secondhand smoke bad for kids ’ hearts exposure affects flow of blood on arteries, study shows june 4, 2008 - even small amounts of exposure to secondhand smoke can negatively impact the cardiovascular health of children, new research kids exposed to tobacco smoke showed evidence of blood flow restriction in the study, with those exposed to the most smoke experiencing the greatest researcher katariina kallio, md, says it is increasingly evident that secondhand smoke exposure poses a significant health risk to children. “ this certainly suggests that there is no safe level of exposure, ” she tells webmd. “ we don ’ t know what this means for their future, but studies in adults suggest these changes may not be totally reversible. ” kallio and colleagues from finland ’ s university of turku measured levels of the nicotine marker cotinine in the blood of children between the ages of 8 and 11 to determine their exposure to environmental tobacco smoke. they assessed blood vessel health using an ultrasound testing method previously used to measure artery function in adults. of the 402 children enrolled in the study, 229 showed no evidence of exposure to secondhand smoke, while 134 showed evidence of low exposure and 39 showed evidence of high exposure. ultrasound testing revealed that exposure to environmental tobacco smoke negatively affected artery function and that the effect grew with increased the study is published in the latest issue of the american heart association ( aha ) publication circulation. “ there is already a lot of evidence that secondhand smoke is harmful to children, ” kallio says. “ hopefully, parents who are still smoking around their children will stop. ” 22 million kids exposed almost 60 % of children in the united states between the ages of 3 and 11 - - roughly 22 million kids - - are exposed to secondhand smoke, according to a 2006 report from the u. s. surgeon general. infants exposed to environmental tobacco smoke are at increased risk for sudden infant death syndrome ( sids ), and children have an increased risk for respiratory infections and ear problems. asthma symptoms in children can also be triggered by exposure to cigarette smoke. while the long - term health consequences of tobacco smoke exposure early in life are not well understood, it is clear that continued exposure poses significant risks. and children whose parents smoke are more likely to become smokers themselves, aha spokeswoman martha daviglus, md, phd, points out. “ duration of exposure is important, ” she tells webmd. “ just as obesity in children increases their risk for high blood pressure and diabetes earlier in life, early and prolonged


art and life in africa online university of iowa university of minnesota at the core of this site is a searchable database of african art entitled the stanley collection. this collection of more than 500 images and objects focuses mainly on western africa, and it is possible to search by country, ethnic group, type of artifact, material, function, style, or substyle ( the final two links refer to geographic categories ). this site also includes a number of links to explanatory essays and other resources that serve as excellent general introductions to african history, culture, and art. it is part of the larger art and life in africa project, which offers links to resources for teachers, including dvds for sale, a glossary and pronunciation guide, a teacher ’ s forum, and lesson suggestions. the focus here is also on west africa, with additional special links to pages about mali and burkina faso. “ key moments in life ” is a good place to start. this essay is subdivided by 10 links to stages of the human lifecycle, and includes photos of people, objects and places. the site ’ s creator notes that using the lifecycle to talk about african art is one way to “ de - exoticize ” africa and make this continent more approachable for north american audiences. the site also has links to “ countries resources ” and “ peoples resources. ” the first link provides facts about 27 sub - saharan african countries. the second link digs deeper and gives information about 107 different ethnic groups in these african countries. in each case a map is provided as well as short synopses of the history, economy, political systems, religion, and types of art of the people group and the geographic area. the other pages of the site also link to these fact pages for easy access to the information. in exploring the stanley collection database, it is best to try one type of search at a time. for example, under “ function, ” a student might click on “ musical instruments ” to see a variety of objects, including a 16th - century horn made from a large ivory tusk, which was used by the royalty of the kingdom of congo ; or 20th - century stringed instruments that show both the innovation and craftsmanship of african musicians, often working with limited materials. students might also link to quicktime sound files found on the art and life in africa project site to get a sense of how the instruments might sound. another suggestion, given in one of the site ’ s own teaching modules, is to do a search for “ jewelry ” ( also


##time sound files found on the art and life in africa project site to get a sense of how the instruments might sound. another suggestion, given in one of the site ’ s own teaching modules, is to do a search for “ jewelry ” ( also under “ function ” ). students should consider materials, functions, and styles ( as described in the captions ) in order to gain a better understanding of african motifs and the purpose of bodily decoration. students are better able to understand artifacts when they are placed in the context of important facets of people ’ s lives, such as childhood, puberty, religious belief, marriage, and death. students could look for art or objects in western culture ( in the present or historically ) that compare to african art and artifacts in similar categories. challenging examples might be the nkisi, or power figures of the kongo people from congo, or the mbari houses of the igbo people from nigeria, used to represent and to try to harness spiritual forces. these items might be compared in a variety of ways with sculptures of saints or carved altars in christian churches. the point here is not to change students ’ own beliefs, but to discuss uses of art, as well as a deeper point : what strategies do human beings in all cultures use to deal with the unpredictability of life? in short, this is a wonderful site that not only offers an abundance of images from africa and information about africa, but also many creative ways to understand and use the material in classroom settings.


pry house field hospital museum come and visit the pry house field hospital museum. this museum is located in the historic pry house on the antietam battlefield, which served both as union commander general george b. mcclellan ’ s headquarters and as medical director dr. jonathan letterman ’ s headquarters during the battle. exhibits include a re - creation of an operating theater, interpretive panels, objects relating to the care of the wounded, the history of the pry house and family, and information on the revolutionary system of evacuation of wounded created by dr. letterman during the battle, which is still in use today. this is why the pry house is considered the birthplace of military and emergency medicine. the grounds around the house also offer many sights. the pry barn, which was used as a field hospital, will be open to the public with displays on field hospitals. there is also an overlook at which you can view the battlefield in almost the same spot at general mcclellan and his staff did in 1862. and right outside the house is a 19th century style medicinal and kitchen garden. every plant serves a practical, rather than aesthetic, purpose. this includes medicinal plants, herbs, and vegetables for the kitchen table, just like the pry family would have had in the 1860 ′ s. be sure to visit our garden blog : a garden of antietam the pry house garden is a 19th century - style medicinal and kitchen garden. every plant serves a practical, rather than an aesthetic, purpose. this blog documents learning the ins and outs of 19th century gardening. join us on facebook!


today, i spoke with krista wilkinson, ph. d., who is an expert in the field of augmentative communication, particularly for people with cognitive disabilities. her interests include vocabulary learning and the use of visual supports in communication and education. i approached dr. wilkinson with my struggle to create, for the future clear helper web site, a set of navigation icons that would enable people with cognitive disabilities to find the information they want quickly and easily. i said i would like to use icons shown by research to be effective communicators. she confirmed for me that little research has been performed in this area. after more discussion, we agreed that icons we have seen in use on web sites seem arbitrary, or bereft of context. she explained that even the common use of left - and right arrows on web sites to indicate previous - and next pages is not contextually accurate in practice. she said that people with cognitive disabilities can find it confusing that a click to a right arrow does not actually present the next page from the right. instead, a new page just appears. dr. wilkinson showed me an augmentative communication device, called the tango, that uses arrow buttons in a contextually appropriate manner. below is a picture of it. note the green arrow buttons on both sides of the middle set of icon buttons. when a user presses a green, up - arrow button, the middle set of icon buttons revolve upward like a slot machine acts, and presents a new set. when a user presses a green, right - or left arrow button, the middle set of icon buttons scrolls in the relevant direction, and presents a new set. dr. wilkinson suggested i might make web pages act similarly when left - and right arrow buttons are clicked. i can ’ t think of an accessible way to do that, but i will consider it. another suggestion she made would be much easier to implement ; left - and right arrow buttons could be paired with a contextually - appropriate sound. an example of this would be a recording of a page turning. again, little research has been performed to demonstrate that the context of icons can be understood, or that the pairing of icons with sound is more effective than not. i ’ ll do what i can to experiment with these ideas on the future clear helper web site. perhaps, through evaluations by users, and via automated web - site evaluation tools, the effectiveness of the navigation icons i plan to use could be measured. note : no endorsement is intended or implied for the tango.


wild horses released in western iberia rewilding area 31 july 2012 | news story a herd of 24 retuerta horses, coming from the donana biological station in southern spain, were released in the campanarios de azaba reserve on july 27. the release was possible thanks to the rewilding europe initiative and the collaboration between the nature and man foundation ( fnyh ) and the donana biological station. the nature and man foundation released twenty - four retuerta horses in the campanarios de azaba reserve, in the province of salamanca, spain. the creation of this new population of retuertas will help to guarantee the survival of this rare breed in donana and will strengthen the process of natural grazing by large herbivores in the campanarios de azaba reserve, part of one of the current five rewilding areas of rewilding europe. natural grazing by wild herbivores ( such as wild horses, wild cattle, bison and many other species ) disappeared from large parts of europe when humans occupied these areas. wild horses and cattle were domesticated and used for agriculture. with the large scale land abandonment now happening in many parts of europe, livestock is also disappearing, leading to the simplification of ecosystems and reducing the dehesas that compose the natural mediterranean mosaic landscapes. rewilding europe contributes to the increase of biodiversity in western iberia, by reintroducing natural grazing as a key ecological process. in order to reach its goals in western iberia, the initiative has started to work in two pilot areas : campanarios de azaba biological reserve ( spain ) and faia brava reserve ( portugal ). the reintroduction of wild living herbivores will not only support the recovery of natural spaces and increase biodiversity ; it will also provide new opportunities for local communities, landowners and stakeholders in the area. after rigorous comparative genetic analysis with other ancient races like asturcon, losino or potoca, a study published in 2006 has discovered that retuertas are one of the oldest horse breeds in europe. the new retuerta population in campanarios will be treated as wild living animals, and live in social groups, grazing the reserve which is currently 500 hectares. " the release of the 24 retuerta horses is an important step in the rewilding of western iberia ", says frans schepers, managing director of rewilding europe. " i hope the herds will adapt soon to this


