this required modification to the bomb - bay doors. ( note : the exact weight in kg of ' tall boy ' and ' grand slam ' bombs differs according to source. the figures above are the most common. ) the lancaster had a very advanced communications system for its time ; the famous 1155 receiver and 1154 transmitter. these provided radio direction - finding, as well as voice and morse capabilities. later lancasters carried : - monica - a rearward looking radar to warn of night fighter approaches - a notable disaster, transmitting constant warnings of bombers in the same formation it was ignored by crews and instead served as a homing beacon for suitably equiped german night fighters. - fishpond - an add - on to h2s that provided additional ( aerial ) coverage of the underside of the aircraft to display attacking fighters on the main h2s screen. - gee - a receiver for a navigation system of synchronized pulses transmitted from the uk - aircraft calculated their position from the phase shift between pulses. the range of gee was 3 - 400 miles. - oboe - a very accurate navigation system consisting of a receiver / transponder for two radar stations transmitting from the uk - one determining range and the other the bearing on the range. as the system could only handle one aircraft at a time it was only fitted to pathfinder aircraft which marked the target for the main force. later supplemented by gee - h, similar to oboe but with the transponder on the ground allowing more aircraft to use the system simultaneously. gee - h aircraft were usually marked with two horizontal yellow stripes on the fins. the most famous use of the lancaster was probably the 1943 mission, codenamed operation chastise, to destroy the dams of the ruhr valley using special drum shaped bouncing bombs designed by barnes wallis, and carried by modified mk iiis. the story of the mission was later made into a film, the dam busters. another famous action was a series of attacks against the german battleship tirpitz with ' tall boy ' bombs, ended with sinking ' tirpitz '. a development of the lancaster was the avro lincoln bomber, initially known as the lancaster iv and lancaster v, these two marks became the lincoln b1 and b2 respectively. there was also a civilian airliner based on the lancaster, the lancastrian. other developments were the york, a square - bodied transport, and the shackleton, which continued in airborne early warning service up to 1992. two avro lancasters remain in air - worthy condition, although few flying


lancaster, the lancastrian. other developments were the york, a square - bodied transport, and the shackleton, which continued in airborne early warning service up to 1992. two avro lancasters remain in air - worthy condition, although few flying hours remain on their airframes and actual flying is carefully rationed. one is pa474 of the battle of britain memorial flight and the other is fm 213 of the canadian warplane heritage museum. two lancasters with extensive combat histories in australian squadrons have survived as static exhibits. s for sugar of 463 / 467 squadron raaf flew 135 operational sorties, and is now on display at the raf museum, hendon. g for george of 460 squadron raaf flew 90 operational sorties, and is now on display at the australian war memorial, canberra. - the avro history - surviving birmingham and manchester made avro lancasters - pa474 of the battle of britain memorial flight - fm 213 of the canadian warplane heritage museum - lancaster fm159 - the nanton lancaster - the australian war memorial g for george page - r1155 radio receiver | related development | | avro york | the contents of this article is licensed from www. wikipedia. org under the gnu free documentation license. click here to see the transparent copy and copyright details


science fair project encyclopedia very nice diagrams of refraction ( with the red lines ). very good at explaining the phenomenon. i think that a rainbow is visible only when the sun is at a low altitude - mornings and late afternoon / evenings. isn ' t there some specific angle for this? krs 15 : 33, 1 feb 2004 ( utc ) - i added : hence there is no rainbow if the sun is at a higher altitude than 42° : the rainbow would be below the horizon. - - patrick 23 : 30, 1 feb 2004 ( utc ) nevertheless, it is not true, as sometimes one can look below the horizon. for example, if you are looking down from a mountain, or - as mentioned in the article! - from an aeroplane. i ' ve deleted the incorrect reference to glories from the aeroplane comment. glory is a different optical phenomenon from rainbow and it is incorrect to state that a full - circle rainbow is a glory. this error needs to be removed from the page glory _ ( rainbow ) and i ' ve put that on my task list, but i ' m not sure how to fix the problem that the error is incorporated into the page title. advice welcome. - - richard jones 13 : 45, 20 mar 2004 ( utc ) added : even more rarely is a triple rainbow seen and a few observers have reported seeing quadruple rainbows in which a dim outermost arc had a rippling and pulsating appearance. - sounds fantanstic, but i saw this, and i was not the only one - leonard g. 03 : 50, 25 aug 2004 ( utc ) the article does a clumsy job about what is special about the 42° or the 52° angle. the picture lead me to correctly see that light can be refracted - internally. reflected - refracted. again at a large range of angles, its just that 42° is where the largest intensity of refraction occurs. the page http : / / www. phy. ntnu. edu. tw / java / rainbow / rainbow. html has a much better explanation for the angle. 220. 127. 116. 11 21 : 46, 30 aug 2004 ( utc ) i ' m not clear on this section : in a very few cases, a moonbow, or night - time rainbow, can be seen on strongly - moonlit nights. as human visual perception for colour in low light is poor, moonbows are perceived to be white. in hawaii, we see moonbows


, a moonbow, or night - time rainbow, can be seen on strongly - moonlit nights. as human visual perception for colour in low light is poor, moonbows are perceived to be white. in hawaii, we see moonbows all the time, and it ' s possible to make out many colors. so, what does the editor ( or author ) mean by " in a very few cases "? - - viriditas 12 : 00, 29 oct 2004 ( utc ) the article states : even more rarely is a triple rainbow seen and a few observers have reported seeing quadruple rainbows... these things are not rare in hawaii. i ' ve seen triple rainbows many times and a quadruple rainbow only twice. - - viriditas 12 : 32, 29 oct 2004 ( utc ) - more importantly we could use a scientific explanation of how they are possible. i ' ve seen a 3 + rainbow and know that the additional bows cannot be explained using descartes ' internal reflections in a rain drop. - - solipsist 08 : 32, 24 nov 2004 ( utc ) the main mnemonic described in the article is ' richard of york... ', given the subject am i right in thinking that this is only commonly used in the uk? another editor has also added ' roy g. biv ' saying it is more common. i haven ' t heard this one, is it common in the us? - - solipsist 08 : 43, 24 nov 2004 ( utc ) total internal reflection? the article states that light is reflected from the back of the drop under total internal reflection. i find this statement rather dubious at best. a quick derivation from snell ' s law shows that the minimum angle for total internal reflection in water ( using nw = 1. 33 ) is 48. 7 degrees. that would imply that the angle at the back of the droplet is greater than 90 degrees, which by inspection is not the case. since light would therefore leave the back of the drop refracted, would it not be impossible to see a rainbow between the observer and the sun, if the appropriate areas of the sky were unobscured? kenneth charles edit : i did some research. light is indeed passed out the back of a droplet, but due to the fact that there is no distinct peak of emission from this spectra, it does not form a visible rainbow. however, the statement that light is totally internally reflected inside a raindrop is wrong and should


science fair project encyclopedia a typographical error or " typo " is a mistake made during the typing process. this excludes errors of ignorance, rather being the result of slips of the hand or finger, or in some cases, mechanical failure. typographical errors typically manifest in the form of an additional or missing character, or the switching of two characters. the emergence of usenet and the world wide web as popular forms of mass - communication brought with it many people who are not skilled typists but have a lot to say. typos are therefore common on the usenet and the web, and some have found certain notoriety as in - jokes among internet groups and subcultures. a well - known typo in the internet gaming subculture is pwned. the etymology is not definite, but it is widely - believed that the close proximity of the o and p keys on a qwerty keyboard caused the accidental typing — and subsequent publishing — of pwned instead of owned ( a declaration of domination over an opponent ) in a popular multiplayer game. the in - joke has since gained considerable popularity and variations. " teh best thign evar!! 1! one! 1!! " users who are careless about their fast, emotional postings to web forums have sometimes brought on some sardonic ridicule with similar " errors " by others in follow - up or stereotypical postings. the ridicule is not usually directed solely at the original poster ' s typing ability, but also their impatience and carelessness to contribute a meaningful posting. this has included : - the misspelling of ' the ' as ' teh ', combined with poor grammar and similar misspellings. - the sardonic ridicule of a user being so excited that they have failed to hold down the shift key long enough to type a consistent series of exclamation marks ( resulting in a string of characters like "!!! 1! 1! " ). such ridicule is usually exacted by the replacement of ' 1 ' characters with literal ' one ' s in a similar string. e. g., " omg that is sooo interesting!!! 1! one! " despite syntactical similarities, this form of intentional mis - typing is not directly related to leetspeak. the intentional replacement of choice characters in leetspeak usually has the intention of obfuscation rather than ridicule. a common internet typo for student.


