shoreview, minn. when it comes to litters, size matters. larger numbers of pigs per litter have a direct correlation with an operation ’ s total pigs marketed ; however, for these pigs to meet their full potential, adequate birth weights are necessary. “ no matter the genetics, the management or the facilities, birth weight plays a big factor in a pig ’ s lifetime productivity, ” says dr. gawain willis, director of nutrition services for purina animal nutrition llc. willis explains that measuring birth weights are especially important as current genetics are helping sows move towards larger litters. unfortunately this trend is also resulting in a trend toward lower birth weights. research shows the average birth weight of each pig drops an average of 0. 10 pound for each additional pig in the litter. “ as the industry evolves and larger litters become more common, producers must pay close attention to birth weights in their farrowing units, ” he says. purina animal nutrition has evaluated birth weights at the purina animal nutrition center in gray summit, mo., for several years. along with brenda de rodas, director of swine research with purina animal nutrition, willis measured birth weights on 2, 456 litters over five years. they found that a 1 - pound difference in birth weight ( 3. 1 pounds versus 2. 1 pounds ) resulted in twice the survival rate from birth to weaning. “ birth weights played a significant role in pre - weaning mortality rates, ” willis says. “ almost all of our pre - weaning mortality occurred in the smaller birth weights. growth rates, feed efficiency and piglet vitality were also noticeably improved with higher birth weights. ” heavier - born pigs were able to get off to a proper start and also reached weaning and market weights quicker ; with 2. 8 pounds higher weaning weights. when looking at the timeline to finishing, pigs born between 3. 1 and 3. 5 pounds reached the marketable weight of 270 pounds, 7 days sooner than pigs with birth weights of 1. 6 to 2 pounds. increased nutrients through gestation and lactation are one major factor required to allow sows to produce these heavier litters. willis explains that higher - producing sows require increased nutrients to achieve long - term production or they may fall out of the herd too soon. if the nutritional needs of the sow aren ’ t met, the potential remains for low birth weights. “ failing to feed sows for increased productivity can also lead to rebreeding


garlic is surely among the easiest and most gratifying vegetables to grow. garlic takes up minimal space, grows over the winter when there ' s less competition for garden space, and is extremely easy to grow if its basic requirements are met. from the cook ' s perspective, it ' s a most useful and versatile vegetable, with many different cultivars offering a diversity of flavors, sizes and storage qualities. fresh garlic " seed " ( bulbs ) are now available at local nurseries and it ' s time to pick out your favorite varieties and prepare the ground for planting. the best time to plant garlic is from late october through late november. here ' s what you can do now to get started : - buy your garlic. the selection of varieties is at its peak right now, and you can pick out heads of garlic with the fattest, plumpest cloves. large cloves make the largest heads of garlic next year ( set aside small cloves to eat fresh, dry, pickle or plant tightly together for greens in the springtime ). make sure the heads of garlic feel heavy, not dry and light - weight. do not break cloves off until directly before planting. - figure out how much space you need for your garlic. to determine how much space to set aside, note that it ' s best planted about 5 to 6 inches apart. if you eat a lot of garlic over the course of the year, you may want to plant a little more than you think you need! - prepare the soil. as soon as you have cleared space in the garden, dig over the area where you ' ll be planting your garlic and incorporate any soil amendments, fertilizers or minerals you wish to add. garlic grows best in well - draining, loamy, fertile soil with a ph level between 6 and 7. amend with store - bought / kitchen / leaf compost or manure ( give it a few weeks to mellow before planting if manure is still hot ). i scratch in a few handfuls of a mixed micronutrient and slow - release organic fertilizer in my beds every fall, as well. inquire at your favorite local nursery ( naomi ' s organic farm supply or the urban farm store are especially helpful with soil amendments ) for specific instructions. also, it ' s worth mulching your garlic beds after planting. i like to use leaves that have been chopped up in the lawn mower, grass clippings or aged straw. for more garlic planting details


- category : technology featured - published on wednesday, 15 august 2012 02 : 08 - written by raja computers especially connected with the internet, the users came to know about a popular word ‘ ip ’. outside the computer world ip refers to intellectual property ; but in our world ip refers to internet protocol. you may come across it most of the time on tcp / ip. the tcp refers to transmission control protocol. tcp / ip is generally refers to two computers exchanging data between them. on the internet, every computer ( email servers, ip hosts ) gets an ip address. let us take an example. some organizations send letters. if undelivered they can be returned to them in the address mentioned by them. in the internet world ip address is doing the same thing apart from other things. ip address consists of four arrays of numbers. for example 184. 108. 40. 206 is an ip address, if you ’ re sending a data this address is just like a postal stamp attached to your letter. it will reach its destination. from this you can find, from which country, which internet service provider and from which computer this data or email is sent. some routers and software packages are changing their ip address while sending which should be avoided. if not, using them anybody can access your computer without your permission. it means they can steal the important information, data, your bank account number, credit and debit card numbers, and your passwords easily. these software or packages are called as malwares and the ip hacker use proxies to get your data. they can also use your computer ’ s ip as a proxy if you got hacked. there are several anti spyware & malware programs available in the market to prevent them. some hackers can use or take control over your computer ’ s ip address and send their data through it. it will facilitate your ip being abused by other undesirable elements. on the internet ; the internet service providers will allocate ip address for standard computer servers and for standard organizations ( that runs computer servers regularly or on daily basis with their clients, consumers, customers, and employees ) will be given standard ip address. otherwise all the computers we are using in our homes, and though our mobiles, tablets, smartphones, and broadband landlines are connected through the internet service provider and get a random ip address. each time when you are connected to the internet, you get a new ip address. please bear in mind that can also be easily hacked by the persons over


copyright : this document has been placed in the public domain. many thanks to bill baxter, jarrett billingsley, anders f bjorklund, lutger blijdestijn, thomas kuehne, pierre rouleau and max samuha for their input, and to walter bright for making such a great language. one of the great features of d is its ’ fantastic support for text. however, many people new to d have trouble understanding why things are the way they are. people coming from a c or c + + background are quickly confused by the fact that char does not appear to work the way they expect it to, whilst people coming from a java, c # or interpreted language background wonder why d has three different character types, and no string class. this article will hopefully address these questions, and help explain the how and why of text in d. but first, some background. back when c was created, the dominant character encoding in use was ascii. ascii was cool because it could encode every letter of the western alphabet, numbers, and a whole bunch of punctuation. if you needed more characters, then by golly you could just stick them in the upper 128 fields as an extension to ascii. this led to the rather unfortunate mess that are character encodings. they arose out of the impossibility of fitting every language ’ s symbols into just 128 characters. things became worse with multi byte character sets like shift _ jis where you couldn ’ t even count on each 8 - bit code being an actual symbol. you also had to carry around a description of which code page you were using. it only got worse if you wanted to use multiple character encodings in a single text document : you usually can ’ t. in the end, this led to the creation of unicode ; a character encoding to replace all other character encodings. unicode significantly differs from most other character encodings in that it encodes every one of its ’ symbols using a unique integer identifier called a code point. for example, the n - ary summation symbol “ ” is identified in unicode as code point 0x2211. by contrast, this symbol is not defined in most character encodings, usually because there simply isn ’ t room. however, unicode by itself does not specify how to actually store these code points ; it merely defines what they mean. this is where the unicode transformation formats come in to play. utf - 32 is the easiest to understand. every


’ t room. however, unicode by itself does not specify how to actually store these code points ; it merely defines what they mean. this is where the unicode transformation formats come in to play. utf - 32 is the easiest to understand. every unicode code point is stored literally as a 32 - bit unsigned integer. the obvious disadvantage to this is that it requires a large amount of space to store even the simplest of text. utf - 16 is somewhat more complex. as the name suggests, it is based around 16 - bit unsigned integers. however, since you cannot represent every unicode code point with only 16 - bits, it uses variable length encoding to make sure you can store any code point you please. most normal code points will only use a single 16 - bit value, with more uncommon code points taking up two. each of these 16 - bit values is called a “ code unit. ” utf - 8 can be thought of as an “ extension ” of utf - 16 in that it uses a similar variable length encoding scheme based on 8 - bit integers. code points that fall into the traditional ascii range remain exactly the same ( meaning ascii is effectively a subset of utf - 8 ), with other code points taking somewhere between 2 and 4 bytes ( aka : code units ) to store. so, by now, you ’ re probably thinking “ what a complete and total mess! ” to a degree it is, but it ’ s important to realise that this is a huge simplification of how things used to be. what ’ s important to take from all this is that there are three distinct ways of representing unicode text, and all three are supported directly in d. unlike c which says nothing on, for example, how to store japanese text, d is designed to use unicode internally for all text storage. this means that instead of having to support multiple character encodings in your programs, you only need to support one, possibly using a library to convert to and from unicode as necessary. specifically, here is how the various encodings translate to d types : - char is a utf - 8 code unit, - wchar is a utf - 16 code unit, - dchar is a utf - 32 code point, - char is a utf - 8 string, - wchar is a utf - 16 string and - dchar is a utf - 32 string. the first thing that trips up people new to d is that the following program works : but this one doesn ’ t