the release of the 24 retuerta horses is an important step in the rewilding of western iberia ", says frans schepers, managing director of rewilding europe. " i hope the herds will adapt soon to this new area and will grow in numbers. i also hope the local stakeholders and landowners in the area will see the benefits of the rewilding initiative in the area, and will support or join our work. together with the planned reintroduction of other species, western iberia will become one of the leading examples of rewilding in europe ". " rewilding europe offers a new opportunity to manage western iberia, " carlos sanchez martinez, director of fnyh and president of the spanish iucn national committee said at the release. " wild herbivores help prevent forest fires and keep landscapes open, which is a key to greater biodiversity. retuerta horses are invaluable. it is both a privilege and a huge responsibility for fnyh to be custodians of the second population of this breed of horses. " rewilding europe and campanarios de azaba rewilding europe is an initiative by wwf netherlands, ark nature, conservation capital and wild wonders of europe, with the ambition of making europe a wilder place, with much more space for wilderness, wildlife and natural processes. rewilding europe aims to rewild one million hectares of land by 2020. rewilding europe is currently working in five rewilding areas, western iberia is one of them. the key area in western iberia is the campanarios de azaba biological reserve, located in espeja ' s municipality in the region of ciudad rodrigo. pasture lands with different oak habitats ( quercus ilex, quercus pyrenaica ) characterize the area and several distinguished species can be found here, for example the black vulture ( aegypius monachus ) and the black stork ( ciconia nigra ). carlota perez, fnyh press officer telf : + 34 942 559119


what is mediation? mediation is a confidential and “ out - of - court ” procedure which gives parties involved in a dispute a chance to meet and negotiate a resolution to their conflict with the assistance of a trained mediator. agreements that are reached during the course of a mediation session could include : repair, return or replacement of property, acceptance of social service referrals, payment of medical expenses, or arrangements to modify or cease specific behavior. in most cases, the mediation process can be very healing as it allows participants to address the underlying issues that gave rise to the dispute, without the formalities or restrictions of the courtroom. mediation is where two or more people, who are in conflict, get together to discuss their problems, trying to resolve them with the help of a neutral person - the mediator. the mediation session provides a structured, confidential setting designed to assist persons in working out their own problems. the purpose of mediation is not to judge guilt or innocence, but to help parties get at the root of their problems and devise their own resolution to them. the difference between mediation and court processing are significant. in a court case, guilt or innocence must be proven. in mediation, however, proof is not required ; the objective instead is to resolve a dispute by reaching a settlement that is agreeable to both parties. mediation allows participants to address the underlying issues that caused the dispute without the formality or restrictions of the courtroom. therefore, mediation can be very healing. mediation is not bound to the rules of a formal system and disputants retain the responsibility to make the final decision regarding the outcome of their mediation has proven effective when : - situations or issues are so great parties are unable to organize or focus on proper - a dispute involves such a great number of parties that a moderator is required. - parties involved in the conflict are not familiar with problem - solving procedures. - there are no laws, rules, or regulations to explain how the situation should be - false perceptions, poor communication, or intense feelings are involved. - parties do not want to use the legal system due to cost, time, publicity, or uncertain filing your complaint you may file your complaint by telephoning the restorative justice center at ( 515 ) 286 - 3057. the intake worker will record all of the information you provide such as dates, times, names and addresses.


an apartment must have a kitchen. it is this room that distinguishes an apartment from a flat or a boardinghouse. a kitchen also is the perfect room for installing modern conveniences. when apartment building owners realized up - to - date kitchens would attract tenants, they mentioned the amenities in their promotional materials. advertisements in local newspapers often included phrases such as " the housewife ’ s dream come true " or " the last word in kitchen design and equipment. " in the early years of the 20th century, some seattle working - class families and those living in rural areas usually lacked the new labor - saving appliances that apartments featured. apartments began fronting seattle streets in 1901. compared to the east coast, seattle was a relative latecomer to apartment living. this delayed entry, however, proved beneficial. because the city had already introduced home services such as clean water, gas, and electricity, apartment owners were able to offer kitchens with hot and cold running water, electric lights, and gas ranges. with the advancement of technology, architects and builders installed gleaming new electric stoves and porcelain - lined refrigerators that made ice cubes = two pinnacles of american technology. " every practical feature of modern convenience arranged with a view to the quick dispatch of housework will be found here, " trumpeted an advertisement of the fleur - de - lis apartment. by the end of the 1930s, when the number of appliances manufactured in america had already exceeded the total for the preceding century, builders could choose from an assortment of models. what is more, seattle apartments made their appearance just when americans had begun spending money to achieve a more leisurely lifestyle. no longer content with self - denial, consumers challenged the moralistic approach to spending and began a debate on how to " economize in a world where yesterday ’ s luxuries seemed to become today ’ s necessities. " by the first decades of the 20th - century americans had " more money and more time to purchase more goods.... society ’ s task was, therefore, no longer how to make do with less, as it always had been, but instead how to live with much more, " said historian thomas schlereth. tenants in many of seattle ’ s apartments, scattered throughout the city, were among those who desired the accoutrements of a good life. apartment owners recognized the advantages of having a building with no vacancies and filled their buildings with distinctive furnishings. in fact, a 1927 survey of seattle apartments showed higher occupancy in the "


the accoutrements of a good life. apartment owners recognized the advantages of having a building with no vacancies and filled their buildings with distinctive furnishings. in fact, a 1927 survey of seattle apartments showed higher occupancy in the " better class of apartments " and lower occupancy in a lesser class of apartments that " because of obsolescence or location are not as desirable. " examining the advancement of technology in apartment kitchens between 1900 and 1939 is another way of observing the new consumer society. the increasing array of kitchen appliances, cabinets, and implements that became available in the early 20th century aided in designing attractive kitchens. but architects and builders needed more than a choice of goods. they had to be aware of the arrangement of cabinets and the best place to install a sink and cooler or icebox ; they needed to know that women wanted compact, efficient kitchens with little wasted space ; and they had to pay attention to the kitchen ’ s color. furthermore, the architect and builder had to be familiar with the advice of reformers who stressed scrupulously clean, sanitary surfaces to battle against germs and diseases. " soap and water should be no enemy to its contents.... dirt should show, " said housekeeping expert elizabeth gilman. seattle builders could find information and ideas in the apartment operators journal. this publication regularly printed helpful recommendations regarding the best paint to apply to kitchen walls, optimal placement of a fan so kitchen smells are eliminated, whether the sink should be near the stove or the refrigerator, and the importance of providing adequate shelf space. an advertisement for the buckley, an apartment building on seattle ’ s capitol hill, indicated that apartment owners paid attention to this advice : not so many years ago the kitchen was thought a place of drudgery that no beauty nor taste could be connected with, but today this room must be as presentable as any other part of the home. therefore the floor is covered with inlaid linoleum in attractive design. the walls enameled in a color scheme composed by a capable decorator. the range in white enamel is the latest electric model. cabinets, drawers and accessories, even to the china closet are in keeping. when the buena vista apartments opened in 1907, their advertisements announced that each unit had a hoosier kitchen cabinet, a freestanding storage unit. in a list of positive features for each apartment, the manhattan flats mentioned a dish cupboard and a flour bin, also freestanding. of the many freestanding kitchen cabinets on the market, the hoosier cabinet


cabinet, a freestanding storage unit. in a list of positive features for each apartment, the manhattan flats mentioned a dish cupboard and a flour bin, also freestanding. of the many freestanding kitchen cabinets on the market, the hoosier cabinet, made by the hoosier manufacturing company of new castle, indiana, is the best - known. beginning around 1899, the first ones were assembled and " built by skilled cabinetmakers. " but within a few years, the company standardized parts so they could be replaced and began to manufacture the cabinets on an assembly line. some of the special features included a sifter mounted on the bottom of the flour bin, places to store potatoes and onions, metal - lined bread drawers, cutlery drawers, spice racks, some of which rotated for easier use, lidded jars for coffee and tea, coffee grinders, and a work table, designed at the optimal height for working while seated. by 1920 the company had made two million hoosiers and the name became the generic term for the kitchen cabinet. caught between a market that wanted built - ins and a depression and war that halted the manufacture of consumer goods, the company ceased its business in the early 1940s. built - in wood cabinets eventually replaced the freestanding ones. a number of apartments stressed " ample or abundant cabinet space " in the kitchen or mentioned special items such as a " metal cupboard counter top at the side of each where hot dishes may be set without fear of marring the woodwork. " built - in wooden cupboards, such as those in the sovereign and charlesgate, had cutlery drawers, bins for flour and sugar, and a pull - out dough board. apartment builders made a point of mentioning that their apartments used local lumber for cabinets, doors, and windows, and credited the company. washington ’ s abundant timber led to a well - developed lumber industry. in 1907 the o. b. williams company sold glass china closet doors and cupboard closet doors at prices from $ 1. 00 to $ 1. 25 each. by 1919 lumber manufacturing was seattle ’ s " chief industry " and was " keyed to the local market, requiring construction lumber and finished products. " for women used to hauling wood or coal to feed their wood - or coal - burning ranges, and spending hours " blacking " the stove to prevent rust, the gas range must have seemed like a miraculous appliance, heaven - sent to lighten housework. besides producing a quicker source of heat, it required neither bulky fuel nor excessive


