is far weaker, the review finds. the findings were consistent across different countries. relying on self - reported condom use leaves the studies open to reporting bias, and biological outcomes would be optimal. standardized measures of condom use would also help future synthesis of condom promotion intervention evaluations, the authors note. this systematic review of 137 articles on the female condom, including five randomized controlled trials, looked at the impact of female condoms on risk reduction and incidence of sexually transmitted infections. among the five randomized controlled trials, two indicated notable decreases in sti incidence and all five indicated increases in the number of protected sex acts. data from multiple studies showed that female condoms are used by women who are not as likely to use other dual protection methods. of the studies reviewed, almost half looked at acceptability, while other studies focused on cost - effectiveness, facilitators and barriers to use, negotiation, and promotion. the authors suggest that future research should move away from the focus on acceptability to examining the effectiveness and impact on diverse settings and to more closely examine the view that female condoms empower women to negotiate safer sex. thailand ' s 100 % condom program, which mandates enforced condom use in brothels, stands out as a significant success story in two decades of hiv prevention via condom promotion. condom promotion among men who have sex with men and among sex workers and their clients can be successful, but there is less evidence in support of promotion to the general public, the review finds. condom promotion strategies should be examined in conjunction with other interventions, such as partner reduction because of the potential for interaction, and interventions should truthfully represent the less than total efficacy of condoms in prevention of hiv transmission, the authors conclude. condom use errors are widespread globally and continue to lessen the efficacy of condoms. these results are from a systematic literature review of 50 articles on condom use representing 14 countries and a diverse set of populations ( e. g., sex workers, clients at clinics for sexually transmitted infections [ stis ], monogamous married


condoms. these results are from a systematic literature review of 50 articles on condom use representing 14 countries and a diverse set of populations ( e. g., sex workers, clients at clinics for sexually transmitted infections [ stis ], monogamous married couples, etc. ) from 1995 to 2011. according to the authors, common errors involve incomplete use ( e. g., putting on a condom after intercourse has begun or early removal of a condom followed by unprotected intercourse ), not leaving space at the tip, not squeezing air from the tip prior to use, putting the condom on inside out and having to remove and replace it, not using water - based lubricants, and incorrect withdrawal. some common problems include breakage, slippage, leakage, erection problems during condom application, erection problems during condom use, and problems with the fit or feel of a condom. the authors found that the majority of articles discussed breakage and slippage, yet argue that other problems, such as early removal of condoms and incomplete use, may be just as serious, particularly when they expose a partner to stis. some under - researched areas include duration of condom use during intercourse and condom - associated erection difficulties. the authors offer some guidelines on correct condom use before, at the time of, and after intercourse, and offer a condom use experience model to guide future research. this review describes the results of a meta - analysis on hiv prevention projects implemented among sex workers in low - and middle - income countries. the objectives of the review were to 1 ) evaluate and 2 ) assess the effectiveness of behavioral interventions in reducing the transmission of hiv and sexually transmitted infections ( stis ) among sex workers and their clients. only randomized and quasi - randomized controlled trials were included, a total of 13 studies. the outcomes of interest were sti and hiv incidence and prevalence. secondary outcomes included changes in behavior such as condom use, sexual and drug use risk behavior, and sti treatment - seeking behavior. two reviewers searched the gray and peer - reviewed literature from various sources, and included published data from 1980 to 2010. primary outcomes were identified in seven studies ( e. g., hiv incidence, sti incidence, and sti prevalence ). it was found that a social cognitive intervention did reduce hiv incidence among sex workers compared to standard counseling, and an intervention promoting both male and female condoms was more effective than promoting male condoms alone. six interventions were effective in reducing sti incidence. positive findings were also found among the secondary outcomes of successful interventions