- 5. 5 – 6. 7 in - 8. 7 – 11. 8 in - 1. 1 oz - slightly smaller than a bohemian waxwing - ampelis americano, picotera, chinito ( spanish ) - jaseur d ' amerique ( french ) - the name " waxwing " comes from the waxy red secretions found on the tips of the secondaries of some birds. the exact function of these tips is not known, but they may help attract mates. - cedar waxwings with orange instead of yellow tail tips began appearing in the northeastern u. s. and southeastern canada in the 1960s. the orange color is the result of a red pigment picked up from the berries of an introduced species of honeysuckle. if a waxwing eats enough of the berries while it is growing a tail feather, the tip of the feather will be orange. - the cedar waxwing is one of the few north american birds that specializes in eating fruit. it can survive on fruit alone for several months. brown - headed cowbirds that are raised in cedar waxwing nests typically don ’ t survive, in part because the cowbird chicks can ’ t develop on such a high - fruit diet. - many birds that eat a lot of fruit separate out the seeds and regurgitate them, but the cedar waxwing lets them pass right through. scientists have used this trait to estimate how fast waxwings can digest fruits. - because they eat so much fruit, cedar waxwings occasionally become intoxicated or even die when they run across overripe berries that have started to ferment and produce alcohol. - building a nest takes a female cedar waxwing 5 to 6 days and may require more than 2, 500 individual trips to the nest. they occasionally save time by taking nest materials from other birds ’ nests, including nests of eastern kingbirds, yellow - throated vireos, orioles, robins, and yellow warblers. - the oldest known cedar waxwing was 8 years, 2 months old. cedar waxwings inhabit deciduous, coniferous, and mixed woodlands, particularly areas along streams. you may also find them in old fields, grasslands, sagebrush, and even along desert washes. with the spread of ornamental berry trees in landscaping, cedar waxwings are increasingly common in towns and suburbs. in winter, cedar waxwings are most abundant around fruiting plants in open woodlands, parks, gardens, forest edges, and second - growth forests. birds that winter in the


landscaping, cedar waxwings are increasingly common in towns and suburbs. in winter, cedar waxwings are most abundant around fruiting plants in open woodlands, parks, gardens, forest edges, and second - growth forests. birds that winter in the tropics tend to inhabit highlands. cedar waxwings feed mainly on fruits year - round. in summer, they feed on fruits such as serviceberry, strawberry, mulberry, dogwood, and raspberries. the birds ’ name derives from their appetite for cedar berries in winter ; they also eat mistletoe, madrone, juniper, mountain ash, honeysuckle, crabapple, hawthorn, and russian olive fruits. in summer cedar waxwings supplement their fruit diet with protein - rich insects including mayflies, dragonflies, and stoneflies, often caught on the wing. they also pick items such as scale insects, spruce budworm, and leaf beetles directly from vegetation. - clutch size - 2 – 6 eggs - number of broods - 1 - 2 broods - egg length - 0. 6 – 1. 1 in - egg width - 0. 6 – 0. 7 in - incubation period - 11 – 13 days - nestling period - 14 – 18 days - egg description - pale blue or blue gray sometimes spotted with black or gray. - condition at hatching - naked, blind, helpless, weak, and quiet. hatchlings weigh about 3. 1 grams, or a little more than one - tenth of an ounce. female waxwings do almost all the nest building ; males may do some construction for the second nest of a season. the female weaves twigs, grasses, cattail down, blossoms, string, horsehair, and similar materials into a bulky cup about 5 inches across and 3 inches high. she lines this cup with fine roots, grasses, and pine needles and may decorate the outside with fruiting grasses or oak and hickory catkins. construction takes 5 to 6 days and may require more than 2, 500 individual trips to the nest. waxwings occasionally save time by taking nest materials from other birds ’ nests, including eastern kingbirds, yellow - throated vireos, orioles, robins, and yellow warblers. cedar waxwing pairs look for nest sites together, but the female makes the decision. she typically chooses the fork of a horizontal branch, anywhere from 3 to 50 feet high. many tree species are used, including maples, pines, red cedar, white cedar, apple, pear,


sites together, but the female makes the decision. she typically chooses the fork of a horizontal branch, anywhere from 3 to 50 feet high. many tree species are used, including maples, pines, red cedar, white cedar, apple, pear, hawthorn, and bur oak. sometimes waxwings put their nests in vertical forks, vine tangles, or resting on a single horizontal branch. cedar waxwings are social birds that form large flocks and often nest in loose clusters of a dozen or so nests. when feeding on fruits, cedar waxwings pluck them one by one and swallow the entire thing at once. they typically feed while perched on a twig, but they ’ re also good at grabbing berries while hovering briefly just below a bunch. when eating insects, waxwings either fly out from an exposed perch, or make long, zig - zagging flights over water. during courtship, males and females hop towards each other, alternating back and forth and sometimes touching their bills together. males often pass a small item like a fruit, insect, or flower petal, to the female. after taking the fruit, the female usually hops away and then returns giving back the item to the male. they repeat this a few times until, typically, the female eats the gift. cedar waxwings have a strong, steady flight style with fairly constant wingbeats. cedar waxwing populations are increasing throughout their range, in part because of reversion of fields to shrublands and forests and the use of berry trees such as mountain ash in landscaping. cedar waxwings do appear to be vulnerable to window collisions as well as being struck by cars as the birds feed on fruiting trees along roadsides. - witmer, m. c., d. j. mountjoy and l. elliot. 1997. cedar waxwing ( bombycilla cedrorum ). in the birds of north america, no. 309 ( a. poole, ed. ). the birds of north america online, ithaca, new york. - dunne, p. 2006. pete dunne ’ s essential field guide companion. houghton mifflin, boston. - ehrlich, p. r., d. s. dobkin, and d. wheye. 1988. the birder ’ s handbook. simon & schuster inc., new york. - sibley, d. a. 2000. the sibley guide to birds. alfred a knopf, new york. - usgs pat


##e. 1988. the birder ’ s handbook. simon & schuster inc., new york. - sibley, d. a. 2000. the sibley guide to birds. alfred a knopf, new york. - usgs patuxent wildlife research center. 2011. longevity records of north american birds. short to long - distance migrant. many eastern cedar waxwings winter in the southeastern u. s. some birds travel as far south as costa rica and panama. cedar waxwings love fruit. to attract waxwings to your yard, plant native trees and shrubs that bear small fruits, such as dogwood, serviceberry, cedar, juniper, hawthorn, and winterberry. find this bird cedar waxwings are often heard before they ’ re seen, so learn their high - pitched call notes. look for them low in berry bushes, high in evergreens, or along rivers and over ponds. be sure to check big flocks of small birds : waxwings are similar to starlings in size and shape, and often form big unruly flocks that grow, shrink, divide, and rejoin like starling flocks. cedar waxwings are a focal bird species for the celebrate urban birds! project. conduct a 10 - minute count and record whether or not you see waxwings. help track the nomadic movements of cedar waxwings by reporting your sightings to ebird learn how to find and monitor bird nests for nestwatch


part of speech : noun notes : rudyard kipling must have been the last english speaker to use today ' s word as anything other than a name. he did so in his poem, the ballad of east and west, which begins : " oh, east is east, and west is west, and never the twain shall meet, till earth and sky stand presently at god ' s great judgment seat. " the phrase, " never the twain shall meet, " however, has found a permanent place among our idiomatic phrases. in play : the most famous play on this word was made by perhaps the greatest word - player of us all, samuel clemens. as a boy, clemens rode steamboats up and down the mississippi, where sailing was safe in water two fathoms or more deep. the river boatmen who checked the depth would call out " mark twain " to alert the captain when their two - fathom - long lines struck bottom. he took that phrase as his pseudonym, mark twain. word history : pie dwo - " two ", which underlies today ' s word, shows up in russian and serbian dva, german zwei, latin duo, french deux, spanish dos, portuguese dois, hindi do, and nepalese dui. however, it also appears in words where you might not expect it : twilight, of course, is when the two lights ( day and night ) meet. the reason you can only be between two things ( you must be among more than two ) is the tween " two " in the preposition. does it sound a little like twine, the string made by twisting two threads together? no wonder. finally, doubt is the result of french twitching latin dubitare " to waver ", that ' s right, between two choices. ( we are delighted that larry brady, the stargazer of the alpha agora, is never of twain minds when he spots a curious word like this one, which he suggested for today. ) come visit our website at < http : / / www. alphadictionary. com > for more good words and other language resources!


incontinence ( wetting and soiling ) medical and physical issues my mother sometimes came back from the day centre having wet herself. but at home she ’ s fine. she couldn ’ t find the toilet at the centre and i think she didn ’ t want to ask because she felt she ought to know. i spoke to the staff and now every so often one of them takes her there. my mother would try every door looking for the toilet, so i put a notice on the door, which read, “ ladies ” and she had no problem finding it. but a friend who tried this said a picture of a lavatory worked best for his mother. the person with dementia may suffer from urinary incontinence ( wetting ) at some point. faecal incontinence ( soiling ) does occasionally happen, but tends to be more common in the later stages of the disease. for the person with dementia, any kind of incontinence can be extremely distressing. they may feel ashamed and humiliated. you might also find it difficult to deal with. you may feel disgusted or embarrassed and wonder how you will ever cope. but it is important to realise that incontinence is not always solely due to physical causes. it can be caused by other problems such as memory loss, disorientation, communication problems or an associated medical problem. usually, by paying careful attention to the person with dementia and altering certain features of your home, you can reduce the number of “ accidents ” and / or limit the unpleasant consequences. how to prevent incontinence or limit the consequences of it consult a doctor as incontinence is treatable in some cases, it is a good idea to consult your doctor. you should be prepared to answer questions relating to the frequency and nature of the problem. the doctor may find that it is caused by a medical problem that can be treated such as a urinary tract infection. alternatively, he or she might find that it is caused by medication which makes the person with dementia confused. make the toilet recognisable, accessible and easy to use sometimes an accident occurs because the person with dementia cannot find the toilet in time, even in their own home. it is therefore important to make sure that the toilet is clearly marked ( see section three of the chapter on communication ). painting the toilet door a different colour helps some people. if the toilet is comfortable, easy to use and the room warm, the person might be more inclined to sit there for the necessary


