a second installment addressing how scientists came to realize that energy, not matter, rules the universe. read more fifteen years ago, a small cabal of researchers took some of the most firmly held notions about how the universe works and turned them on their head. until then, everyone was sure that the expanding universe was born in an explosive big bang and had been slowing down ever since, dragged by the gravitational pull of untold billions of galaxies. but in fact the expansion is speeding up. everyone was sure that matter was what dominated the overall behavior of the universe. but in fact it seems that “ dark energy, ” not matter, is running the show. whoops. the may cover story in discover magazine ( confronting the dark by zeeya merali ) chronicles that game - changing discovery, and lays out the latest thinking about what dark energy is and how it affects the fate of the universe. as soon as the article was published, discover ’ s inbox began to fill with letters from curious readers wanting to know more. here i will address sweeping, big - picture questions about cosmology. i ’ ll consider more specific queries about dark energy and dark matter in a following post. read more last thursday, a team of scientists working with nasa ’ s kepler space telescope described three intriguing new planets circling distant stars. they are just slightly larger than earth and orbit in the “ habitable zone ” where temperatures could be right for liquid water and for life. the names of these amazing worlds? kepler 62f, kepler 62e, and kepler 69c. not to be confused with other much - celebrated recent discoveries like kepler 64b, kepler 22b, or gliese 581g. alan stern, a former nasa associate administrator and founder of a startup called uwingu, thinks these newfound worlds should have real names, and that the general public should be able to have a say. the international astronomical union – the organization the organization that officially validates astronomical nomenclature – strongly objects to uwingu ’ s approach, and has effectively thwarted it. after the iau ’ s blistering april 12 press release attacking uwingu, submissions to uwingu ’ s fee - based online planetary naming database plummeted. stern calls it a “ torpedo attack. ” read more or perhaps you would like to name it “ tatooine ” or “ wrigley ’ s pleasure planet ”? if so, you are in luck – all you need to pay a small fee and keep voting. a startup company called uwingu


you would like to name it “ tatooine ” or “ wrigley ’ s pleasure planet ”? if so, you are in luck – all you need to pay a small fee and keep voting. a startup company called uwingu is holding a “ people ’ s choice contest ” to pick a name for the nearest planet outside our solar system. it orbits alpha centauri b, an orange star located just 4. 3 light years from earth, and currently has the ungainly name alpha centauri bb. for $ 4. 99 you can propose a name of your own, and for $ 0. 99 you can vote on the winner. the contest runs until april 22 ; there is also a broader, ongoing campaign for other alien worlds. uwingu ’ s name - that - planet project has a noble aim. alan stern – the founder of the company, lead scientist for the new horizons mission to pluto, and a former associate administrator at nasa – is using the money raised by the contest to restore funding to nasa ’ s education and outreach efforts, which have been hit hard by sequester - related budget cuts. [ full disclosure : discover magazine and its sister publication, astronomy, have partnered with uwingu on its efforts to raise private funds for astronomical research. ] but as one side effect, stern has found himself embroiled in a battle with the international astronomical union ( iau ), the self - described arbiter of “ unambiguous astronomical nomenclature. ” in a testy statement released on april 12, the iau declared that private competitions ( the union never cites uwingu by name ) will “ have no bearing on the official naming process. ” all of which raises a big question for the rest of us : who gets to name new astronomical objects, and how exactly do they get that right? although it ’ s been fading steadily in the tv ratings ( despite the best efforts of nicki minaj ), american idol remains a cultural touchstone, and for good reason. it casts a wide net in the search for quality ; it creates intense performance pressure that weeds out weak performers ; and it rewards contestants who are able to connect with a broad audience. for those reasons, i thought that american idol would be the perfect template for a symposium on how to help scientists do a better job communicating with the public. or maybe i just thought it would be a lot of fun. read more five - sixths of the universe is missing. that statement feels strange to write,


template for a symposium on how to help scientists do a better job communicating with the public. or maybe i just thought it would be a lot of fun. read more five - sixths of the universe is missing. that statement feels strange to write, and i ’ m sure it feels pretty strange to read as well. given the vastness of the cosmos – and given how little of it humans have explored – how can we know for sure that anything is out of place? the claim sounds positively arrogant, if not delusional. and yet scientists have assembled a nearly airtight case that the majority of the matter in the universe consists dark matter, a substance which is both intrinsically invisible and fundamentally different in composition than the familiar atoms that make up stars and planets. in the face of staggering difficulties, researchers like samuel ting of mit are even making progress in figuring out what dark matter is, as evidence by teasing headlines from last week. time to come to terms, then, with the new reality about our place in the universe. here are seven key things every informed citizen of the cosmos should know. read more what are those strange particles raining down on our planet from the depths of outer space? physicists have been wrestling with that question for a century now, but the past couple months have seen remarkable progress toward a meaningful answer. it ’ s taken so long because researchers have had to overcome a lot of obstacles along the way. even the name of the thing they are studying is confusing. the particles are formally known as cosmic rays even though they are not rays at all, but fragments of atoms that are moving at extremely high velocities. and those fragments are extremely difficult to study, because cosmic rays do not move in straight lines. they are electrically charged, so they bend to the will of the magnetic fields that snake almost everywhere through deep space. by the time a particular cosmic ray reaches earth, its path may have nothing to do with the place where it started out. looking at cosmic rays is like pointing a telescope into a set of funhouse mirrors. read more by now you ’ ve probably heard about the amazing new cosmic snapshot from the european space agency ’ s planck spacecraft. it is one of those scientific achievements so mind - boggling that you have to spend a bit of time with it to truly appreciate what you are seeing. this is relic radiation from when the universe was 370, 000 years old, still all aglow from the big bang. the radiation has been traveling 13. 8 billion years since then, across ever -


with it to truly appreciate what you are seeing. this is relic radiation from when the universe was 370, 000 years old, still all aglow from the big bang. the radiation has been traveling 13. 8 billion years since then, across ever - expanding stretches of space, before landing in planck ’ s detectors. then it took a tremendous feat of imagination and insight to translate that noisy signal into a comprehensible map of what the universe looked like in its infancy. so let ’ s step back for a moment, look at how this image came to be, and consider some of the more surprising details hidden within it. read more sounds like a trick question, doesn ’ t it? sort of like “ who is buried in grant ’ s tomb? ” and yet the answer keeps confounding a lot of smart people. ( discover even published a whole feature on the question. ) now the issue keeps coming up again in the latest images from the curiosity rover. blue skies on mars? can that be right? which of these images shows what mars really looks like? the very first viking images from the surface of mars in july, 1976 showed blue skies, largely because that ’ s what people were expecting and so that is how the imaging experts initially set the color balance. they quickly realized their error and reissued the image with tangerine skies.


on new year ’ s day, comet tuttle will be closest to the earth, a mere 25 million miles away, and also at its brightest. the comet will just be visible to the unaided eye, so you will need to be observing from a very dark site. a gallery of images, and sky maps of when and where to look, can be found at spaceweather. com. [ image of comet tuttle taken by pete lawrence ] happy solstice to all our readers! the winter solstice this year occurs at 6am, on 22 december, 2007. that is the time when the earth ’ s north pole is pointing directly away from the sun ( which is why it is so much colder in the northern hemisphere ). for people living in the southern hemisphere, the south pole is pointing towards the sun, making it summertime ‘ down - under ’! on the night of the 13 december, and the morning of the 14 december, the geminid shooting star shower reaches its peak. the earth will be ploughing through a stream of debris left behind by asteroid phaethon, and we see these fragments burn up as they hit the earth ’ s atmosphere, causing the shooting stars. and they are often big fragments! i myself saw a huge fireball in the uk during the geminid shower of 1994. more details can be found at the nasa science website. details of all the major annual meteor showers visible from the uk are available on the nmm website. comet holmes now appears almost twice the diameter of the full moon in the night sky. to see the latest images, see the gallery at spaceweather. com. because the comet is so large in the sky, it is spread out, making it appear much fainter in the night sky. but it is still visible to the unaided eye when well away from light pollution. the best way to observe the comet now is with a pair of binoculars that are large ( to collect a lot of light ) but with low magnification ( because the comet is so large in the sky ). the apparent size and brightness of comet holmes is regularly estimated by amateur astronomers world wide. a list of estimates is available at the iac / icq / mpc website. using averages of these estimates, i have plotted the apparent size of comet holmes against time ( below ). in this graph, you can see the number of days along the bottom since 24 october, 2007 – the date when comet holmes suddenly increased in brightness. up the left hand side of the


plotted the apparent size of comet holmes against time ( below ). in this graph, you can see the number of days along the bottom since 24 october, 2007 – the date when comet holmes suddenly increased in brightness. up the left hand side of the graph, i show the angular size of the comet – that is how big the comet appears to us in the night - time sky. the apparent size of the full moon, which is half a degree across ( or 32 arc - minutes ) is labelled for comparison. up the right hand side of the graph, i show the actual size of comet holmes in millions of km ( assuming that the comet is at a fixed distance of 1. 7 au away – although the comet is moving away from us, it has not moved too much over the last 2 months ). note how within days of the outburst in october, the comet was bigger than the separation of the earth and the moon, and within weeks it was physically bigger than the sun! currently, it appears about 1 degree ( 60 arc - mins ) across in the night sky – that ’ s twice the diameter of the full moon. in physical size, the nucleus of the comet is now surrounded by a cloud of gaseous water that is over 2. 5 times larger than the sun. what an amazing comet!