є ”. it gives you " \ xd1 " which isn ’ t what you really wanted. similarly, gives you “ єll ” and not “ ” as you would expect ( since the “ є ” actually takes up two chars. ) the reason for this is that decoding a utf - 8 or utf - 16 stream is all well and good, but trying to decode a slice in the middle is difficult to do efficiently. similarly, the length property of a utf - 8 or utf - 16 string can be misleading ; it is counting the number of code units, not the number of actual code points. the simplest way to deal with this is to stick to utf - 32 strings ( aka : dchar ) if you ’ re going to be doing a lot of indexing or slicing. this is because they do not suffer from these variable length encoding problems. another possible way to do this is to use a foreach loop to convert your string into individual code points, and manually extract the slice you want as you go. the std. utf module provides many functions which you might find useful : - std. utf. toutf8 ( s ) – converts s from any utf encoding to utf - 8, and returns the result. - std. utf. toutf16 ( s ) – as above, but for utf - 16. - std. utf. toutf32 ( s ) – as above, but for utf - 32. another trick to keep in mind is that when using foreach, you can also ask it to give you the index of each code point within the string : the above code produces the following output ( assuming your terminal can display utf - 8 ) : note that the index is that of the first code unit for that code point. these indices can be used in slicing operations to ensure you get a valid utf sequence. this is an area of active discussion. many people assert that d needs a string class, whilst others say that it is unnecessary. instead of trying to convince you either way, i ’ ll just explain why d doesn ’ t have a string class, and show what you can do without one. an important thing to remember is that c + + grew a string class because c ’ s string handling was so incredibly painful. java has a string class because java is object - oriented to the extreme, and it makes sense to have one. on the other hand, d


remember is that c + + grew a string class because c ’ s string handling was so incredibly painful. java has a string class because java is object - oriented to the extreme, and it makes sense to have one. on the other hand, d does many of the things that c + + needed the string class for quite nicely by itself : - since all strings are arrays, all strings have a length property, meaning you don ’ t need a function to go looking for the end of a string. - strings can also be trivially concatenated together using the concatenation operator ~. - slicing works as expected for utf - 32 strings, and in utf - 8 and utf - 16 strings as long as you slice on known code point positions. can be rewritten as : which means that although you don ’ t have a string class, you can “ fake ” it, by simply writing functions that take strings as their first argument ; you aren ’ t even limited to what comes in the standard library, unlike in c + + and java! for a full list of what string manipulation functions come with d, take a look at http : / / www. digitalmars. com / d / phobos / std _ string. html. if you really, really can ’ t live without the warm comforting embrace of a string class, you can find a good one at http : / / www. dprogramming. com / dstring. php. by now you should understand the problems that arise because of d ’ s use of utf encodings. however, there is another problem that comes about because of how d represents arrays. back before d had the std. stdio. writefln method, most examples used the old c function printf. this worked fine until you tried to output a string : statements like the above are very likely to print out garbage, which leaves many people scratching their heads. the reason is that c uses nul - terminated strings, whereas d uses true arrays. in other words : - strings in c are a pointer to the first character. a string ends at the first nul character. - strings in d are a pointer to the first code unit, followed by a length. there is no terminator. thankfully, there is an easy solution : the std. string. tostringz function converts any char string to a c - compatible char * string by ensuring that there is a terminating nul. so you ’ ve been clever and


: this doesn ' t work because ‘ o ’ requires two utf - 8 code units to encode. currently, there is no function in the standard library for extracting the nth character from a string, however you can use something like this : once you take care of those two problems, aside from things like the system api or what kind of text you ' re storing, it doesn ' t really matter which encoding you use. it is a bit, actually. here ' s a fast version written by derek parnell and frits van bommel that supports any given string type passed to it ( not just char. ) see the newsgroup thread starting at http : / / www. digitalmars. com / webnews / newsgroups. php? art _ group = digitalmars. d. learn & article _ id = 7444. here ' s the long and short of it : - windows : ascii for old win9x apis, utf - 16 for winnt? apis. you can tell the difference because ascii apis have a trailing ' a ' on their name, whilst utf - 16 apis have a trailing ' w '. for example : getcommandlinea? and getcommandlinew?. - linux : depends on what you ' re calling, how it was compiled, system ( locale ) settings, etc. best to read the documentation. - mac osx : usually utf - 8, some old - old - old functions may expect macroman? ( yuck! ). be careful with filenames though, becase they allow only specific normalized subset of utf - 8 ( you can read them as utf - 8, but you can ' t use any utf - 8 as filename unless you normalize it ). http : / / developer. apple. com / qa / qa2001 / qa1173. html so here ’ s the short and sweet on text in d : - char is a utf - 8 code unit, and may not be a complete code point. - wchar is a utf - 16 code unit, and may not be a complete code point. - dchar is a utf - 32 code unit, which is guaranteed to be a complete code point. - char is a utf - 8 string, and uses one to four bytes per code point. - wchar is a utf - 16 string, and uses two


parma, oh ( prweb ) june 06, 2012 studies have shown that students can lose up to three months of reading skills during summer break. this phenomenon is often referred to as “ summer slide. ” fortunately, through participation in enriching summer activities students can actually get a running start into the new school year. to prevent loss of reading skills during summer break, experts recommend keeping lots of books around the house, making regular trips to the library and participating in summer library programs. cuyahoga county public library ’ s ( ccpl ) popular mission possible : read summer reading program returns saturday, june 9th through saturday, august 11th. the program seeks not only to combat “ summer slide ” but to provide incentives for county residents of all ages to read during the summer months. to register for the program, visit any of the library ’ s 28 branches, its metrohealth service point or register online at http : / / www. cuyahogalibrary. org. how to play : children, teens and adults record the amount of time they spend reading online at http : / / www. cuyahogalibrary. org or on one of the free mission possible : read summer reading game boards available at all ccpl branches. children and teens may earn a prize for every two hours of reading they record. adults earn a prize for every three books they read. the more a participant reads, the better their chances of winning an end - of - summer grand prize, including : an amazon kindle fire, nintendo wii™ gaming system, cleveland cavaliers suite experience, birthday party at great lakes science center for up to 20 guests and an overnight campout at great lakes science center for up to 10 guests. registration prize : county residents of all ages can receive a coupon good for a free scoop of ice cream, courtesy of mitchell ’ s homemade ice cream, when they register to play the summer reading game at their local branch ( limit of one coupon per customer ). summer reading promotional offer : library customers will receive a $ 2 discount on admission to see the omnimax film flying monsters, now playing at great lakes science center, when they show their cards at the glsc box office. this offer is good for up to four discounted admissions per library card. offer valid through september 3, 2012. the mission possible : read summer reading program is made possible by mitchell ’ s homemade ice cream, the cleveland browns, the cleveland cavaliers, great lakes science center and the plain dealer. about cuyahoga county public


since the 1960s, more than 80 % of wetlands and about 35 % of grasslands have disappeared in luxembourg. at the same time, the area occupied by orchards has been reduced by 58. 5 %. in the countryside, nearly 28. 5 % of hedges and rows of trees and more than half ( - 55 % ) of solitary trees have been eliminated. taking into account the acceleration of ecosystem destruction and species extinction, the countries present at the world summit of the earth in johannesburg have decided to slow down in a significant manner the reduction of biodiversity. the countries of europe are involved even more : at the 5th ministerial conference “ one environment for europe ” in kiev in may 2003, the european ministers of the environment formally committed themselves to stop the loss of biodiversity. biodiversity is the foundation of all life. it offers protection, food, pharmaceutical products, and includes : • genetic diversity of living beings ; • multiplicity of species ; • variety of ecosystems. the engagement of luxembourg in this context is confirmed by its official participation in the “ countdown 2010 ” initiative, an international partnership under the aegis of the international union for the conservation of nature ( iucn ) and including governments, regional and local authorities as well as non - governmental organisations, with a goal of mobilising forces for the protection of biological diversity and also for raising public awareness. the “ countdown 2010 ” initiative has a goal of ensuring that governments keep their promises. “ countdown 2010 ” is a pan - european initiative which involves 53 states. it is a large alliance of primary players from all sectors ( national and local governments and administrations, international organisations, ngos and the private sector ). this is the objective that european leaders and many of the ngos and institutions have set for themselves. the more interested people there are, the more species of flora and fauna that will be saved from extinction. the official partners in luxembourg are the ministry of sustainable development and infrastructure, the 21 communities of “ sicona - ouest ” ( intercommunal syndicate of the west for the conservation of nature ) and the “ fondation hellef fir d ’ natur ” foundation. since 1982, the “ fondation hellef fir d ’ natur ” foundation has acted definitively to protect biodiversity, the natural heritage of our regions, the natural space for fauna, flora, and man. up to 2010, the foundation has been able to acquire 910 ha of nature reserves thanks to various benefactors. the rehabilitation project for the pearl mussel in the “ our ” river, and the restoration project of the arnica montana, are