clearly marked ( see section three of the chapter on communication ). painting the toilet door a different colour helps some people. if the toilet is comfortable, easy to use and the room warm, the person might be more inclined to sit there for the necessary length of time. grip rails and a slightly raised seat can help to make access and use of the toilet easier. for men who have difficulty remembering where to urinate, it may help to colour the water in the toilet to make it more of a contrast and therefore easier to distinguish. it can also help a man to direct the stream if the urine bowl is fixed at the right height. keep the entrance to the toilet clear, make sure that the door is not too stiff or the handle too difficult to manipulate, and leave a light on. the nearer the toilet is, the greater the chance there is of the person getting there in time. develop a routine keep a note of when the person goes to the toilet and whenever they are incontinent. you might, for example, notice that they have suffered from incontinence on a few occasions half an hour after breakfast. you could then try to make sure that they go to the toilet just after breakfast. you might also be able to notice the kind of signs the person gives when they need to go, so that you can interpret them in other situations. developing a routine can help make sure that they go to the toilet regularly, even if it is not always necessary. for some people a subtle reminder or hint might be sufficient, whereas for others you may have to take them to the toilet and even provide assistance. avoid aggravating the problem it is important to ensure that the person with dementia drinks plenty of water ( about 8 cups / one a half litres a day ). however, it is best not to give them anything to drink in the hour or so before they go to bed. you should also be careful when using tranquillisers as they can cause drowsiness and the person may can carry on sleeping even when their body is sending signals that it is necessary to go to the toilet. if night wetting is a problem, you might find it necessary to wake the person in the middle of the night to ensure that they go to the toilet. certain items of clothing may hamper the person, when they have an urgent need. please see the chapter on dressing for details of clothing, which can prove difficult to remove. protect bedding and upholstery despite all the efforts you make, accidents will almost certainly


may hamper the person, when they have an urgent need. please see the chapter on dressing for details of clothing, which can prove difficult to remove. protect bedding and upholstery despite all the efforts you make, accidents will almost certainly occur from time to time. it is therefore advisable to protect the furniture. place plastic covers under cushions and loose covers. it is possible to obtain waterproof covers for mattresses, but care should be taken that the plastic does not come into contact with the skin, as this can cause bedsores ( please see chapter on pressure sores ). special absorbent under sheets are available, as well as reusable and disposable bed pads. continental quilts are easier when it comes to making beds and protective covers exist for these as well as for pillows. if incontinence is a regular problem, it would be a good idea to replace carpets with vinyl or linoleum as it is easier to wash and reduces the problem of odour. the use of continence aids if the problem of incontinence becomes more severe, you should consider the use of continence aids. you may find it difficult to approach the subject with the person and you will certainly need to be very careful not to offend them. continence aids are not only a solution for you but also for the person with dementia as they make the problem of incontinence less visible to other people. the different kinds of continence pad vary greatly in their degree of absorbency, fittings and suitability for day or night - time use. the choice and size of the pad is important as too large a pad may be too obvious and also restrict walking, whereas too small a pad may be uncomfortable. hand held urinal bottles can be useful, particularly at night. chamber pots and bedpans are another alternative but some people find them difficult to use. other possibilities include urinal devices for men or catheters for men or women. however, catheters should be fitted by a doctor or nurse and are generally considered to be a last resort. in any case, you might find it useful to discuss the different possibilities with your doctor. how to cope with incontinence embarrassment and disgust don ’ t worry if you find it difficult to deal with incontinence. many people do. going to the toilet is a taboo subject in many households. although you feel uneasy about it, you can probably imagine how humiliating an experience it must be for the


worry if you find it difficult to deal with incontinence. many people do. going to the toilet is a taboo subject in many households. although you feel uneasy about it, you can probably imagine how humiliating an experience it must be for the person with dementia. instead of making a big issue of incontinence, try to adopt a matter of fact attitude and reassure the person that there is no need to feel ashamed. your attitude is extremely important because if the person feels guilty and senses that you blame them, they may try to conceal evidence of accidents and this will only make your task more difficult in the long run. it might be easier to be sympathetic and uncritical if you remember that incontinence is caused by the disease and is not deliberate. talking with other carers who have experience dealing with incontinence might help you to come to terms with the feelings you have and the unease you may feel about carrying out such intimate care. incontinence can lead to skin irritations and soreness. for this reason, it is important to make sure that the person with dementia washes properly after an accident. warm soapy water is usually sufficient, but make sure that the person is thoroughly dry and has clean clothes to put on. if sores do develop, it is best to contact a doctor, as they can sometimes be difficult to treat ( please see chapter on pressure sores ). you will then be faced with the task of cleaning up. if you cannot wash the soiled clothes straight away, put them in a container with a sealed lid so as to prevent them from making the room smell. deodorisers are more effective at getting rid of the smell than air fresheners, which simply add to what you are trying to hide. to neutralise the smell of urine on carpets, you will find that white vinegar is fairly effective. in addition, try to keep the place well ventilated and, above all, don ’ t feel embarrassed or blame yourself if there is a faint persisting odour – you can only do your best! last updated : mardi 11 aout 2009


- fisher center for alzheimer ' s research foundation - http : / / www. alzinfo. org - first national alzheimer ’ s action plan becomes law posted by alz01 on january 11, 2011 @ 11 : 59 am in articles, prevention and wellness | 12 comments with president obama ’ s signature, the first national action plan for alzheimer ’ s disease became law in 2011, setting the stage for a coordinated effort to " accelerate the development of treatments that would prevent, halt or reverse the course of alzheimer ’ s " and " improve the early diagnosis of alzheimer ’ s disease and coordination of the care and treatment of citizens with alzheimer ’ s. " the plan is part of the national alzheimer ’ s project act, or napa, that was passed unanimously by both houses of congress late in 2010. it will create a federal advisory panel to devise a national strategy for the care, support and treatment needs of the more than five million americans living with alzheimer ’ s. it will also consider the needs of the even greater number of caregivers and family members touched by the disease. like the earlier war on cancer and government efforts to coordinate research and funding for diseases like aids, this is the first time there has been a focused national campaign for alzheimer ’ s disease. the advisory panel will involve federal agencies that deal with health and aging issues. researchers, doctors and other health care providers, scientific experts and people caring for those with alzheimer ’ s will be involved in developing the plan. the plan will work to coordinate localized research efforts to find effective drugs and treatments for alzheimer ’ s. it will also aim to improve methods for diagnosing the disease at early stages, before brain damage has become extensive and therapies to delay symptoms may be most effective. in addition, annual reviews will work to determine the most effective government - financed programs involving research, treatment, home care and nursing homes. the law doesn ’ t authorize funds for research for finding a cure or for caregiver services. but legislators expect that increased funding for alzheimer ’ s will be a recommendation of the panel. currently, lawmakers point out, the government spends one penny on alzheimer ’ s research for every dollar it spends on caring for patients with the disease. the cost of alzheimer ’ s for medicare and medicaid is now about $ 170 billion a year. as the population ages and the number of alzheimer ’ s cases grows, the cost is expected to reach $ 800 billion by 2050 unless effective treatments or a cure are found. the fisher center for alzheimer ’ s


now about $ 170 billion a year. as the population ages and the number of alzheimer ’ s cases grows, the cost is expected to reach $ 800 billion by 2050 unless effective treatments or a cure are found. the fisher center for alzheimer ’ s research foundation continues to fund vital research into the causes of alzheimer ’ s in the search for a cure. to learn more or make a donation, visit https : / / www. alzinfo. org / donate. article printed from fisher center for alzheimer ' s research foundation : http : / / www. alzinfo. org url to article : http : / / www. alzinfo. org / 01 / articles / national - alzheimers - action - plan - law urls in this post : image : http : / / www. alzinfo. org / wp - content / uploads / 2011 / 01 / obama - sign. jpg https : / / www. alzinfo. org / donate : https : / / www. alzinfo. org / donate / alzinfo. org : http : / / www. alzinfo. org reviewed by william j. netzer : https : / / www. alzinfo. org / netzer copyright © 2002 - 2012 fisher center for alzheimers reaserch foundation. all rights reserved.


september 1996 | volume 47, issue 5 a century ago you ’ d eat steak and lobster when you couldn ’ t afford chicken. today it can cost less than the potatoes you serve with. what happened in the years between was an extraordinary marriage of technology and the market. king henri iv of france was a great king. he was also, perhaps, the world ’ s first real politician — for in the course of his ten - year battle to secure the french throne for the bourbon dynasty he began deliberately enlisting public opinion and even invented the political slogan to help him do so. instinctively knowing the shortest route to his people ’ s hearts, he told them, “ i want there to be no peasant in my kingdom so poor that he is unable to have a chicken in his pot every sunday. ” henri iv ’ s choice of chicken to symbolize prosperity was no accident, for it had always been a dish reserved, because of its cost, for special occasions like sunday dinner, holidays, and celebrations. and for fully three hundred years after henri ’ s time, nothing happened to change that. indeed, as late as 1928 the republican party, cribbing shamelessly, promised the american people continued prosperity and “ a chicken in every pot. ” the republicans, of course, did not deliver on their promises, and the great depression ended seventy years of republican political dominance in this country. but there is one major difference between the history of the modern american poultry industry and that of most other segments of the american economy. the oil industry rose under the dominance of john d. rockefeller. the mass - market automobile was the brainchild of one genius, henry ford. the computer revolution of the present day has been ever increasingly influenced by william gates and microsoft. the poultry industry, however, has no single, outstanding figure. instead, hundreds if not thousands of individuals, each with, at best, only local fame and no intention aforethought, created the modern industry. many failed and fell by the wayside ; others succeeded beyond their wildest dreams. but as these individuals pursued their self - interests with hard work, insight, and the assumption of risk, they greatly benefited the economy as a whole. collectively, they constitute a nearly perfect example of adam smith ’ s invisible hand at work. chickens were among the last of the major domestic animals to come under the sway of man and the only one, aside from the water buffalo, to come from eastern asia and africa. but the chicken ’ s impact — gastronomic, agricultural, religious,