cost vs price the price of electricity from wind and solar is currently higher in most places in the world than electricity generated by fossil fuels. but the true cost of fossil fuels is unsustainable — and hidden. according to the world health organization, up to 13, 000 deaths per year among children across europe are directly attributable to outdoor pollution. in the us, approximately 64, 000 premature deaths from cardiopulmonary causes may be attributable to particulate air pollution each year. we all pay for these costs in ways large and small. ecosystem services, or the benefits of nature to people, are also impacted by fossil fuels. the pollution from burning fossil fuels adds carbon to our atmosphere, causing planetary warming. such warming causes many problems. it is a boost to some insects, which damage valuable forests, and warming negatively impacts coastal wetlands, which support ocean life and protect towns and cities. burning coal, which is the largest source of electricity production in the us, also sends mercury into the air. methyl mercury in the ocean accumulates in many types of fish. not all seafood is contaminated, but many large fish have high enough levels of mercury to warrant limited consumption. when all of these additional costs – known as externalities — are considered, the true costs of fossil fuels are not reflected in the price at the pump or meter, but we all pay these costs just the same. 3 things you can do to support clean energy : 1. get involved with local / regional / national efforts to establish renewable sources of energy. 2. support clean energy businesses. 3. change your driving habits to conserve fuel – walk, ride a bike or carpool. other great ways you can make a difference. links & videos whole coal story – huffington post value of ecosystem services – world research institute direct subsidies are the tip of the ( melting ) iceberg – grist the hidden costs of fossil fuels – union of concerned scientists green vehicles – wikipedia cost of coal $ 500 billion, harvard study – clean technica the roads aren ’ t free, redefining progress further reading on ecosystem services hidden costs of fossil fuels, democracy now a new report by the national academy of sciences estimates that burning fossil fuels costs the united states about $ 120 billion a year in hidden costs. the study estimated that nearly 20, 000 people die prematurely each year from air pollutants emitted by power plants and vehicles. ocean of truth, conservation international the overview of the monetary value — the ecosystem services — of the ocean with great imagery. what ’ s


by creating a mathematical model of the way overconfident individuals compete against ordinary individuals, they show that there is a clear advantage in overconfidence. in fact, if the potential reward is at least twice as great as the cost of competing, then overconfidence is the best strategy. in fact, overconfidence is actually advantageous on average, because it boosts ambition, resolve, morale, and persistence. in other words, overconfidence is the best way to maximize benefits over costs when risks are uncertain. but it is johnson and fowler ' s predictions that are most worrying. their model implies that optimal overconfidence increases with the magnitude of uncertainty. so the greater the risk, the more overconfident individuals should become. wednesday, september 30, 2009 tuesday, september 29, 2009 monday, september 28, 2009 elsewhere, jonah lehrer profiles clay in outside magazine, discussing the advantages asperger ' s gives clay, including the ability to focus on surfing for 8 - 9 hours at a time. saturday, september 26, 2009 friday, september 25, 2009 the assumptions that underpin these theories are largely inscrutable to those without a ph. d. in economics. indeed, the debate is full of terms that mean one thing to the uninitiated and quite another to economists. consider “ rationality. ” webster ’ s dictionary defines it as “ reasonableness. ” by contrast, for economists, a “ rational individual ” is not merely reasonable ; he or she is someone who behaves in accordance with a mathematical model of individual decision - making that economists have agreed to call “ rational. ” the centrepiece of this standard of rationality, the so - called “ rational expectations hypothesis ”, presumes that economists can model exactly how rational individuals comprehend the future. in a bit of magical thinking, it supposes that each of the many models devised by economists provides the “ true ” account of how market outcomes, such as asset prices, will unfold over time. the economics literature is full of different models, each one assuming that it adequately captures how all rational market participants make decisions. although the free - market chicago school, neo - keynesianism, and behavioural finance are quite different in other respects, each assumes the same reh - based standard of rationality. in other words, reh - based models ignore markets ’ very raison d ’ etre : no one, as friedrich hayek pointed out, can have access to the “ totality ” of


same reh - based standard of rationality. in other words, reh - based models ignore markets ’ very raison d ’ etre : no one, as friedrich hayek pointed out, can have access to the “ totality ” of knowledge and information dispersed throughout the economy. similarly, as john maynard keynes and karl popper showed, we cannot rationally predict the future course of our knowledge. today ’ s models of rational decision - making ignore these well - known arguments. thursday, september 24, 2009 wednesday, september 23, 2009 people who succumb to short - term impulses often do awful things, such as driving drunk or beating up their children. they would better off if their long - term selves had control, and could block and distract these short - term choices. but often the situation is flipped, and it ’ s the long - term self that ’ s misguided. it can become committed to belief systems that have immoral consequences. terrorism and genocide, for instance, are typically deliberate choices, not acts of passion ; it ’ s the long - term self that ’ s the guilty one. indeed, people often have to force themselves to commit terrible acts ; they have to work to defy the natural and legitimate moral impulses of their short - term selves. tuesday, september 22, 2009 monday, september 21, 2009 sunday, september 20, 2009 friday, september 18, 2009 animals share functional parallels with human conscious metacognition - - that is, they may share humans ' ability to reflect upon, monitor or regulate their states of mind. smith explains that metacognition is a sophisticated human capacity linked to hierarchical structure in the mind ( because the metacognitive executive control processes oversee lower - level cognition ), to self - awareness ( because uncertainty and doubt feel so personal and subjective ) and to declarative consciousness ( because humans are conscious of their states of knowing and can declare them to others ). therefore, smith says, " it is a crucial goal of comparative psychology to establish firmly whether animals share humans ' metacognitive capacity. if they do, it could bear on their consciousness and self - awareness, too. " in fact, he concludes, " metacognition rivals language and tool use in its potential to establish important continuities or discontinuities between human and animal minds. " related : temple grandin on similarities between animals and austistic savants with regard to " priviledged " access to low level sensory information.


to establish important continuities or discontinuities between human and animal minds. " related : temple grandin on similarities between animals and austistic savants with regard to " priviledged " access to low level sensory information. thursday, september 17, 2009 " the politically charged texas board of education has kicked off hearings today on whether school textbooks should have a more conservative slant. things began auspiciously when one member of the public got up to announce that she is a - - david kurtz, talking points memo wednesday, september 16, 2009 from the nyt : “ it is the nuclear reactor for all his works, ” shamdasani said, noting that jung ’ s more well - known concepts — including his belief that humanity shares a pool of ancient wisdom that he called the collective unconscious and the thought that personalities have both male and female components ( animus and anima ) — have their roots in the red book. creating the book also led jung to reformulate how he worked with clients, as evidenced by an entry shamdasani found in a self - published book written by a former client, in which she recalls jung ’ s advice for processing what went on in the deeper and sometimes frightening parts of her mind. read the rest of the article. it is fascinating reading all the way through. “ i should advise you to put it all down as beautifully as you can — in some beautifully bound book, ” jung instructed. “ it will seem as if you were making the visions banal — but then you need to do that — then you are freed from the power of them.... then when these things are in some precious book you can go to the book & turn over the pages & for you it will be your church — your cathedral — the silent places of your spirit where you will find renewal. if anyone tells you that it is morbid or neurotic and you listen to them — then you will lose your soul — for in that book is your soul. ” the book itself looks absolutely gorgeous. tuesday, september 15, 2009 in the case of time - space synaesthesia, a very visual experience can be triggered by thinking about time. " i thought everyone thought like i did, says holly branigan, also a scientist at edinburgh university, and someone with time - space synaesthesia. " i found out when i attended a talk in the department that julia was giving. she said that some synaesthetes can see time. and i thought,


at edinburgh university, and someone with time - space synaesthesia. " i found out when i attended a talk in the department that julia was giving. she said that some synaesthetes can see time. and i thought, ' oh my god, that means i ' ve got synaesthesia '. " so what exactly does she see? " for me it ' s a bit like a running track, " she says. " the track is organised around the academic year. the short ends are the summer and christmas holidays - the summer holiday is slightly longer. " it ' s as if i ' m in the centre and i ' m turning around slowly as the year goes by. if i think ahead to the future, my perspective will shift. " monday, september 14, 2009 friday, september 11, 2009 i ' m reading several books simultaneously these days, including prep work for the cfa exam this december, rereading neal stephenson ' s baroque cycle for fun, working my way through everything don norman has published on design theory, and now, tyler cowen ' s book, create your own economy, which contains more about autism and web 2. 0 material than one might expect from the title. nonetheless, it ' s packed with engaging tidbits : i ' d love to have a collapsible caravaggio to carry around to parties, for instance. he also points the reader toward a really good 2007 blog post by media lab professor and technology review blogger ed boyden, who heavily annotates and organizes his life. boyden ' s post details 10 + 2 recommendations for effectively organizing your life : - synthesize new ideas constantly - learn how to learn ( rapidly ) - work backward from your goal. or else you may never get there - always have a long - term plan. even if you change it every day - make contingency maps - make your mistakes quickly - as you develop skills, write up best - practices protocols - document everything obsessively - keep it simple - use logarithmic time planning. use greater detail for the near future - compose conversation summaries. photograph and store for easy retrieval wednesday, september 09, 2009 listen carefully, my son : bombs were falling over mexico city but no one even noticed. the air carried poison through the streets and open windows. you ' d just finished eating and were watching cartoons on tv. i was reading in the bedroom next door when i realized we were going to die. despite the dizziness