stephen moylan was born of wealthy parents in cork, ireland, in 1737, and, though he had been in the united states only seven years at the outbreak of the revolutionary war, he became a vigorous advocate of independence and established a reputation for intense loyalty to the american cause. his family was catholic and he had been sent to school in paris, where he received a good education. he engaged in the shipping business, first in lisbon and then in philadelphia, where he moved in 1768. although still in his thirties, he had gained considerable wealth and social prestige before the outbreak of the war. his jovial nature won him many friends, and when the friendly sons of st. patrick, comprised mainly of prosperous merchants. was founded in philadelphia in 1771 he was elected the first president. john dickinson, prominent philadelphia lawyer, recommended him to washington as a zealous patriot. moylan joined the army at cambridge and washington appointed him muster - master general in august 1775. in january 1776 moylan became one of the leaders in the movement for complete independence of the colonies. his ambition was to become ambassador to spain, but failing to get the appointment he remained in the army. in march of that year he was named secretary to washington. three months later, on june 7th, congress appointed him quartermaster general to succeed thomas mifflin. moylan was unfortunate in that his appointment came on the eve of the disastrous new york campaign in the summer of 1776. washington made the tactical error of attempting to hold long island against a much larger british army and strong fleet. moylan was instructed to try to block the progress of the english fleet up the hudson, but his frantic efforts in anchoring obstacles in the river proved fruitless. in the meantime, he had been transporting supplies to the troops by means of the hudson and east rivers. when the british gained control of these waterways, overran the island, and defeated the americans in a battle at brooklyn, the continental army was forced into a hasty retreat across the east river, leaving behind many wagons containing most of its baggage and supplies. not only was the morale of the soldiers shattered by the retreat but their distress was increased by the interruption to the flow of supplies, and in their irritation they blamed moylan for their predicament. congress appointed a committee " to inspect the state of the army in new york. " the committee arrived while moylan was making valiant efforts in the face of overwhelming difficulties to get supplies again moving to the troops. after a three - day investigation the


congress appointed a committee " to inspect the state of the army in new york. " the committee arrived while moylan was making valiant efforts in the face of overwhelming difficulties to get supplies again moving to the troops. after a three - day investigation the committee suggested in a " delicate " manner to moylan that be resign in favor of mifflin in an effort to restore the morale of the soldiers although he was convinced that he was the victim of circumstances beyond ' ' the power of man " to control, moylan demonstrated his strength of character and his devotion to " the glorious cause we are engaged in, " when he wrote to the president of the continental congress that he was ready to resign if it was deemed " for the publick good, " and added that he would remain in the army as a volunteer. this he did, and served with distinction at the battle of princeton. late in 1776, upon orders from washington, moylan organized and took command of a regiment of dragoons, which became a part of the american cavalry commanded by general pulaski. moylan, with a display of irish temper, engaged in a quarrel with pulaski and zielinski, another polish officer, with the result that he was tried by a court martial. he was acquitted, but zielinski later had the satisfaction of " unhorsing " him in a tilt. when pulaski resigned his command of the cavalry, moylan succeeded him and retained the post for three and a half years with outstanding success. his military career ended after the surrender of cornwallis at yorktown, when ill health forced him to return to his home in philadelphia. moylan occupied no position of national prominence after the war. he spent the greater portion of his life in philadelphia, but for a while lived on a farm in chester county, pennsylvania. washington appointed him commissioner of loans in philadelphia - - a position he occupied until his death on april 13, 1811, at the age of 74. he was buried on the grounds of st. mary ' s catholic church in philadelphia. as of 3 sep 00


economic valuation of wetlands on the river basin scale - - a discussion paper economic valuation of wetlands : an important component of wetland management strategies at the river basin scale senior advisor on environment and development cooperation, economic valuation can be defined as the attempt to assign quantitative and monetary values to goods and services provided by environmental resources or systems, whether or not market prices are available to assist us. when market prices are not available ( e. g., for flood control services, for disaster mitigation services, for erosion avoidance ), the value is established by the willingness to pay for the good or service, whether or not we actually make any payment. a major problem in assessing the value of ecosystems arises when the services provided, such as climate change regulation or biodiversity conservation, benefit the global community. however, this short introduction will not deal with valuation of ecosystems global services. why estimate ecosystem value? environmentalists sometimes question the need always to put a price tag on nature and assert that nature has an intrinsic value, that it is our long - term life support system and that this is reason enough to protect it. they are of course totally right, but the reality of life on this planet unfortunately shows that many people do not share this view. especially ( but not only ) those who suffer from hunger and understandably try to get the most out of wetlands in the short term. if they are hungry today, they will not care about what happens tomorrow - even less in 20 years from now! but people in developing countries do not have the privilege of this short - term approach. people in developed countries often also have restricted vision and prefer to maximize their immediate benefits rather than to secure them for the long term. this being a realistic view of life on earth, we have to work with it. we therefore think that when one cannot reasonably expect to change a situation in the short term, it is better to try to make the best of it and exert influence to mitigate its negative effects on the environment. there are at least two good reasons for evaluating wetland services and goods : 1. in difficult financial times, it is not easy for government decision makers to spend taxpayers ' money on environmental activities, especially if there is no broad support from the public. wetland valuation is a way to estimate ecosystem benefits to people and allows financial experts to carry out a cost - benefit activity which might be in favour of environmental investment. cost - benefit analysis compares the benefits and costs to society of policies, programmes, or actions to protect or restore an ecosystem. it is therefore an important tool for


experts to carry out a cost - benefit activity which might be in favour of environmental investment. cost - benefit analysis compares the benefits and costs to society of policies, programmes, or actions to protect or restore an ecosystem. it is therefore an important tool for environmental managers and decision makers to justify public spending on conservation activities and wetland management. [ note 1 ] 2. the other good reason is that people are not always aware of the values of wetlands. many think that they are no more than mosquito breeding areas! by giving objective evidence to skeptical managers and the public of the monetary and non - monetary benefits of wetlands, environmentalists will gain their support. most people only care about what they love or what brings economic benefit to them. by helping people to improve their living conditions by using and selling wetland goods and services, we will gain strong supporters for our cause! economic valuation is but one of many ways to define and measure values. other types of value ( religious, social, cultural, global, intrinsic ) are also important, but the economic value is the most important in most countries when decision makers have to make difficult choices about allocation of scarce government resources. economic valuation is not an easy and non - conflictive exercise. it often depends on human preferences. in other words, it depends on what people perceive as the ( positive or negative ) impact wetlands have on their wellbeing. in theory, the economic value of any good or service is measured in terms of what we are willing to pay for the commodity less what it costs to supply it. but often, because they are perceived as common good ( market failure ), we do not have to pay for wetland products and services. in this case, the value is provided by the estimation of the willingness to pay, whether or not we actually make any payment. the relationship between ecology and economics in all regions of the world, human populations are suffering social, economic and environmental hardship resulting from the destruction and mismanagement of their natural resources, notably including their wetlands and water resources. this destruction, which is continuing at alarming rates in many countries, is contributing to escalating poverty and water supply and food security problems, as well as robbing the planet of the biological diversity with which wetlands are endowed. its causes are multiple - from local actions and national policies to global issues. although wetlands are amongst the richest life - supporting ecosystems on earth, they are amongst the most threatened and destroyed. why do human beings destroy what are essential elements of their ecosystems? the answer is relatively simple : because they do not


policies to global issues. although wetlands are amongst the richest life - supporting ecosystems on earth, they are amongst the most threatened and destroyed. why do human beings destroy what are essential elements of their ecosystems? the answer is relatively simple : because they do not value wetland goods and services in economic and monetary terms. sacred wetlands are an exception and are often well conserved because their religious value is recognized by local people. the reason why people do not value wetland goods and services is more complex and is probably linked to the fact that most of us are not aware of wetland characteristics ( biological, chemical and physical ) which enable the development and maintenance of their structure, which in turn is key to the provision of wetland goods and services. ecosystem functions are the result of interactions amongst characteristics, structure and processes [ note 2 ]. because of the complexities of the natural interactions, ecological assessment of these ecosystem functions is best served by a river basin approach. these functions, values and attributes can only be maintained if the ecological processes of wetlands are allowed to continue functioning. but the river basin approach is beyond the extent of direct personal interest of many wetland beneficiaries. an ecological characterization is therefore an indispensable step before carrying out an economic valuation. in economic valuation exercises, the scale of work is very important in that the attempt to value ecosystems separately, despite the fact that they are highly interdependent, may result in paradoxical results of unwise substitutions of " lesser valued wetland ecosystems " with " higher valued artificial ( human made ) wetlands ". although the ramsar convention recognizes the value of artificial wetlands, the fragmentation of the whole wetland system ( river basin ) into a series of smaller wetland units may lead to an economic over or under valuation of one separate unit against the whole system. this is the main reason why the convention on wetlands is promoting the river basin scale as the framework for wetland management and is therefore also suggesting using it for wetland economic valuation exercises [ note 3 ]. some questions remain about the problem of the exact size of the management unit and many wonder how much of a river watershed should be considered wetland? [ note 4 ] in this case, a pragmatic approach would perfectly well complement the theoretical river basin approach! in april 2003, during the first steering committee meeting of two french mba research studies aimed at promoting the sustainable trade of wetland products, led by the tour du valat and the poles relais lagunes mediterraneennes, [ note 5 ] lowland producers from the lagoons and coastal wetlands had difficulty accepting that


research studies aimed at promoting the sustainable trade of wetland products, led by the tour du valat and the poles relais lagunes mediterraneennes, [ note 5 ] lowland producers from the lagoons and coastal wetlands had difficulty accepting that up - river products with no apparent relationship to wetlands ( apples, grapes, ) would be included in the research and should benefit from the research and commercial promotion and marketing work. this rather common attitude introduces another element of complication : because the value of a product is often determined by its rarity, the producers want to give a specific image of uniqueness and rareness to their ecosystem and therefore tend to limit the scale of work to a very limited area. in other words, they try to convince people of the high value of their products by selling the idea that they come from a very small, rare, unique and pure ecosystem. all of which are elements which contribute to high prices marketing theories therefore plead for a division of the basin into several small units. on the other hand, although the production systems on the upper river bank and on the slopes of the watershed very strongly influence the quality of the lowland ecosystems, the upper - land producers are often not perceived as part of the wetland ecosystem and therefore do not benefit from any economic and financial incentives for limiting agriculture inputs or water consumption which, in turn, would benefit the lowland wetland. the risk is therefore that, without incentives to do so, the upper river producers will not use their lands as wisely as expected ( limiting inputs, avoiding erosion ) and will therefore contribute to the deterioration of the lowland ecosystem ( quality image ) and failure of the marketing strategy! what are wetland values? wetlands, as defined by the ramsar convention, cover a wide variety of habitat types, including rivers and lakes, coastal lagoons, mangroves, peatlands, and even coral reefs. in addition, there are human - made wetlands such as fish and shrimp ponds, farm ponds, irrigated agricultural land, salt pans, reservoirs, gravel pits, sewage farms, and canals. wetlands are among the world ' s most productive environments. they are cradles of biological diversity, providing the water and primary productivity upon which countless species of plants and animals depend for survival. they support high concentrations of birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians, fish and invertebrate species. of the 20, 000 species of fish in the world, more than 40 % live in fresh water. wetlands are also important storehouses of plant genetic material. rice, for example,