and spending hours " blacking " the stove to prevent rust, the gas range must have seemed like a miraculous appliance, heaven - sent to lighten housework. besides producing a quicker source of heat, it required neither bulky fuel nor excessive elbow grease to keep lit and clean. gas ranges benefited from the development of manufacturing processes that produced lightweight steel. " easier to transport, rolled steel conformed better to turn - of - the - century systems of centralized production and national distribution, making for a general switchover from locally produced cast iron to centrally produced rolled steel in american industry, " wrote susan strasser. in 1905 gas companies around the country joined with the national commercial gas association to introduce these ranges and campaign for the use of gas as a cooking fuel. they trained personnel to service gas systems and set up showrooms to demonstrate how best to use gas appliances. to increase its market share of the gas appliance business, the seattle lighting company ran a series of advertisements extolling the virtues of gas and promised to help install their newly gas ranges. in one ad, entitled " a talk on gas ranges, " the company asked women to call for a company representative " to tell you about our many styles and their various advantages. " other announcements told of gas ’ s economy and convenience. " every up - to - date architect, builder and property owner now realizes this fact and thoroughly provides every apartment house, residence, business block and factory with thorough equipment of gas piping, " said a 1907 advertisement. seattle furniture stores also made a pitch for gas ranges. the century furniture company trumpeted the popular " jewel " gas range, which had " one giant burner, a simmer burner, and three single burners " that " suffice for every necessity and contingency. " to further ensure purchases, the furniture store promised to connect the gas ranges for free and said it would accept the old range or stove as partial payment for the new jewel. just the thing for a small flat the bachelor girl ’ s friend and the young bride ’ s savior quick to start - quick to cook, quick to put out a valve, a match, dinner. the 1912 annual report for seattle city light noted that the year " has brought forward another important field for the use of electrical energy, that of heating and cooking with electricity. " it was a message that inspired j. d. ross, seattle city light ’ s superintendent of lighting, to promote the installation of electric ranges in seattle homes and apartments. to implement his


of electrical energy, that of heating and cooking with electricity. " it was a message that inspired j. d. ross, seattle city light ’ s superintendent of lighting, to promote the installation of electric ranges in seattle homes and apartments. to implement his plan, ross recalled in a 1937 seattle star article, he told his staff to " order a carload of those ranges and advertise that we ’ ll wire them in free.... those early ranges had to be installed and wired correctly to give any service at all, and our boys knew how to do it. " still, even with ross ’ s interest and drive, customers did not rush out to purchase electric ranges. furthermore, seattle city light had a difficult time acquiring parts and key materials during world war i. the big boom for electric cooking came after the war when an improved range came on the market and appliance companies collaborated with city light to promote electric appliances. for example, the hughes company, a division of edison electric appliance company, suggested in a letter to the seattle municipal light and power plant, city of seattle engineering department, that they join together to promote the sale of electric ranges. " do you realize that in the very near future your greatest means of revenue is going to come from the electric range and other electrical cooking devices.... we are in a position to answer any questions pertaining to this subject [ cooking with electricity ], and to give you assistance in building up this load. " eight years later edison electric appliance company allocated money for advertising electric ranges and provided lecturers for a cooking school. between 1924 and 1927 the number of ranges in seattle homes jumped from under 3, 000 to over 11, 000. during the 1920s various business and civic groups vigorously promoted the sale of electric appliances. in 1923 the seattle electric club, which had as its members businesses concerned with any and every aspect of electricity, celebrated an electric week. the exhibit, held in a large tent in bothell, a suburb of seattle, showcased cooking demonstrations and promoted the idea that " the work is done by the most willing of servants, electricity harnessed to push buttons.... let electric mary do your work.... [ she ] will take a big load off the shoulders of any housewife ". two years later the seattle times backed the progressive seattle exhibition. though it did not focus exclusively on electricity, the exhibition ’ s spotlight shone on electric appliances, including radios. to entice customers, merchants showcased electric appliances during daily demonstrations.


". two years later the seattle times backed the progressive seattle exhibition. though it did not focus exclusively on electricity, the exhibition ’ s spotlight shone on electric appliances, including radios. to entice customers, merchants showcased electric appliances during daily demonstrations. at the puget sound power and light booth, company representatives told visitors they would receive assistance in selecting the appropriate range as well as prompt service after the installation. " our facilities and success in equipping thousands of seattle homes and apartment houses with electric ranges and service enable us to demonstrate the best in electrical cookery, " said a spokesman for the company. between january and september of 1927, puget power announced, " more electric ranges have been installed on our lines than there were in the entire state of washington only six years ago! " the utility company sold westinghouse, hotpoint, and crawford electric ranges and offered very low time payments. before refrigerators became popular and necessary kitchen equipment, apartment houses installed coolers as a way to extend the life of perishables. the cooler, sometimes referred to as a cooling closet, can best be described as a cupboard, often made of wood, with one to three shelves. the back side, set against an outside kitchen or dining area wall, had a three - to five - inch opening covered with perforated tin or wire screen. this allowed air to flow in while keeping insects out. standing in mute testimony to the past, these small openings, usually located below or at the side of a window, are still visible on many early seattle apartments. coolers sufficed in seattle ’ s moderate climate. though not cold enough to keep perishable food such as meat from spoiling, they worked well for the short - term storage of fruits and vegetables, jars of jam and preserves, and cheeses. a cooler was comparable to having a small cellar in the kitchen. owners and tenants considered them an important apartment amenity. real estate promotional material for apartments indicates that in addition to, or in place of coolers, buildings furnished refrigerators. until the 1920s, these were actually iceboxes. the icebox usually had a finished ash, pine, or oak shell that was lined with zinc, slate, porcelain, or galvanized metal. iceboxes came in a variety of sizes and shapes and had doors that opened to reveal adjustable shelves, with a separate compartment for ice. a pan set in the bottom held melting ice water, which had to be emptied frequently. tenants eagerly awaited the weekly delivery of ice. " the ‘


sizes and shapes and had doors that opened to reveal adjustable shelves, with a separate compartment for ice. a pan set in the bottom held melting ice water, which had to be emptied frequently. tenants eagerly awaited the weekly delivery of ice. " the ‘ ice man ’ would break up the large blocks into sections for ease in carrying up the stairs to the waiting iceboxes. the neighborhood kids would gather around the wagon to get an ice sliver to suck on, " recalled al wilding who lived in several seattle apartments during the 1930s. because the ice melted and iceboxes leaked, these " refrigerators " could be exceedingly messy. whenever possible, they were placed on a back porch. this was a most convenient place for the apartment that had back steps - the renter did not have to be home when the ice man delivered. he could just bring the ice to the porch, open the icebox door, and insert the block of ice. as late as 1924 the roy vue apartments, in seattle ’ s capitol hill district, bragged that each apartment would have outside porches, " containing a large refrigerator. " in apartments without porches the icebox would frequently be housed on a wall with an opening onto the apartment corridor or in the entrance hall of individual apartments. bernice ovadia, who lived in the monmouth apartments, recalled that their icebox was in the front hall. " sometimes we had to get up at night to empty the water from the melting ice. that was a very unpleasant task. " once manufacturers figured out the mechanism for electric refrigerators to make ice cubes and freeze food, that technological wonder became one of the new appliance ’ s most important selling points. apartments promising true refrigerators reminded prospective tenants that each apartment had its own, enabling tenants to make " their own ice and frozen dainties. " the ice cube trays of the 1920s and 1930s were made of tin or nickel - plated copper with plated brass dividers, and required a dunking under warm water to remove the ice. many an anxious homemaker ruined her elegant frozen dessert by dousing the tray with very hot water in order to speed the process. in the mid 1930s, when engineers finally solved the choice of coolants and other design dilemmas, the refrigerator was well on its way to becoming an indispensable machine. along the way, companies tested many improvements. one, the electro - kold, employed a single machine, located in a basement or other out - of - the -


the refrigerator was well on its way to becoming an indispensable machine. along the way, companies tested many improvements. one, the electro - kold, employed a single machine, located in a basement or other out - of - the - way place, to operate 20 kitchen refrigerators in individual apartments. another system converted the older iceboxes into refrigerators operated by electricity. the president of modern appliances for frigidaire distributors explained how it worked, but because the process was rather complicated, he reminded people that the company would happily sell them a new electrical refrigerator, " complete, with the mechanism in its own cabinet. " most apartments chose that option. although modern amenities were most evident in the kitchen, the entire apartment benefited from technological advancements. bathrooms acquired built - in tubs with showers, telephones became common, rooms were wired for radio aerials, and garages became a necessity. aware of the importance of appealing to the middle class, apartment owners hired decorators to choose specially designed wallpaper and select fabric for lobby furniture. clearly, owners paid attention to the wants and needs of prospective tenants. that so many seattle apartments, built so long ago, are still fronting seattle streets is testimony to their role in the urban landscape. jacqueline b. williams is author of wagon wheel kitchens : food on the oregon trail ( university press of kansas ) and the way we ate : pacific northwest cooking, 1843 - 1900 ( washington state university press ). diana james is at heart, and by training, a preservationist. she and williams are currently researching early ( 1900 - 1939 ) seattle apartments. research for this article was partially funded by a grant from 4culture.


invasion of kuwait reasons for invasion despite close foreign relations during the iran - iraq war, the relationship between iraq and kuwait quickly deteriorated after the war. this happened for a number of reasons, many of which can be attributed to blunders and miscalculations by saddam hussein. kuwait loaned iraq $ 8. 2 billion during the iran - iraq war, a sum that hussein did not think he would be expected to repay. when kuwait refused to pardon the debt, the friendship between the two countries began to strain. miscommunication with the united states on july 25, 1990, the iraqi high command met with the u. s. ambassador to iraq, april glaspie, to discuss the military activity of iraq. in this meeting glaspie stated that " we have no opinion on the arab - arab conflicts, like your border disagreement with kuwait. " on the 2nd of august 1990, the iraqi military invaded kuwait. kuwaiti forces resisted, but were quickly over - whelmed. in the air, kuwaiti mirage f1 and a - 4 skyhawk pilots claimed to have shot down several iraqi helicopters, but none of these claims have been confirmed. following five weeks of aerial bombardment from us and allied warplanes on targets in iraq and kuwait, a 4 day ground war started on 23 february 1991, and kuwait was liberated.