no one even noticed. the air carried poison through the streets and open windows. you ' d just finished eating and were watching cartoons on tv. i was reading in the bedroom next door when i realized we were going to die. despite the dizziness and nausea i dragged myself to the kitchen and found you on the floor. we hugged. you asked what was happening and i didn ’ t tell you we were on death ’ s program but instead that we were going on a journey, one more, together, and that you shouldn ’ t be afraid. when it left, death didn ’ t even close our eyes. what are we? you asked a week or year later, ants, bees, wrong numbers in the big rotten soup of chance? we ’ re human beings, my son, almost birds, public heroes and secrets. tuesday, september 08, 2009 eric heller at harvard university and various pals have studied rogue waves for some time. today they show how microwaves propagating through a forest of scatterers which the team call a " quasi - two - dimensional resonator with randomly distributed scatterers, each mimicking an r ^ −2 repulsive potential ". the results are fascinating because they clearly show the rogue waves ( or hot spots in microwave terms ) appearing more often than conventional thinking ( rayleigh ' s law for the wave height distribution ) allows. in fact the team says the probability in their set up of a rogue wave appearing is 15 orders of magnitude greater than rayleigh statistics predict. they attribute the difference to ray refraction rather than to resonance effects as conventional thinking might suppose. mouse retinas contain cells that detect approaching objects, possibly providing an advance warning system. while investigating mouse eye cells, botond roska at the friedrich miescher institute for biomedical research in basel, switzerland, and colleagues noticed that one type behaved unusually in response to movement. further analysis of this one kind of retinal cell revealed that it fired only when an object approached. the researchers suspect that people have similar cells, which alert us to approaching objects faster than our brain cells can. " it ' s an alarm system that ' s as close to the front end of the organism as possible, " says roska. " if you left it to the brain to respond, it might be too late. " it could also be that these cells form part of the signal processing apparatus that enhances visual acuity. monday, september 07, 2009 sharing the top floor with oliver and his sister were two different lunatics :


, it might be too late. " it could also be that these cells form part of the signal processing apparatus that enhances visual acuity. monday, september 07, 2009 sharing the top floor with oliver and his sister were two different lunatics : a rotund, elderly german, edward lindner – " helen and i were convinced he was a nazi in hiding, " reveals oliver who never went to the bathroom – and in the back room was freddie feldman, midget cabalist. " freddie tried to kill us on a daily basis, he would steal our empty wine bottles from the trash – of which there were many as we liked to entertain – and he would plant them one by one, lying on their sides on various steps, hoping that helen and i on our many trips to the bathroom would step on an empty bottle and it would roll out from under our feet, causing us to plunge down the stairs and break our necks, " oliver explains. " it was quite amazing that freddie was able to plant his booby traps without making a sound, because the stairs creaked horribly. " so how did he do it? " first, he would remove his clothes. then he would walk up the stairs very carefully on tiptoe, balancing on the very outer edge of each step with his whole body pressed against the wall, then he ' d walk up the wall like a fly would. to see freddie – naked, walking up the wall – was truly to witness the most dread and awe - inspiring of acts, " replies oliver. i wonder what it would take to bring this show to chicago. i ' d buy box seats. saturday, september 05, 2009 friday, september 04, 2009 thursday, september 03, 2009 this is the second time america has been up against the zero lower bound, the previous occasion being the great depression. and it was precisely the observation that there ’ s a lower bound to interest rates that led keynes to advocate higher government spending : when monetary policy is ineffective and the private sector can ’ t be persuaded to spend more, the public sector must take its place in supporting the economy. fiscal stimulus is the keynesian answer to the kind of depression - type economic situation we ’ re currently in. brad delong comments : such keynesian thinking underlies the obama administration ’ s economic policies — and the freshwater economists are furious. for 25 or so years they tolerated the fed ’ s efforts to manage the economy, but a full - blown keynesian resurgence was something entirely different. back in 1980, lucas, of the


’ s economic policies — and the freshwater economists are furious. for 25 or so years they tolerated the fed ’ s efforts to manage the economy, but a full - blown keynesian resurgence was something entirely different. back in 1980, lucas, of the university of chicago, wrote that keynesian economics was so ludicrous that “ at research seminars, people don ’ t take keynesian theorizing seriously anymore ; the audience starts to whisper and giggle to one another. ” admitting that keynes was largely right, after all, would be too humiliating a comedown. and so chicago ’ s cochrane, outraged at the idea that government spending could mitigate the latest recession, declared : “ it ’ s not part of what anybody has taught graduate students since the 1960s. they [ keynesian ideas ] are fairy tales that have been proved false. it is very comforting in times of stress to go back to the fairy tales we heard as children, but it doesn ’ t make them less false. ” ( it ’ s a mark of how deep the division between saltwater and freshwater runs that cochrane doesn ’ t believe that “ anybody ” teaches ideas that are, in fact, taught in places like princeton, m. i. t. and harvard. ) meanwhile, saltwater economists... were shocked to realize that freshwater economists hadn ’ t been listening.... freshwater economists [ like lucas, prescott, fama, cochrane, mulligan, zingales, boldrin, etc. ] who inveighed against the stimulus didn ’ t sound like scholars who had weighed keynesian arguments and found them wanting. rather, they sounded like people who... were resurrecting pre - 1930 fallacies in the belief that they were saying something new and profound. and it wasn ’ t just keynes whose ideas seemed to have been forgotten. as brad delong of the university of california, berkeley, has pointed out in his laments about the chicago school ’ s “ intellectual collapse, ” the school ’ s current stance amounts to a wholesale rejection of milton friedman ’ s ideas as well. friedman believed that fed policy rather than changes in government spending should be used to stabilize the economy, but he never asserted that an increase in government spending cannot, under any circumstances, increase employment. in fact, rereading friedman ’ s 1970 summary of his ideas, “ a theoretical framework for monetary analysis, ” what ’ s striking is how keynesian it seems. i remember october of 1987. we - - that is me, andrei shlei


fact, rereading friedman ’ s 1970 summary of his ideas, “ a theoretical framework for monetary analysis, ” what ’ s striking is how keynesian it seems. i remember october of 1987. we - - that is me, andrei shleifer, larry summers, and robert waldmann - - had what we regarded as a very nice paper about the instability of irrational agents ' beliefs as itself a powerful barrier to arbitrage. we then watched the stock market crash by 25 % in one day. and we thought that we had won the argument : that the efficient market hypothesis couldn ' t come back from a 25 % market collapse on a day when absolutely nothing fundamental happened. but then we were told that something fundamental had happened : there had been a sudden shock to the required expected rate of return on equities and the market had reacted efficiently to that shock. however, when i tried to process this, i could not understand it other than as an assertion that the market had gone down for no reason and would eventually recover - - but that this was not a problem because it was consistent with the efficient market hypothesis... when we could endure no more upon the water ; we to a little ale - house on the bankside, over against the ‘ three cranes, and there staid till it was dark almost, and saw the fire grow ; and, as it grew darker, appeared more and more, and in corners and upon steeples, and between churches and houses, as far as we could see up the hill of the city, in a most horrid malicious bloody flame, not like the fine flame of an ordinary fire. barbary and her husband away before us. we staid till, it being darkish, we saw the fire as only one entire arch of fire from this to the other side the bridge, and in a bow up the hill for an arch of above a mile long : it made me weep to see it. the churches, houses, and all on fire and flaming at once ; and a horrid noise the flames made, and the cracking of houses at their ruins. here ' s what the area looks like now, as viewed from the fire monument, which was built by christopher wren and robert hooke, as part of their reconstruction of london after the fire. tuesday, september 01, 2009 to bed at 2 or 3 in the morning and up again at 6 to go by appointment to my lord bellasses, but he out of town, which vexed me. so


reconstruction of london after the fire. tuesday, september 01, 2009 to bed at 2 or 3 in the morning and up again at 6 to go by appointment to my lord bellasses, but he out of town, which vexed me. so back and got mr. poynter to enter into, my book while i read from my last night ’ s notes the letter, and that being done to writing it fair. at noon home to dinner, and then the boy and i to the office, and there he read while i writ it fair, which done i sent it to sir w. coventry to peruse and send to the fleete by the first opportunity ; and so pretty betimes to bed. much pleased to - day with thoughts of gilding the backs of all my books alike in my new presses. by mary - louise parker to you, whom it may concern : manly creature, who smells good even when you don ' t, you wake up too slowly, with fuzzy, vertical hair and a slightly lost look on your face as though you are seven or seventy - five ; you can fix my front door, my sink, and open most jars ; you, who lose a cuff link and have to settle for a safety pin, you have promised to slay unfortunate interlopers and dragons with your phillips head or montblanc ; to you, because you will notice a woman with a healthy chunk of years or pounds on her and let out a wolf whistle under your breath and mean it ; because you think either rug will be fine, really it will ; you seem to walk down the street a little taller than me, a little more aware but with a purpose still ; to you who codifies, conjugates, slams a puck, baits a hook, builds a decent cabinet or the perfect sandwich ; you who gives a twenty to the kids selling hershey bars and waits at baggage claim for three hours in your flannel shirt ; you, sir, you take my order, my pulse, my bullshit ; you who soaps me in the shower, soaks with me in the tub ; to you, boy grown - up, the gentleman, soldier, professor, or caveman, the fancy man with initials on your towels and salt on your chocolates, to you and to that guy at the concession stand ; thank you for the tour of the vineyard, the fire station, the sound booth, thank you for the kaleidoscope, the horsehead nebula, the painting, the truth ;