were among the last of the major domestic animals to come under the sway of man and the only one, aside from the water buffalo, to come from eastern asia and africa. but the chicken ’ s impact — gastronomic, agricultural, religious, literary, economic, and even psychological — has been immense. gallus gallus, the red jungle fowl, is still common in the wooded areas of india and southeast asia, from the foothills of the himalayas to sumatra. it is the ancestor of all domestic chickens ; indeed it remains conspecific with them, although a few other chickenlike birds, such as pheasants and other species of jungle fowl, probably contributed genes. jungle fowl live in small groups consisting of one cock and several hens. the cock is a gorgeous bird, with a fiery red head and saddle feathers. the hackles ( the neck feathers ) shade downward from red to yellow while the feathers of the breast and tail are an iridescent green - black. the hen is much plainer, a rusty brown, which helps conceal her during the period of incubation, for these are ground - nesting birds. the lean, tightly muscled, and undoubtedly tough - as - rubber - bands red jungle fowl weighs only about two pounds when fully mature and was not originally domesticated for purposes of eating. instead, two peculiar characteristics of the cock probably led to the bird ’ s coming to live with humankind. one is his habit of crowing very loudly at the first hint of daylight, thus serving as a natural alarm clock in an agricultural community. the crowing bird is still a potent symbol of the dawn generations after most americans last heard it. the second habit that led to domestication is the cock ’ s extreme and unrelenting, even unto death, aggressiveness toward other, unfamiliar males of his species. it is this characteristic that makes the sport of cockfighting so exciting, so bloody, and so freighted with masculine symbolism that it persists, indeed flourishes, in this country today despite decades of attempted legal repression. hens, for their part, quickly came to symbolize much that is maternal and feminine. people saw in the tightly structured society of chickens, among the most social of all birds, a mirror of their own species, among the most social of all mammals. consequently, no domestic animal other than the dog has so many symbolic connotations as the chicken does. the mammoth new random house historical dictionary of american slang devotes no fewer than


mirror of their own species, among the most social of all mammals. consequently, no domestic animal other than the dog has so many symbolic connotations as the chicken does. the mammoth new random house historical dictionary of american slang devotes no fewer than six pages to the word chicken and its compounds. hens, cocks, biddies, chicks, and others take up yet more pages. the chicken spread from india toward the west and reached greece at the time of the persian wars ( greeks still call chickens “ persian birds " ). by the roman era it was common throughout western europe. the romans and greeks thought that chickens were useful as diviners of the future, and roman military leaders would offer a flock grain before a battle. if the birds devoured it, the auguries were good. if they did not, the general often would avoid battle. during the punic wars, one roman admiral was so annoyed when the chickens, perhaps seasick, refused to eat that he threw them overboard, saying, “ if they will not eat, let them drink! ” and attacked anyway. he lost badly. chickens were often carried on shipboard for reasons other than forecasting the outcome of battles, for by roman times chickens and their eggs had come to be used for food. they made excellent shipboard livestock. they took up little space, would eat nearly anything, and provided both fresh meat and eggs to people who otherwise had to subsist on ship ’ s biscuits and salted meat. it is no wonder, then, that chickens arrived in the new world at very nearly the same time as europeans. by 1609, only two years after its founding, jamestown, virginia, had as many as five hundred. the terrible famine in the winter of 1609 - 10 reduced that population to zero, or very nearly so. but once the colony was restocked from the west indies the following spring, the chicken ’ s place in north america was secure. for a very long time, the americans ’ husbandry of chickens was a casual affair at best, for chickens, unlike most barnyard animals, are quite self - sufficient. often they weren ’ t even fed or housed but made their own way by snapping up grain spilled by the other animals, along with bugs, worms, and table scraps. at night they roosted in trees, which is why in those days white - feathered chickens were unpopular, being too easily spotted by foxes, hawks, and other predators. traditionally it was the job of the youngest child to hunt


scraps. at night they roosted in trees, which is why in those days white - feathered chickens were unpopular, being too easily spotted by foxes, hawks, and other predators. traditionally it was the job of the youngest child to hunt for the eggs every day, and surplus eggs sold locally were regarded as a small source of independent income for the farm wife, her so - called egg money. but the average hen before the twentieth century laid only about thirty eggs a year, mostly in the spring. as a result, eggs varied greatly in price depending on the season, being cheapest in the spring and quite expensive in the late fall and early winter. because of this seasonality, the price of chickens in the market also varied considerably over the course of the year. but there was another reason chicken was, even in summer, a luxury dish : the production of chickens was strictly an amateur affair with little if any structure to the commercial channels that led from millions of small farm flocks to urban markets. as a result, ladies ’ magazines of the turn of the century frequently contained advice on how to substitute veal for chicken. veal was then a drug in the market, a byproduct of an already professionalized and flourishing dairy industry that was at the time popular only with italians and other immigrants from the mediterranean. the first change from the age - old way americans husbanded chickens came in the 1830s when birds from china were imported as exotics into britain. these so - called cochins, which have fluffy plumage and feathered legs, caused a sensation in both the british empire and the united states and set off a craze for breeding show chickens with extravagant features such as yards - long tail feathers and crests of feathers around the head. farmers began selectively breeding chickens as well, and breeds with wonderful names, like plymouth rock, wyandotte, and orpington ( along with the australian version, the australorp ). but because there were no fixed standards, the genetic chaos ruled. each farmer had, in effect, his own breed of chicken. so in 1873 the american poultry association was formed to set standards and help develop chickens that could be relied upon to breed true. the purpose of this at the time was no more than to bring order and predictability to a popular hobby, but the result was the development of genetically reliable stock that would be used in the next century to utterly transform the chicken. there are numerous stages between the apparently permanent gleam in a rooster ’ s eye and dinner


order and predictability to a popular hobby, but the result was the development of genetically reliable stock that would be used in the next century to utterly transform the chicken. there are numerous stages between the apparently permanent gleam in a rooster ’ s eye and dinner. these are breeding, incubating, hatching, raising, slaughtering, dressing, transporting, selling, cooking, and eating. of these ten steps, only the last is still handled the way it was at the turn of the century, and even that, at least in terms of where americans eat chicken, has changed significantly. the first change in traditional poultry husbandry was the introduction of commercial chicks. before, people wanting to start a flock would either buy fertilized eggs from a local farmer and incubate them themselves ( often in a warm spot on or near the kitchen stove ) or buy a “ trio, ” two hens and a cock. after the first chicks hatched, nature was allowed to take its course. in 1873 a man named jacob graves patented an incubator and offered chicks two to four weeks old for sale. but it was joseph p. wilson of stockton, new jersey, who turned the raising of baby chicks into a business. in 1887, using hot water as a heat source, he built his own incubator, which could handle up to four hundred eggs at a time. by 1892 he had begun taking advantage of the fact that newborn chicks, because they absorb the remnants of the yolk just before hatching, can go without food or water for up to thirty - six hours. wilson started shipping day - old chicks as far as chicago by railway express. the advantages of using artificial hatcheries were soon apparent. for one thing, this new technique allowed the supply of chickens to be smoothed out over the year to more nearly match demand. this, of course, dampened price swings. by 1918 there were two hundred fifty hatcheries in operation in this country. only nine years later there were more than ten thousand, and more than half the baby chicks produced in the country were artificially incubated. as their numbers grew ( there would be a great shakeout in the early 1930s, however ), these new hatcheries competed fiercely by offering not only lower prices but also superior chickens bred to reach selling weight sooner in life, thus requiring less feed and yielding a greater profit. this drive for the ever - quicker - growing chicken has been instrumental in turning chicken from a luxury food into an everyday affair. in 1900 a newly hatched chick


to reach selling weight sooner in life, thus requiring less feed and yielding a greater profit. this drive for the ever - quicker - growing chicken has been instrumental in turning chicken from a luxury food into an everyday affair. in 1900 a newly hatched chick required sixteen weeks to reach two pounds, large enough for frying. southern farmers prided themselves on having frying chickens ready for the fourth of july. today, chicks reach four pounds, big enough for roasting, in just seven weeks. but until the mid - 1920s the raising of chickens remained a sideline operation, run by farmers ’ wives. agricultural experts in the early years of the century thought the situation would never change, because it would not be possible to compete with a system that, in effect, utilized both free labor and free food and provided millions of farmwomen with a source of independent income they would be loath to part with. the experts, however, were looking mostly at the midwest, the leading area of the country for egg production at that time, where the farms were large and prosperous, thanks to the area ’ s incomparably good soil and usually benevolent weather. these farms tended to specialize in basic foodstuffs like wheat, corn, cattle, and hogs. the raising of chickens as a major crop would have been a misallocation of resources. other areas of the country, however, had very different economic needs. the delmarva peninsula, east of chesapeake bay, for instance, had rich, sandy, well - drained soil and a flat landscape. but its proximity to baltimore, philadelphia, and new york had made it a natural area for truck farming. and truck farming is a feast - or - famine business, peculiarly sensitive not only to the vagaries of the marketplace but to the weather as well. a steadier source of income was most welcome on the delmarva, and it was there that the chicken business really became a business. the first person on the peninsula to raise chickens expressly for the market rather than simply sell what exceeded domestic needs was mrs. wilmer steele. she ordered 500 chicks in 1923 and sold the 387 that survived to two pounds for sixty - two cents a pound, live weight. this produced a very handsome profit indeed. in today ’ s money ( that is, after allowing for inflation ), mrs. steele received about five dollars a pound, wholesale, for her chickens. not surprisingly, word of these profits spread fast. in 1925 the state of delaware produced fifty thousand chickens for