2002 : superintendent news - study tracks waterbirds in florida by scott kauffman a study of waterbirds in southwest florida golf communities has spawned optimism about the viability of course wetlands and ponds as healthy breeding grounds for such wildlife. that ’ s the opinion of university of florida researchers who recently wrapped up the second phase of an intensive two - year study of 12 courses. “ in rapidly urbanizing areas, golf courses will have enormous potential to provide wildlife habitats, ” said martin main, ph. d., wildlife ecologist and assistant professor at the university of florida ’ s institute of food and agricultural sciences. “ it ’ s not all species. you ’ re certainly not going to have bears and panthers running around. but for a number of species, this can be viable. and we think in the future ( golf courses ) will become increasingly important as a habitat as we lose land. ” according to main and university of florida graduate student leann white, who co - authored the study, “ habitat value of golf course wetlands to waterbirds, ” there were a total of 4, 864 observations of 31 species of waterbirds in the first five months of last year. in all, there were 183 lakes on the 12 courses surveyed, and each course was visited eight times. the effort was duplicated this year from feb. 1 - may 1, when the concentration of waterbirds is highest in southwest florida and before some migratory birds move north. “ we are measuring the same factors as last year – the number and types of waterbirds, and various characteristics of the lakes such as productivity, slope of the banks, water depth, vegetation type and density, and surrounding landscape features, ” said white, who wrapped up her 2002 field work earlier this month. “ the data will be compared between the two years to monitor variation in bird abundance, as well as changes in other factors, such as vegetation density, ” she said. one surprise sighting was a large population of hooded mergansers at mediterra ’ s south course in naples, a tom fazio - designed layout developed by the bonita bay group. “ i don ’ t recall ever having seen hooded mergansers on a golf course before, ” white said. “ they are an uncommon species, especially for south florida. ” main says survey results will help shape recommendations for how to make ponds and lakes even more productive, such as modifying shorelines to expand feeding areas for wading birds. “ our goal is to identify how different habitat characteristics of golf course ponds and


. ” main says survey results will help shape recommendations for how to make ponds and lakes even more productive, such as modifying shorelines to expand feeding areas for wading birds. “ our goal is to identify how different habitat characteristics of golf course ponds and lakes influence use by wading and other waterbirds, ” said main, who works in immokalee, fla. according to main, the estimated $ 50, 000 study was funded by bonita bay group, the national fish and wildlife foundation and the u. s. golf association ’ s wildlife links program. of the 12 courses studied, nine were bonita bay properties, including seven audubon international signature or cooperative sanctuary program participants : mediterra ; bonita bay club west ’ s three courses designed by arthur hills ; bonita bay club east ’ s two off - site golf courses designed by fazio ; and north naples ’ twineagles golf & country club talon course co - designed by jack nicklaus and jack nicklaus ii in naples. the two non - audubon courses were the spring run at the brooks in bonita springs and copperleaf at the brooks in naples, both designed by gordon lewis. the study ’ s other participants were wci ’ s residential golf communities : arnold palmer - designed wildcat run golf & country club in estero, burnt store country club, a ron garl and mark mccumber collaboration in punta gorda, and fazio - designed gateway golf and country club in fort myers. burnt store superintendent luis olivarez describes the story as “ very important. ” “ i think a lot of things have been said about golf courses being careless on the side of pesticides and not doing anything for the environment, ” he said. “ i embrace these type of studies. it could be bad or good. “ but having a graduate student doing research backed up by the university of florida gives us a lot of credibility. ” main and his staff picked courses at various points of maturity to evaluate the habitat systems at different stages, and also chose a mix of audubon program participants and nonparticipants to “ evaluate how audubon - certified courses compare to courses that have not participated in the program. ” kim fikoski, environmental manager with the bonita bay group, says the study will provide a database that identifies the “ best management practices for creating, enhancing and maintaining wetland habitat for water birds on golf courses. ” “ this is the first time a broad - spectrum study has been done on golf course properties to quan


mayfield predicts more storms for years to come 22, 2005 washington : expect many more hurricanes, large and small, in the next 10 to 20 years, the director of the us national hurricane centre warned the nation yesterday. mayfield told a congressional panel he believed the atlantic ocean was in a cycle of increased hurricane activity that paralleled the increase that started in the 1940s and ended in the 1960s. ensuing lull lasted until 1995, then " it ' s like somebody threw a switch ", mr mayfield said - - and the number and power of hurricanes hitting the us increased dramatically. under questioning by members of a us senate subcommittee, he shrugged off suggestions that global warming played a role. mayfield said the increased activity was a natural cycle in the atlantic ocean that fluctuated every 25 to 40 years. has been an active year, and several storms have made landfall in the us due to a large high - pressure system over the central atlantic ocean. other years have been more active, but the storms blew out in the gulf of mexico without reaching the continental us. mayfield predicted several more tropical storms this year. the latest, hurricane rita, is the 17th storm of the atlantic hurricane season, which runs from june to november. since us record - keeping started in 1851, the record is 21 tropical storms in 1933. the year 1886 was recorded as the most active hurricane season for the continental us, with seven hurricanes making landfall. mayfield listed several us cities and regions in addition to new orleans that were " especially vulnerable " to a large hurricane - - houston and galveston in texas, tampa in florida and the florida keys, new york city and long island, and new england. will not be the last major hurricane to hit a vulnerable area, " centre ' s predictions on katrina ' s movements were more accurate than usual, but the storm had become more intense more quickly than expected, days before katrina hit land on august 29, computer models predicted it would cross the coast near new orleans.


problems with prepositions prepositions are words that often show direction ; for example, below, above, over, under, around, through, in, out, between, among, to, toward ( s ). other common prepositions include of, for ( also sometimes a conjunction ), from, with, like ( also sometimes a verb ). rule : you shouldn ’ t use or end a sentence with an unnecessary preposition, i. e., when the meaning is clear without the preposition. sentences may end with necessary prepositions. correct : that is something i cannot agree with. with is a necessary preposition. incorrect : where did he go to? correct : where did he go? to is unnecessary because the meaning is clear without it. rule : don ’ t follow like with a subject and verb because prepositions are followed only by nouns that act as the object of the preposition. use as or as if or as though instead of like when a subject and verb follow. correct : i wish i could be more like her. incorrect : it doesn ’ t look like she will show up for dinner. correct : it doesn ’ t look as if ( or as though ) she will show up for dinner. which sentence is correct? 1. a. where did you get this at? b. where did you get this? 2. a. i will go later on. b. i will go later. 3. a. take your shoes off the bed. b. take your shoes off of the bed. 4. a. cut it up into small pieces. b. cut it into small pieces. 5. a. i look like my sister. b. i look as my sister. pop quiz answers posted on saturday, july 19th, 2008, at 12 : 31 am


a simple measure for applying sunscreen while on holidays dermatology department. hospital central. universidad autonoma de san luis potosi. mexico. email @ example. com to the editor : the use of topical sunscreens is considered to be an important intervention to reduce skin damage induced by ultraviolet radiation from sunlight. the sun protection factor ( spf ) of a sunscreen is based on a uniform application thickness of 2 mg / cm2. however, there is no known linear relationship between an effective spf and the amount of sunscreen applied. the efficacy of a sunscreen therefore is highly dependent upon its correct application. the amount of sunscreen that most people apply usually never exceeds more than 60 percent of the quantity needed to achieve the spf on the label product. [ 1, 3 ] one reason that sunscreens are insufficiently applied is the absence of conventional parameters to assess the amount of sunscreen necessary to cover the exposed surfaces. although the " teaspoon rule " and the " fingertip unit " have been proposed as a dosage guide users do not find these standards easy to use in practice. [ 4, 5 ] under real - life conditions, a suitable teaspoon is not readily available, when the different sizes, shapes and uses of teaspoons world - wide is taken into account. the semiquantitative " fingertip unit " guide is a good approach but has its disadvantages, especially its lack of utility when lotions or gels are being applied. in addition, the explanation of how to use it is complicated and the time required to carry out the process in such large areas as the chest, back, or legs makes the process unlikely to be widely adopted. most sunburns develop while persons are outdoors during their leisure time. at these times, they are often drinking alcoholic or non - alcoholic beverages from bottles with caps. the crown tin lid is a metal bottle cap which is widely used, and which has an almost uniform size no matter where in the world it is manufactured ( fig. 1 ). taking this into account, we suggest a practical method that would make it easy to apply a standard quantity of sunscreen with disposable metal bottle caps. crown tin lids are frequently available at the time when people are about to expose themselves to sunlight. although the lids may differ slightly in their size, we think they serve as a less variable reference than a spoon. a crown tin lid filled with a regular spf - 30 sunscreen contains an average of 3. 3 grams ( 3