british go journal no. 41. may 1978. page 21. continuing our series on the most significant japanese go terms. kake, pronounces approximately, kah - keh, is one of the few important japanese terms which is always used in its english form, the english being so perfectly descriptive. diagram 1 | bgj had this diagram and that for page 20 swapped. black 1 in dia 1 is the pressing move, hitting the white stone on the shoulder. whites first option is to resist being pushed down by pushing between the two black stones to separate them. this leads to tactical fighting which we will not study here. however, it is important to remember that pressing moves can often be resisted in this way. the second option is to crawl along the third line as in the diagram. black keeps pressing with 3 and this time white jumps with 4. this jump ahead is very important. with every move that black presses white down, white gets territory against the edge and black gets influence facing the centre. if white is pressed further than necessary along the third line, his territory will be worth less than blacks influence. diagram 2 | dia 2 shows what we mean. the moves to 11 are a well - known joseki. black has territory against the edge and 11 is the essential jump which takes him ahead of white. 12 - 22 shows just one possibility if white decides to press black further. black cannot play 13 on the fourth line because white will push between 1 and 11, but 15 is a safe move and after white protects his cutting point with 22, both whites central influence and blacks territory have increased dramatically. diagram 3 | in dia 3 white jumps ahead of black immediately. this immediate jump allows black to push through and sacrifice one stone, but whether the sacrifice is effective or not depends of course on the overall position. here black sacrifices with 5, white correctly captures the cutting stone, rather than protecting on the outside, and though black can capture 2 in a ladder, white is more than happy. not only can he live in the corner with one more move, but he can push at a and break through into the centre. black cannot stop him without spoiling his ladder. diagram 4 | finally, pressing does not have to be against the edge. in dia 4 white 1 hits black on the shoulder and this time white wants to get out into the centre as quickly as he can. ( though if black does not resist white would be delighted to continue at 2 and press black in that direction. ) as soon as black leaps ahead


when we talk about weight and health - whether we are discussing pounds, kilos, or body mass index, we are trying to assess the body ' s composition of fat and muscle deposits. the degree to which muscle and fat are present or absent in the body can have implications for overall physiological functioning and the risk of developing certain medical conditions. and that ' s the problem with the indices above : at best, they are an estimation of body composition, yet they are treated as gospel. we need to have additional ways to talk about body composition and health beyond " the numbers. " so what else can we look at to determine whether someone ' s body composition is healthy and normal for them? here are some questions ; the more often you answer " yes, " the more likely it is that your body is reflecting what is right for you : - do you get feedback from your doctor that suggests that your pulse, blood pressure, and labwork results are healthy for someone of your age and gender? - if you have finished growing ( and remember, many people will not finish growing until their early 20s ), does your weight tend to stay in the same range, without a lot of significant ups and downs, and without any strenuous efforts on your part? - do you find that you have plenty of energy throughout the day, and that you are not more likely to catch colds, flus, etc. than your peers? - are you getting 30 - 60 minutes of enjoyable physical activity on most days of the week? - do you generally eat only when you are hungry and stop when you are comfortably full? - do you eat a wide variety of foods ( covering all the food groups or food group substitutes )? would you say that most ( not all! ) of your choices are high in nutrients and moderate in calories? do you include lots of high - fiber choices? - do you have a minimum of five servings a day of fruits / vegetables? if you drink alcohol, do you use it in moderation? - does your body resemble the size and shape of other healthy members of your family? - if you are a woman, do you get your periods regularly, and is the flow pretty normal? - if you are an athlete, do you make it through training, games, or events with only a normal amount of fatigue? are you able to recover fairly quickly? we hesitate to provide calculations, numbers, or ranges because each body is different, and even these clinically - focused assessment tools need to be interpreted in the context


or events with only a normal amount of fatigue? are you able to recover fairly quickly? we hesitate to provide calculations, numbers, or ranges because each body is different, and even these clinically - focused assessment tools need to be interpreted in the context of an individual ' s other health factors. athletes, for instance, are likely to carry more muscle mass than a typical student ; standard calculations don ' t take this into consideration, and might suggest that an athlete is " overweight. " likewise, some people have large, dense bone structures, and their healthy weight will be different from someone of equal height with a smaller frame. and lastly, some folks are meant to carry a higher percentage of body fat than others. there are large - framed students with a higher percentage of body fat who play a sport or exercise several times a week, and eat a healthy balanced diet. other students may be very thin, have a low percentage of body fat but don ' t consume adequate nutrients or have a consistent relationship with physical activity. if you are really concerned about your weight or body composition, check with a medical provider at health services ( 401. 863 - 3953 ) or in the community. choose someone who is not affiliated with a commercial weight loss program ; consulting with an unbiased health professional will help you get a more realistic idea of whether it would be healthy for you to gain or lose weight, and how to go about it wisely. as we said a moment ago, if you are answering " yes " to most of the questions above, your body is likely to be in the place that is normal and healthy for you. every day, however, we get bombarded with images of " desirable " bodies that look radically different from what is normal and healthy. it can lead to a lot of body dissatisfaction, and the urge to significantly change the way we look. if that ' s the case, and you are trying to lose or gain weight even though you probably don ' t need to, you might want to think about some things first. researchers estimate that 40 - 70 % of your weight is determined by genetics ; we are programmed for certain bone structures, levels of adipose ( body fat ), and muscle development capacity. you would have to spend a lot of time and energy to significantly change your adipose and muscle endowments ; you would probably need to pathologically distort your relationship with food and exercise in order to do it ; you ' d have to be willing to divert resources from a lot of other important past


significantly change your adipose and muscle endowments ; you would probably need to pathologically distort your relationship with food and exercise in order to do it ; you ' d have to be willing to divert resources from a lot of other important pastimes ( school, work, relationships, hobbies ), and you ' d have to be able to keep that up for - well, the rest of your life. this is impossible to maintain and would seriously undermine your emotional and physical health. the body strives for balance and stability, and as we stated above, it pays a price when it has to function too far from its comfort zone. this price tag includes decreased functioning mentally, emotionally, and physically. researcher ancel keys conducted what is now considered the classic study on semi - starvation during world war ii, and he noted the following outcomes among the conscientious objectors who volunteered : - decrease in metabolic rate by 40 % as caloric intake and weight dropped - feelings of anxiety, depression and irritability - dizziness, weakness, and fatigue - withdrawal from important social relationships and disinterest in sex - decreased interest in intellectual pursuits - food preoccupation ( e. g. collecting recipes, hoarding kitchen implements, constantly thinking and dreaming about food ) - development of distorted eating rituals : extremely slow consumption, cutting of food into small pieces, creation of weird and distasteful food concoctions - feelings of embarrassment and guilt about perceived " overeating " episodes - binges of thousands of calories per episode while on leave from the study - self - induced vomiting ( in some ) to get rid of the post - binge discomfort these men were chosen as highly intelligent, highly motivated, and psychologically stable volunteers, but it wasn ' t until 8 months later, when they returned to normal eating and were fully weight restored, that the changes in cognitions, behaviors, and mood completely subsided. and what if you answered " no " to a lot of the healthy body weight questions above? lifestyle trends ( rather than isolated actions ) can affect the body ' s ability to maintain a healthy weight, so if you habitually underuse or overuse food and physical activity, you are more likely to be at a weight that isn ' t right for you and to have negative changes in heart rate, blood pressure, labwork, energy levels, reproductive functioning, and athletic performance. if underuse or overuse of food is an issue for you, check out our section on eating concerns. brown students


you and to have negative changes in heart rate, blood pressure, labwork, energy levels, reproductive functioning, and athletic performance. if underuse or overuse of food is an issue for you, check out our section on eating concerns. brown students can consider calling 401. 863 - 2794 to make an appointment with the health education nutritionist, who can help you develop a more balanced lifestyle pattern. there ' s no question about it : when you significantly change energy balance in the body, by repeatedly affecting either intake or expenditure, you ' re likely to see at least short - term changes in weight as muscle, adipose, and fluid status are impacted. but wait : the body is built to react strongly to systemic changes like this - - particularly if the changes are drastic. the rate at which the body burns calories ( metabolism ) slows down every time you diet, in part because of the inevitable loss of muscle mass, our most " metabolically - active " tissue. less muscle means the body doesn ' t need to spend as many calories in order to maintain itself. when you begin to eat normally again, your body is still functioning at the lower rate. so every time you diet, weight comes off more slowly and goes back on more quickly because your metabolism gets lower. and it isn ' t just muscle that determines how your body will respond to changes in energy balance. we are also programmed for a certain level of adiposity ( body fat ) - - a level that is monitored very closely by the survival mechanisms of the body. researchers are finding that adipose can be just as metabolically - active when the body perceives that survival and reproduction are being endangered, and that there are many chemical messengers whose function is to influence appetite, metabolism, and mobilization of fat stores in order to preserve or restore the status - quo. so under - nutrition and rapid weight loss can eventually result in preferential fat storage. once normal eating is resumed and maintained, the metabolism generally returns to normal. but the early stage of this metabolic adjustment can be scary for some people because they may put on a few pounds as the body attempts to reestablish equilibrium. fearing that the weight gain will be too significant, or that it will last forever, they may go back on a diet - causing their body to downshift metabolically again, and promote fat storage. studies show that people who repeatedly go on and off crash diets actually gain weight over time. the sad fact is that the only thing crash dieters ever learn is