, amphibians, fish and invertebrate species. of the 20, 000 species of fish in the world, more than 40 % live in fresh water. wetlands are also important storehouses of plant genetic material. rice, for example, which is a common wetland plant, is the staple diet of more than half of humanity. the interactions of physical, biological and chemical components of a wetland, such as soils, water, plants and animals, enable the wetland to perform many vital functions, for example : water storage ; storm protection and flood mitigation ; shoreline stabilization and erosion control ; groundwater recharge ( the movement of water from the wetland down into the underground aquifer ) ; groundwater discharge ( the movement of water upward to become surface water in a wetland ) ; water purification through retention of nutrients, sediments, and pollutants ; and stabilization of local climate conditions, particularly rainfall and temperature. wetlands provide tremendous economic benefits, for example : water supply ( quantity and quality ) ; fisheries ( over two thirds of the world ' s fish harvest is linked to the health of coastal and inland wetland areas ) ; agriculture, through the maintenance of water tables and nutrient retention in floodplains ; timber production ; energy resources, such as peat and plant matter ; wildlife resources ; transport ; and recreation and tourism opportunities. translating these many values into economic terms is of primary importance if we are to convince of the importance of these ecosystems as life - supporting systems. this is a relatively new science but promising progress is being made. figure 1 below taken from r. k. turner et al., ecological economics 35 - 2000, p. 12, very well summarizes the complex relationship between the different levels of intervention. the total economic value ( tev ) of wetlands is defined as the total amount of resources that individuals would be willing to forego for increased amount of wetland services. the tev is divided into different kinds of components : a. the use values 1. the direct use values ( duv ) are the benefits derived from fish, agriculture, fuel wood, recreation, transport, wildlife harvesting, peat / energy, vegetable oils, dyes, fruits, 2. the indirect use value ( iuv ) are the indirect benefits derived from the wetlands functions like nutrient retention, flood control, storm protection, groundwater recharge, external ecosystem support, micro - climatic stabilization, shoreline stabilization, etc. 3. the option value ( ov ) in which an individual derives benefits from ensuring that a resource will be available for future use.


, storm protection, groundwater recharge, external ecosystem support, micro - climatic stabilization, shoreline stabilization, etc. 3. the option value ( ov ) in which an individual derives benefits from ensuring that a resource will be available for future use. b. the non - use values 1. the non - use value ( nuv ) is derived from the knowledge that a resource ( biodiversity, cultural heritage, religious site, and bequest ) is maintained. this value is strongly advocated by environmentalists who support the concept of the pure intrinsic value of nature. how to quantify wetland values? the next question is how to adequately put a monetary value on wetland products or services. the idea behind the evaluation of wetland products and services is to show that, in some cases, maintaining the natural functions of the ecosystem as untouched as possible can be economically valuable and generate profit. of course, to adequately do so, one has to compare the price of the wetland product originating from a well preserved wetland with the price of producing similar goods or services in an environmentally less friendly way : building dykes or irrigation schemes, promoting input - intensive agriculture, transforming lands into grazing fields the key to this exercise is to internalize cost externalities [ note 6 ]. most of the products and services produced on earth are subsidized, frequently without the consumer ' s knowledge. the fact that the fruit producer using chemical fertilizers does not have to pay the cost of water treatment needed to take out the excess of nitrates caused by his use of fertilizers to provide clean drinking water does not reflect the real price of the product. the fact that the farmer who intensively irrigates his field does not have to pay for the damage ( erosion, pollution ) caused by the running of the water he is using on watershed slopes and finally increasing river water turbidity does not reflect the real price of the cubic meter of water he is using. in these cases, both chemical fertilizers and water are being heavily subsidized. this kind of subsidy leads to little consideration being given to environmental protection. and of course, someone has to pay for the damage caused. who pays? the whole community, as taxpayers, pays for unwise use of common goods by private individuals. because decision makers and politicians want to see convincing figures before they make decisions that might affect their popularity, a series of methods have been developed to try to quantify the monetary values of wetland services and goods. the easiest way to do this would be to apply


decision makers and politicians want to see convincing figures before they make decisions that might affect their popularity, a series of methods have been developed to try to quantify the monetary values of wetland services and goods. the easiest way to do this would be to apply the market price method ( the law of supply and demand ) but this is unfortunately not always possible because for some wetland products there is simply no market or because some wetland values are intrinsically non - marketable. these market failures occur when markets do not reflect the full social cost or benefit of a good. market failures related to ecosystems include the fact that many wetlands ( 1 ) provide services that are public goods, ( 2 ) many wetlands services are affected by externalities and ( 3 ) property rights related to ecosystems and their services are often not clearly defined. another limitation of the market price method is that it does not always and automatically reflect the real value of a good. there are many cases where the actual willingness to pay is much higher than what the customer actually pays. however, several ( non perfect ) methods have been devised to help quantify or give an order of magnitude for specific wetland values. the table below gives an idea of the most common quantitative evaluation methods used, their constraints and limitations. description and importance constraints and limitations market price method direct use values, especially wetland products. the value is estimated from the price in commercial markets ( law of supply and demand ) market imperfections ( subsidies, lack of transparency ) and policy distort the market price. damage cost avoided, replacement cost or substitute cost method indirect use values : coastal protection, avoided erosion, pollution control, water retention … the value of organic pollutant or any other pollutant ’ s removal can be estimated from the cost of building and running a water treatment plant ( substitute cost ). the value of flood control can be estimated from the damage if flooding would occur ( damage cost avoided ). it is assumed that the cost of avoided damage or substitutes match the original benefit. but many external circumstances may change the value of the original expected benefit and the method may therefore lead to under - or over - estimates. insurance companies are very interested in this method. travel cost method recreation and tourism the recreational value of a site is estimated from the amount of money that people spend on reaching the site. this method only gives an estimate. over - estimates are easily made as the site may not be the only reason for traveling to that area. this method also requires a lot of quantitative data. hedonic pricing method some aspects of indirect use


site. this method only gives an estimate. over - estimates are easily made as the site may not be the only reason for traveling to that area. this method also requires a lot of quantitative data. hedonic pricing method some aspects of indirect use, future use and non - use values this method is used when wetland values influence the price of marketed goods. clean air, large surface of water or aesthetic views will increase the price of houses or land. this method only captures people ’ s willingness to pay for perceived benefits. if people are not aware of the link between the environment attribute and the benefits to themselves, the value will not be reflected in the price. this method is very data intensive. contingent valuation method tourism and non - use values this method asks people directly how much they would be willing to pay for specific environmental services. it is often the only way to estimate the non - use values. it is also referred to as a " stated preference method ". there are various sources of possible bias in the interview techniques. there is also controversy over whether people would actually pay the amounts stated in the interviews. it is the most controversial of the non - market valuation methods but is one of the only ways to assign monetary values to non - use values of ecosystems that do not involve market purchases. description and importance constraints and limitations contingent choice method for all wetland goods and services estimate values based on asking people to make tradeoffs among sets of ecosystem or environmental services does not directly ask for willingness to pay as this is inferred from tradeoffs that include cost attribute. this is a very good method to help decision makers to rank policy options. benefit transfer method for ecosystem services in general and recreational uses in particular estimates economic values by transferring existing benefit estimates from studies already completed for another location or context. often used when it is too expensive to conduct a new full economic valuation for a specific site. can only be as accurate as the initial study. extrapolation can only be done for sites with the same gross characteristics. for specific wetland goods and services : water, soils, humidity in the air … estimates the economic values for wetland products or services that contribute to the production of commercially marketed goods the methodology is straightforward and data requirements are limited but the method only works for some goods or services. adapted from barbier, e. b., m. acreman and d. knowler ( 1996 ) economic valuation of wetlands : a guide for policy makers and planners. ramsar convention on wetlands ; king d. and mazzota ( 1999 ) ecosystem valuation website