to sunlight. although the lids may differ slightly in their size, we think they serve as a less variable reference than a spoon. a crown tin lid filled with a regular spf - 30 sunscreen contains an average of 3. 3 grams ( 3, 300 mg ) of cream. this amount is enough to cover at least a 1, 500 cm2 area. to ensure a proper dosage, some authors have suggested the use of the well - known " rule of nines " in the same way that burned areas are calculated. [ 4, 5 ] the total body surface is divided into three 9 percent regions ( head and neck, left arm, and right arm ), and four 18 percent regions ( back, torso, left leg, and right leg ). the head and neck segment includes the scalp, so that the face and neck to which sunscreen is applied is over - represented by the " rule of nines ". when morphometry was used to calculate the face and neck area in a volunteer who was not bald, we found that the surface area approachs 685 cm 2. therefore, approximately 1, 370 mg of sunscreen would be needed to cover the face and neck ( 685 cm2 x 2 mg = 1, 370 mg / cm2 ). the amount required corresponds to one half of the crown tin lid. if we use the " rule of nines " for the rest of the body, and assume that the average 1. 73 m2 ( 17, 300 cm2 ) adult surface area is divided into segments, we obtain the figures shown in table 1. half of a lid is required for the face and neck, one lid for each upper limb, and two lids each for the back, the torso and for the two lower limbs. in conclusion, we suggest an easy, alternative method to apply suncreens. this system would allow users to apply a reliable quantity of sunscreen in a uniform and practical manner. it would also offer protection which is closer to the protection promised by the bottle label with whatever product vehicle is used ( i. e., liquid, gel, or cream ). references1. stokes rp, diffey bl. how well are sunscreen users protected? photodermatol photoimmunol photomed 1997 ; 13 : 186 - 188. 2. brown s, diffey bl. the effect of applied thickness on sunscreen protection : in vivo and in vitro studies. photochem photobiol 1986 ; 44 : 509 - 13. 3


| a fool or simpleton ; ninny. | | an extraordinary or unusual thing, person, or event ; an exceptional example or instance. | | — the chemical symbol for | the symbol for the element rubidium. the symbol for rubidium. | rubidium ( r - bid ' e - əm ) pronunciation key a soft, silvery - white metallic element of the alkali group. it ignites spontaneously in air and reacts violently with water. rubidium is used in photoelectric cells, in making vacuum tubes, and in radiometric dating. atomic number 37 ; atomic weight 85. 47 ; melting point 38. 89°c ; boiling point 688°c ; specific gravity ( solid ) 1. 532 ; valence 1, 2, 3, 4. see periodic table. rb / r - b - l / abbreviation : " realtime blackhole list ". a service that allows people to blacklist sites for emitting spam, and makes the blacklist available in real time to electronic - mail transport programs that know how to use rbl so they can filter out mail from those sites. drastic ( and controversial ) but effective. there is an rbl home page ( http : / / maps. vix. com / rbl / usage. html ). chemical element of group 1 ( also called group ia ) in the periodic table, the alkali metal group. rubidium is the second most reactive metal and is very soft, with a silvery - white lustre. a brief treatment of rubidium follows. for full treatment, see alkali metal. learn more about rb with a free trial on britannica. com.


develop your pln ( personal learning network ) below, you ' ll find several approaches to plns. there ' s no right or wrong way to get started, so take what you like and leave the rest. excerpt from the wiki by australian educator, sue waters the aim of sue ' s site is to help you gain the skills to build your own personal learning network ( pln )! personal learning networks ( plns ) are all about using web tools such as blogs, wiki, twitter, facebook to create connects with others which extend our learning, increases our reflection while enabling us to learn together as part of a global community. plns increase our opportunities to ask questions and receive help compared to our normal daily face - to - face interactions. best of a pln is it ' s personal! you make all the choices : - what tools you use! - who you connect with! - how you want to learn! - when you want to learn! personal learning networks : the power of the human network what is a personal learning network ( pln )? definition one : personal learning networks are : - a concept based on web 2. 0 and social software - learner - driven, problem - based, or motivated by interested - based on the idea that learning will take place in different contexts, and not come from one place or person - set their own learning goals - manage their learning ; managing both content and process - communicate with others in the process of learning - and thereby achieve learning goals this information is from a wiki by judith epcke ( @ jepcke ) and scott meech ( @ smeech ). continue reading at the wiki. judy & scott ' s work is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial - share alike 3. 0 united states license. - free tech for teachers a blog by richard byrne about, well, free tech for teachers. reviews, advice, descriptions of how teachers use the tech. - what should i read? - a few suggestions. - social media reading list - the idea for this page is to build a ' best of the web ' reading / watching list for school leadership regarding using social media for school advancement. rather than talk about how great social media is we ' re using social media to build this reading list. - a 21st century professional development proposal : a personal learning network + specific web tools = a true 21st century teacher.


• whiteboard and whiteboard marker • post it notes • cut outs, print our characters and make body parts moveable • foams letters or magnetic letters ( great for title sequence to add some interest ) • roll out modelling clay and use cookie cutters • modelling clay ( make shapes or characters ) • toys eg. legos, action figures • objects eg. stationery, cutlery, buttons, paddle pop sticks • create a set out of a box. • document change : set the camera to take photos in intervals and document change eg. the sky, a plant growing etc. students have fabulous ideas and the best intentions, unfortunately their abilities can restrict the production of these ideas. modelling clay characters can be difficult. i found these great people and bird add on pieces to push into clay. they make fabulous creatures without needing any modelling skills ( and they are fun to make ). here are some scaffolding activities i use as an introduction to build confidence : • with a whiteboard, create the illusion of writing your name with your finger. • make a piece of paper fold up and then unfold by itself. ( done by reversing slides ) • make buttons follow each other in a line here are some ideas for animations : • convert a fairytale, fable or nursery rhyme. • adapt a movie story line • create a music film clip • convey a message ‘ save the environment ' • re - write history • create characters from a novel students are reading here are a few you tube videos i like to show students to give provide inspiration : the animals save the planet - energy efficient penguin ( there are many others in this series ) there was a time deadline - post it stop motion ping pong ball stop motion


even if brain size accounts for just 10 to 20 percent of an iq test score, it is possible to conjecture what kind of average scores would be made by a group of people with 30 percent larger brains. we can readily calculate that a population with a mean brain size of 1, 750 cc would be expected to have an average iq of 149. this is a score that would be labeled at the genius level. and if there was normal variability among boskops, as among the rest of us, then perhaps 15 to 20 percent of them would be expected to score over 180. in a classroom with 35 big - headed, baby - faced boskop kids, you would likely encounter five or six with iq scores at the upper range of what has ever been recorded in human history. the boskops coexisted with our homo sapiens forebears. just as we see the ancient homo erectus as a savage primitive, boskop may have viewed us in somewhat the same way. they died and we lived, and we can ’ t answer the question why. why didn ’ t they outthink the smaller - brained hominids like ourselves and spread across the planet? perhaps they didn ’ t want to. longer brain pathways lead to larger and deeper memory hierarchies. these confer a greater ability to examine and discard more blind alleys, to see more consequences of a plan before enacting it. in general this enables us to think things through. if boskops had longer chains of cortical networks — longer mental assembly lines — they would have created longer and more complex classification chains. when they looked down a road as far as they could, before choosing a path, they would have seen farther than we can : more potential outcomes, more possible downstream costs and benefits. as more possible outcomes of a plan become visible, the variance among judgments between individuals will likely lessen. there are far fewer correct paths — intelligent paths — than there are paths. it is sometimes argued that the illusion of free will arises from the fact that we can ’ t adequately judge all p ossible moves, with the result that our choices are based on imperfect, sometimes impoverished, information. perhaps the boskops were trapped by their ability to see clearly where things would head. perhaps they were prisoners of those majestic brains. there is another, again poignant, possible explanation for the disappearance of the big - brained people. maybe all that thoughtfulness was of no particular survival value in 10, 000 b. c


head. perhaps they were prisoners of those majestic brains. there is another, again poignant, possible explanation for the disappearance of the big - brained people. maybe all that thoughtfulness was of no particular survival value in 10, 000 b. c. the great genius of civilization is that it allows individuals to store memory and operating rules outside of their brains, in the world that surrounds them. the human brain is a sort of central processing unit operating on multiple memory disks, some stored in the head, some in the culture. lacking the external hard drive of a literate society, the boskops were unable to exploit the vast potential locked up in their expanded cortex. they were born just a few millennia too soon. in any event, boskops are gone, and the more we learn about them, the more we miss them. their demise is likely to have been gradual. a big skull was not conducive to easy births, and thus a within - group pressure toward smaller heads was probably always present, as it still is in present - day humans, who have an unusually high infant mortality rate due to big - headed babies. this pressure, together with possible interbreeding with migrating groups of smaller - brained peoples, may have led to a gradual decrease in the frequency of the boskop genes in the growing population of what is now south africa. then again, as is all too evident, human history has often been a history of savagery. genocide and oppression seem primitive, whereas modern institutions from schools to hospices seem enlightened. surely, we like to think, our future portends more of the latter than the former. if learning and gentility are signs of civilization, perhaps our almost - big brains are straining against their residual atavism, struggling to expand. perhaps the preternaturally civilized boskops had no chance against our barbarous ancestors, but could be leaders of society if they were among us today. maybe traces of boskops, and their unusual nature, linger on in isolated corners of the world. physical anthropologists report that boskop features still occasionally pop up in living populations of bushmen, raising the possibility that the last of the race may have walked the dusty transvaal in the not - too - distant past. some genes stay around in a population, or mix themselves into surrounding populations via interbreeding. the genes may remain on the periphery, neither becoming widely fixed in the population at large nor being entirely eliminated from the gene pool. just about 100 miles


recursion is a programming paradigm as well as a problem solving strategy thought to be very challenging to grasp for university students. this article outlines a pilot study, which expands the age range of students exposed to the concept of recursion in computer science through instruction in a series of interesting and engaging activities. in this study, a small number of students ( n = 9 ) aged 11 to 13 years, were presented with a new and unique recursion curriculum involving hands - on experiences over a seven - week period at the university of victoria, canada. the curriculum was comprised of a series of progressively challenging recursion activities — roughly based upon the ideas of ‘ computer science unplugged ’ ( bell, witten, & fellows, 2009 ) — and included programming applications with microworlds ex, a programming language based on logo. through this engagement, an increased number of students recognized and understood the concepts covered. we hypothesize that through experiences for youth with activities such as those outlined here, the number of students who understand fundamental computer science applications and who might potentially pursue computer science in post - secondary education will increase. we hypothesis further that through an earlier encounter of “ challenging ” concepts the learning and understanding of those will become easier at the university level. in this paper, the curriculum, classroom experiences, preliminary, largely descriptive and qualitative results and next steps in the research are discussed. gunion, katherine ; milford, todd ; and stege, ulrike " the paradigm recursion : is it more accessible when introduced in middle school?, " the journal of problem solving : 2, article 8.