’ s money ( that is, after allowing for inflation ), mrs. steele received about five dollars a pound, wholesale, for her chickens. not surprisingly, word of these profits spread fast. in 1925 the state of delaware produced fifty thousand chickens for market and just the next year topped one million. by 1934 the peninsula was putting out seven million broilers a year, and production continued to soar as costs per bird declined steadily and demand rose accordingly. chickens in such numbers could neither be fed in the traditional way, with table scraps and leftovers from other livestock, nor hunt and peck on their own. so hundreds of companies began to produce special feeds for broilers. and the science of chicken nutrition began its explosive elaboration as they competed for customers by offering a superior product. because chickens mature quickly and few ethical constraints have been applied to experimentation, our understanding of chicken nutrition now exceeds our grasp of that for any other domestic animal and even for humans. raising broiler chickens outdoors exposed them to the uncertainties of the weather, predators, and disease. but the adding of cod - liver oil ( and later the purified vitamin itself ) to chicken feed allowed chickens to be raised in large, roofed sheds where temperature, diet, and lighting could be controlled for maximum weight gain. the results of this ever - deepening knowledge of chicken nutrition were quick in coming. the great food writer clementine paddleford marveled as early as 1943 that “ ten years ago it took 6 ½ pounds of feed to produce one pound of broiler meat. today four pounds of feed will do the same job. ” fifty years later it requires only about one and three - quarter pounds of feed to produce a pound of meat, a conversion ratio that would have seemed, at the turn of the century, close to that seen in the biblical miracle of the loaves and the fishes. one fundamental split, however, occurred at this time : the separation of egg farming from chicken farming. the first commercial broilers were mostly surplus leghorns, actually bred for their egg production. leghorns lay white eggs in great quantity but, precisely because of that fact, do not put on weight well. the boston market, unlike the rest of the country, preferred brown eggs, and these came from heavier breeds, many with such new england - inspired names such as rhode island red, new hampshire, and plymouth rock. new england hatcheries began shipping crosses of the heavy breeds, which gain weight much more rapidly than do leghorns, to


from heavier breeds, many with such new england - inspired names such as rhode island red, new hampshire, and plymouth rock. new england hatcheries began shipping crosses of the heavy breeds, which gain weight much more rapidly than do leghorns, to the burgeoning broiler farms on the delmarva peninsula and soon to other areas of the country as well. and hatcheries began breeding new crosses from heavy stock specially for rapid weight gain. they also continued to breed champion egg layers from leghorns and other so - called mediterranean breeds. again, the increase in production has been staggering. at the turn of the century, thirty eggs a year was the norm. a champion might produce fifty. by the 1930s a hen laying a hundred eggs a year was a candidate for a ribbon at the county fair. today a hen that doesn ’ t lay two hundred and fifty is a candidate for the cat - food factory. other developments began in the 1930s that transformed not the egg — an evolutionary creation of such awesome perfection that it could hardly be improved upon — but the way eggs were farmed. eggs, like chickens, had long been simply a byproduct of other kinds of farming, produced a few at a time by millions of flocks that seldom numbered more than fifty birds each. and because the chickens largely fended for themselves, there were few out - of - pocket expenses and so no one cared about costs. as a result, between 1910, when the federal government began keeping track of egg production and prices, and 1943 the price of a dozen eggs remained remarkably constant in real terms. the first change these new egg farmers made from traditional poultry husbandry, as the broiler raisers before them had done, was to begin confining their chickens. when the birds ran free, their eggs had to be hunted for, and every day was easter — although, to be sure, chickens tend to lay their eggs in the same places over and over again. this was labor intensive, and many eggs were overlooked, fell victim to such predators as rats and snakes, or were broken. confinement increased egg production per bird immediately and thus ensured higher profits for farmers and lower prices for consumers. but confinement brought its own problems. at first the birds were usually kept in houses that had dirt floors covered with wood shavings. as the manure built up, so did the incidence of disease as the chickens scratched, which chickens will do even when they are not hungry. to solve this problem, farmers began putting their chickens in houses


dirt floors covered with wood shavings. as the manure built up, so did the incidence of disease as the chickens scratched, which chickens will do even when they are not hungry. to solve this problem, farmers began putting their chickens in houses with wire floors so that the droppings could fall through and be removed. the health of the chickens, and thus their egg production, greatly improved. the keeping of birds in tiers of wire cages, where they could be fed, watered, and cared for more easily, soon followed. the price of a dozen eggs began a fifty - year decline. much of that continuing decline has come from ever - increasing economies of scale as the number of egg farms has steadily dropped and the number of chickens at each farm has increased. in the 1940s an egg farm with a hundred thousand birds was considered very large. today a farm needs ten million birds to have that status. as a result of these enormous numbers — an egg farm with ten million birds produces well over half a million dozen eggs per day — even the most minor savings per egg makes major improvements to the bottom line. just a tenth - of - a - cent drop per egg in production costs increases the daily gross profit by more than six thousand dollars, or over two million dollars per year. although the number of independent egg farms has drastically declined since the days betty macdonald wrote about, there are nonetheless still about 350 companies in the united states, and competition among them remains fierce. much of the decreased cost that ensues from innovation, then, is necessarily passed along to the consumer as lower prices. this, in turn, requires an unceasing search for new ways to drive down costs if profits are to be maintained, just as adam smith predicted. some houses are built underground to save heating and air - conditioning costs, while light, which stimulates egg production, is provided at the optimal level. about the only thing that is not automated today is the removal of dead chickens. only about three in ten thousand die per day in a well - regulated hen house ( just about half again the human mortality rate in this country ). but out of two hundred fifty thousand, that is still seventy - five dead birds a day that must be removed immediately to prevent disease. in this wholly artificial — some would say cruel — environment, even the genes that the birds inherit have been determined by the process of artificial evolution called selective breeding. this process has been the biggest single factor in increasing egg production per bird and per pound of feed so dramatically. but the genes


say cruel — environment, even the genes that the birds inherit have been determined by the process of artificial evolution called selective breeding. this process has been the biggest single factor in increasing egg production per bird and per pound of feed so dramatically. but the genes themselves remain unaltered for now ( the new technology of genetic engineering will, without doubt, soon change that ). and, unfortunately for the farmer, high egg laying and aggression are genetically linked. if you want the one, you have to take the other as well. aggression among the closely confined birds on a modern egg farm has been a major problem, as the birds sort out their social standings with their beaks. other technologies have come to the rescue, however. hatcheries now routinely remove a portion of the upper bill ; this decreases the mayhem the birds can cause without reducing efficiency in feeding. in the 1950s it was discovered that red light suppressed the tendency to peck. but conditions with red light turned out to be too dark for human beings to work in. tiny red spectacles for the chickens were tried, but although these produced amusing pictures for life magazine, they proved hopelessly impractical. recently, however, red contact lenses have been found effective. they not only prevent pecking battles ; they obviate the need for debeaking. as an unexpected bonus, red contact lenses also reduce feed consumption by 6 percent, thanks to reduced anxiety ( nervous noshing, apparently, is not confined to humans ) and slightly increased egg production. altogether, red contact lenses for chickens have lowered production costs by a whopping third of a cent per egg in the flocks where they have been tested. in the highly competitive egg business, that is a veritable gusher of found money — not that competition will allow egg producers to keep much of it. delmarva is rich agricultural land, but the new areas for chicken production that burgeoned after the country entered world war ii were marginal at best, and poultry production came as a godsend to the hard - pressed farmers. no small factor in the success of the new areas, however, was the energy and perseverance of the most important figure in the creation of the modern poultry industry, jesse dixon jewell. he was born in gainesville, georgia, in 1902. gainesville is located in the northern part of the state, in the hardscrabble tag end of the appalachian mountains. the local farmers tried to make a living raising cotton, but with their small holdings, hilly terrain, and poor, red clay


gainesville is located in the northern part of the state, in the hardscrabble tag end of the appalachian mountains. the local farmers tried to make a living raising cotton, but with their small holdings, hilly terrain, and poor, red clay soil, they could not compete successfully with the rich cotton lands to the south and west. jewell ’ s father died when he was seven, and his mother tried to make a living running a small feed store, a business jewell took over when he reached adulthood. in the mid - thirties, as depression devastated the american economy and a tornado nearly destroyed gainesville, jewell supplemented his income by going around to the local farms, buying chickens and eggs and taking them to atlanta and other urban markets. it was a hand - to - mouth operation at first. often he had to sell quickly what he had bought from the farmers in order to have the money in the bank to cover the checks he had written to buy them. but demand for both eggs and chickens was strong, and jewell saw opportunity in expanding the raising of chickens in the area. he recognized that these farmers needed nothing so much as a steady cash crop, but they lacked even the small capital required to raise chickens the modern way. when he tried to sell chicken feed to the farmers, few could afford it. so jewell went to a feed company and made a deal to get feed on consignment. then he went to the local bank and got a loan to buy day - old chicks. he placed these chicks with the farmers, taking back a note secured by the chickens, and supplied the feed needed to raise them to market weight. when the chickens were ready for sale, jewell would buy them, and he and the farmers would settle accounts. both the local banker and the feed companies were very skeptical at first, and the banker made a point of sending someone out to see that the chicks were really where jewell said they were. but the system turned out to be profitable for all concerned, as it lowered the final price to the consumer and thus further increased demand. jewell, a classic entrepreneur, began to expand his business both horizontally, by making deals with more and more farmers, and vertically, by starting his own hatchery and processing plant. traditionally, chickens had been sold to city wholesalers either still alive or what was termed “ new york dressed ” — that is, with the feathers removed but the head, feet, and innards intact. by processing the chickens at a plant and selling them ready