- causing their body to downshift metabolically again, and promote fat storage. studies show that people who repeatedly go on and off crash diets actually gain weight over time. the sad fact is that the only thing crash dieters ever learn is how to starve. and suppressing your appetite with most diet pills risks a number of nasty side effects, such as irritability, insomnia, high blood pressure, and dependency. plus, once you stop taking them, any weight you ' ve lost will probably sneak right back on. achieving and maintaining a healthy body weight means practicing a variety of good self - care behaviors - - day in, and day out. although some people will engage in dieting behavior with little or no significant change in the way they think and feel, many people find that the legacy of dieting goes far beyond a transitory effect on their weight. the following are some side - effects of dieting that should be considered carefully : - diets tend to polarize our attitudes towards foods, creating categories of " good " and " bad, " that then go on to affect how we feel about ourselves when certain foods are eaten - - whether or not we are currently dieting. - diets tend to perpetuate the belief that control with food and eating exists only as a function of an external system of regulations ; we forget that our bodies have an innate ability to self - regulate, and we mistrust the demands of our physiology. - because of the externalized focus, and because the cookie - cutter approach of many diets will not be a match for our individual needs, diets can foster a disconnect between hunger and fullness. as a result, we lose touch with the primary mechanism by which the body self - regulates energy balance. - because dieting may involve ignoring hunger and promoting inadequate fullness, and because much - loved foods are often re - categorized as " bad, " we can experience enough perceived or real deprivation to make us feel tremendously preoccupied with food - - particularly with the " bad " foods. as a result, we can wind up spending a lot of time and energy thinking about how we will consume or avoid certain foods. even more painfully, we may wind up feeling vulnerable, out of control, and lacking in character as a result. - although dieting and exercise are two different behaviors, viewing physical activity primarily as a means of losing weight or re - shaping the body is a shift in attitude that can often accompany dieting. people can respond to this


in character as a result. - although dieting and exercise are two different behaviors, viewing physical activity primarily as a means of losing weight or re - shaping the body is a shift in attitude that can often accompany dieting. people can respond to this by developing a driven, compulsive relationship with physical activity that pushes them to exercise when fatigued, ill, and injured, and that cuts into their ability to enjoy other things. people can also respond by developing an aversion or resistance to physical activity, because it has become associated with guilt, obligation, and anxiety for them. have breakfast within an hour of waking up. your body is craving fuel after a night ' s sleep. not only does having breakfast support an optimal metabolism, but studies have shown that having breakfast helps our bodies with appetite control. study participants were found to experience less hunger all day long when they had breakfast - - there ' s something about that meal that is uniquely satisfying to the body. ( and for those of you who are saying that you experience more hunger during the day when you eat breakfast, here ' s a news flash : the hunger you are experiencing is actually your real level of hunger. when you skip breakfast, your body sometimes begins to produce a chemical called a ketone that " covers up " your natural hunger signal. as a result, you may not notice significant hunger - - until you eat or drink something with nutrients in it that " breaks " the ketosis, causing you to feel suddenly and ravenously hungry - - a real set - up for overeating and feeling uncomfortable ). be regular with meals and snacks ; try to eat something every 3 to 4 hours. again, your metabolism is better supported when the body is fed in a regular, consistent way. erratic eating patterns with more than 4 hours between meals and snacks may cause the body to fight back against what it perceives as deprivation and uncertainty. it may cause the metabolic rate to drop, and it may signal the body to preferentially store calories as fat instead of spending them freely. think of the peace symbol when you ' re planning your plate at lunch and dinner. aim to fill 2 / 3 of your plate with carbohydrates : a fruit serving, a cooked or raw vegetable serving, and a grain. the last third of your plate is for a serving of protein ( animal or vegetable ). add a serving or 2 of fat to round things off, if your other food choices don ' t contain much fat. this meal mix : carbohy


. the last third of your plate is for a serving of protein ( animal or vegetable ). add a serving or 2 of fat to round things off, if your other food choices don ' t contain much fat. this meal mix : carbohydrate + protein + fat provides the fast acting and long acting sources of energy that keep people well - fueled and satisfied for a longer period of time. when you are well satisfied, you ' re less likely to feel compelled to " nibble " during the day, and you aren ' t likely to arrive at the next meal or snack over - hungry and prone to over - eat. you can improve your meal mix ( and bone health! ) even further by having an 8 oz. serving of low - fat milk, yogurt, or their fortified soy - substitutes with each meal. these dairy servings contribute additional protein, which may boost appetite control for some people by creating and prolonging a sense of comfortable fullness. add high fiber choices to meals and snacks. high - fiber foods like wholegrains, fruits, vegetables, beans, and legumes help us with energy balance by promoting a feeling of comfortable fullness. both the bulk of these foods, and the more gradual way in which they are digested for energy, can help us to experience fullness at a meal and maintain a feeling of comfortable fullness for several hours. start eating when you are comfortably hungry, and stop eating when you are comfortably full. eating when you are at a comfortable level of physical hunger ( instead of starving ), and finishing when you are comfortably full ( instead of stuffed ) is one of the most powerful ways to make sure that your caloric intake stays appropriate. and the two are definitely related : by the time you are over - hungry, not only will you have a hard time slowing down your eating long enough to listen for a subtle fullness signal, you may also develop a preference for over - fullness in reaction to or as a defense against this uncomfortable level of hunger. moreover, you may find yourself developing a preference for higher - fat, higher - sugar foods under these circumstances because of the brain chemicals ( galanin - fat cravings, neuropeptide y - sweet cravings ) that are released when someone has gone for too long without eating. hunger is the physiological expression of the body ' s need for energy. there are some common symptoms of hunger that people may manifest in descending order as their blood sugar levels continue to drop. it ' s useful for you


gone for too long without eating. hunger is the physiological expression of the body ' s need for energy. there are some common symptoms of hunger that people may manifest in descending order as their blood sugar levels continue to drop. it ' s useful for you to identify your personal progression from slight hunger to over - hunger. you are more likely to begin a meal or a snack at a comfortable level of hunger if you eat within 5 - 10 minutes of your early hunger signals. - rumbling, or empty stomach - early hunger - decreased energy, particularly during physical activity - decreased ability to focus - feeling weak or shaky - nausea, cold sweats - late hunger appetite is our interest in food. it usually accompanies hunger, but it can also be stimulated by sensory triggers ( walking past a bakery ), habit ( " i always have a snack at this time " ), or emotions ( wanting food when sad or anxious ). most of us are familiar with the experience of a food " calling to us " when we are clear that we are not hungry, and eating under these circumstances once in a while is totally normal. a frequent tendency to eat from appetite rather than hunger, however, is likely to create inappropriate weight gain because it promotes consumption of calories that the body has no use for. appetite is linked to our innate need for pleasure, and can be aggravated by food deprivation, but it can also be exacerbated by a lack of fun, not enough relaxation, and insufficient outlets for soothing and comfort. our appetite for food stays more manageable when we eat enough, when we eat things we really enjoy, and when we have many other ways of relaxing and having fun. to learn more about the link between emotions, self - care needs, and eating, look at our section on emotional eating below. fullness is the physiological expression of the body having received enough energy at a meal or snack. the experience of fullness can be affected by a variety of food - related factors : - high - fiber wholegrains help to fill us up at meals and snacks, and keep us feeling full for longer. - protein is best at promoting comfortable fullness at a meal or snack, and it will continue to promote comfortable fullness for several hours afterwards. - although the presence of fat in a meal may not boost fullness in the moment because it is digested more slowly, it contributes significantly to long - lasting fullness. - fruits, vegetables, and beans provide bulk and fiber that boosts fullness. - hot foods and beverages tend


meal may not boost fullness in the moment because it is digested more slowly, it contributes significantly to long - lasting fullness. - fruits, vegetables, and beans provide bulk and fiber that boosts fullness. - hot foods and beverages tend to make us feel more full than cold ones. - eaten alone, processed grains ( e. g. low - fiber breakfast cereals ) and sugary foods don ' t contribute to a significant feeling of fullness, and get used up too quickly to support long - lasting fullness. fullness is a more subtle physiological signal than hunger, and can more easily be overridden or missed - - particularly if you are eating quickly or in a very distracting environment. the old guideline about taking a minimum of 20 minutes to eat still makes a lot of sense. like appetite and hunger, satisfaction can travel along with fullness, but there are other aspects that go beyond whether the body feels it has received enough energy. satisfaction usually requires : - reaching a preferred level of fullness, and - achieving a reasonable " match " between the sensory characteristics you were craving ( hot / cold, spicy / bland, crunchy, creamy, smooth, chewy, salty, bitter, sweet ) and the foods you actually chose. most of us can identify with eating situations in which we ' ve been physically full but not yet satisfied, and we usually found ourselves " grazing " afterwards, still searching for that satisfaction. this situation is even more likely to occur with dieting when people disallow themselves the types and amounts of foods they really want. unfortunately, the result of under - cutting satisfaction is a tendency to eat when not hungry and eat beyond fullness - - both of which contribute to inappropriate weight gain. so make sure that you choose foods you really like at meals and snacks - - even if some of them are high in calories, you can have them in moderate portions and you ' ll be doing yourself a favor in the end! as a species, we have several strong biological imperatives : survival, pleasure - seeking, and pain - avoidance, to name just a few. food and eating are connected to all three of these major themes, so is it any wonder that they get over - used sometimes? and possibly because our experience with food is so strongly reinforced on a physiological level, we have also developed a powerful emotional relationship with food. food and eating seem to be " about " a lot of things : family, cultural values, security, fun, intimacy, personal identity, spirituality, sensual


so strongly reinforced on a physiological level, we have also developed a powerful emotional relationship with food. food and eating seem to be " about " a lot of things : family, cultural values, security, fun, intimacy, personal identity, spirituality, sensuality, control, power, love … the list goes on, and on. as a result, our relationship with food can get a little distorted when we are having a hard time coping in other areas of our lives. food can be used as a way to meet other needs when we are depleted ( e. g. eating a snack, when we really need to take a nap or have a study break ). food can also be used to manage emotions ( e. g. eating to " numb - out, " or relax ). everyone eats emotionally once in a while - that ' s normal. when emotional eating becomes frequent, however, it can be really disruptive and distressing. first of all, it confuses the body, which prefers to regulate its intake according to hunger and fullness. secondly, it interferes with our ability to deal with our feelings and meet our real needs directly. it turns the language of feelings into the language of food, creating a situation in which you can begin to think that you have a " problem " with food. food isn ' t the problem - - it ' s a symptom of coping difficulties. here are some ways to manage emotional over - eating : take care of your basic needs for sleep, relaxation, social connection, and pleasure on a daily basis. there is a tendency, particularly during college, to treat these needs as optional : they are not. and ignoring the deficit doesn ' t make it go away ; it simply goes underground and pops up someplace unexpected - - like your relationship with food. create academic, athletic, social, and work schedules that don ' t require you to sacrifice the foundation of well - being. find more supportive ways to comfort or distract yourself when things are difficult. phoning a friend, taking a hot shower, going for a short walk while listening to your favorite music ; these are some ways to take a break and boost your mood without using food. get help understanding and managing feelings. the transition to college life is exciting - - and incredibly stressful. everybody struggles with this in their own way, and a little coaching can help you to understand your situation better and feel more effective. for more information about all of the above suggestions, psychological services is a fantastic resource. you can reach them at 401.