studying oregon ' s history iii bill long 7 / 21 / 06 the protestant ladder and further mission documents once a student sees takes time to understand fully the catholic ladder something peculiar begins to happen in the mind of that student. s / he realizes that s / he can do history, that history is, when you take your time with it, quite fun and rather accessible to you. such a project will make the student begin to long for more specific information when s / he studies other topics. it may well be that once a student has really done this topic well that s / he will never be content with anything other than primary sources. and, this lesson will have been learned within the first few weeks of the course. continuing with the protestant ladder it is interesting to me that though there are 9, 950 google " results " when you type in " catholic ladder, " there are only 155 for " protestant ladder, " and most of them, when you look at them closely, bear no relationship to the competing ladder used by protestant missionary henry spalding ( they refer to the general concept of the protestant work ethic... climbing the protestant ladder ). fortunately, the oregon history project page on the protestant ladder by melinda jette is done extremely well. let ' s turn to it. she skillfully and briefly explains the work of presbyterian missionaries henry and eliza spalding in lapwai on the clearwater river ( present - day western idaho, but part of the then - oregon territory ). we learn that spalding made a protestant ladder in 1845, probably in imitation of blanchet, but jette also mentions that spalding ' s ladder might have been related to a now lost earlier protestant ladder ( 1839 ) by jason lee. i suppose the protestants imitated the catholics in making ladders, but this kind of throws things up in the interpretive air for a minute. the ohp web page never answers the question of whose came first, since both blanchet and lee are credited with ladders from 1839. well, in any case, the protestant ladder, which is presented quite nicely in a photograph you can " blow up " on this page, differs in three ways from the catholic ladder. first, it has lots of nice drawings on the sides, representing everything from adam and eve in the garden of eden to the building of the first city to the tower of babel. humorous it is that so much space is devoted to depictions of the first chapters of genesis. it is as if the maker of the protestant ladder realized after he had drawn


garden of eden to the building of the first city to the tower of babel. humorous it is that so much space is devoted to depictions of the first chapters of genesis. it is as if the maker of the protestant ladder realized after he had drawn about six scenes from genesis that he was running out of space, and so he quickly leaped over lots of history to get to the crucifixion of christ, the really big historical event. around the time of christ we have the interesting scene of john the baptist ' s head being presented by salome ( never know if the protestants were caravaggio - lovers, you know.. ). a second difference between the two ladders is that the protestant portrays two separate channels or tubes of history, the catholic and the protestant, rather than one. the catholics had looked at the protestants as a withered branch ; the protestants recognized the " parallel track " of the roman catholic church with the pope in charge. finally, however, the protestant ladder shows that the catholic " track " of history will end in an unceremonious way when the road turns back on itself and the pope is overturned. the last picture on the " catholic side " shows an upside - down pope being lowered into a fire - - perhaps he will fall victim to the same fires with which he has burned the protestant martyrs. what lies at the end of the protestant road, in contrast? a straight road to heaven. the protestant road is narrower than the catholic one ( " narrow is the way that leads to salvation " ) but it, after all, is the " true " one. by looking at the competing catholic and protestant ladders, then, the student can see how artistic representation can be used in the service of religious propaganda. spalding and whitman and the protestant ladder jette further informs us, however, that spalding seemed to make very little use of the ladder in teaching. why? because protestants, as " people of the book " and " transformers of culture " ( no, george bush isn ' t the first " transformer " ), were more interested in cultivating literacy and the land for the indians. by 1839 spalding had published the first printed book in the nez perce language ( jette doesn ' t tell us if this was a bible, but the eager student would, no doubt, follow up this lead ), and the protestant ladder just seemed to be a kind of afterthought so as not to let the catholics have all the good ideas. let ' s pause


a bible, but the eager student would, no doubt, follow up this lead ), and the protestant ladder just seemed to be a kind of afterthought so as not to let the catholics have all the good ideas. let ' s pause here for a moment. if a student was going to look at early oregon missions, s / he might proceed as i have in the last few pages, or s / he might want to wander further afield. three projects that grow directly out of this would be to try to understand the mission that hasn ' t been named so far - - that of jason lee in salem. the methodist archives on state street in salem hold a treasure that hasn ' t yet been really closely examined by scholars regarding the early days of the willamette mission. or, a student might want to study the whitman ' s or spalding ' s mission more closely, to learn about their work, the indians, the language, the life. but the next really big topic is the whitman massacre of november 1847. here the ohp helps us get started nicely. let ' s close this essay with what the ohp has. the whitman massacre and its historiography by continuing to probe, or by selecting this as his / her topic, a student can learn not only about primary texts and an important shaping event in the history of the oregon territory, but also about competing versions or interpretations of the same event. and, s / he can learn about this all very naturally and easily through the exposure to primary texts. here is what we have. the ohp has the title page and a brief description of john baptiste brouillet ' s 1869 book authentic account of the murder of dr. whitman and other missionaries by the cayuse indians, in 1847, and the causes which led to that horrible catastrophe. here, however, is what the student would learn in the first instance. by looking at the title page to the 1869 edition, one notices the following latin quotation on the cover : " magna est veritas, et praevalebit. " of course, no student will know the latin ( what would spark high - school student interest in latin? i have some ideas... ), so it would have to be translated for him / her. but, you can teach the student some rudimentary latin along the way, before telling them that it means " great is truth, and it will prevail. " why, you might ask, would such a quotation be on the cover


but, you can teach the student some rudimentary latin along the way, before telling them that it means " great is truth, and it will prevail. " why, you might ask, would such a quotation be on the cover of this work? well, perhaps there was a debate over what was " truth " in the whitman massacre. now you are ready for some real learning. and, thankfully, the ohp page, thanks to melinda jette again, lays out the issue fairly nicely. the " whitman massacre " ( what should we call it? ) happened in november 1847, with several members of the whitman party being killed and about 50 hostages being taken. brouillet buried the bodies on the mission several days later. at this time brouillet warned spalding that he was in danger, and spalding fled. later spalding thanked the catholics for their help in sparing his life. later still, however, according to jette, spalding changed his tune, supporting retaliation against the cayuse and implying catholic complicity in the whitman tragedy. this, then, became the occasion for the first edition of brouillet ' s book, published in 1853, six years after the fateful events. over the next 20 years charges flew back and forth between the two sides. thus, an eager student could do a study on the historiography of the whitman massacre. it would involve the reading of primary texts, the assessment of various facts, and the way that writers put facts together to make an argument. a student could do all this, and we still haven ' t exhausted all the resources of the " mission page " of the ohp. one final essay will discuss another text or two, which do not relate to the missions but do connect with other points made by robbins in his " 700 words. " but now i will stop, since is is 100 degrees in oregon... copyright © 2004 - 2008 william r. long


it is extremely simple to add objects to the world in ragnarok. all you have to do is create the object and call add _ obj from the ragnarok engine instance. below follows a more in - depth example : a sprite is essentially a container object for an image that allows us to manipulate properties of it extremely easily. let ’ s start by creating the object. sprite = r. sprite ( ) since we are adding only one object to the world, the update and draw orders don ’ t carry much significance as of yet. but if we were to add more than one object, these values would be responsible for controlling the order in which the object updates and draws in relation to other objects. sprite. update _ order = 0 sprite. draw _ order = 0 now we assign an image to the sprite by going to the ragnarok engine folder and pulling out its logo image. now, remember in the previous tutorial how we said that the world is the entity responsible for managing our objects for us? well, the last step to get this object onscreen is to add it to the world so it can be drawn and updated. boom! that ’ s all it takes to get an sprite on the screen. you can play around with the sprite ’ s coords, scale, and rotation properties to change the orientation of the sprite accordingly. download the source for this tutorial here. linux user? download the gzipped tar here. what is an engine without a few tutorials to get user ’ s jumpstarted? this tutorial will cover the basics necessary to get the ragnarok engine up and running. the first step is to import our ragnarok engine for use. the ‘ as r ’ clause here acts as a alias for ragnarok, meaning we can access its members by typing r instead of ragnarok. import ragnarok as r this single line of code is all it takes to actually initalize the engine. we are telling ragnarok that we want to create a window of size 640 by 480, and that it should bear the title “ ragnarok tutorial 1 ″. notice how we are making use of the vector2 class to pass in the window size. engine = r. ragnarok ( r. vector2 ( 640, 480 ), “ ragnarok tutorial 1 ″ ) one of ragnarok ’ s goals is to reduce micro management in your code. it does this by automatically up