chickens had been sold to city wholesalers either still alive or what was termed “ new york dressed ” — that is, with the feathers removed but the head, feet, and innards intact. by processing the chickens at a plant and selling them ready to cook, jewell not only reduced freight costs and spoilage ; he obtained a supply of by - products that found a ready market and so increased his profits. chicken feet are exported in large numbers from this country to east asia, where they are considered a delicacy. ground - up feathers — supplying high - quality protein — are now an ingredient in animal feeds. other bits and pieces end up in pet foods. in 1954 j. d. jewell, inc., became a fully integrated poultry company when it completed its own feed mill. other poultry companies were integrating too, and as they increased in size and expanded their markets, competition among them increased as well, with the usual result of increased efficiency, innovation, and ever lower prices. between 1947 and 1960 broiler production in the southeastern states increased by fully 365 percent. during the same period, production per man - hour increased by 343 percent. to put it another way, while production more than quadrupled, the man - hours needed to handle that production increased by only 6 percent. naturally, the least - efficient producers were behind this movement, and it was spearheaded in washington by sen. hubert h. humphrey, who called for a “ nationwide, producer - controlled marketing program. ” translated from politicalese, this meant a cartel. the eisenhower administration was unsympathetic. but when john f. kennedy became president in january 1961, the movement to organize the broiler industry took on fresh drive. the new secretary of agriculture, orville freeman, organized the national broiler stabilization advisory committee, made up of a wide variety of industry executives. no clear consensus was ever reached by the committee, however. it voted nineteen to sixteen in favor of giving the secretary of agriculture authority to regulate the supply of hatching eggs and thus the number of chickens available for market a few months later. but of the sixteen dissenters, eight had voted against it because they wanted no regulation at all. these latter feared that, no matter how lightly the hand of government touched the industry at first, its grip would only tighten in the long run, with disastrous consequences. as one opponent explained, with country eloquence, “ you can boil a frog if you put him in cold water and heat it gradually. ” beginning


industry at first, its grip would only tighten in the long run, with disastrous consequences. as one opponent explained, with country eloquence, “ you can boil a frog if you put him in cold water and heat it gradually. ” beginning in the late 1960s frank perdue used clever television commercials to turn chicken, once the most generic of products, into a brand name and himself into a celebrity. at the same time, don tyson began to make a small arkansas poultry company started by his father into a worldwide powerhouse that today sells five million chickens a day — almost two billion a year. as recently as 1960, if a shopper wanted chicken, he or she bought a chicken, often one that was still new york dressed. today the shopper can buy a whole chicken, a cut - up chicken, chicken wings, legs, thighs, and breasts ( boned or unboned ), with or without skin. the shopper can buy chicken ready - cooked ( nicely browned and resting in its own plastic carapace ) or ready to cook, seasonings included. and, increasingly, americans are eating chicken either away from home or in its ready - to - eat form. tyson now sells nearly two - thirds of its production to restaurants and take - out chains such as boston market or to food - processing companies like stouffer ’ s. the shopper who bought one of those 387 chickens that mrs. wilmer steele first raised deliberately for market in 1923 paid well over ten dollars a pound for it in 1994 dollars. today a shopper can buy one from perdue, tyson, or any of dozens of other chicken companies for less than one - tenth of that price. that is no small accomplishment. and the thanks are due to countless, mostly nameless individuals — farmers, feed - mill owners, breeders, transporters, scientists, bankers, wholesalers, and the like — who sought only to make life a little better for themselves and made it a little better for everyone — except the chickens — in the process.


global warming and the future of coal carbon capture and storage read the full report ( pdf ) watch bob sussman discuss the report ( youtube ) watch ken berlin discuss the report ( youtube ) ever - rising industrial and consumer demand for more power in tandem with cheap and abundant coal reserves across the globe are expected to result in the construction of new coal - fired power plants producing 1, 400 gigawatts of electricity by 2030, according to the international energy agency. in the absence of emission controls, these new plants will increase worldwide annual emissions of carbon dioxide by approximately 7. 6 billion metric tons by 2030. these emissions would equal roughly 50 percent of all fossil fuel emissions over the past 250 years. in the united states alone, about 145 gigawatts of new power from coal - fired plants are projected to be built by 2030, resulting in co2 emissions of 790 million metric tons per year in the absence of emission controls. by comparison, annual u. s. emissions of co2 from all sources in 2005 were about 6 billion metric tons. policymakers and scientists now recognize that the current growth of greenhouse gas emissions must be reversed and that emissions must be reduced substantially in order to combat the risk of climate change. yet a dramatic increase in coal - fired power generation threatens to overwhelm all other efforts to lower emissions and virtually guarantees that these emissions will continue to climb. this would preclude any possibility of stabilizing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at levels that would acceptably moderate the predicted rise in global temperatures. in china and other developing countries experiencing strong economic growth, demand for power is surging dramatically, with low - cost coal the fuel of choice for new power plants. emissions in these countries are now rising faster than in developed economies in north america and europe : china will soon overtake the united states as the world ’ s number one greenhouse gas emitter. with the power sector expanding rapidly, china and india will fall further behind in controlling greenhouse gas emissions unless new coal plants adopt emission controls. lack of progress in these countries would doom to failure global efforts to combat global warming. the promise of carbon capture and storage fortunately, there is a potential pathway that would allow continued use of coal as an energy source without magnifying the risk of global warming. technology currently exists to capture co2 emissions from coal - fired plants before they are released into the environment and to sequester that co2 in underground geologic formations. energy companies boast extensive experience sequestering co2 by injecting it into


technology currently exists to capture co2 emissions from coal - fired plants before they are released into the environment and to sequester that co2 in underground geologic formations. energy companies boast extensive experience sequestering co2 by injecting it into oil fields to enhance oil recovery. although additional testing is needed, experts are optimistic this practice can be replicated in saline aquifers and other geologic formations that are likely to constitute the main storage reservoirs for co2 emitted from power plants. however, these so - called carbon capture and storage, or ccs systems, require modifications to existing power plant technologies. today the prevailing coal - based generation technology in the united states is pulverized coal, with high - temperature ( supercritical and ultrasupercritical ) designs available to improve efficiency. it is possible to capture co2 emissions at these pulverized coal units, but the co2 capture technology currently has performance and cost drawbacks. but there ’ s a new coal - based power generation technology, integrated gasification combined cycle, or igcc, which allows ccs systems in new plants to more efficiently capture and store co2 because the co2 can be removed before combustion. motivated by this advantage, some power plant developers have announced plans to use igcc technology but very few have committed to installing and operating ccs systems. the great challenge is ensuring that widespread deployment of ccs systems at new igcc and pulverized coal plants occurs on a timely basis. despite growing recognition of the promise of carbon capture and storage, we are so far failing in that effort. the consequences of delay will be far - reaching — a new generation of coal plants could well be built without co2 emission controls. barriers to the adoption of carbon capture and storage systems industry experts today are projecting that only a small percentage of new coal - fired plants built during the next 25 years will use igcc technology. igcc plants currently cost about 20 percent to 25 percent more to build than conventional state - of - the - art coal plants using supercritical pulverized coal, or scpc, technology. what ’ s more, because experience with igcc technology is limited, igcc plants are still perceived to have reliability and efficiency drawbacks. more importantly, igcc plants are not likely to capture and sequester their co2 emissions in the current regulatory environment since add - on capture technology will reduce efficiency and lower electricity output. this will increase the cost of producing electricity by 25 percent to 40 percent over


and drawbacks but an emission performance standard for new power plants is likely to be most effective in spurring broad - scale adoption of ccs systems. in the current u. s. political environment, a cap - and - trade system is unlikely to result in a sufficiently high market price for co2 ( around $ 30 per ton ) in the early years of a carbon control regime to assure that all coal plant developers adopt ccs systems. at lower carbon prices, plant developers could well conclude that it is more economical to build uncontrolled scpc plants and then purchase credits to offset their emissions. a carbon tax that is not set at a sufficiently high level likely would have the same consequences. a low carbon portfolio standard would be complex and difficult to implement because of the wide variations in generation mix between different regions. moreover, unless the standard sets stringent targets for low carbon generation, it would not preclude construction of uncontrolled coal plants. although the recent supreme court decision defining co2 as a “ pollutant ” has opened the door to controlling new power plant emissions under the new source review program, legal uncertainties may prevent the environmental protection agency from defining ccs systems as the best available control technology under current law. individual states could also reject ccs systems during permitting reviews. moreover, the new source review program would not allow flexible compliance schedules for installing and operating ccs systems, nor would it provide financial incentives to offset the increased cost of electricity. how emission performance standards for new coal plants would work in contrast to other approaches, an emission performance standard that limits new plant emissions to levels achievable with ccs systems would provide certainty that new coal plants in fact capture and store co2. to provide a clear market signal to plant developers, this standard would apply to all new plants built after a date certain, although some flexibility would be allowed in the timing of ccs installation so that the power generation industry can gain more experience with various types of capture technology and underground co2 storage. for example, all plants that begin construction after 2008 could be subject to the standard and would be required to implement carbon capture technology by 2013, and then to meet all sequestration requirements by 2016. to provide additional flexibility while ccs technology is being perfected, plant developers during the first three years in which the new performance standard is in effect could have the option to construct traditional coal plants that do not capture and sequester co2 if they offset on a one - to - one basis their co2 emissions by taking one