, e. b., m. acreman and d. knowler ( 1996 ) economic valuation of wetlands : a guide for policy makers and planners. ramsar convention on wetlands ; king d. and mazzota ( 1999 ) ecosystem valuation website ( www. ecosystemvaluation. org ) ; stuip, m. a. m., baker, c. j. and oosterberg, w. 2002. the socio - economics of wetlands, wetlands international and riza, the netherlands. using these methods might seem complicated or very exhaustive for most economic neophytes. but behind the apparent complication there is ample room for the application of common sense. economic and financial valuation is not a panacea. there are cases where : ( 1 ) it should not be carried out. if the ecosystem we are dealing with is, for example, a ramsar site with a very rare and highly threatened endemic species and with little potential economic benefit to local people, it is evident that the environmental valuation shall take precedence over any economic valuation. the cost of the loss of endemic species is much higher than the benefit derived from the collection of, say, a few bird eggs for a short period of time before the bird eventually becomes extinct. the same logic can be applied to religious values. in some countries, they are above all economic values. ( 2 ) it should not be done in an exhaustive way. in most countries it will be difficult to find qualified economists to carry out an in - depth economic valuation exercise but some of the methods proposed above can be used by non - economists. sometimes, the economic benefits are so important to so many people that a rapid economic assessment would be enough to allow decision makers to take decisions. protecting a rich costal ecosystem in which a large number of fisherman make a living against the destruction of mangroves for the construction of a road might not require an extensive evaluation. a partial or rapid economic valuation might be enough to show trends or give an overview of the situation and be a valuable input to the decision - making process. of course if decision makers do not care about their people, there is nothing an evaluation or the absence of an evaluation can do! cost - benefit analysis : a tool for decision makers the section above explained how to answer the question : what does this product cost or what are the monetary benefits of a particular wetland service or good? once we have the answer to this basic question, we have to compare the value of a product or service coming from a well preserved and managed wetland with the


what does this product cost or what are the monetary benefits of a particular wetland service or good? once we have the answer to this basic question, we have to compare the value of a product or service coming from a well preserved and managed wetland with the value of a product coming from a poorly or unwisely managed wetland. this exercise must be done between comparable products or services and of course only makes sense if all externalities are internalized in all costs. decision makers cannot take decisions based on intuition alone. they need facts and values but they are also confronted with three very different kinds of input to feed the decision - making process : 1. environmentalists, ngos and other interest groups ( farmers, tourism industries ) often voice their views strongly and try to influence decision makers. they are supposed to represent the diversity of public views and opinions but they do not always do so in a coherent way! as the basic constituency of decision makers, they are more or less influential. 2. scientists provide decision makers with supposedly neutral scientific information and facts about the hydrological cycle, the ecosystem functioning etc. their views are key for decision makers to understand the context in which they work and help them avoid making seriously damaging or irreparable decisions regarding ecosystems management. 3. environmental economists combine the feelings of environmentalists about the intrinsic value of nature ( sentimental approach ), the understanding of ecosystem functioning as explained by scientists ( scientific approach ) and the pragmatism that decision makers need to do their job ( real life approach ). they provide objective benefit estimations and values. valuing wetlands is not limited to valuing the economic and monetary benefits wetland ecosystems can bring to humans. it is about attributing a value to all kinds of benefit to humans and / or to nature, including religious values, social values, environmental values ( biodiversity, climate change, intrinsic value ), aesthetic values, economic values and any other... all values are good. the challenge is to set priorities according to local realities and for the benefit of both humans and nature. it requires an ad hoc approach. in developing countries, where life is not always easy for most people, the economic value tends to overstate the others. this has to be taken carefully into consideration to make sure there is a strong poverty alleviation component in any wetland management plan. in developed countries, economic valuation may be less relevant, especially if the economic benefits are marginal as compared to aesthetic or recreational values. economic valuation methods are not perfect yet and some are even controversial, but they are certainly good


in any wetland management plan. in developed countries, economic valuation may be less relevant, especially if the economic benefits are marginal as compared to aesthetic or recreational values. economic valuation methods are not perfect yet and some are even controversial, but they are certainly good enough to be used to give valuable information that people often do not perceive. the production of goods and services is closely linked to the functioning of the ecosystems ( hydrology, soil, water quality ) and the economic valuation has to take this reality into consideration at every stage. 1. barbier, akerman and knowler, in economic valuation of wetlands : a guide for policy makers and planners, ramsar convention bureau publication, 1997. 2. r. k. turner et al. in ecological economics 35 ( 2000 ) pp 7 - 23 3. integrating wetland management and wise use into river basin management. ramsar handbook n°4, publication of the ramsar convention bureau. 4. tore soderqvist and others. in valuation of wetlands in a landscape and institutional perspective. ecological economics 35 ( 2000 ) pp1 - 6 5. the two researches are entitled : ( 1 ) " valuing langedoc - rousillon ' s lagoons products " and ( 2 ) " valuing french wetland ' s products ". 6. internalising simply means including. cost externalities are all those " external " elements which contribute to the real cost of any item but which, for political reasons or for market failure reasons, are not reflected in the real price and which are therefore paid for by the community. for example, one externality of the cost of fertilisers is the cost of water treatment.


schizophrenia : a disorder of neurodevelopment and accelerated aging? many lines of evidence indicate that schizophrenia is a disorder of neurodevelopment. for example, genes implicated in the heritable risk for schizophrenia are also implicated in the development of nerve cells and their connections. numerous findings in brain imaging studies describe the changes in brain structure and function associated with schizophrenia as emerging early in the course of the disorder. some early brain imaging studies even found little or no evidence of progression of structural deficits. yet, a new generation of studies now also describes degenerative processes in schizophrenia that resemble accelerated aging. schizophrenia is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular illnesses and persons with schizophrenia have shorter average lifespans. studies have also found that individuals with schizophrenia have shortened telomeres, a marker of aging. structural imaging studies describe enhanced reductions in gray and white matter volumes and increased cortical thinning with age associated with schizophrenia. similar findings have also emerged for individuals diagnosed with major depressive disorder. this evidence led researchers of a new study in biological psychiatry to specifically examine age - related decline in cerebral white matter in schizophrenia and major depressive disorder, using a measure of microstructural integrity called fractional anisotropy. for comparison, they recruited two normal control groups, one for each cohort. dr. peter kochunov, first author of the study, explained their findings : “ this study showed that the brain ’ s white matter, or the wiring of the brain, ages faster in patients with schizophrenia compared with people who do not have a mental illness. in comparison, the white matter in people with major depression ages similarly to people without a mental illness. ” “ we are getting a clear picture that a component of the biology of schizophrenia progresses with age. however, i am afraid that we have relatively little understanding of how or why this progression occurs. thus, it seems that we are at the beginning of exploring a new dimension of the illness that may hold clues to preventing functional decline associated with schizophrenia, ” commented dr. john krystal, editor of biological psychiatry. kochunov agrees, adding that they already have additional work planned. “ our next step is to find the cause of this disease - specific effect on accelerated aging by schizophrenia and determine whether it relates to the cause or the consequence of schizophrenia. ” on the net :


otto wilhelm ( wille ) kuusinen ( russian : отто вильгельмович куусинен ) ( 4 october 1881, laukaa, finland – 17 may, 1964, moscow ) was a finnish and soviet politician, literature historian, and poet, who after the defeat in the finnish civil war fled to the soviet union, where he worked until his death. after toppling the more moderate party chairman j. k. kari in 1906, kuusinen came to dominate finland ' s social democratic party. he was the leader of the january 1918 revolution in finland that created the short - lived finnish socialist workers ' republic. after the republic was defeated in the finnish civil war in 1918, kuusinen fled to moscow and helped form the finnish communist party. he was member of finland ' s parliament 1908 – 1913 and the party ' s chairman 1911 – 1917. he continued his work as a prominent leader of the comintern in bolshevist russia, that soon became the soviet union. in finland, a more moderate faction rehabilitated the social democrats under vaino tanner ' s leadership. meanwhile, kuusinen and other radicals were increasingly seen as responsible for the civil war and its aftermath. animosity towards socialists in finland in the decades after the civil war prompted many finns to emigrate to russia to " build socialism. " however, the soviet great purge was a hard blow against finns in the soviet union — most of those who didn ' t escape back to finland were executed as unreliables in the 1930s — and kuusinen ' s reputation in finland was further damaged when he turned out to remain one of the very few not targeted by stalinist show trials, deportations and executions. when the red army began its advance during winter war on november 30, 1939, he was pronounced head of the terijoki government, stalin ' s puppet regime ( of the so - called finnish democratic republic ) intended to rule the captured finland. but as the war did not go as planned, and a negotiated peace with the finnish government became unavoidable for the soviet leadership, kuusinen was put aside and made chairman of the presidium of supreme soviet of the karelo - finnish ssr ( 1940 – 1956 ). already suspect, kuusinen ' s involvement in the terijoki government sealed his reputation among finnish socialists as a traitor, and, rather than the intended effect, it contributed to the unification of the finns and the