everybody struggles with this in their own way, and a little coaching can help you to understand your situation better and feel more effective. for more information about all of the above suggestions, psychological services is a fantastic resource. you can reach them at 401. 863 - 3476. if you are going to eat emotionally, do it really, really, well. like we said, everyone eats emotionally once in a while. so if you ' ve considered other self - care options, and eating something feels like the most satisfying choice, make it count. - pick out a food that gets as close as possible to your craving, so that you get the sensory satisfaction you are looking for. - if you can, aim for a single - serving portion of whatever you are craving ; remember - - you can always have more afterwards if you truly want it. - sit down and concentrate on what you are eating ; take your time and stay in touch with how good it tastes. - give yourself permission to enjoy whatever you are eating - - without guilt. feeling guilty increases the likelihood that you will " numb - out " and rush through your eating, making you prone to eat more because either you missed out on the pleasure, or you are having to comfort yourself for feeling so guilty. sometimes dealing with emotions results in the opposite problem - - under - eating and weight loss. here are some emotional under - eating issues, and some ideas that may be useful : - feeling stressed - out about making time for meals and snacks because your schedule is so tight. healthy eating gives you the energy to do what you want to do, so make it a priority. avoid painting yourself into a corner by creating a schedule that allows you to put self - care first. - feeling overwhelmed by the crowds and atmosphere of the dining halls. try coming at a time when the crowds are smaller ( noon to 1 pm is usually the busiest time of day. ). since the ratty is the largest of the dining facilities, try the v - dub or another location if you need a smaller and less hectic eating environment - - even if it means a few extra steps in your usual routine. plan to go with a friend if you are uncertain about trying a new place alone. - arriving at meals too stressed to eat, having no appetite, or getting an upset stomach after eating. some of the same brain and endocrine chemicals that start to cascade during our experience of stress also have receptors in the gut - no wonder people lose their interest in food or get an upset stomach.


appetite, or getting an upset stomach after eating. some of the same brain and endocrine chemicals that start to cascade during our experience of stress also have receptors in the gut - no wonder people lose their interest in food or get an upset stomach. do what you can to arrive at meals in a relaxed frame of mind. leaving plenty of time so that you can arrive, eat, and hang out for a little while afterwards can really improve interest in eating, and definitely cuts down on stomach discomfort afterwards. practicing deep, abdominal breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, or doing some mini - visualizations can also help people manage their stress before heading into a meal. to learn more about these and other techniques for stress management on - the - go, visit our page on stress. - feeling anxious about the types of foods available and how they are prepared. getting used to new foods or foods that are prepared differently is sometimes difficult. you can ' t ask for " made to order " dishes, but you can experiment with creating some of your own dishes with items already available in the dining facilities. think about trying one new food each week, so that you can begin to broaden your tastes and bring down your anxiety level. if you suspect that your anxiety about food and eating is related to disordered eating or weight concerns, visit our page on eating concerns. health education 401. 863 - 2794 located on the third floor of health services. confidential information or care is available through individual appointments with a nutritionist to discuss the many types of eating concerns you may have regarding yourself, a friend, roommate or teammate. health education also offers workshops, pamphlets, and reading materials covering these and related issues. health education services are free as part of your health services fee. university health services 401. 863 - 3953 located at 13 brown street across from keeney quad. confidential information and care is available for initial, current or past disordered eating patients. psychological services 401. 863 - 3476 located on the fifth floor of j. walter wilson. confidential appointments are available at psychological services for students concerned about their eating issues. guidance is also available for those who are concerned about a friend, roommate, or teammate ' s eating. services include crisis intervention, short - term psychotherapy and referrals. appointments at psychological services are free as part of your health services fee. after the diet : helping humans overcome eating problems another fantastic diet - free web site, with particularly good information about the connections between nutrition, hormones, and brain chemistry. run by diet


appointments at psychological services are free as part of your health services fee. after the diet : helping humans overcome eating problems another fantastic diet - free web site, with particularly good information about the connections between nutrition, hormones, and brain chemistry. run by dietitian monika woolsey, the site includes " eating resource centers " covering everything from irritable bowel syndrome to sleep disorders, q & a sessions on hot topics, and links to providers specializing in a given topic. established by dietitian karin kratina, one of the foremost leaders in the health at every size approach, this web site is a great place to go for a balanced clinical counterpoint to the " war on obesity. " having recently completed her phd in cultural anthropology, karin ' s work is particularly useful for anyone interested in exploring the symbolic and socio - cultural aspects of food, eating, exercise, and body image. the american dietetic association daily tips and feature topics often have articles of interest. by sending an email to email @ example. com, you can ask questions directly of registered dietitians in your area. nutrition network is a national referral service for registered dietitians. award winning web site. this site looks at ways we can feel good in the bodies we have. one of their slogans : " remember, your body hears everything you think. " other topics on the web site : size acceptance ; what do you say when everyone around you is dieting? 200 ways to love the body you have ; dieting detox ; evaluating weight loss programs : what are the red flags? free subscription to email newsletter " body positive pages. " disclaimer : health education is part of health services at brown university. health education maintains this site as a resource for brown students. this site is not intended to replace consultation with your medical providers. no site can replace real conversation. health education offers no endorsement of and assumes no liability for the currency, accuracy, or availability of the information on the sites we link to or the care provided by the resources listed. health services staff are available to treat and give medical advice to brown university students only. if you are not a brown student, but are in need of medical assistance please call your own health care provider or in case of an emergency, dial 911. please contact us if you have comments, questions or suggestions.


note - to date. the dome is still unfinished. as is this article. neither dome nor article will be. resumed until this autumn. so patience please... meanwhile. the information below is a step by step explanation of how to build your own geodesic dome. above, dome nearly completed, without glass and perspex windows ( its summer! ) above photo, interior of dome, nearly completed above photo, interior of dome, nearly completed. however, most governments and legislators would prefer people of low income to live here... in ' charming ' town planning projects that give the local medeival architecture a real boost to their image, eh hem... spot ales ' medieval fort and, significantly, old prison, it ' s a job to find it, but if you squint hard enough... step by step photo instructions... the first step in building a geodesic dome home is to fully understand and visualise the geometry of the structure beforehand. to do this it is essential to build a small model version that you can refer back to whenever you get confused or stuck. it ' s possible to build a dome without first doing a model, but you ' re more likely to get in a fix, which wastes time and money. to make a 50cm diameter cardboard model you ' ll need a pencil, a compass, a ruler, 15 sheets of a4 lightweight photocopy card in one colour, and 5 sheets of the same card in another colour, one large piece of thick cardboard for the base ( from a big cardboard box will do ), glue, at least twenty very small boston clips, thumbtacks and probably some other stuff too, we ' ll see as we go along. the two fluffy assistants are optional. i found a useful video on youtube showing how to ' construct a geodesic dome ' out of cardboard. the instructions are for children so even a maths moron such as myself could follow them! the dome is composed of 10 equilateral triangles that join together 6 pentagons, each pentagon being composed of 5 isosceles triangles. in all, the dome requires a total of 40 triangles, 30 of them isosceles and 10 of them equilateral. in order to attain the dome diameter of 50cm the 3 sides of the equilateral triangles must be 15cm45 long precisely ( to be called length a ). the isosceles triangles must have one side measuring, again, 15cm45 and


to attain the dome diameter of 50cm the 3 sides of the equilateral triangles must be 15cm45 long precisely ( to be called length a ). the isosceles triangles must have one side measuring, again, 15cm45 and the two other sides measuring 13cm66 ( to be called length b ). being the congenital maths moron i am, it was impossible for me to calculate how to draw two triangles together ( to save paper ), centering them correctly on a sheet of photocopy paper. so i drew one, photocopied it, cut them both out, then stuck them together on a sheet of paper. in this way i had the template for two triangles neatly fitted together and centered on the a4 paper. i then made 5 photocopies of the template below so as to get 10 equilateral triangles in lightweight yellow card. to make an equilateral triangle, use your ruler to draw a 15. 45cm line at the bottom of your page. set your compass to exactly 15. 45cm. putting the point at one end of the line, draw an arc approximately where the top point of the triangle should go. switch the point of the compass to the other end of the line and draw another arc. where the two arcs cross is the third point of the triangle. use your ruler to draw the two other sides. to draw the glue tabs, draw a line 1cm parallel to all three sides around the entire outer edge of the triangle. cut off its points, as in the triangles above, by drawing a straight line to slice off the points of the outer triangles so that the glue tabs can be stuck together without the ends overlapping. to draw the isosceles triangle draw the base line of the triangle again at a length of 15. 45cm, but set the compass at 13. 66cm instead so as to achieve the two shorter edges. i then made 15 photocopies of the template, this time in blue card, so as to get a total of 30 isosceles triangles. carefully cut out all your triangles and, using a book and a ruler, fold the glue tabs carefully along each of their lines. apply glue to the tabs and stick the five isosceles triangles together ( sticking together the b sides ) so as to form a pentagon, leaving the last two tabs unglued. when applying glue be sure to use a scrap piece of paper underneath so as to not get anything grubby.