the first three years in which the new performance standard is in effect could have the option to construct traditional coal plants that do not capture and sequester co2 if they offset on a one - to - one basis their co2 emissions by taking one or more of the following steps : - improving efficiencies and lowering co2 emissions at existing plants - retiring existing coal or natural gas units that generate co2 emissions - constructing previously unplanned renewable fuel power plants representing up to 25 percent of the generation capacity of the new coal plant. in 2011, this alternate compliance option would sunset and all new plants subsequently entering construction would need to capture and sequester their emissions. an emission performance standard for new coal plants should be accompanied by a cap - and - trade program for existing power plants, with the cap starting at 100 percent of emissions and progressively declining over time. a declining cap would encourage greater efficiencies in operating existing plants and incentivize the retirement of higher emitting existing plants. this would assure that an emission performance standard for new plants does not simply prolong the useful life of older plants. in addition, as the cap declines, retrofitting existing plants with ccs systems could become a viable option. mitigating electricity price hikes if legislation requiring an emission performance standard for new coal plants is enacted, then congress should simultaneously take steps to offset the additional costs of installing ccs systems and provide relief from electricity price increases. this would prevent disproportionate costs from falling upon consumers who live in regions heavily dependent on coal for power generation. by reducing the financial risks and uncertainties of building power plants with ccs systems, it would also encourage investments in such plants by developers and their financial backers. one approach would be to create a fund to “ credit ” utilities for all or part of the price increase that consumers would otherwise bear if they receive power from plants with ccs systems. alternatively, financial incentives could be offered to plant developers which, in combination, offset a significant portion of the incremental costs of installing a ccs system as opposed to operating a coal - fired plant that does not control co2 emissions. this new incentive program would replace current incentive programs for igcc plants and other coal technologies that do not include ccs systems. assuming that government incentives cover 10 percent to 20 percent of total plant construction costs and that they apply to the first 80 gigawatts of new coal capacity with ccs systems built by 2030, these incentives could cost in the range


exponentially. this will be critical to combating the massive rise of coal - derived greenhouse gas emissions in the developing world. boosting exports while also helping china, india, and other developing nations reduce emissions and sustain economic growth would be a win - win - win for our economy, their economies, and the global climate. - read the full report ( pdf ) watch bob sussman discuss the report ( youtube ) watch ken berlin discuss the report ( youtube ) contact our experts for additional information and comments, please contact : for tv, sean gibbons, director of media strategy 202. 682. 1611 or firstname. lastname @ example. org for radio, nadia reiman, radio coordinator 202. 481. 8183 or email @ example. com for print, john neurohr, press assistant 202. 481. 8182 or firstname. lastname @ example. org for web, erin lindsay, online marketing manager 202. 741. 6397 or email @ example. com to speak with our experts on this topic, please contact : print : katie peters ( economy, education, health care, gun - violence prevention ) 202. 741. 6285 or firstname. lastname @ example. org print : anne shoup ( foreign policy and national security, energy, lgbt issues ) 202. 481. 7146 or email @ example. com print : crystal patterson ( immigration ) 202. 478. 6350 or firstname. lastname @ example. org print : madeline meth ( women ' s issues, poverty, legal progress ) 202. 741. 6277 or email @ example. com print : tanya arditi ( spanish language and ethnic media ) 202. 741. 6258 or firstname. lastname @ example. org tv : lindsay hamilton 202. 483. 2675 or email @ example. com radio : madeline meth 202. 741. 6277 or firstname. lastname @ example. org web : andrea peterson 202. 481. 8119 or email @ example. com


the search for certainty : a philosophical account of foundations of mathematics. marcus giaquinto. xii + 286 pp. oxford university press, 2002. $ 45. david hilbert ( 1862 – 1943 ) was arguably the leading mathematician of his time. in struggles over how mathematics was to accommodate new understandings of the infinite, the dutch mathematician l. e. j. brouwer was his most fervent opponent. when hilbert ' s favorite student, hermann weyl, went over to the enemy, saying " brouwer, that is the revolution, " hilbert was incensed. in a passionate address delivered in 1922, he proclaimed : weyl and brouwer... seek to provide a foundation for mathematics by pitching overboard whatever discomforts them and declaring an embargo.... but this would mean dismembering and mutilating our science, and, should we follow such reformers, we would run the risk of losing a large part of our most valued treasures. weyl and brouwer outlaw the general notion of irrational number, of function, even of number - theoretic function, cantor ' s [ ordinal ] numbers of higher number classes, etc. the theorem that among infinitely many natural numbers there is always a least, and even the logical law of the excluded middle, e. g., in the assertion that either there are only finitely many prime numbers or there are infinitely many : these are examples of forbidden theorems and modes of inference. i believe that impotent as kronecker was to abolish irrational numbers..., no less impotent will their efforts prove today. no! brouwer ' s [ program ] is not as weyl thinks, the revolution, but only a repetition of an attempted putsch with old methods, that in its day was undertaken with greater verve yet failed utterly. especially today, when the state power is thoroughly armed and fortified by the work of frege, dedekind, and cantor, these efforts are foredoomed to failure. a decade later hilbert ' s own program for the foundations of mathematics lay in tatters, destroyed in an investigation by the young logician kurt godel, which had initially been undertaken in an effort to contribute to that very program. today, passions have cooled, and working mathematicians show little interest in foundational matters. the infinitary set theoretic methods that occasioned such controversy are casually absorbed in passing by the beginning graduate student and used unhesitatingly


program. today, passions have cooled, and working mathematicians show little interest in foundational matters. the infinitary set theoretic methods that occasioned such controversy are casually absorbed in passing by the beginning graduate student and used unhesitatingly. like a military historian surveying the battlefield long after all the bodies have been cleared away, marcus giaquinto coolly revisits the controversies in the search for certainty. it all began with a necessary effort by mathematicians to put their house in order. although the methods of the calculus had proved highly successful, their underlying logic had been in grave need of clarification. calculus worked with numbers and functions, but no coherent theory of the so - called " real " numbers had been developed, and the notion of function had been stretched in the direction of a frightening arbitrariness. richard dedekind ' s elegant characterization of the real numbers in terms of " cuts " had a distinctly set - theoretic flavor, and georg cantor ' s new push into the " actual " infinite expanded the boundaries of the subject matter of mathematics into what hilbert later characterized as " cantor ' s paradise. " but cantor ' s infinite was plagued by paradox. the kernel of at least one of these paradoxes could manifest itself in what seemed like everyday reasoning, as bertrand russell showed in his famous paradox : if we consider the set s of all those sets that are not members of themselves, then s is a member of itself if and only if it is not a member of itself. this was particularly bad news for gottlob frege, whose ambitious logical system for the foundations of mathematics proved vulnerable to russell ' s paradox and was thus seen to be inconsistent. the highly influential but rather baroque three - volume principia mathematica was bertrand russell ' s effort ( with coauthor alfred north whitehead ) to revive frege ' s wrecked program. paradoxes such as russell ' s were to be avoided by slicing up the universe of mathematical discourse into discrete successive " types, " with set membership permitted only between adjacent types. meanwhile, ernst zermelo, who never accepted the stringent syntactic demands of formal logical systems, proposed a set of axioms for set theory. by the 1920s, it was realized that zermelo ' s axioms provided the basis of a formal system rivaling that of principia. in an important paper appearing in 1930, zermelo proposed what came to be called the iterative notion of set, in which a hierarchy of sets is built


axioms provided the basis of a formal system rivaling that of principia. in an important paper appearing in 1930, zermelo proposed what came to be called the iterative notion of set, in which a hierarchy of sets is built from some initial collection of things by iterating indefinitely the operation of forming the set of all subsets of a given set. he observed that his axioms could be construed as being about just this notion. a few years later, in an address on the foundations of mathematics, kurt godel emphasized that rather than being seen as a rival to principia, when viewed from the perspective of the iterative notion of set zermelo ' s system could be seen as the result of eliminating unnecessary complications and artificial restrictions from the whitehead - russell system. by the 1940s and ' 50s, set - theoretic methods had become a crucial part of the mathematician ' s toolbox. back in the 1920s, when passions were aflame, hilbert developed an ingenious strategy by which he intended to overcome his opponents. he would establish the legitimacy of methods that brouwer and weyl considered dubious by encapsulating those methods in formal systems whose consistency would then be proved using only methods of which they approved. in a revolutionary paper in 1931, the young godel demonstrated not only that consistency could not be proved using only these restrictive methods, but also that the same negative conclusion held even if the entire panoply of methods encapsulated in the systems in question was brought to bear. after godel, the foundations of mathematics were seen as inevitably open - ended, with more and more propositions becoming provable as ever more powerful methods were employed. godel liked to emphasize that these more powerful methods could be thought of as being essentially a matter of venturing sufficiently far out in the iterative hierarchy of sets. giaquinto has provided a careful and judicious discussion and analysis of these matters, supplying needed technical background for readers who are not mathematicians. although foundational questions have ceased to be of much importance to most mathematicians, controversies among specialists continue. readers of this book will be well prepared to follow the current literature on foundations of mathematics.