( 1940 – 1956 ). already suspect, kuusinen ' s involvement in the terijoki government sealed his reputation among finnish socialists as a traitor, and, rather than the intended effect, it contributed to the unification of the finns and the healing of the wounds from the civil war. after fleeing to the soviet union, kuusinen became an influential official in the state administration. he was a member of the soviet union ' s politburo, the highest state organ. kuusinen also continued his work during the reign of nikita khrushchev ( 1953 – 1964 ). he was secretary of the central committee of the communist party of the soviet union 1957 – 1964. in 1952 and again in 1957 he was also elected to the presidium of the central committee. kuusinen was one of the editors of the fundamentals in marxism - leninism, considered one of the fundamental works on dialectical materialism and leninist communism. in the kremlin politics he was considered liberal — and from its temporal distance his thinking pointed forward to the perestroika. while editing a new party programme for " rapid agricultural, industrial, and technological development " he championed giving up the concept of the dictatorship of the proletariat, to the horror of more conservative ideologists. in this he was supported by khrushchev. kuusinen was elected member of the soviet academy of sciences in 1958. being informed by the kremlin doctors to be deathly ill, before his death otto ville kuusinen asked through soviet embassy in helsinki a permission to visit in finland at laukaa and jyvaskyla as private person from government of finland. his request was rejected.


the bhopal disaster was an industrial disaster that occurred in the city of bhopal, madhya pradesh, resulting in the immediate deaths of more than 3, 000 people, according to the indian supreme court. a more probable figure is that 8, 000 died within two weeks, and it is estimated that the same number have since died from gas related diseases. the incident took place in the early hours of the morning of december 3, 1984, in the heart of the city of bhopal in the indian state of madhya pradesh. a union carbide subsidiary pesticide plant released 43 tonnes of methyl isocyanate ( mic ) gas, exposing at least 520, 000 people to toxic gases. the bhopal disaster is frequently cited as the world ' s worst industrial disaster. the international medical commission on bhopal was established in 1993 to respond to the disasters. background and causes, summary the union carbide india, limited ( ucil ) plant was established in 1969. 51 % was owned by union carbide corporation ( ucc ) and 49 % by indian authorities. it produced the pesticide carbaryl ( trade mark sevin ). methyl isocyanate ( mic ), an intermediate in carbaryl manufacture, was used instead of less toxic but more expensive materials. in 1979, a plant for producing mic was added. ucc was responsible for all technique and design. the plant was located close to a densely populated area, instead of on the other side of the town where ucil was offered an area. mic was stored in a few large tanks instead of several small tanks. during the night of december 3rd 1984, large amounts of water entered tank 610, containing 43 tonnes of methyl isocyanate. the resulting reaction generated a major increase in the temperature of liquid inside the tank to over 400°f ( 200°c ). the mic holding tank then gave off a large volume of toxic gas, forcing the emergency release of pressure. the reaction was sped up by the presence of iron from corroding non - stainless steel pipelines. there have been several theories on the reason for the entry of water into the tank. the workers claim that, because of the bad maintenance with leaking valves etc, it was possible for the water to climb from the point where the pipeline washing was performed to tank 610. ucc maintains that this was not possible, and that it was an act of sabotage by a " disgruntled worker " who introduced water directly into the tank. there is much confusion because


point where the pipeline washing was performed to tank 610. ucc maintains that this was not possible, and that it was an act of sabotage by a " disgruntled worker " who introduced water directly into the tank. there is much confusion because the indian government closed the plant to outsiders and would not allow interviews with the plant employees for almost a year. much speculation arose in the meantime and much of it was not scientifically based, but based on worker accounts which may or may not have been accurate. the deciding factors that caused the outcome were the state of the art plant design ( location near a densely populated area, using hazardous chemicals instead of less dangerous, storing in large tanks, possible corroding material in pipelines etc ), and the decision to close the plant which began a shut down which contributed to poor oversight by local managers ( poor oversight of operators, safety systems not functioning etc ), and in the aftermath, negligence on the part of the governments of india and madhya pradesh as well as ucc. - the deficiencies in the bhopal plant design can be summarised as : choosing a dangerous method of manufacturing pesticides ; large - scale storage of mic prior to selling ; location close to a densely populated area ; under - dimensioning of the safety features ; dependence on manual operations.. - deficiencies in the management of ucil can be summarised : lack of skilled operators because of the staffing policy ; reduction of safety management because of reducing the staff ; insufficient maintenance of the plant ; lack of emergency response plans. a long - term cause of the catastrophe was the location of the plant ; authorities had tried and failed to persuade carbide to build the plant away from densely - populated areas. carbide explained their refusal on the expense that such a move would incur. plant production process union carbide produced their pesticide, sevin ( the name of carbaryl ), using mic as an intermediate. until 1979, mic was imported from usa. other manufacturers, such as bayer, made sevin without mic, though at greater manufacturing costs. the bhopal route was to react methyl amine with phosgene ( also a deadly gas & chemical warfare agent ) to form mic, the mic was then reacted with 1 - naphthol to form the final product. this route is different to the mic free route used elsewhere with the same raw materials in a different manufacturing order : phosgene is reacted with the naphthol first to form a chloroformate


for problems. no action plans had been established to cope with incidents of this magnitude. this included not informing local authorities of the quantities or dangers of chemicals used and manufactured at bhopal. - the mic tank ’ s alarms had not worked for 4 years. - there was only one manual back - up system, not the four - stage system used in the usa. - the flare tower and the vent gas scrubber had been out of service for 5 months before the disaster. the gas scrubber therefore did not treat escaping gases with sodium hydroxide ( caustic soda ), which may have brought the concentration down to a safe level. even if the scrubber had been working, according to weir, investigations in the aftermath of the disaster discovered that the maximum pressure it could handle was only one - quarter of that which was present in the accident. furthermore, the flare tower itself was improperly designed and could only hold one - quarter of the volume of gas that was leaked in 1984. - to reduce energy costs, the refrigeration system, designed to inhibit the volatilization of mic, had been left idle – the mic was kept at 20 degrees celsius, not the 4. 5 degrees advised by the manual, and some of the coolant was being used elsewhere. - the steam boiler, intended to clean the pipes, was out of action for unknown reasons. - slip - blind plates that would have prevented water from pipes being cleaned from leaking into the mic tanks via faulty valves were not installed. their installation had been omitted from the cleaning checklist. - water sprays designed to “ knock down ” gas leaks were poorly designed – set to 13 metres and below, they could not spray high enough to reduce the concentration of escaping gas. - the mic tank had been malfunctioning for roughly a week. other tanks had been used for that week, rather than repairing the broken one, which was left to “ stew ”. the build - up in temperature and pressure is believed to have affected the explosion and its intensity. - carbon - steel valves were used at the factory, despite the fact that they corrode when exposed to acid. on the night of the disaster, a leaking carbon - steel valve was found, allowing water to enter the mic tanks. the pipe was not repaired because it was believed it would take too much time and be too expensive. - themistocles d ' silva contends that the design of the mic plant, following government guidelines, was " indianized " by ucil engineers to maximize


was not repaired because it was believed it would take too much time and be too expensive. - themistocles d ' silva contends that the design of the mic plant, following government guidelines, was " indianized " by ucil engineers to maximize the use of indigenous materials and products. it also dispensed with the use of sophisticated instrumentation as not appropriate for the indian plant. because of the unavailability of electronic parts in india, the indian engineers preferred pneumatic instrumentation. previous warnings and accidents a series of prior warnings and mic - related accidents had been ignored : - in 1976, the two trade unions reacted because of pollution within the plant. - in 1981, a worker was splashed with phosgene. in panic he ripped off his mask, thus inhaling a large amount of phosgene gas ; he died 72 hours later. - in january 1982, there was a phosgene leak, when 24 workers were exposed and had to be admitted to hospital. none of the workers had been ordered to wear protective masks. - in february 1982, an mic leak affected 18 workers. - in august 1982, a chemical engineer came into contact with liquid mic, resulting in burns over 30 percent of his body. - in october 1982, there was a leak of mic, methylcarbaryl chloride, chloroform and hydrochloric acid. in attempting to stop the leak, the mic supervisor suffered intensive chemical burns and two other workers were severely exposed to the gases. - during 1983 and 1984, leaks of the following substances regularly took place in the mic plant : mic, chlorine, monomethylamine, phosgene, and carbon tetrachloride, sometimes in combination. - reports issued months before the incident by scientists within the union carbide corporation warned of the possibility of an accident almost identical to that which occurred in bhopal. the reports were ignored and never reached senior staff. - union carbide was warned by american experts who visited the plant after 1981 of the potential of a “ runaway reaction ” in the mic storage tank ; local indian authorities warned the company of problems on several occasions from 1979 onwards. again, these warnings were not heeded. - in november 1984, most of the safety systems were not functioning. many valves and lines were in poor condition. tank 610 contained 43 tonnes mic, much more than allowed according to safety rules. - during the nights of 2 - 3 december, large amounts of water entered tank 610. a run -


