still widely used, but its symbols, based on johan august lundell ' s swedish dialect alphabet, differ from the familiar international phonetic alphabet. to remedy this, william h. baxter produced his own notation for the qieyun and rime table categories for use in his reconstruction of old chinese. the approach to the reconstruction of middle chinese followed by karlgren and his successors has been to use dialect and sino - xenic data in a subsidiary role to fill in sound values for the categories extracted from the rime distionaries and tables, rather than a full application of the comparative method. all reconstructions of middle chinese since karlgren have followed his approach of beginning with the categories extracted from the rime dictionaries and tables, and using dialect, sino - xenic and transcription data to fill in their sound values. jerry norman and weldon south coblin have criticized this approach, arguing that viewing the dialect data though the rime dictionaries and rime tables distorts the evidence. they argue for a full application of the comparative method to the modern varieties, supplemented by systematic use of transcription data. the traditional analysis of the chinese syllable, derived from the fanqie method, is into an initial consonant, or " initial ", ( shengmu ) and a final ( yunmu ). modern linguists subdivide the final into an optional " medial " glide ( yuntou ), a main vowel or " nucleus " ( yunfu ) and an optional final consonant or " coda " ( yunwei ). most reconstructions of middle chinese include the glides / j / and / w /, as well as a combination / jw /, but many also include vocalic " glides " such as / i / in a diphthong / ie /. final consonants / j /, / w /, / m /, / n /, / ŋ /, / p /, / t / and / k / are widely accepted, sometimes with additional codas such as / wk / or / wŋ /. rhyming syllables in the qieyun are assumed to have the same nuclear vowel and coda, but often have different medials. middle chinese reconstructions by different modern linguists vary. these differences are minor and fairly uncontroversial in terms of consonants ; however, there is a more significant difference as to the vowels. the most widely used transcriptions are li fang - kuei ' s


by different modern linguists vary. these differences are minor and fairly uncontroversial in terms of consonants ; however, there is a more significant difference as to the vowels. the most widely used transcriptions are li fang - kuei ' s modification of karlgren ' s reconstruction and william baxter ' s typeable notation. the preface of the yunjing identifies a traditional set of 36 initials, each named with an exemplary character. an earlier version comprising 30 initials is known from fragments among the dunhuang manuscripts. in contrast, identifying the initials of the qieyun required a painstaking analysis of fanqie relationships across the whole dictionary, a task first undertaken by the cantonese scholar chen li in 1842 and refined by others since. this analysis revealed a slightly different set of initials from the traditional set. moreover, most scholars believe that some distinctions among the 36 initials were no longer current at the time of the rime tables, but were retained under the influence of the earlier dictionaries. early middle chinese ( emc ) had three types of stops : voiced, voiceless, and voiceless aspirated. there were five series of coronal obstruents, with a three - way distinction between dental ( or alveolar ), retroflex and palatal among fricatives and affricates, and a two - way dental / retroflex distinction among stop consonants. the following table shows the initials of early middle chinese, with their traditional names and approximate values : | stops and affricates | | nasals | | fricatives | | approximants | | labials | | p | | pʰ | | b | | 明 m | | dentals [ b ] | | t | | tʰ | | 定 d | | n | | retroflex stops [ c ] | | | | | | | | | | dental sibilants | | ts | | 清 tsʰ | | dz | | 心 s | | z | | retroflex sibilants | | tʂ | | tʂʰ | | dʐ | | 生 ʂ | | ʐ [ d ] | | palatals [ e ] | | 章 tɕ | | tɕʰ | | dʑ [ f ] | | 日 ɲ | | 書 ɕ | | ʑ [ f ] | | j [ g ] | | velars | | 見


e ] | | 章 tɕ | | tɕʰ | | dʑ [ f ] | | 日 ɲ | | 書 ɕ | | ʑ [ f ] | | j [ g ] | | velars | | 見 k | | kʰ | | ɡ | | ŋ | | laryngeals [ h ] | | ʔ | | x | | / ɣ [ g ] | old chinese had a simpler system with no palatal or retroflex consonants ; the more complex system of emc is thought to have arisen from a combination of old chinese obstruents with a following / r / and / or / j /. - the reversal of / ʑ / and / dʑ /. karlgren based his reconstruction on the song dynasty rime tables. however, because of mergers between these two sounds between early and late middle chinese, the chinese phonologists who created the rime tables could rely only on tradition to tell what the respective values of these two consonants were ; evidently they were accidentally reversed at one stage. - karlgren also assumed that the emc retroflex stops were actually palatal stops based on their tendency to co - occur with front vowels and / j /, but this view is no longer held. - karlgren assumed that voiced consonants were actually breathy voiced. this is now assumed only for lmc, not emc. several changes occurred between the time of the qieyun and the rime tables : - palatal sibilants merged with retroflex sibilants. - / ʐ / merged with / dʐ / ( hence reflecting four separate emc phonemes ). - the palatal nasal / ɲ / also became retroflex, but turned into a new phoneme / r / rather than merging with any existing phoneme. - the palatal allophone of / ɣ / ( ) merged with / j / ( ) as a single laryngeal initial / j / ( ). - a new series of labiodentals emerged from labials in certain environments, typically where both fronting and rounding occurred ( e. g. / j / plus a back vowel in william baxter ' s reconstruction, or a front rounded vowel in chan ' s reconstruction ). however modern min dialects retain bilabial initials in such words, while modern hakka dialects preserve them in some common words. - voiced obstruents gained phonetic breathy voice ( still reflected in the wu chinese varieties