triangles together ( sticking together the b sides ) so as to form a pentagon, leaving the last two tabs unglued. when applying glue be sure to use a scrap piece of paper underneath so as to not get anything grubby. stick the b sides together two by two. if you try to apply glue to all of the sides at the same time and then try to stick them all together simultaneously, the tabs where you applied the glue first will have dried. so just go edge by edge. glue needs to be applied to both glue tabs being stuck together and not just one, to ensure a strong fix. assemble all six pentagons in the same way, leaving the last two edges open on each one. to be sure that the glue dries completely you may want to leave the next stage for the following day ; otherwise, leaving it for a couple of hours should do it. once dry, the final edges of the isosceles triangles can be glued together. as you pull the two sides against one another you ' ll see why it was necessary to allow the other sides to dry first, as now the pentagons will be raised into their three - dimensional volume, putting strong pressure on all sides. this is where you now need to attach the small boston clips to clamp the freshly glued sides together. i left them all overnight again, but if you ' re feeling brave, another couple of hours should do. here we have the six pentagons fully assembled on my scruffy old floor. as you can see, my fluffy assistant to the left seems satisfied with the work so far. i have placed the ten equilateral triangles next to the pentagons, ready for the next stage. now we need to make the base. thinking i was very clever, i bought some fancy hard card instead of using the simple cardboard box card suggested in the video. the result was a fiendishly difficult challenge with a stanley knife when it came to the cutting stage. it was all very scary and not at all appropriate for children... or for fluffy assistants for that matter. so use normal cardboard from a box as it ' s far easier to cut with no more than a pair of scissors. and it ' s free. cut out your piece of cardboard for the base, making it no smaller than 56cm squared. find its center by drawing diagonal lines from each of its corners, creating a cross in the center. here, one of my fluffy assistants is demonstrating how this can be done very easily with


for the base, making it no smaller than 56cm squared. find its center by drawing diagonal lines from each of its corners, creating a cross in the center. here, one of my fluffy assistants is demonstrating how this can be done very easily with a builder ' s rule, useful as it ' s so big. a straight plank would also do the trick. here is the base with the cross revealing the center of the square. at this point you may wish to take a small break and give yourself a vigorous scratch for good measure. now we need to make a big compass out of a 35cm x 4cm strip of card. this card is thicker than the triangles but lighter than the base board. it needs to be quite thick and strong so as not to tear, but not too thick to put the nib of a pencil through it. place the cardboard strip on another piece of cardboard as we are now going to push thumbtacks into it to create pencil holes. my assistant is helpfully indicating the spacing of these four holes. the one on the far left, let ' s call it the ' 0cm hole ', will be the point where we pin this card compass into the center of the base. now place a tack at precisely 16cm to the right of the first hole, then 25cm and finally at 27cm distant from the first hole. we have now created four holes at 0cm, 16cm, 25cm and 27cm. tacking the 0cm hole to the center of your cardboard base, use the holes at 16cm, 25cm and 27cm to draw three concentric circles. the fluffy tail is optional in this simple manoeuvre, but adds interest. here is the base with the three concentric circles drawn. cut out along the center circle to create an inner hole. cut out along the outer circle to finish the now circular base. sitting on the circle will prevent it from unexpectedly flying away... set the compass to 15. 45cm precisely. to make it easier to set it perfectly i drew a line of the right length on a piece of paper, dug the point into one end of the line and carefully pulled the compass to the right length. place the point of the compass on the circle inside the outer edge of your base and draw an arc further along the line of your circle. then place the point where your arc crosses the line and draw another arc further along. continue all around the circle till all the points of your decagon ( ten - sided poly


your base and draw an arc further along the line of your circle. then place the point where your arc crosses the line and draw another arc further along. continue all around the circle till all the points of your decagon ( ten - sided polygon ) are drawn. at this point you will discover if your compass is set precisely or not. if it isn ' t your last arc will be too far in or out. cursing loudly at this juncture may help relieve tension. if it ' s not right, rub out the marks and start again. i actually ended up having an approximate decagon and just bodged along as i do, knowing that the length a sides of the triangles would make up for any incompetent fumbling around with the compass. now use your ruler to draw straight lines from point to point, thus completing the drawing of the decagon. my assistant pointed out that my work was rather unprofessional. she explained that putting one ' s nose up against the base and scrutinising it carefully was all it took to discover my sloppy work. she even went so far as to call my other assistant over to prove her point at this moment in the proceedings my assistants became suddenly overwhelmed by a frenzy of excitement. perhaps my lack of professionalism had compromised their respect for the project. all at once my ordered workshop had degenerated into a wrestling ring! determined to get things under control, i raised my voice and commanded, ' no no, you naughty assistants! stop this monkey business at once!!! ' fearing my authority had indeed been compromised i was forced to take radical measures. reciting the affirmation ' i am strong and in control. i am respected ' i grabbed them round their fluffy bellies and firmly transported them out of the room, shutting the door behind them! they were outraged, but i felt proud to have proved to myself and to the world at large that i was an impressive figure of authority, not to be messed with. i could now get on with laying out my card dome sections, base, boston clips, thumbtacks and glue without further ado. applying glue to both sides that needed to be stuck together, i glued the pentagons and equliateral triangles alternately round the base following the decagon i ' d drawn previously, as neatly as possible. to keep everything in place it ' s essential to use the boston clips on the dome ' s edges and the thumbtacks around the base to hold everything in


the base following the decagon i ' d drawn previously, as neatly as possible. to keep everything in place it ' s essential to use the boston clips on the dome ' s edges and the thumbtacks around the base to hold everything in place and give the glue time to work. once the bottom layer was complete i applied liquid glue all around the join of the base to give it extra strength. i added the final layer of equilateral triangles... and using the hole in the base in order to access the final layer from underneath, i glued in the last pentagon. et voila... the dome model was complete... as was my initiation into the mysterious world of geometry and mathematics! the most difficult part of building a dome being accomplished, i could now apply myself to the simple task of building the dome home itself. all that was needed was a comfy chair, a hot drink, and a handy assistant to take care of all the boring woodwork! to make lifesize domes, you can use the model as a ratio guide. in the video for making the model, the man gives the following mathematical formula for understanding the diameter and length ratios ( not that i understand a word of it, mind ). this was the formula he gave ( and that i still haven ' t figured out in my brain ) : r = radius of dome a = r x 0. 61803 ( base side ) b = r x 0. 54653 ( sides of isosceles ) here is how we went about calculating the real dome : the model is 50cm diameter, composed of 40 triangles of which 10 are equilateral and 30 are isosceles. length a ( of the equilaterals ) is 15. 45cm and length b ( of the isosceles ) is 13. 66cm therefore, to make, for example, a 2m diameter dome, simply multiply all of the dimensions above by 4 ( 50cm x 4 = 2m ). so for a 2m diameter dome : length a = 61. 8cm ( 15. 45 x 4 ) length b = 54. 64cm ( 13. 66cm x 4 ). for the 3m dome that we built, simply multiply the model ' s dimensions by 6 ( 50cm x 6 = 3m ). here it is in its skeletal form to help you visualise the following calculations, the 3m diameter dome : length a = 92. 7cm length b = 82cm now


' s dimensions by 6 ( 50cm x 6 = 3m ). here it is in its skeletal form to help you visualise the following calculations, the 3m diameter dome : length a = 92. 7cm length b = 82cm now it is necessary to count all of the spokes, or wooden bars, of the dome ( lengths a and b ) so as to know how many to cut to support the forty triangles. as there are 6 pentagons, each composed of 5 central ( radial ) spokes, this makes a total of 30 length b spokes of wood. the 10 equilateral triangles, joining the pentagons together, are all composed of 3 length a spokes, which makes 30. don ' t forget to add the 5 additional length as at the base of the bottom pentagons. the door is best put in one of the hexagons ( composed of an upper and lower equilateral and 2 isosceles to each side ) rather than the pentagons, because the hexagons have horizontal tops and bottoms, good for putting in a rectangular door : the pentagon is pointed at the top and a bit lower down, requiring one to stoop. therefore, from the above calculation of the number of total spokes, it is necessary to subtract the central spokes of a hexagon, that is, two length bs and 4 length as the 3m diameter dome : total number of length a ( 92. 7cm ) spokes / bars = 35 ( minus 4 for door = 31 ) total number of length b ( 82cm ) spokes / bars = 30 ( minus 2 for door = 28 ) after trying out the dome without a base, as you ' ll see in the photos below, we decided that having a bit of extra height would be far more comfortable and spacious to live in. it was worth the extra effort : our base consisted of : (......... ) the metallic bars, or braces, to join the spokes together into ' hubs ' were each 10cm long with 4 screw holes. we chose to join the wooden spokes with more or less the cheapest available, strong enough to do a nice job, but flexible enough to bend with pliers in those all - important bodge job moments. i think the price in a diy shop was about 3 euros for a pack of twenty five. we bought four packs, giving us about 100 metal brackets in all. we got in a