engine = r. ragnarok ( r. vector2 ( 640, 480 ), “ ragnarok tutorial 1 ″ ) one of ragnarok ’ s goals is to reduce micro management in your code. it does this by automatically updating and drawing your objects for you. you can control the draw and update order by changing an object ’ s update _ order and draw _ order properties. a low number will draw / update first, while a higher number will draw / update overtop the lower numbers. the world is the entity within the engine that does all this work for us. we grab an instance of it here for easier access. world = engine. get _ world ( ) the world ’ s clear _ color property defines what color the backbuffer should be erased to after each draw operation. world. clear _ color = ( 0, 0, 0 ) that ’ s it! all we have to do now is tell ragnarok to begin spinning its game loop. at this point you should be presented with a blank screen. don ’ t worry though, ragnarok can do much more than this! check back in for tutorial 2 to see how to add sprites and other entities to the world. you can download the source for this tutorial here. linux user? download the gzipped tar here. > today i would like to announce the first release of the ragnarok engine for python / pygame. ragnarok is a 2d engine built on top of pygame to make game creation easier. while pygame is a library, ragnarok attempts to assume the role of an engine, featuring many capabilities that would take a lot of work to create from the ground up in pygame. the engine is built in such a way that it attempts to be used under any scenario and game environment ( i. e. it is generic ). it is easy to set up, maintain, and extend for your particular needs. a few of the features ragnarok has to offer : + 2d and 3d math library + sprites for easy rotation, scaling, texture loading, etc. + spritesheet and animation classes + text objects that can be rotated, scaled, and translated + a customizable 2d camera + a managed world system that updates, draws, and automatically offsets objects by the camera ’ s + input handling systems + pool class for efficiently reusing objects ragnarok is still a work in progress, thus there will be bugs present. feel free to


before there ’ s no way out the united states economy missed two opportunities of going through a necessary recession. some argue that the government ’ s involvement is what the nation needed. sure, stimulating the economy to prevent massive layoffs is a good thing, in the short run. however, the country is facing a large devaluation of its currency, i. e. the u. s. dollar becoming more worthless. prices will dramatically rise, investment will disappear, and unemployment will reach record highs. it is time the american people understand their circumstances so they can put pressure on the government to act appropriately. the government ’ s sustainability can be credited to japanese, chinese and the federal reserve ’ s investment in treasury securities. otherwise, the government would have defaulted a long time ago. if the government faces a deficit, then the united states has, at most, three options : find other lenders, increase taxes and decrease spending, or just default. i propose that a mix of the second and third options occur. it will be a major blow, but would leave the nation economically healthy in the future. the federal reserve responded to the 2008 financial crisis in the same way it responded to the dot com bubble bursting. it lowered interest rates ( federal funds rate ) from 6 percent in 2001 to a low of 1 percent in 2003, to offset the oncoming recession. this led to the housing market bubble. when the housing market bubble burst, interest rates were 5. 35 percent, but the fed lowered them to a low range of 0 to 0. 25 percent. the implication of this is that another bubble is being fueled, set to be bigger than the last. when it bursts, bailouts and low interest rates will not be able to save the nation from a deep recession. there are a few measures that the government can do to limit the next recession and prevent the devaluation of the dollar. first, there must be incentives in place for firms that produce on homeland as opposed to overseas. this will bring manufacturing jobs back to the u. s., meaning there will be more goods to export. currently, the trade balance is negative at 44 billion dollars. with manufacturing back in the u. s., the trade balance will be positive and meaningful investment will flow into the country. despite the importance of foreign investment, domestic investment needs to drive economic growth. this can only be done through saving and allocating capital to efficient means of production. instead, the government keeps trying to enrich the economy through stimulus packages. spending is not economic growth.


of foreign investment, domestic investment needs to drive economic growth. this can only be done through saving and allocating capital to efficient means of production. instead, the government keeps trying to enrich the economy through stimulus packages. spending is not economic growth. it only inflates the gdp, creating the illusion that the economy is growing. however, spending is having adverse effects on the economy. concisely, we borrow and buy too much, but don ’ t make enough. lastly, the fed needs to adjust its monetary policy. the artificially low interest rates are facilitating unsustainable borrowing by the government. if the interest rates are allowed to rise, the government will not be able to afford to borrow money and will have to adjust its fiscal policy accordingly. looking beyond the short - term, there needs to be serious changes in fiscal and monetary policy. changing how the government spends its money will ultimately determine how much debt it accumulates. making sure the fed uses its tools to stimulate economic growth and not just economic demand, is what ’ s going to change the dynamics of investment in this country. if you want an idea of what the u. s. is to expect, look at greece ’ s situation. greece ’ s problems are a few hundred billion dollars bad. the u. s. is over 10 trillion in the hole. who ’ s going to bail us out? originally from brooklyn, new york, andre lewis opted out for the rural town of storrs - mansfield. he is in his junior year at the university of connecticut continuing his studies in economics and mathematics. he has a passion for african american history and hopes to share his wisdom through teaching and education. andre can be reached at firstname. lastname @ example. org.


chemical principles / will it react? an introduction to chemical equilibrium and so, nothing that to our world appears, perishes completely, for nature ever upbuilds one thing from another ' s ruin ; suffering nothing yet to come to birth but by another ' s death. lucretius ( 95 - 55 b. c. ) the main question asked in chapter 2 was " if a given set of substances will react to give a desired product, how much of each substance is needed? " our basic assumptions were that matter cannot be arbitrarily created or destroyed, and that atoms going into a reaction must come out again as products. in this chapter we ask a second question : " will a reaction occur, eventually? " is there a tendency or a drive for a given reaction to take place, and if we wait long enough will we find that reactants have been converted spontaneously into products? this question leads to the ideas of spontaneity and of chemical equilibrium. a third question, " will a reaction occur in a reasonably short time? " involves chemical kinetics, which will be discussed in chapter 22. for the moment, we will be satisfied if we can predict which way a chemical reaction will go by itself, ignoring the time factor. spontaneous reactions a chemical reaction that will occur on its own, given enough time, is said to be spontaneous. in the open air, and under the conditions inside an automobile engine, the combustion of gasoline is spontaneous : c7h16 + 11 o2 → 7co2 + 8 h2o ( the reaction is exothermic, or heat emitting. the enthalpy change, which was defined in chapter 2, is large and negative : = - 4812 kj mole - 1 of heptane at 298 k. the heat emitted causes the product gases to expand, and it is the pressure from these expanding gases that drives the car. ) in contrast, the reverse reaction under the same conditions is not spontaneous : 7co2 + 8h2o c7h16 + 11 o2 no one seriously proposes that gasoline can be obtained spontaneously from a mixture of water vapor and carbon dioxide. explosions are examples of rapid, spontaneous reactions, but a reaction need not be as rapid as an explosion to be spontaneous. it is important to understand clearly the difference between rapidity and spontaneity. if you mix oxygen and hydrogen gases at room temperature, they will remain together without appreciable reaction for years. yet the reaction to produce water is genuinely spontaneous


it is important to understand clearly the difference between rapidity and spontaneity. if you mix oxygen and hydrogen gases at room temperature, they will remain together without appreciable reaction for years. yet the reaction to produce water is genuinely spontaneous : 2h2 + o2 → 2h2o we know that this is true because we can trigger the reaction with a match, or catalyst of finely divided platinum metal. the preceding sentence suggests why a chemist is interested in whether a reaction is spontaneous, that is, whether it has a natural tendency to occur. if a desirable chemical reaction is spontaneous but slow, it may be possible to speed up the process. increasing the temperature will often do the trick, or a catalyst may work. we will discuss the functions of a catalyst in detail in chapter 22. but in brief, we can say now that a catalyst is a substance that helps a naturally spontaneous reaction to go faster by providing an easier pathway for it. gasoline will burn rapidly in air at a high enough temperature. the role of a spark plug in an automobile engine is to provide this initial temperature. the heat produced by the reaction maintains the high temperature needed to keep it going thereafter. gasoline will combine with oxygen at room temperature if the proper catalyst is used, because the reaction is naturally spontaneous but slow. but no catalyst will ever make carbon dioxide and water recombine to produce gasoline and oxygen at room temperature and moderate pressures, and it would be a foolish chemist who spent time trying to find such a catalyst. in short, an understanding of spontaneous and nonspontaneous reactions helps a chemist to see the limits of what is possible. if a reaction is possible but not currently realizable, it may be worthwhile to look for ways to carry it out. if the process is inherently impossible, then it is time to study something else. equilibrium and the equilibrium constant the speed with which a reaction takes a place ordinarily depends on the most concentrations of the reacting substances. this is common sense, since most reactions take place when molecules collide, and the more molecules there are per unit of volume, the more often collisions will occur. the industrial fixation of atmospheric nitrogen is very important in the manufacture of agricultural fertilizers ( and explosives ). one of the steps in nitrogen fixation, in the presence of a catalyst, is n2 + o2 → 2no ( 4 - 1 ) if this reaction took place by simple collision of one molecule of n2 and one molecule of o2, then we would expect