chan ' s reconstruction ). however modern min dialects retain bilabial initials in such words, while modern hakka dialects preserve them in some common words. - voiced obstruents gained phonetic breathy voice ( still reflected in the wu chinese varieties ). the following table shows a representative account of the initials of late middle chinese. | stops and affricates | | sonorants | labials | | " heavy lip " | | p | | pʰ | | ~ bʰ | | 明 m | | " light lip " | | f | | f [ i ] | | ~ vʰ | | ʋ [ j ] | | coronals | | " tongue - head " | | t | | tʰ | | 定 ~ dʰ | | n | | 上 " tongue up " | | | | | | ~ | | | | lateral | | " half tongue " | | l | | sibilants | | " tooth - head " | | ts | | 清 tsʰ | | ~ dzʰ | | 心 s | | ~ zʰ | | 正 " true front - tooth " | | tʂ | | tʂʰ | | ( t ) | ʂ | | ~ ʐʰ | | " half front - tooth " | | 日 r [ l ] | | velars | | " back - tooth " | | 見 k | | kʰ | | ~ gʰ | | ŋ | | gutturals | | " throat " | | ʔ | | x | | ~ ɣʰ | | ~ ∅ | the voicing distinction is retained in modern wu dialects, but has disappeared from other varieties. in min dialects the retroflex dentals have merged with the dentals, while elsewhere they have merged with the retroflex sibilants. in the south these have also merged with the dental sibilants, but the distinction is retained in most mandarin dialects. the palatal series of modern mandarin dialects, resulting from a merger of palatal allophones of dental sibilants and velars, is a much more recent development, unconnected with the earlier palatal consonants. the remainder of a syllable after the initial consonant is the final, represented in the qiey


merger of palatal allophones of dental sibilants and velars, is a much more recent development, unconnected with the earlier palatal consonants. the remainder of a syllable after the initial consonant is the final, represented in the qieyun by several equivalent second fanqie spellers. each final is contained within a single rhyme class, but a rhyme class may contain between one and four finals. finals are usually analysed as consisting of an optional medial, either a semivowel, reduced vowel or some combination of these, a vowel, an optional final consonant and a tone. their reconstruction is much more difficult than the initials due to the combination of multiple phonemes into a single class. the generally accepted final consonants are semivowels / j / and / w /, nasals / m /, / n / and / ŋ /, and stops / p /, / t / and / k /. some authors also propose codas / wŋ / and / wk /, based on the separate treatment of certain rhyme classes in the dictionaries. finals with vocalic and nasal codas may have one of three tones, named level, rising and departing. finals with stop codas are distributed in the same way as corresponding nasal finals, and are described as their entering tone counterparts. there is much less agreement regarding the medials and vowels. it is generally agreed that " closed " finals had a rounded glide / w / or vowel / u /, and that the vowels in " outer " finals were more open than those in " inner " finals. the interpretation of the " divisions " is more controversial. three classes of qieyun finals occur exclusively in the first, second or fourth rows of the rime tables respectively, and have thus been labelled finals of divisions i, ii and iv. the remaining finals are labelled division - iii finals because they occur in the third row, but they may also occur in the second or fourth rows for some initials. most linguists agree that division - iii finals contained a / j / medial and that division - i finals had no such medial, but further details vary between reconstructions. to account for the many rhyme classes distinguished by the qieyun, karlgren proposed 16 vowels and 4 medials. later scholars have proposed numerous variations. the qieyun classified characters in four parts according to their tone : even tone ( pingsheng 平 ), rising tone ( shangsheng 上 ), departing tone ( qusheng ),