pliers in those all - important bodge job moments. i think the price in a diy shop was about 3 euros for a pack of twenty five. we bought four packs, giving us about 100 metal brackets in all. we got in a fix and ran out at some point, so it ' s useful to buy a few extra just in case. we bought the cheapest non - planed bars of wood, 3cm x 4cm thick in strips of 2 meters, to cut up into the lengths b and a. in all we spent approximately 70 or 80 euros on the wooden understructure frame of spokes. one day i will make these spokes out of locally harvested bamboo and join them using the ring hub method instead. meanwhile, we did actually happen to have a spare door hanging around, so that was one expense we were spared. planing the wood is boring and quite time consuming, so having a handy human assistant around to take care of this is advisable. the metal braces are put in a vice ( or some other mechanism to keep them still ) after first being stuck together in a straight line with masking tape so as to prevent them slipping out of place when whacked... then they were whacked and bent in the middle at a 36° angle using a protractor as a guide. after much head scratching we finally figured out that the angles of the dome would correspond to the angles of the base of the structure ; that is, a ten - sided polygon which is called a decagon. a circle is 360°, and divided by 10 = 36. here below are the metal braces each screwed into the wood using the two screwholes, leaving the other half of the bar jutting into the air. all of the wooden bars must have metal braces attached to both ends. each hub is joined by a butterfly screw ( well, that ' s what i call them, anyway ) here is what the dome looked like, rapidly erected with no base...... leaving the hexagonal door gaping saggily open and in desperate need of two vertical support lengths of wood for the rectangular door shape, plus short spokes supporting the middle of each length. however, we had more ambitious projects afoot, so we didn ' t bother. nevertheless, the basic dome, covered as in the photo below, with decorative hand embroidered nomadic indian fabrics and blankets, makes a very nice mini - yurt structure for keeping warm in the winter,


projects afoot, so we didn ' t bother. nevertheless, the basic dome, covered as in the photo below, with decorative hand embroidered nomadic indian fabrics and blankets, makes a very nice mini - yurt structure for keeping warm in the winter, or covered with a canvas for a outdoor tent. but that ' s not what we wanted... so we took it all down and started again, this time with a base... oops... forgot to add the side bars of the rectangular base sections... at this point having someone holding the model as a guide and telling the other person which order the lengths a and b go is vital if you don ' t want to spend all day and all night putting the wrong lengths in, dismantling everything, reconstructing it and so on. it can even be helpful to mark, both on the model dome and the wooden spokes, if they are as or bs. additional assistance of the fluffy ginger variety is optional. a handy broom, however, is essential... the first round is up, leaving a gap for the door, so everything ' s a bit wobbly and the broom is more appreciated than ever. this floppy hexagonal gap for the door is a tricky number. if you have a door ready made and fitted at this stage, it ' s best to put it in earlier rather than later. in our case the door was still an unexpected but rapidly approaching crisis. the last spokes go in... up and up... and now, the door... it is not going to be fixed into a solid wall so anything you can do to rigidify it could be helpful. we attached planks to the base and top of the frame to reinforce it and attached the whole lot to the dome with 45° angled brackets as in the photo below. it ' s tricky, fiddly and at times infuriating, so experts in bodge jobbing are more likely to win the day on this one. at times the frame and even the whole dome needs yanking around till you get everything well balanced and grounded evenly on the floor : after admiring the recycle crochet jumper i made for my assistant, you may wish to turn your attention to the piece of string attached to a hub with a bracket sticking up. this is to measure and gauge the angle and lengths from the top four dome hubs to each side of the door that must be joined to it with four bars. goodness knows what angle they


art, byzantine influences on coptic. it would be astonishing if byzantine art had not exercised an influence on coptic art, which was the art of a region included in the byzantine empire. byzantine art was at an advantage over coptic art, since it was an imperial art, as dominant as it was rich and having all the splendor of brilliant luxury, whereas the values of coptic art were modest and could only find models in byzantium. thus byzantine specialists naturally tend to see coptic art as a department of byzantine art to the extent of classifying among the techniques of byzantine art the best works of coptic art in painting, sculpture, and tapestry. this claim is made by scholars as well informed as a. grabar ( 1966, pp. 173 - 89, 245 - 46, 264 - 69, 323 - 32 ), and it is carried to extremes by k. wessel ( 1964 ). it is, however, rejected by e. coche de la ferte ( 1981, p. 29 ). the claim loses substance when the facts are considered. coptic art was already well established when byzantine art came into being at the end of the fifth century. the possibility of direct and constant links between the two is limited to two centuries because of the conquest of egypt by the arabs. these were the years when the byzantine authorities provoked coptic hostility. these circumstances, then, make an influence of byzantine art more plausible because of its dominant position, rather than that coptic art should have been part of the byzantine : not the style — which is the very life blood of art — but the iconography, a supporting feature, was affected. if byzantine influence occurred between the middle of the fifth and the middle of the seventh century, it could be revived only with some indulgence from the ninth to the twelfth century, when tulunid and fatimid egypt gradually opened its gates to the byzantine empire. the first of these periods, then, is one of coexistence of these two art traditions, while egypt was occupied by the byzantine authorities. in egypt the basilicas of the crypt of abu mina, one erected by constantine in the paleo - christian period and the other added by arcadius in the fifth century — each a part of an imperial program and constructed with rich materials — do not appear to have had a decisive influence. rather, it seems that the coptic basilica derives from the roman christian basilica, with some native modifications. this is apparent particularly in the side entrance, sometimes with a baffle, reentrant colonnades,


appear to have had a decisive influence. rather, it seems that the coptic basilica derives from the roman christian basilica, with some native modifications. this is apparent particularly in the side entrance, sometimes with a baffle, reentrant colonnades, and a tripling of the apse, which is itself also reentrant and a product of the vertical lines of the walls. the decorative sculpture of coptic churches may have borrowed certain motifs from byzantine art, among them the foliated scrolls of the friezes. nevertheless, the scrolls, as in the south church of bawit, may equally well have derived from those evident in roman mosaics scattered around the periphery of the mediterranean from libya to syria. scrolls elsewhere developed according to a coptic style characterized by the flat disposition of the whole and an extremely elaborate stylization. this transformation is particularly true of the corbeled capitals such as those in the south church of bawit. the corbeled capital, too, was of libyan origin, from sabratha and leptis magna, and earlier than byzantine art. the imagination displayed here and the clear - cut right - angled contrast of surface and recess that throws it into relief are typically coptic. the pictorial decoration of the chapel of peace at al - bagawat was plainly byzantine and not coptic. it remained isolated at that oasis from all other coptic productions, none of which included any of its features. some liturgical attributes, such as the garments of the saints or the monks in the church of the monastery of ( dayr ) apa jeremiah at saqqara or in the devotional chapels of bawit, matched those of the sacred figures of the sanctuaries of ravenna. but there the form had lost the elegance of its drapery, and the figures were grouped side by side instead of gathered together, as if in an interpretation of movement, as is usual in the art of ravenna and in byzantine art as a whole. another liturgical symbol, the sacred book adorned with precious stones and carried by a christ shown with the abbot mena, painted on wood, clearly indicated the influence of byzantine art in the stereotyped way it portrayed the savior. otherwise byzantine influence was subsidiary ; the subject matter, the style of the characters, and the language of the inscription that names them were entirely coptic. various subjects in fabrics and tapestries are of byzantine origin. some of these are the fantastic animals that face each other in some groups of fabrics, the medallion showing alexander on horseback ( museum of


the language of the inscription that names them were entirely coptic. various subjects in fabrics and tapestries are of byzantine origin. some of these are the fantastic animals that face each other in some groups of fabrics, the medallion showing alexander on horseback ( museum of textile, washington ), and certain pieces of silk from antinoopolis ( louvre ). but these are isolated examples and distinct from the major productions of coptic fabrics. the subject of the tapestry hangings in the cleveland museum of art, which show the virgin seated in state with the infant jesus and busts of the apostles and saints around the edges, is byzantine, but the presentation has broken with the original style to become coptic oriented. the links between constantinople and egypt, which were interrupted by the arab conquest of egypt, resumed in the ninth and accelerated in the tenth to the twelfth centuries. but they were episodic and superficial among the christians of egypt, who were from that time a minority without influence. the church of the monastery of abu fanah in western middle egypt, which is uniformly decorated with byzantine crosses, suggests that in that region byzantine iconoclasm was in the ascendant ; but this is an isolated case. the saints on horseback decorating the rear of the church of the monastery of saint antony ( dayr anba antuniyus ) in the desert near the red sea are marked by byzantine influence either by their postures or by the placing of a church under the horses ' bellies ; the faces of the horsemen, however, show coptic features. the themes of shoulder bands and the cuffs of tunics contrast with everything coptic though at the same time are part of it. these are characterized by the garments or details of garments ( e. g., the thorakion [ baldric ] of the persons there represented ) and are often accompanied on the edges by animals facing each other. but the whole is treated in crowded and angular fashion, typical of the coptic style. thus the byzantine presence was felt in egypt as it influenced coptic art. sometimes the byzantine characteristics were strong and isolated ; sometimes they were slightly modified by coptic features ; sometimes their traces appeared in art that was completely coptic in style. as with other art styles, especially greco - roman art, the byzantine may have provided subjects that were entirely reworked in coptic style in such a manner as to lose the marks of origin. this assimilation and, ipso facto, difference had two causes. one was theological, particularly the cult of images, which set the coptic expression of the common christian faith at odds with