hiv incidence among sex workers compared to standard counseling, and an intervention promoting both male and female condoms was more effective than promoting male condoms alone. six interventions were effective in reducing sti incidence. positive findings were also found among the secondary outcomes of successful interventions, such as an increase in condom use, reduction of drug use, and reduction of sexual partners. the authors concluded that a combination of behavioral interventions is the most effective, but not all interventions are successful in ameliorating health outcomes. this review compiles evidence from 11 studies on social network - based condom promotion interventions. all of the studies used social networks as defined by the study participants themselves, and 10 out of 11 studies measured significant improvements in condom use. only three of the studies ( among drug users in thailand, roma men in bulgaria, and high - risk women in baltimore, maryland, in the united states ) had biological outcomes, and the primary outcome of condom use varied greatly by timeframe. eight of the nine studies with controls showed a substantial improvement in at least one condom measure among intervention groups versus controls. the authors conclude that social network - based hiv prevention interventions can increase condom use and reduce other hiv risk behaviors. this systematic review and meta - analysis assessed 28 interventions for reported condom use and condom use intentions. it revealed that sexual behavior, whether risky or not, did not increase after sex education and condom promotion. however, only condom use by males at last sex increased, and the interventions did not result in positive changes to sexual behavior. the design of many studies was suboptimal, and the heterogeneity of studies suggests a lack of consensus on interventions and research into their efficacy. this study compares prevalence data for hiv and sexually transmitted infections before and after the implementation of prevention campaigns targeting men who have sex with men ( msm ) in senegal, a group with high hiv prevalence and a high rate of risky sexual behaviors. frequency of sexual practices remained unchanged, but condom use in male - to - male sexual encounters increased markedly. hiv prevalence remained the same, but prevalence of gonorrhea halved. using the same sampling method in both surveys meant that the data could be meaningfully compared, but the authors caution that the results cannot be considered representative of the msm population in senegal, because the snowball sampling method likely caused selection bias. an intervention in taiwanese gay bathhouses to ensure availability and accessibility of condoms was successful in increasing use of condoms, according to this study. bathhouse attendees were recruited before the intervention and were then surveyed six months later to


sampling method likely caused selection bias. an intervention in taiwanese gay bathhouses to ensure availability and accessibility of condoms was successful in increasing use of condoms, according to this study. bathhouse attendees were recruited before the intervention and were then surveyed six months later to assess whether or not greater access to condoms inside the bathhouses reduced unprotected sex and cut prevalence rates of hiv and sexually transmitted infections. among attendees at bathhouses in the intervention group, self - reported consistent condom use during anal sex increased, but prevalence of hiv and sexually transmitted infections remained unchanged. it is important to ensure distribution of condoms in areas of the bathhouses where sexual encounters take place, the authors comment. this intervention offered commercial sex workers in guatemala biannual screening for hiv and sexually transmitted infections ( stis ), condom education, and training in condom negotiation skills, and also comprised activities to reduce the criminalization of sex workers. it resulted in higher consistent usage of condoms with new and regular clients, as well as lower rates of hiv and stis, according to this paper. the authors attribute the reduction in stis and hiv to increased condom use. the study may be subject to bias due to the potential for greater loss to follow - up for subgroups at higher risk of hiv, as well as recall bias and misreporting. this randomized controlled trial of 400 californian women examined the impact of a four - session female condom skills training intervention. women received instructions in female condom use including self - efficacy training at baseline and supplies of male and female condoms during the study period. information on condom use was gathered using computer - assisted self - interviews at baseline and at three and six months. at follow - up, female condom use among the intervention group participants increased and the absolute difference in at least one incidence of condom usage was over 20 percent higher in the intervention group versus the control group at both time points. however, there was no difference in male condom use. the study showed that women in the intervention group exhibited safer sexual practices without reducing baseline male condom use, suggesting the intervention can be an effective supplement to other prevention strategies. this study describes an intervention to provide zambian hiv - positive and serodiscordant couples with male and female condoms and a variety of lubricants to assess their acceptability. it found that male condom use, already high at baseline, increased during the 6 - month intervention and that the increase was sustained at 12 months. female condom use also increased during the intervention, and men ' s attitudes shifted away from a cultural preference for