were not functioning. many valves and lines were in poor condition. tank 610 contained 43 tonnes mic, much more than allowed according to safety rules. - during the nights of 2 - 3 december, large amounts of water entered tank 610. a run - away reaction started, which was accelerated by contaminants, high temperatures and other factors. the reaction generated a major increase in the temperature of liquid inside the tank to over 200°c ( 400°f ). the mic holding tank then gave off a large volume of toxic gases, forcing the emergency release of pressure. the reaction was sped up by the presence of iron from corroding non - stainless steel pipelines. - we know that workers cleaned pipelines with water. they were not told by the supervisor to add a slip - blind water isolation plate. because of this, and of the bad maintenance, the workers consider it possible for water to enter the mic tank. - ucc maintains that a " disgruntled worker " deliberately connected a hose to a pressure gauge. however, this would hardly have been possible if the safety rules had been followed. time line, summary at the plant - 21. 00 water cleaning of pipes start. - 22. 00 water enters 610. reaction starts. - 22. 30 gases are coming out from the vgs - tower. - 00. 30 the large siren sounds and is turned off. - 00. 50 the siren is heard within the plant area. the workers escape. - 22. 30 first sensations felt. suffocation, cough, eyes, vomiting. - 1. 00 police alerted. people escaped. uc - director denied a possible leak. - 2. 00 the first people reached hamidia hospital. half blind, gasping for air, frothing at the mouth, vomiting. - 2. 10 the alarm was heard outside the plant. - 4. 00 the gases were reduced. - 6. 00 the police ' s loudspeaker said : " everything is normal ". - morning : thousands of dead bodies and hundreds of dead cattle lying on the streets. apart from mic the gas cloud may have contained phosgene, hydrogen cyanide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen chloride, nitrous oxides, monomethyl amine ( mma ) and carbon dioxide, either produced in the storage tank or in the atmosphere. all these gases, except carbon dioxide, are acutely toxic at levels well below 500 ppm the gas cloud, composed mainly of materials more dense than the surrounding air, stayed close to


dioxide, either produced in the storage tank or in the atmosphere. all these gases, except carbon dioxide, are acutely toxic at levels well below 500 ppm the gas cloud, composed mainly of materials more dense than the surrounding air, stayed close to the ground and spread outwards through the surrounding community. the initial effects of gas exposure were coughing, vomiting, severe eye irritation and a feeling of suffocation. people awoken by these symptoms fled away from the plant. those who ran inhaled more than those who had a vehicle. due to their height, children and other people of lower stature inhaled relatively higher concentrations. many people were trampled trying to escape. thousands of people had succumbed to gas exposure by the morning hours. there were mass funerals and mass cremations as well as bodies being disposed of in the narmada river. 170, 000 people were treated at hospitals and temporary dispensaries. 2, 000 buffaloes, goats, and other animals had to be collected and buried. within a few days, leaves on trees went yellow and fell off. supplies including food became scarce due to safety fears by the suppliers. fishing was prohibited as well which caused further supply shortages.. a total of 36 wards were marked by the authorities as being " gas affected ", affecting a population of 520, 000. in 1991, 3, 928 deaths had been certified. independent organizations recorded 8, 000 dead the first days. other estimations vary between 10, 000 and 20, 000. another 100, 000 to 200, 000 people are estimated to have been injured. the majority of deaths and serious injuries were related to pulmonary edema, but the gas caused a wide variety of other ailments. signs and symptoms of methyl isocyanate exposure include coughing, dyspnea, chest pain, lacrimation, eyelid edema, and unconsciousness. these effects tend to progress over 24 to 72 hours following exposure to include acute lung injury, cardiac arrest, and death. long term health effects the quality of the epidemiological and clinical research varies. reported and studied symptoms are eye problems, respiratory difficulties, immune and neurological disorders, cardiac failure secondary to lung injury, female reproductive difficulties, and birth defects among children born to affected women. other symptoms and diseases are often ascribed to the gas exposure, but there is no good research supporting this.. for a review of the research on the health effects of the bhopal disaster ( dhara & dhara, 2002 ), see http : / / www


are often ascribed to the gas exposure, but there is no good research supporting this.. for a review of the research on the health effects of the bhopal disaster ( dhara & dhara, 2002 ), see http : / / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov / pubmed / 12641179. aftermath of the leakage - the doctors and the staff were completely taken by surprise as thousands and thousands of survivors entered the gates. - doctors and hospitals were not informed of proper treatment methods for mic gas inhalation. they were told to simply give cough medicine and eye - drops to their patients. - the gases immediately caused visible damage to the trees. within a few days, all the leavsfelof. - 2, 000 bloated animal carcasses had to be taken care of. - " operation faith " on december 16, the tanks 611 and 619 shoud be emptied of the remains of mic. this led to a second mass evacuation from bhopal. - complaints of a lack of information or misinformation were legion. not even the medical doctor of the bhopal plant had proper information about the properties of the gases. an indian government spokesman said that " carbide is more interested in getting information from us than in helping our relief work. " - up to today, ucc has not released information about the possible composition of the cloud. - formal statements were issued that air, water, vegetation and foodstuffs were safe everywhere in the city. at the same time, television features informed people that poultry was unaffected, but warned people not to consume fish, etc. - the survivors lost their economic standard, lost health and gained worries about the future. much time was spent at hospitals and clinics. the expences fore medicines could sometimes esceed expenses on food. it was difficult for girls to get married. - bhopal was invaded by american lawyers, radical groups and health personnel. sometimes there was conflicts with the police. union carbide ’ s defense now owned by dow chemical company, union carbide denies allegations against it on its website dedicated to the tragedy. the corporation believes that the accident was the result of sabotage, stating that safety systems were in place and operative. it also stresses that it did all it could to alleviate human suffering following the disaster. investigation into possible sabotage the company cites an investigation conducted by the engineering consulting firm arthur d. little, which concluded that a single employee secretly and deliberately introduced a large


. it also stresses that it did all it could to alleviate human suffering following the disaster. investigation into possible sabotage the company cites an investigation conducted by the engineering consulting firm arthur d. little, which concluded that a single employee secretly and deliberately introduced a large amount of water into the mic tank by removing a meter and connecting a water hose directly to the tank through the metering port. carbide claims such a large amount of water could not have found its way into the tank by accident, and safety systems were not designed to deal with intentional sabotage. uc says that the rest of the plant staff falsified numerous records to distance themselves from the incident, and that the indian government impeded its investigation and declined to prosecute the employee responsible, presumably because that would weaken its allegations of negligence against union carbide. union carbide has never publicly named or identified the employee it claims sabotaged its bhopal plant or attempted to prosecute. nevertheless, on the company ’ s bhopal information center website, carbide claims that “ the indian authorities are well aware of the identity of the employee and the nature of the evidence against him ”. safety and equipment issues the corporation denies the claim that the valves on the tank were malfunctioning, claiming that “ documented evidence gathered after the incident showed that the valve close to the plant ' s water - washing operation was closed and leak - tight. furthermore, process safety systems – in place and operational – would have prevented water from entering the tank by accident ”. carbide states that the safety concerns identified in 1982 were all allayed before 1984 and “ none of them had anything to do with the incident ”. the company admits that “ the safety systems in place could not have prevented a chemical reaction of this magnitude from causing a leak ”. according to carbide, “ in designing the plant ' s safety systems, a chemical reaction of this magnitude was not factored in ” because “ the tank ' s gas storage system was designed to automatically prevent such a large amount of water from being inadvertently introduced into the system ” and “ process safety systems – in place and operational – would have prevented water from entering the tank by accident ”. instead, they claim that “ employee sabotage – not faulty design or operation – was the cause of the tragedy ”. the company stresses the “ immediate action ” taken after the disaster and their continued commitment to helping the victims. on december 4th, the day following the leak, union carbide sent material aid and several international medical experts to assist the


the tragedy ”. the company stresses the “ immediate action ” taken after the disaster and their continued commitment to helping the victims. on december 4th, the day following the leak, union carbide sent material aid and several international medical experts to assist the medical facilities in bhopal. carbide put $ 2 million into the indian prime minister ’ s immediate disaster relief fund on 11th december 1984. the corporation established the employees ' bhopal relief fund in february 1985, which raised more than $ 5 million for immediate relief. in august 1987, carbide made an additional $ 4. 6 million in humanitarian interim relief available. union carbide also undertook several steps to provide continuing aid to the victims of the bhopal disaster after the court ruling, including : - the sale of its 50. 9 percent interest in ucil in april 1992 and establishment of a charitable trust to contribute to the building of a local hospital. the sale was finalized in november 1994. the hospital was begun in october 1995 and was opened in 2001. the company provided a fund with around $ 90 million from sale of its ucil stock. in 1991, the trust had amounted approximately $ 100 million. the hospital caters for the treatment of heart, lung and eye problems. - providing " a $ 2. 2 million grant to arizona state university to establish a vocational - technical center in bhopal, which was constructed and opened, but was later closed and leveled by the government ”. - donating $ 5 million to the indian red cross. - developing the responsible care system with other members of the chemical industry as a response to the bhopal crisis, which is designed “ to help prevent such an event in the future by improving community awareness, emergency preparedness and process safety standards ”. legal action against union carbide has dominated the aftermath of the disaster. however, other issues have also continued to develop. these include the problems of ongoing contamination, criticisms of the clean - up operation undertaken by union carbide, and a 2004 hoax. time - line 1984 - 2004 : see " bhopal gas tragedy : fact sheet ", hindustan times, dec 3, 2004 legal action against union carbide legal issues began affecting union carbide, the us and indian governments, the local authorities in bhopal and the victims of the disaster immediately after the catastrophe. legal proceedings leading to the settlement on 14th december 1984, the chairman and ceo of union carbide, warren anderson, addressed the us congress, stressing the company ’ s