cerebral blood flow ( cbf ) the normal cerebral blood flow is approximately 50ml / 100g / min or 700 ml / min, which is roughly 14 % of the cardiac output. this ranges from 20ml / 100g / min in white matter to 70ml / 100g / min in grey matter. the kety - schmidt technique applies the fick principal using n2o to calculate whole brain cbf. cerebral blood flow = cerebral perfusion pressure / cerebrovascular resistance cerebral perfusion pressure cpp = cbf x cvr ( compare bp = co x svr ) cerebral perfusion pressure ( cpp ) is defined as the difference between mean arterial pressure ( map ) and intracranial ( icp ) or central venous pressures ( cvp ), whichever is the highest. map is the diastolic pressure plus one third of the pulse pressure ( difference between the systolic and diastolic ). cpp = map – icp ( or cvp, whichever is the highest ) a cpp less than 70 mmhg can lead to a rapid decrease in jugular venous bulb saturation ( normal range 65 % - 75 % ) because of increased oxygen extraction a number of studies on patients with severe head injuries have shown an increase in mortality and poor outcome when cpp falls to less than 70 mmhg for a sustained period. pressure autoregulation maintains cbf at a constant level in normal brain in the face of the usual fluctuations in blood pressure. it is a poorly understood local vascular mechanism. normally autoregulation maintains a constant blood flow between map 50 mmhg and 150 mmhg. however in traumatised or ischaemic brain, cbf may become blood pressure dependent. regional blood flow is tightly coupled to brain metabolism. energy metabolites cause local vasodilatation, assisting with rapid regional control of cbf. carbon dioxide can have a significant influence on cbf. as the arterial pco2 rises, vasodilatation increases cbf and when co2 is reduced vasoconstriction occurs. when paco2 is less than 3. 3kpa ( 25 mmhg ) there is no further reduction in cbf. therefore there is no advantage in inducing further hypocapnia as this will only shift the oxygen dissociation curve further to the left, making oxygen less available to the tissues. arterial po2 has a minimal effect until po2 drops below 6. 7 kpa ( 50 mmhg ), when cb


perhaps the most famous of all on - screen stars is jumbo jr., the little elephant cruelly nicknamed dumbo by his mean peers because of his huge ears and naively friendly disposition. he has been separated from his mother by the circus keepers, and his only friend is timothy, the mouse. jumbo jr. learns to use his “ disability ” to his advantage, using his ears to fly and earning respect and fame with his “ flying elephant ” performance. this was one of disney ’ s shortest films, at just over an hour long ( 64 mins ). it was released in 1941, and was based on the children ’ s book written by helen aberson. the book, however, consisted of only 8 drawings and very little written content, so how walt disney came across the story remains a mystery. nevertheless, it became one of the greatest children ’ s classics, and remains a popular choice and reference point even today. bill tytla was the animation artist for the film, and his work continues to be considered some of the most classic american animation to date. nelly the elephant was also made famous through the children ’ s song of the same name. this song tells of the escape of nelly from the travelling circus en route to bombay after she hears the trumpeting calls from the head of her herd. interestingly, the beat of this song is used to demonstrate the cardiopulmonary resuscitation ( cpr ) rhythm. the number of compressions per breaths should be 30 : 2. by the time the song has been sung twice, with one compression per bar, the cpr administrator will have given exactly 30 compressions by the final “ trump ”. ruby was an asian or indian elephant famous for her art. she lived in the phoenix zoo and was born in approximately 1973. she was sent to the zoo when she was only a year old. ruby ’ s talent was discovered when she was seen scratching shapes into the sand with a stick. once handed a brush and paints, her career began. one of her paintings sold for $ 100, 000. sadly, ruby was put to sleep after a problematic pregnancy in 1998. batyr, also an asian elephant, was said to have the ability to mimic human speech precisely. although he descended from wild indian elephants, he was born and lived his entire life ( 1969 – 1993 ) in the karaganda zoo in kazakhstan, without ever seeing another elephant. employees of the zoo noticed that he mimicked their speech, and this became a major drawcard for


elephants, he was born and lived his entire life ( 1969 – 1993 ) in the karaganda zoo in kazakhstan, without ever seeing another elephant. employees of the zoo noticed that he mimicked their speech, and this became a major drawcard for visitors from all over the world. his vocabulary included what sounded like “ water ”, as well as several comments of chastisement to himself, amusing onlookers. dr. a. n. pogrebnoj - aleksandroff studied batyr and his unique abilities. one of his comments on the phenomenon was, “ batyr, on the level of natural blares, said the words … by manipulating a trunk. having put the trunk in a mouth, pressing a tip of the trunk by the bottom of jaw and manipulating of tongue, said words. besides, being in a corner of the cage ( quite often at the nights ) with the hanging down and weakened his trunk the elephant said words very silently — that sound is comparable with a sound of ultrasonic devices against mosquitoes … during pronouncing of words, only the tip of the trunk of the elephant has been clamped inside and batyr made insignificant movements by a finger - shaped shoot on the trunk tip ” ( sic ). it is no secret that elephants are intriguing, alluring and ultimately captivating. however, when we consider the unique abilities and attractions of some of the better known ones, we come to appreciate their value both within the global fauna as well as in our cultural enrichment.


what makes some children more likely than others to dart across the street in traffic? according to a study in the december journal of experimental psychology : applied ( vol. 9, no. 4 ), it ' s whether they are risk - takers. in the study, lead author ulrich hoffrage, phd, a research scientist at the max planck institute for human development in berlin, and colleagues tested 22 boys and 22 girls who were 5 to 6 years old. the researchers first placed each child on the curb of a busy one - way street in munich where there was no traffic light or crosswalk. they then asked the children to indicate when they thought it was safe to cross the street. as the researchers expected, some children were more likely than others to say they ' d cross the street at potentially dangerous times. to find out why some children seem to be traffic daredevils, hoffrage and colleagues played a gambling game with the children. an experimenter presented each child with 10 wooden boxes, nine of which contained coveted stickers ; the tenth box was an empty " devil " box. the children were told to choose and open the boxes one - by - one. if they chose the devil box, the game ended and they lost their stickers ; but if they terminated the game before they found the devil, they were able to keep the stickers they ' d found. children who terminated the game early were classified as risk - avoiders, while those who pressed their luck were labeled risk - takers. overall, the researchers found that the children who were risk - takers in the gambling task were more likely to decide to cross the street, especially when the gaps between cars were midsized - - a time when it ' s often unclear whether it ' s safe to cross. the risk - takers also made their decisions to cross the street more quickly. moreover, while boys were more likely than girls to make risky decisions, whether a child was a risk - taker was a far better predictor of their street - crossing behavior than gender. the findings indicate that traffic - safety education should pay more attention to children ' s risk behavior and tailor their messages accordingly, says hoffrage. " if we succeed in identifying the mechanisms that make risk - takers accept higher levels of risk, " write the authors, " we can design and implement training programs tailored to those mechanisms. for instance, risk - takers may profit from training in visual timing skills. " - - d. smith bailey


this month in physics history november 1887 : michelson and morley report their failure to detect the luminiferous ether albert abraham michelson was born in strelno, germany in 1852. when he was two years old his family moved to the us, and he grew up in the rough mining towns of murphy ’ s camp, california and virginia city, nevada. as a youngster, he showed some aptitude for science, and at age 16 he obtained a special appointment to the u. s. naval academy from president u. s. grant. as a student at the naval academy, he excelled at optics and other sciences, and clearly had an aptitude for precision instruments and measurements. he graduated in 1873, and then became an instructor of physics and chemistry at the naval academy. in 1877, while conducting a classroom demonstration of foucault ’ s measurement of the speed of light, he realized he could make significant improvements on the method. within the next two years, michelson managed to measure the speed of light with much greater precision than ever before. the measurement brought him some recognition as a scientist, and settled him on pursuing a career in physics research. he then headed to europe to study for the next two years. working in berlin, he invented the device known as the michelson interferometer. he realized he could use the setup to detect the earth ’ s velocity through the ether. the basic design is simple and elegant. a beam of light is split and sent down two perpendicular paths. then, after bouncing off mirrors, the two beams are recombined, producing an interference pattern. if the earth was indeed traveling through the ether, the speed of light would differ depending on its direction with respect to the earth ’ s motion through the ether, and michelson ’ s interferometer would pick up a slight shift in the interference fringes. however, these early efforts found no evidence of the earth ’ s movement with respect to the ether. michelson was disappointed by the result and considered the experiment a failure. nonetheless, he continued his effort to detect the ether when he returned to the united states. in 1882 michelson took a position at the case school of applied science in cleveland, ohio. there he teamed up with chemist edward morley, who helped make some improvements in the experiments michelson had begun in berlin. the new apparatus was similar in basic design to his previous ones, but much more sensitive. it used extra mirrors to allow the light beams to bounce back and forth, creating a much longer path length.


in the experiments michelson had begun in berlin. the new apparatus was similar in basic design to his previous ones, but much more sensitive. it used extra mirrors to allow the light beams to bounce back and forth, creating a much longer path length. michelson and morley conducted the experiments in a basement lab, and to minimize vibrations, the setup rested atop a huge stone block, which floated in a pool of mercury that allowed the entire apparatus to rotate. even with this exquisitely sensitive design, michelson and morley couldn ’ t detect evidence of motion through the ether. they reported their null result in november 1887 in the american journal of science, in a paper titled “ on the relative motion of the earth and the luminiferous ether. ” ( the paper is online at www. aip. org / history / gap / michelson / michelson. html. ) though disappointing to michelson and morley, the experiment revolutionized physics. some scientists initially tried to explain the results while keeping the ether concept. for instance, george fitzgerald and hendrik lorentz independently proposed that moving objects contract along their direction of motion, making the speed of light appear the same for all observers. then in 1905 albert einstein, with his groundbreaking theory of special relativity, abandoned the ether and explained the michelson - morley result, though it is uncertain whether einstein was actually influenced by their experiment. michelson and morley nonetheless both continued to believe that light must be a vibration in the ether, though michelson did acknowledge the importance of einstein ’ s work on relativity. although it couldn ’ t detect the non - existent ether, the michelson interferometer proved useful for other measurements. michelson used his interferometer to measure the length of the international standard meter in terms of wavelengths of cadmium light, and in 1920 he was the first to measure the angular diameter of a distant star, also using an interferometer. in 1901 michelson was the second president of the aps, and he became the first american to win the nobel prize in 1907, for his precision optical instruments and measurements made with them. in 1889 michelson moved to clark university in worcester, massachusetts, and then in 1892 to the university of chicago. he returned to his work refining measurements of the speed of light, and continued making more and more precise measurements right up to his death in 1931. ©1995 - 2013, american physical society aps encourages the redistribution of the materials included in this newspaper provided that attribution to the source is noted and the materials are not truncated