it found that male condom use, already high at baseline, increased during the 6 - month intervention and that the increase was sustained at 12 months. female condom use also increased during the intervention, and men ' s attitudes shifted away from a cultural preference for dry sex. use of lubricants was influenced by the need for communication between partners about sex, and interventions that encourage communication could be useful, the authors note. gender roles pitting men as the sexual decision makers must be taken into account in such hiv prevention interventions. this study looks at the relative effectiveness of female condoms as a hiv prevention strategy within the range of hiv prevention options. the study includes a comparative review of 14 female condom programs across 10 countries in the developing world as well as a wider literature review and interviews with stakeholders. there was also a cost - effectiveness analysis. this report found that female condoms are significantly less cost - effective than male condoms. female condoms are not cost - effective for female sex workers due to the very high rate of substitution for male condoms ; for women with regular sexual partners, they are not cost - effective because of the high cost relative to male condoms, the study found. however, the authors note that cost - effectiveness is not the sole criterion for funding decisions, that female condoms have utility in protecting women whose male sexual partners cannot or will not use a male condom, and that the benefits to women ' s empowerment are implied by female condom programming, but difficult to quantify. this study looked at the impact among 1, 000 sex workers in madagascar of adding female condoms to male condom distribution. the study ran for 18 months, comprising 6 months when only male condoms were available to participants followed by 12 months when both types were available. every two months, the women provided information on condom use and they were tested for sexually transmitted infections ( stis ) every six months. adding female condoms increased condom use from 78 percent of sex acts at the 6 - month mark to 83 and 88 percent at 12 and 18 months, respectively. over the same timeframe, prevalence of stis also declined a fifth from 50 percent at month 6 to 40 percent at the 18 - month mark. the authors conclude that female condom promotion has its place in the context of programs that first achieve maximum outcome from male condom programming, but that condom promotion is not sufficient on its own to control hiv and stis. this report describes in detail thailand ' s 100 % condom program and evaluates its success in significantly increasing consistent condom use in commercial sex settings, in turn dramatically reducing rates of sexually transmitted infections


is not sufficient on its own to control hiv and stis. this report describes in detail thailand ' s 100 % condom program and evaluates its success in significantly increasing consistent condom use in commercial sex settings, in turn dramatically reducing rates of sexually transmitted infections. factors affecting the success of the program include the wide extent of implementation of all components of the program, the degree of collaboration between stakeholders, and taking account of different types of commercial sex establishments and their varying needs. this success story can be built upon by improving condom access in indirect sites of commercial sex, given that surveillance had found the number of such sites increasing in 2000 when thailand ' s program was evaluated. condoms are a cornerstone of hiv prevention, yet the demand for and use of condoms remains low despite the high hiv and aids prevalence rates in certain countries. negative rumors about condoms abound, and negative beliefs act as barriers to the intention to use condoms consistently and correctly. this study used the negative condom belief scale in tanzania to quantitatively measure how negative beliefs affect willingness to use condoms. the cross - sectional study was conducted in the maasai regions of tanzania. about 360 individuals were randomly selected based on geographical and household clusters. face - to - face interviews were conducted in the local language. the survey contained questions on socio - demographic variables, hiv risk perception, and hiv knowledge. thirty semi - structured qualitative interviews were conducted to develop the scale. six commonly held beliefs emerged, including that new condoms contain worms, that these worms infect individuals with hiv, and that condom use can cause cancer. the dependent variable measured was " willingness to use a condom. " it was found that between 35 and 53 percent of individuals in the survey agreed with the six negative condom rumors. having a negative condom score on the condom beliefs scale was a significant predictor of an individual ' s willingness to use a condom ; other predictors were the ability to acquire a condom privately and condom self - efficacy. the results indicate a high level of negative beliefs about condom use and illustrate how those beliefs translate into reduced likelihood of actual condom use. this august 2011 guidance from the u. s. president ' s emergency plan for aids relief ( pepfar ) on prevention of sexually transmitted infections aims to support pepfar country teams to identify the best combination of hiv prevention strategies, based on country - specific epidemiology. it describes the overarching principles for prevention programs and then spells out the evidence base and implementation guidelines for specific interventions. the chapter on biomedical interventions includes a summary of evidence on the efficacy of male and