in bhopal and the victims of the disaster immediately after the catastrophe. legal proceedings leading to the settlement on 14th december 1984, the chairman and ceo of union carbide, warren anderson, addressed the us congress, stressing the company ’ s “ commitment to safety ” and promising to ensure that a similar accident “ cannot happen again ”. however, the indian government passed the bhopal gas leak act in march 1985, allowing the government of india to act as the legal representative for victims of the disaster, leading to the beginning of legal wrangling. march 1986 saw union carbide propose a settlement figure, endorsed by plaintiffs ’ us attorneys, of $ 350 million that would, according to the company, “ generate a fund for bhopal victims of between $ 500 - 600 million over 20 years ”. in may, litigation was transferred from the us to indian courts by us district court judge. following an appeal of this decision, the us court of appeals affirmed the transfer, judging, in january 1987, that ucil was a “ separate entity, owned, managed and operated exclusively by indian citizens in india ”. the judge in the us, judge keenan, granted carbide ’ s forum request, thus moving the case to india. this meant that, under us federal law, the company had to submit to indian jurisdiction. litigation continued in india during 1988. the indian supreme court told both sides to come to an agreement and “ start with a clean slate ” in november 1988. eventually, in an out - of - court settlement reached in 1989, union carbide agreed to pay us $ 470 million for damages caused in the bhopal disaster, 15 % of the original $ 3 billion claimed in the lawsuit. by the end of october 2003, according to the bhopal gas tragedy relief and rehabilitation department, compensation had been awarded to 554, 895 people for injuries received and 15, 310 survivors of those killed. the average amount to families of the dead was $ 2, 200. throughout 1990, the indian supreme court heard appeals against the settlement from “ activist petitions ”. nonetheless, in october 1991, the supreme court upheld the original $ 470 million, dismissing any other outstanding petitions that challenged the original decision. the decision set aside a “ portion of settlement that quashed criminal prosecutions that were pending at the time of settlement ”. the court ordered the indian government “ to purchase, out of settlement fund, a group medical insurance policy to cover 100, 000 persons who may later develop symptoms ” and cover any


by india ' s central bureau of investigation to dilute the charges from culpable homicide to criminal negligence has since been dismissed by the indian courts. the u. s. supreme court refused to hear appeal of the decision of the lower federal courts in october 1993, meaning that victims of the bhopal disaster could not seek damages in a us court. meanwhile, very little of the money from the settlement reached with union carbide went to the survivors, and people in the area feel betrayed not only by union carbide ( and chairman warren anderson ), but also by their own politicians.. on the anniversary of the tragedy, effigies of anderson and politicians are burnt. in july 2004, the indian supreme court ordered the indian government to release any remaining settlement funds to victims. the deadline for this release was extended by the indian supreme court in april 2005, giving the indian government until 30th april 2006 after a request from the welfare commission for bhopal gas victims. the fund is believed to amount to $ 500 million after earning interest “ from money remaining after all claims had been paid ”. august 2006 saw the second circuit court of appeals in new york city upheld the dismissal of remaining claims in the case of bano v. union carbide corporation. this move blocked plaintiffs ’ motions for class certification and claims for property damages and remediation. in the view of carbide, “ the ruling reaffirms ucc ’ s long - held positions and finally puts to rest — both procedurally and substantively – the issues raised in the class action complaint first filed against union carbide in 1999 by haseena bi and several organizations representing the residents of bhopal ”. in september 2006, the welfare commission for bhopal gas victims announced that all original compensation claims and revised petitions had been “ cleared ". criminal charges are proceeding against former union carbide india limited employees including : former ucil chairman shri keshub mahindra ; presently chairman - cum managing director shri vijay gokhale ; former vice - president functioning in charge, shri kishor kamdar ; former works manager shri j. mukund ; and former production manager a. p. division, shri s. p. choudhury. federal class action litigation, sahu v. union carbide et al., is presently pending on appeal before the second circuit court of appeals in new york. the litigation seeks damages for personal injury, medical monitoring and injunctive relief in the form of cleanup of the drinking


under the direction of indian central and state government authorities ”, which was continued after 1994 by the successor to ucil, eveready industries, until 1998, when it was placed under the authority of the madhya pradesh government. critics of the clean - up undertaken by carbide, such as the international campaign for justice in bhopal, claim that “ several internal studies ” by the corporation, which evidenced “ severe contamination ”, were not made public ; the indian authorities were also refused access. they believe that union carbide “ continued directing operations ” in bhopal until “ at least 1995 ” through hayaran, the us trained site manager, even after the sale of its ucil stock. the successor, eveready industries, abruptly relinquished the site lease to one department of the state government while being supervised by another department on an extensive clean up programme. environmental problems resulting from lack of a proper clean - up persist today. the madhya pradesh authorities have announced that they will “ pursue both dow and eveready ” to conduct the clean - up as joint tortfeasors. the international campaign view carbide ’ s sale of ucil in 1994 as a strategy “ to escape the indian courts, who threatened carbide ’ s assets due to their non - appearance in the criminal case ”. the successor, eveready industries india, limited ( eiil ), ended its 99 year lease in 1998 and turned over control of the site to the state government of the madhya pradesh. currently, the madhya pradesh government is trying to legally force dow and eiil to finance clean - up operations. contamination from the site itself a large portion of the contamination in the site itself and the surrounding areas did not arise directly from the bhopal disaster, but rather from the materials processed at the plant and the conditions under which those materials were processed. a report from greenpeace details the extent and persistence of this contamination, which accounts for most of the heavy metal contamination. in 2002, an inquiry found a number of toxins, including mercury, lead, 1, 3, 5 trichlorobenzene, dichloromethane and chloroform, in nursing women ’ s breast milk. well water and groundwater tests conducted in the surrounding areas in 1999 showed mercury levels to be at “ 20, 000 and 6 million times ” higher than expected levels ; heavy metals and organochlorines were present in the soil. chemicals that have been linked to various forms of cancer were also discovered, as


in 1999 showed mercury levels to be at “ 20, 000 and 6 million times ” higher than expected levels ; heavy metals and organochlorines were present in the soil. chemicals that have been linked to various forms of cancer were also discovered, as well as trichloroethene, known to impair fetal development, at 50 times above safety limits specified by the united states environmental protection agency ( epa ). in an investigation broadcast on bbc radio 5 on november 14, 2004, it was reported that the site is still contaminated with ' thousands ' of metric tons of toxic chemicals, including benzene hexachloride and mercury, held in open containers or loose on the ground. some areas are reportedly so polluted that anyone entering the area for more than ten minutes is likely to lose consciousness. rainfall causes run - off, polluting local wells and boreholes, and the results of tests undertaken on behalf of the bbc by accredited water analysis laboratories in the united kingdom reveal pollution levels in borehole water 500 times the legal maximum in that country. statistical surveys of local residents, with a control population in a similarly poor area away from the plant, are reported to reveal higher levels of various diseases around the plant. additional settlement funds hoax on december 3, 2004, the twentieth anniversary of the disaster, a man claiming to be a dow representative named jude finisterra was interviewed on the bbc. he claimed that the company had agreed to clean up the site and compensate those harmed in the incident. ( video ) immediately afterward, dow ' s share price fell 4. 2 % in 23 minutes, for a loss of $ 2 billion in market value dow quickly issued a statement saying that they had no employee by that name — that he was an impostor, not affiliated with dow, and that his claims were a hoax. bbc broadcast a correction and an apology. the statement was widely carried " jude finisterra " was actually andy bichlbaum, a member of the activist prankster group the yes men. in 2002, the yes men issued a phony press release explaining why dow refused to take responsibility for the disaster and started up a website, dowethics. com, designed to look like the dow website but give what they felt was a more accurate cast on the events. in 2004, a producer for bbc news emailed them through the website requesting an interview, which they gladly obliged taking credit for the prank in an interview on democracy now!, bichlbaum explains how his fake name was derived : " jude


in 2004, a producer for bbc news emailed them through the website requesting an interview, which they gladly obliged taking credit for the prank in an interview on democracy now!, bichlbaum explains how his fake name was derived : " jude is the patron saint of impossible causes and finisterra means the end of the earth ". he explained that he settled on this approach ( taking responsibility ) because it would show people precisely how dow could help the situation as well as likely garnering major media attention in the us, which had largely ignored the disaster ' s anniversaries, when dow attempted to correct the statement after the original interview was revealed as a hoax, bichlbaum appeared in a follow - up interview on the united kingdom ' s channel 4 news ( video ). during the interview he was repeatedly asked if he had considered the emotions and reaction of the people of bhopal when producing the hoax. according to the interviewer, " there were many people in tears " upon having learned of the hoax. each time, bichlbaum said that, in comparison, what distress he had caused the people was minimal to that for which dow was responsible. - broughton e ( 2005 ). " the bhopal disaster and its aftermath : a review ". environmental health 4 ( 1 ) : 6. 10 may 2005 - browning, jackson ( 1993 ). union carbide : disaster at bhopal. detroit : - cassels, j. ( 1993 ). the uncertain promise of law : lessons from bhopal. university of toronto press. - ( 1994, 2004 ). bhopal : the inside story – carbide workers speak out on the world ' s worst industrial disaster. usa : the apex press. india : other india press isbn 81 - 85569 - 65 - 7 main author chouhan was an operator at the plant. contains many technical details. - dhara, v. ramana ; dhara, rosaline the union carbide disaster in bhopal : a review of health effects. archives of environmental health. ( 2002 ).. - d ' silva, themistocles ( 2006 ). the black box of bhopal : a closer look at the world ' s deadliest industrial disaster. written by an employed at ucc. - d ' silva tdj, lopes a, jones rl, singhawangcha s, chan jk ( 1986 ). " studies of methyl isocyanate chemistry in the bhop