scholars have proposed numerous variations. the qieyun classified characters in four parts according to their tone : even tone ( pingsheng 平 ), rising tone ( shangsheng 上 ), departing tone ( qusheng ), and entering tone ( rusheng ). the " entering tone ", also known as a " checked tone ", actually refers to syllables characterized by a final stop consonant ( / p /, / t /, or / k / ) rather than a distinct pitch. it is difficult to determine the exact contours of the other tones. karlgren interpreted the names literally as level, rising and falling pitches, respectively. the oldest known description of the tones is found in a song dynasty quotation from the early 9th century yuanhe yunpu 《 元 和 》 ( no longer extant ) : " level tone is sad and stable. rising tone is strident and rising. departing tone is clear and distant. entering tone is straight and abrupt. " [ m ] changes from old chinese to middle chinese to modern varieties | this section does not cite any references or sources. ( may 2011 ) | middle chinese had a structure much like many modern varieties ( especially conservative ones such as cantonese ), with largely monosyllabic words, little or no derivational morphology, three tones, and a syllable structure consisting of initial consonant, glide, main vowel and final consonant, with a large number of initial consonants and a fairly small number of final consonants. not counting the glide, no clusters could occur at the beginning or end of a syllable. old chinese, on the other hand, had a significantly different structure. there were no tones, a lesser imbalance between possible initial and final consonants, and a significant number of initial and final clusters. there was a well - developed system of derivational and possibly inflectional morphology, formed using consonants added onto the beginning or end of a syllable. this system is similar to the system reconstructed for proto - sino - tibetan and still visible, for example, in the written tibetan language ; it is also largely similar to the system that occurs in the more conservative mon – khmer languages, such as modern khmer ( cambodian ). the main changes leading to the modern varieties have been a reduction in the number of consonants and vowels and a corresponding increase in the number of tones ( typically through a pan - east - asiatic tone split that doubled the number of tones while eliminating the distinction between voiced and unvoiced consonants ). this has led to a gradual decrease in


and vowels and a corresponding increase in the number of tones ( typically through a pan - east - asiatic tone split that doubled the number of tones while eliminating the distinction between voiced and unvoiced consonants ). this has led to a gradual decrease in the number of possible syllables. in standard mandarin, this has progressed to a farther extent than elsewhere, with only about 1, 200 possible syllables. the result, in mandarin especially, has been the proliferation of the number of two - syllable compound words, which have steadily replaced former monosyllabic words, to the extent that the majority of words in standard mandarin are now composed of two syllables. - middle chinese forms are given in baxter ' s transcription, in which - h and - x denote the rising and departing tones respectively. - it is not clear whether these had an alveolar or dental articulation. they are mostly alveolar in modern chinese varieties. - karlgren reconstructed these as palatal stops, but most scholars now believe they were retroflex stops. - the ʐ initial occurs in only two words and in the qieyun, and is merged with dʐ in the guangyun. it is omitted in many reconstructions, and has no standard chinese name. - the retroflex and palatal sibilants were treated as a single series in the rime tables. chen li was the first to realize ( in 1842 ) that they were distinguished in the qieyun. - the initials and are reversed from their positions in the rime tables, which are believed to have confused them. - in the rime tables, the palatal allophone of ɣ ( ) is combined with j ( ) as a single laryngeal initial. however in the qieyun system j patterns with the palatals. - the point of articulation of the fricatives is not clear, and varies between the modern varieties. - this initial was probably indistinguishable from, but retained to record its origin from a different qieyun initial. - an unusual initial ; shows up today as either [ w ], [ v ] ( or [ ʋ ] ) or [ m ]. - this initial was not included in the lists of 30 initials in the dunhuang fragments, and was probably not phonemically distinct from by that time. - originally a palatal nasal ; generally shows up today as [ ʐ ] ( or [ ] ), [ ʑ ], [ j


in the dunhuang fragments, and was probably not phonemically distinct from by that time. - originally a palatal nasal ; generally shows up today as [ ʐ ] ( or [ ] ), [ ʑ ], [ j ], [ z ], or [ ɲ ]. - 「 平 安 ， 上 ， 清 ， 」, translated in ting ( 1996, p. 152 ) - norman ( 1988 ), pp. 24 – 41. - norman ( 1988 ), pp. 24 – 25. - baxter ( 1992 ), pp. 33 – 35. - pulleyblank ( 1984 ), pp. 142 – 143. - norman ( 1988 ), pp. 29 – 30. - norman ( 1988 ), pp. 31 – 32. - baxter ( 1992 ), p. 43. - norman ( 1988 ), pp. 30 – 31. - branner ( 2006 ), pp. 15, 32 – 34. - norman ( 1988 ), p. 28. - norman ( 1988 ), p. 34 – 37. - miller ( 1967 ), p. 336. - malmqvist ( 2010 ), p. 300. - stimson ( 1976 ), p. 1. - norman ( 1988 ), pp. 32, 34. - ramsey ( 1989 ), pp. 126 – 131. - norman ( 1988 ), pp. 34 – 39. - norman ( 1988 ), p. 39. - ramsey ( 1989 ), p. 132. - pulleyblank ( 1970 ) ; pulleyblank ( 1971 ) ; pulleyblank ( 1984 ). - baxter ( 1992 ), p. 37. - li ( 1974 – 75 ), p. 224. - baxter ( 1992 ), pp. 27 – 32. - norman & coblin ( 1995 ). - norman ( 1988 ), pp. 27 – 28. - baxter ( 1992 ), pp. 34, 814. - baxter ( 1992 ), pp. 43, 45 – 59. - baxter ( 1992 ), pp. 45 – 59. - baxter ( 1992 ), p. 49. - baxter ( 1992 ), p. 50. - baxter ( 1992 ), pp. 56 – 57, 206. - baxter ( 1992 ), pp. 54 – 55. - baxter ( 1992 ), pp. 52 – 54. - baxter ( 1992 ), pp. 55 – 56,