nitrogen fixation, in the presence of a catalyst, is n2 + o2 → 2no ( 4 - 1 ) if this reaction took place by simple collision of one molecule of n2 and one molecule of o2, then we would expect the rate of collision ( and hence the rate of reaction ) to be proportional to the concentrations of n2 and o2 : rate of no production r1 = k1 [ n2 ] [ o2 ] ( 4 - 2 ) the proportionality constant k1 is called the forward - reaction rate constant, and the bracketed terms [ n2 ] [ o2 ] represent concentrations in moles per liter. this rate constant, which we will discuss in more detail in chapter 22, usually varies with temperature. most reactions go faster at higher temperatures, so k1 is larger at higher temperatures. but k1 does not depend on the concentrations of nitrogen and oxygen gases present. all of the concentration dependence of the overall forward reaction rate, r1, is contained in the terms [ n2 ] and [ o2 ]. if this reaction began rapidly in a sealed tank with high starting concentrations of both gases, then as more n2 and o2 were consumed, the forward reaction would become progressively slower. the rate of reaction would decrease because the frequency of collision of molecules would diminish as fewer n2 and o2 molecules were left in the tank. the reverse reaction can also occur. if this reaction took place by the collision of two molecules of no to make one molecule of each starting gas, 2no → n2 + o2 ( 4 - 3 ) then the rate of reaction again would be proportional to the concentration of each of the colliding molecules. since these molecules are of the same compound, no, the rate would be proportional to the square of the no concentration : rate of no removal [ no ] [ no ] r2 = k2 [ no ] 2 ( 4 - 4 ) where r2 is the overall reverse reaction rate and k2 is the rev ~ rse - reaction rate constant. if little no is present when the experiment begins, this reaction will occur at a negligible rate. but as more no accumulates by the forward reaction, the faster it will be broken down by the reverse reaction. thus as the forward rate, r1, decreases, the reverse rate, r2, increases. eventually the point will be reached at which the forward and reverse reactions exactly balance ( 4 - 5 ) : r1 = r2 [ n2 ] [


as the forward rate, r1, decreases, the reverse rate, r2, increases. eventually the point will be reached at which the forward and reverse reactions exactly balance ( 4 - 5 ) : r1 = r2 [ n2 ] [ o2 ] k1 = k2 [ no ] 2 this is the condition of equilibrium. had you been monitoring the concentrations of the three gases, n2 o2, and no, you would have found that the composition of the reacting mixture had reached an equilibrium state and thereafter ceased to change with time. this does not mean that the individual reactions had stopped, only that they were proceeding at equal rates ; that is, they had arrived at, and thereafter maintained, a condition of balance or equilibrium. the condition of equilibrium can be illustrated by imagining two large fish tanks, connected by a channel ( figure 4 - 1 ). one tank initially contains 10 goldfish, and the other contains 10 guppies. if you watch the fish swimming aimlessly long enough, you will eventually find that approximately 5 of each type of fish are present in each tank. each fish has the same chance of blundering through the channel into the other tank. but as long as there are more goldfish in the left tank ( figure 4 - la ), there is a greater probability that a goldfish will swim from left to right than the reverse. similarly, as long as the number of guppies in the right tank exceeds that in the left, there will be a net flow of guppies to the left, even though there is nothing in the left tank to make the guppies prefer it. thus the rate of flow of guppies is proportional to the concentration of guppies present. a similar statement can be made for the goldfish. at equilibrium ( figure 4 - 1b ), on an average there will be 5 guppies and 5 goldfish in each tank. but they will not always be the same 5 of each fish. if 1 guppy wanders from the left tank into the right, then it or a different guppy may wander back a little later. thus at equilibrium we find that the fish have not stopped swimming, only that over a period of time the total number of guppies and goldfish in each tank remains constant. if we were to fill each tank with 9 goldfish and then throw in 1 guppy, we would see that, in its aimless swimming, it would spend half its time in one tank and half in the other (


each tank remains constant. if we were to fill each tank with 9 goldfish and then throw in 1 guppy, we would see that, in its aimless swimming, it would spend half its time in one tank and half in the other ( figure 4 - 1 c ). in the no reaction we considered, there will be a constant concentration of no molecules at equilibrium, but they will not always be the same no molecules. individual no molecules will react to re - form n2 and o2, and other reactant molecules will make more no. as with the goldfish, only on a head - count or concentration basis have changes ceased at equilibrium. the equilibrium condition for the no - producing reaction, equation 4 - 1, can be rewritten in a more useful form : in which the ratio of forward and reverse rate constants is expressed as a simple constant, the equilibrium constant, keq. this equilibrium constant will vary as the temperature varies, but it is independent of the concentrations of the reactants and products. it tells us the ratio of products to reactants at equilibrium, and is an extremely useful quantity for determining whether a desired reaction will take place spontaneously. general form of the equilibrium constant we derived the equilibrium - constant expression for the no reaction by assuming that we knew the way that the forward and reverse steps occurred at the molecular level. if the no reaction proceeded by simple collision of two molecules, the derivation would be perfectly correct. the actual mechanism of this reaction is more complicated. but it is important, and fortunate for chemists, that we do not have to know the reaction mechanism to write the proper equilibrium constant. the equilibrium - constant expression can always be written from the balanced chemical equation, with no other information, even when the forward and reverse rate expressions are more complicated than the balanced equation would suggest. ( we shall prove this in chapter 16. ) in our no example, the forward reaction actually takes place by a series of complicated chain steps. the reverse reaction takes place by a complementary set of reactions, so that these complications cancel one another in the final ratio of concentrations that gives us the equilibrium constant. the details of the mechanism are " invisible " to the equilibrium - constant expression, and irrelevant to equilibrium calculations. a general chemical reaction can be written as in this expression, a and b represent the reactants ; c and d, the products. the letters a, b, c, and d represent the number of moles of each substance involved in the balanced reaction, and the double arrows indicate a state of equilibrium


, a and b represent the reactants ; c and d, the products. the letters a, b, c, and d represent the number of moles of each substance involved in the balanced reaction, and the double arrows indicate a state of equilibrium. although only two reactants and two products are shown in the general reaction, the principle is extendable to any number. the correct equilibrium - constant expression for this reaction is it is the ratio of product concentrations to reactant concentrations, with each concentration term raised to a power given by the number of moles of that substance appearing in the balanced chemical equation. because it is based on the quantities of reactants and products present at equilibrium, equation 4 - 8 is called the law of mass action. | give the equilibrium - constant expression for the reaction | the equilibrium constant is given by since all four substances have a coefficient of 1 in the balanced equation, their concentrations are all raised to the first power in the equilibrium - constant expression. | what is the equilibrium - constant expression for the formation of water from hydrogen and oxygen gases? the reaction is | since two moles of hydrogen and water are involved in the chemical equation, their concentrations are squared in the keq expression. | give the equilibrium - constant expression for the dissociation ( breaking up ) of water into hydrogen and oxygen. the reaction is | an important general point emerges here. this reaction is the reverse of that of example 2, and the equilibrium - constant expression is the inverse, or reciprocal, of the earlier one. if a balanced chemical reaction is reversed, then the equilibrium - constant expression must be inverted, since what once were reactants now are products, and vice versa. | the dissociation of water can just as properly be written as what then is the equilibrium - constant expression? notice that when the reaction from example 3 is divided by 2, resulting in the example 4 reaction, the equilibrium constant is the square root of the old value, or the old keq to the one - half power. similarly, if the reaction is doubled, the keq must be squared. in general, it is perfectly proper to multiply all the coefficients of a balanced chemical reaction by any positive or negative number, n, and the equation will remain balanced. ( multiplying all the coefficients of an equation by - 1 is formally the same as writing the equation in reverse. write out a simple equation and prove to yourself that this is so. ) but if all the co1ficients of an equation are multiplied by n,


coefficients of an equation by - 1 is formally the same as writing the equation in reverse. write out a simple equation and prove to yourself that this is so. ) but if all the co1ficients of an equation are multiplied by n, then the new equilibrium - constant expression is the old one raised to the nth power. hence, when working with equilibrium constants, one must keep the corresponding chemical reactions clearly in mind. | the reaction for the formation or the breakdown of ammonia can be written in a number of ways : ( each of these expressions might be appropriate, depending on whether you were focusing on nitrogen, ammonia, hydrogen, or the dissociation of ammonia. ) what are the equilibrium - constant expressions for each formulation, and how are the equilibrium constants related? notice that there is nothing wrong with fractional powers in the equilibrium - constant expression. using equilibrium constants equilibrium constants have two main purposes : - 1. to help us tell whether a reaction will be spontaneous under specified conditions. - 2. to enable us to calculate the concentration of reactants and products that will be present once equilibrium has been reached. we can illustrate how equilibrium constants can be used to achieve these ends, and also the fact that an equilibrium constant is indeed constant, with real data from one of the most intensively studied of all reactions, that between hydrogen and iodine to yield hydrogen iodide : if we mix hydrogen and iodine in a sealed flask and observe the reaction, the gradual fading of the purple color of the iodine vapor tells us that iodine is being consumed. this reaction was studied first by the german chemist max bodenstein in 1893. table 4 - 1 contains the data from bodenstein ' s experiments. the experimental data are in the first three columns. in the fourth column, we have calculated the simple ratio of product and reactant concentrations, [ hi ] / [ h2 ] [ i2 ], to see if it is constant. it clearly is not, for as the hydrogen concentration is decreased and the iodine concentration is increased, this ratio varies from 2. 60 to less than 1. the law of mass action ( section 4 - 3 ) dictates that the equilibrium - constant expression should contain the square of the hi concentration, since the reaction involves 2 moles of hi for every mole of h2 and i2, the fifth column shows that the ratio [ hi ] 2 / [ h2 ] [ i2 ] is constant within a mean deviation of approximately 3 %