based on country - specific epidemiology. it describes the overarching principles for prevention programs and then spells out the evidence base and implementation guidelines for specific interventions. the chapter on biomedical interventions includes a summary of evidence on the efficacy of male and female condoms for prevention of hiv transmission. it spells out three key factors in program implementation : condom availability must be increased ; knowledge, acceptability, and demand must be stimulated ; and access to antiretroviral therapy is driving increased demand and creating more opportunities for accelerated condom promotion. it also has chapters on behavioral interventions and on assembling a portfolio of interventions to optimize the pepfar contribution to a country ' s continuum of response. this 16 - page report states the rationale for condom promotion, arguing that condoms are central to hiv prevention because they are both effective in reducing hiv transmission and cost - effective. the study outlines a step - by - step strategic approach to developing a condom program, starting with establishing a national condom team, conducting situation analysis, and developing a comprehensive national condom strategy. this is followed by budget and operational plans linked to national commodity security plans, resources mobilization, capacity strengthening, and demand creation. the final steps are strengthening advocacy and media engagement as well as monitoring and evaluation. a large - scale social marketing campaign under the bill & melinda gates foundation, the avahan initiative resulted in condoms being more widely available in areas with a concentration of female sex workers. improved coverage was achieved largely because of the increase in the network of non - traditional sales outlets such as bars, fuel stations, grocery stores, and restaurants. areas were monitored to ascertain the availability and quality of condoms using lot quality sampling. the authors recommend lot quality sampling to do routine monitoring of geographic coverage because it is easy to collect data, sample sizes are small, and the data can be analyzed using simple methods. this report presents findings from three case studies of condom promotion activities in cambodia, jamaica, and india. all three case studies are described in detail, and there is a summary of the sociocultural, legal, economic, and financial barriers to condom access and use. despite the diverse nature of the three settings, they had four elements in common. they all used a peer - based model ; addressed stigma and discrimination as a precursor to condom promotion ; had a practical, evidence - based approach ; and integrated condom advocacy with other health services related to hiv as well as wider sexual and reproductive health services. this document is published annually by the usaid | deliver project and spells out the ordering procedures for use


had a practical, evidence - based approach ; and integrated condom advocacy with other health services related to hiv as well as wider sexual and reproductive health services. this document is published annually by the usaid | deliver project and spells out the ordering procedures for use by missions to procure male and female condoms as well as other contraceptive supplies. it includes logistics forecasts to individual countries to aid calculation of delivery lead times, guidelines on the disposal of expired contraceptive products, and a product catalog and price list. this report is aimed at a broad readership including donors, public health officials, national hiv program managers, health care workers, and other stakeholders. it describes priority interventions for hiv prevention, treatment, and care. there are also policy and technical recommendations and guidance on setting hiv program priorities. recommendations on prevention of sexual transmission of hiv include condom promotion for the general population as well as at - risk groups such as serodiscordant couples and sex workers. there is also a list of over 230 useful resources. this 75 - minute course explains the purpose and components of a logistics system and its role in supporting contraceptive and commodity security. there are modules introducing the basics of logistics in theory and in practice, covering topics such as forecasting, finance, procurement, and delivery. there are examples from the field to show how logistics can make limited resources stretch further and make programs more successful. the course also covers the importance of a logistics management information system and guidance on forecasting, inventory control, and storage. users can monitor their learning with frequent multiple - choice quizzes, culminating in an online exam. there is a click - through glossary for technical terms throughout the course. go to link below and then register ( free ), then click " course catalog " and select " logistics for health commodities. " launching a new condom program or improving an existing one can be done with the seven - step process laid out in this manual. there are detailed chapters on understanding condom users and the program environment ; creating an action plan ; ensuring a pipeline of high - quality condoms ; expanding distribution, condom promotion at distribution points, promoting condoms in the community and at district and national levels ; and program monitoring and evaluation. the manual provides a checklist of key actions, examples from the field, and useful worksheets and contacts. there are also fact sheets on male and female condoms, their dual role as protection against hiv and pregnancy, and gender and condom programming. this report provides guidance on how to ensure optimal use of condoms as part of a comprehensive hiv prevention strategy.