- baxter ( 1992 ), pp. 56 – 57, 206. - baxter ( 1992 ), pp. 54 – 55. - baxter ( 1992 ), pp. 52 – 54. - baxter ( 1992 ), pp. 55 – 56, 59. - baxter ( 1992 ), p. 58. - baxter ( 1992 ), pp. 177 – 179. - baxter ( 1992 ), p. 53. - baxter ( 1992 ), pp. 46 – 48. - pulleyblank ( 1991 ), p. 10. - pulleyblank ( 1984 ), p. 69. - pulleyblank ( 1970 ), pp. 222 – 223. - baxter ( 1992 ), pp. 45 – 46, 49 – 55. - norman ( 1988 ), pp. 36 – 38. - baxter ( 1992 ), pp. 61 – 63. - norman ( 1988 ), pp. 31 – 32, 37 – 39. - norman ( 1988 ), p. 52. - works cited - baxter, william h. ( 1992 ), a handbook of old chinese phonology, berlin : mouton de gruyter, isbn 978 - 3 - 11 - 012324 - 1. - branner, david prager ( 2006 ), " what are rime tables and what do they mean? ", in branner, david prager, the chinese rime tables : linguistic philosophy and historical - comparative phonology, amsterdam : john benjamins, pp. 1 – 34, isbn 978 - 90 - 272 - 4785 - 8. see also list of corrigenda. - li, fang - kuei ( 1974 – 75 ), " studies on archaic chinese ", gilbert l. mattos ( trans. ), monumenta serica 31 : 219 – 287. - malmqvist, goran ( 2010 ), bernhard karlgren : portrait of a scholar, rowman & littlefield, isbn 978 - 1 - 61146 - 001 - 8. - miller, roy andrew ( 1967 ), the japanese language, university of chicago press, isbn 978 - 0 - 226 - 52717 - 8. - norman, jerry ( 1988 ), chinese, cambridge : cambridge university press, isbn 978 - 0 - 521 - 29653 - 3. - — — ; coblin, w. south ( 1995 ), " a new approach to chinese historical linguistics ", journal of the american oriental society 115 ( 4 ) : 576 – 584, jstor 60


29653 - 3. - — — ; coblin, w. south ( 1995 ), " a new approach to chinese historical linguistics ", journal of the american oriental society 115 ( 4 ) : 576 – 584, jstor 604728. - pulleyblank, edwin george ( 1970 ), " late middle chinese, part i ", asia major 15 : 197 – 239. - — — ( 1971 ), " late middle chinese, part ii ", asia major 16 : 121 – 166. - — — ( 1984 ), middle chinese : a study in historical phonology, vancouver : university of british columbia press, isbn 978 - 0 - 7748 - 0192 - 8. - — — ( 1991 ), lexicon of reconstructed pronunciation in early middle chinese, late middle chinese, and early mandarin, vancouver : university of british columbia press, isbn 978 - 0 - 7748 - 0366 - 3. - ramsey, s. robert ( 1989 ), the languages of china, princeton, nj : princeton university press, isbn 978 - 0 - 691 - 01468 - 5. - stimson, hugh m. ( 1976 ), fifty - five t ' ang poems, yale university, isbn 978 - 0 - 88710 - 026 - 0. - ting, pang - hsin ( 1996 ), " tonal evolution and tonal reconstruction in chinese ", in huang, cheng - teh james ; li, yen - hui audrey, new horizons in chinese linguistics, kluwer, pp. 141 – 159, isbn 978 - 0 - 7923 - 3867 - 3. further reading - chen, chung - yu ( 2001 ), tonal evolution from pre - middle chinese to modern pekinese : three tiers of changes and their intricacies, berkeley, ca : project on linguistic analysis, university of california, oclc 248994047. - karlgren, bernhard ( 1957 ), grammata serica recensa, stockholm : museum of far eastern antiquities, oclc 1999753. - mei, tsu - lin ( 1970 ), " tones and prosody in middle chinese and the origin of the rising tone ", harvard journal of asiatic studies 30 : 86 – 110, jstor 2718766. - newman, j. ; raman, a. v. ( 1999 ), chinese historical phonology : a compendium of beijing and cantonese pronunciations of characters and their derivations from middle chinese,


porter, new york | porter, new york | | — town — | | • type | | town council | | • town supervisor | | merton k. wiepert ( r ) | | • town council | | • total | | 37. 7 sq mi ( 97. 8 km2 ) | | • land | | 33. 2 sq mi ( 86. 0 km2 ) | | • water | | 4. 5 sq mi ( 11. 7 km2 ) | | elevation | | 305 ft ( 93 m ) | | • density | | 204. 8 / sq mi ( 79. 1 / km2 ) | | time zone | | eastern ( est ) ( utc - 5 ) | | • summer ( dst ) | | edt ( utc - 4 ) | | gnis feature id | | 0979386 | the town of porter lies in the northwest corner of niagara county and is north of the city of niagara falls. for thousands of years inhabited by varying cultures of indigenous peoples, at the time of european encounter, this was territory of the powerful iroquois confederacy, based in present - day new york state. permanent european - american settlement did not take place until after the american revolution, about 1801, after most of the iroquois had been forced to cede their lands to new york and had emigrated to upper canada. the town of porter was created in 1812 from the town of cambria, but further development was hindered by the war of 1812. the united states ' war with great britain first included an embargo of trade with canada, disrupting the local economy. warfare along the border continued until 1814. according to the united states census bureau, the town has a total area of 37. 7 square miles ( 98 km2 ), of which, 33. 2 square miles ( 86 km2 ) of it is land and 4. 5 square miles ( 12 km2 ) of it ( 12. 00 % ) is water. adjacent cities and towns - town of lewiston - south - town of wilson - east - niagara - on - the - lake, ontario - west - lake ontario - north major highways in the town of porter - new york state route 18 ( lake rd., creek rd. ), east - west highway across the north part of town roughly paralleling lake ontario from wilson town line then its orientation is in a more north - south direction as it passes youngstown - lockport rd. ( ny 93 ) as the route heads west. - new york state route 18


north part of town roughly paralleling lake ontario from wilson town line then its orientation is in a more north - south direction as it passes youngstown - lockport rd. ( ny 93 ) as the route heads west. - new york state route 18f ( lowet river rd., lake rd. ), north - south roadway through the town from its northern terminus with ny 18, the route roughly parallels the rest of lake ontario that ny 18 doesn ' t as it heads west and then turns south as it passes fort niagara state park, through the village of youngstown south out of the town into the town of lewiston. - new york state route 93 ( youngstown - lockport rd. ), east - west roadway through the town from the wilson town line on into the village of youngstown where it has its western terminus at ny 18f. - robert moses state parkway, north - south highway through the town from the lewiston town line north to new york state route 18 near lake ontario at four mile creek state park. as of the census of 2000, there were 6, 920 people, 2, 616 households, and 1, 935 families residing in the town. the population density was 208. 3 people per square mile ( 80. 5 / km² ). there were 2, 846 housing units at an average density of 85. 7 per square mile ( 33. 1 / km² ). the racial makeup of the town was 97. 66 % white, 0. 48 % african american, 0. 77 % native american, 0. 46 % asian, 0. 12 % from other races, and 0. 52 % from two or more races. hispanic or latino of any race were 0. 66 % of the population. there were 2, 616 households out of which 32. 1 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 61. 5 % were married couples living together, 8. 9 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 26. 0 % were non - families. 21. 5 % of all households were made up of individuals and 9. 0 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. the average household size was 2. 60 and the average family size was 3. 04. in the town the population was spread out with 24. 6 % under the age of 18, 7. 3 % from 18 to 24, 26. 4 % from 25 to 44, 27. 2 % from 45 to 64, and 14. 6 % who


town the population was spread out with 24. 6 % under the age of 18, 7. 3 % from 18 to 24, 26. 4 % from 25 to 44, 27. 2 % from 45 to 64, and 14. 6 % who were 65 years of age or older. the median age was 40 years. for every 100 females there were 98. 2 males. for every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93. 7 males. the median income for a household in the town was $ 50, 425, and the median income for a family was $ 60, 373. males had a median income of $ 41, 985 versus $ 27, 027 for females. the per capita income for the town was $ 23, 951. about 2. 2 % of families and 4. 1 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 4. 5 % of those under age 18 and 3. 5 % of those age 65 or over. communities and locations in porter - blairville – a hamlet southeast of youngstown on creek road ( route 18 ). - fillmore chapel – a hamlet in the northeast corner of the town. - fort niagara – an historic colonial fortification in fort niagara state park. - fort niagara state park – a park at the mouth of the niagara river. - four mile creek – a stream that flows northward through the west side of the town and enters lake ontario at the state park. - four mile creek state park – a lakeside park on the shore of lake ontario. - porter center – a hamlet centrally located in the town on the youngstown - lockport road ( route 93 ). - old fort niagara state historic site – an official new york historic site that includes fort niagara. - ransomville – a hamlet in the southeast corner of the town on route 93. - ransomville speedway – a racetrack located northwest of ransomville. - towers corners – a hamlet by the intersection of creek road ( route 18 ) and the youngstown - lockport road ( route 93 ), in the northeast part of the town. - youngstown – the village of youngstown is at the town ' s western border.


robert browning during his later years | born | | 7 may 1812 camberwell, london, england | died | | 12 december 1889 | notable work ( s ) | | the ring and the book, men and women, the pied piper of hamelin, porphyria ' s lover, my last duchess | early years robert browning was born in camberwell - a district now forming part of the borough of southwark in south london, england - the only son of sarah anna ( nee wiedemann ) and robert browning. his father was a well - paid clerk for the bank of england, earning about £150 per year. browning ’ s paternal grandfather was a wealthy slave owner in saint kitts, west indies, but browning ' s father was an abolitionist. browning ' s father had been sent to the west indies to work on a sugar plantation, but revolted by the slavery there, he returned to england. browning ’ s mother was a daughter of a german shipowner who had settled in dundee, and his scottish wife. browning had one sister, sarianna. browning ' s paternal grandmother, margaret tittle, who had inherited a plantation in st kitts, was rumoured within the family to have had some jamaican mixed race ancestry. author julia markus suggests st kitts rather than jamaica. there is little evidence to support this rumour, and it seems to be merely an anecdotal family story. robert ' s father, a literary collector, amassed a library of around 6, 000 books, many of them rare. thus, robert was raised in a household of significant literary resources. his mother, to whom he was very close, was a devout nonconformist and a talented musician. his younger sister, sarianna, also gifted, became her brother ' s companion in his later years, after the death of his wife in 1861. his father encouraged his children ' s interest in literature and the arts. by twelve, browning had written a book of poetry which he later destroyed when no publisher could be found. after being at one or two private schools, and showing an insuperable dislike to school life, he was educated at home by a tutor via the resources of his father ' s extensive library. by the age of fourteen he was fluent in french, greek, italian and latin. he became a great admirer of the romantic poets, especially shelley. following the precedent of shelley, browning became an atheist and vegetarian, both of which he gave up later. at the age of sixteen


fluent in french, greek, italian and latin. he became a great admirer of the romantic poets, especially shelley. following the precedent of shelley, browning became an atheist and vegetarian, both of which he gave up later. at the age of sixteen, he studied greek at university college london but left after his first year. his parents ' staunch evangelical faith prevented his studying at either oxford university or cambridge university, both then open only to members of the church of england. he had inherited substantial musical ability through his mother, and composed arrangements of various songs. he refused a formal career and ignored his parents ' remonstrations, dedicating himself to poetry. he stayed at home until the age of 34, financially dependent on his family until his marriage. his father sponsored the publication of his son ' s poems. first published works in march 1833, pauline, a fragment of a confession was published anonymously by saunders and otley at the expense of the author, the costs of printing having been borne by an aunt, mrs silverthorne. it is a long poem composed in homage to shelley and somewhat in his style. originally browning considered pauline as the first of a series written by different aspects of himself, but he soon abandoned this idea. the press noticed the publication. w. j. fox writing in the the monthly repository of april 1833 discerned merit in the work. allan cunningham praised it in the the athenaeum. some years later, probably in 1850, dante gabriel rossetti came across it in the reading room of the british museum and wrote to browning, then in florence to ask if he was the author. john stuart mill, however, wrote that the author suffered from an " intense and morbid self - consciousness ". later browning was rather embarrassed by the work, and only included it in his collected poems of 1868 after making substantial changes and adding a preface in which he asked for indulgence for a boyish work. in 1834 he accompanied the chevalier george de benkhausen, the russian consul - general, on a brief visit to st petersburg and began paracelsus, which was published in 1835. the subject of the 16th century savant and alchemist was probably suggested to him by the comte amedee de ripart - monclar, to whom it was dedicated. the publication had some commercial and critical success, being noticed by wordsworth, dickens, landor, j. s. mill and others, including tennyson ( already famous ). it is a monodrama without action, dealing


was dedicated. the publication had some commercial and critical success, being noticed by wordsworth, dickens, landor, j. s. mill and others, including tennyson ( already famous ). it is a monodrama without action, dealing with the problems confronting an intellectual trying to find his role in society. it gained him access to the london literary world. as a result of his new contacts he met macready, who invited him to write a play. strafford was performed five times. browning then wrote two other plays, one of which was not performed, while the other failed, browning having fallen out with macready. in 1838 he visited italy, looking for background for sordello, a long poem in heroic couplets, presented as the imaginary biography of the mantuan bard spoken of by dante in the divine comedy, canto 6 of purgatory, set against a background of hate and conflict during the guelph - ghibelline wars. this was published in 1840 and met with widespread derision, gaining him the reputation of wanton carelessness and obscurity. tennyson commented that he only understood the first and last lines and carlyle claimed that his wife had read the poem through and could not tell whether sordello was a man, a city or a book. browning ' s reputation began to make a partial recovery with the publication, 1841 - 1846, of bells and pomegranates, a series of eight pamphlets, originally intended just to include his plays. fortunately his publisher, moxon, persuaded him to include some " dramatic lyrics ", some of which had already appeared in periodicals. in 1845, browning met the poet elizabeth barrett, six years his elder, who lived as a semi - invalid in her father ' s house in wimpole street, london. they began regularly corresponding and gradually a romance developed between them, leading to their marriage and journey to italy ( for elizabeth ' s health ) on 12 september 1846. the marriage was initially secret because elizabeth ' s domineering father disapproved of marriage for any of his children. mr. barrett disinherited elizabeth, as he did for each of his children who married : “ the mrs. browning of popular imagination was a sweet, innocent young woman who suffered endless cruelties at the hands of a tyrannical papa but who nonetheless had the good fortune to fall in love with a dashing and handsome poet named robert browning. ” at her husband ' s insistence, the second edition


innocent young woman who suffered endless cruelties at the hands of a tyrannical papa but who nonetheless had the good fortune to fall in love with a dashing and handsome poet named robert browning. ” at her husband ' s insistence, the second edition of elizabeth ’ s poems included her love sonnets. the book increased her popularity and high critical regard, cementing her position as an eminent victorian poet. upon william wordsworth ' s death in 1850, she was a serious contender to become poet laureate, the position eventually going to tennyson. from the time of their marriage and until elizabeth ' s death, the brownings lived in italy, residing first in pisa, and then, within a year, finding an apartment in florence at casa guidi ( now a museum to their memory ). their only child, robert wiedemann barrett browning, nicknamed " penini " or " pen ", was born in 1849. in these years browning was fascinated by, and learned from, the art and atmosphere of italy. he would, in later life, describe italy as his university. as elizabeth had inherited money of her own, the couple were reasonably comfortable in italy, and their relationship together was happy. however, the literary assault on browning ' s work did not let up and he was critically dismissed further, by patrician writers such as charles kingsley, for the desertion of england for foreign lands. major works in florence, probably from early in 1853, browning worked on the poems that eventually comprised his two - volume men and women, for which he is now well known ; in 1855, however, when these were published, they made relatively little impact. elizabeth died in 1861 : robert browning returned to london the following year with pen, by then 12 years old, and made their home in 17 warwick crescent, maida vale. it was only when he returned to england and became part of the london literary scene — albeit while paying frequent visits to italy — ( though never again to florence ) that his reputation started to take off. in 1868, after five years work, he completed and published the long blank - verse poem the ring and the book. based on a convoluted murder - case from 1690s rome, the poem is composed of twelve books, essentially ten lengthy dramatic monologues narrated by the various characters in the story, showing their individual perspectives on events, bookended by an introduction and conclusion by browning himself. long, even by browning ' s own standards ( over twenty thousand lines ), the ring and the book was the


narrated by the various characters in the story, showing their individual perspectives on events, bookended by an introduction and conclusion by browning himself. long, even by browning ' s own standards ( over twenty thousand lines ), the ring and the book was the poet ' s most ambitious project and arguably his greatest work ; it has been praised as a tour de force of dramatic poetry. published separately in four volumes from november 1868 through to february 1869, the poem was a success both commercially and critically, and finally brought browning the renown he had sought for nearly forty years. the robert browning society was formed in 1881 and his work was recognised as belonging within the british literary canon. last years and death in the remaining years of his life browning travelled extensively. after a series of long poems published in the early 1870s, of which balaustion ' s adventure and red cotton night - cap country were the best - received. the volume pacchiarotto, and how he worked in distemper included an attack against browning ' s critics, especially alfred austin, later to become poet laureate. according to some reports browning became romantically involved with louisa, lady ashburton, but he refused her proposal of marriage, and did not re - marry. in 1878, he revisited italy for the first time in the seventeen years since elizabeth ' s death, and returned there on several further occasions. in 1887, browning produced the major work of his later years, parleyings with certain people of importance in their day. it finally presented the poet speaking in his own voice, engaging in a series of dialogues with long - forgotten figures of literary, artistic, and philosophic history. the victorian public was baffled by this, and browning returned to the brief, concise lyric for his last volume, asolando ( 1889 ), published on the day of his death. browning died at his son ' s home ca ' rezzonico in venice on 12 december 1889. he was buried in poets ' corner in westminster abbey ; his grave now lies immediately adjacent to that of alfred tennyson. browning was awarded many distinctions. he was made ll. d. of edinburgh, a life governor of london university, and had the offer of the lord rectorship of glasgow. but he turned down anything that involved public speaking. poetic style | | this article may contain original research. ( september 2011 ) | browning is often known by some of his short poems, such as porphyria ' s lover, my last duchess, rabbi ben ezra, how they brought the


speaking. poetic style | | this article may contain original research. ( september 2011 ) | browning is often known by some of his short poems, such as porphyria ' s lover, my last duchess, rabbi ben ezra, how they brought the good news from ghent to aix, evelyn hope, the pied piper of hamelin, a grammarian ' s funeral, a death in the desert. initially, browning was not regarded as a great poet, since his subjects were often recondite and lay beyond the ken and sympathy of the great bulk of readers ; and owing, partly to the subtle links connecting the ideas and partly to his often extremely condensed and rugged expression, the treatment of theme was often difficult and obscure. browning ’ s fame today rests mainly on his dramatic monologues, in which the words not only convey setting and action but also reveal the speaker ’ s character. unlike a soliloquy, the meaning in a browning dramatic monologue is not what the speaker directly reveals but what he inadvertently " gives away " about himself in the process of rationalising past actions, or " special - pleading " his case to a silent auditor in the poem. rather than thinking out loud, the character composes a self - defence which the reader, as " juror, " is challenged to see through. browning chooses some of the most debased, extreme and even criminally psychotic characters, no doubt for the challenge of building a sympathetic case for a character who does not deserve one and to cause the reader to squirm at the temptation to acquit a character who may be a homicidal psychopath. one of his more sensational dramatic monologues is porphyria ' s lover. yet it is by carefully reading the far more sophisticated and cultivated rhetoric of the aristocratic and civilized duke of my last duchess, perhaps the most frequently cited example of the poet ' s dramatic monologue form, that the attentive reader discovers the most horrific example of a mind totally mad despite its eloquence in expressing itself. the duchess, we learn, was murdered not because of infidelity, not because of a lack of gratitude for her position, and not, finally, because of the simple pleasures she took in common everyday occurrences. she is reduced to an objet d ' art in the duke ' s collection of paintings and statues because the duke equates his instructing her to behave like a duchess with " stooping, " an action of which his megalomaniac pride is incapable. in


objet d ' art in the duke ' s collection of paintings and statues because the duke equates his instructing her to behave like a duchess with " stooping, " an action of which his megalomaniac pride is incapable. in other monologues, such as fra lippo lippi, browning takes an ostensibly unsavory or immoral character and challenges us to discover the goodness, or life - affirming qualities, that often put the speaker ' s contemporaneous judges to shame. in the ring and the book browning writes an epic - length poem in which he justifies the ways of god to humanity through twelve extended blank verse monologues spoken by the principals in a trial about a murder. these monologues greatly influenced many later poets, including t. s. eliot and ezra pound, high modernists, the latter singling out in his cantos browning ' s convoluted psychological poem sordello about a frustrated 13th - century troubadour, as the poem he must work to distance himself from. these concerns reflected victorian society in the late 19th century. but he remains too much the prophet - poet for the conceits, puns, and verbal play of the metaphysical poets of the 17th century. his is a modern sensibility, all too aware of the arguments against the vulnerable position of one of his simple characters, who recites : " god ' s in his heaven ; all ' s right with the world. " browning endorses such a position because he sees an immanent deity that, far from remaining in a transcendent heaven, is indivisible from temporal process, assuring that in the fullness of theological time there is ample cause for celebrating life. history of sound recording at a dinner party on 7 april 1889, at the home of browning ' s friend the artist rudolf lehmann, an edison cylinder phonograph recording was made on a white wax cylinder by edison ' s british representative, george gouraud. in the recording, which still exists, browning recites part of " how they brought the good news from ghent to aix " ( and can be heard apologising when he forgets the words ). when the recording was played in 1890 on the anniversary of his death, at a gathering of his admirers, it was said to be the first time anyone ' s voice " had been heard from beyond the grave. " legacy and cultural references in his introduction to the oxford university press edition of browning ' s


his death, at a gathering of his admirers, it was said to be the first time anyone ' s voice " had been heard from beyond the grave. " legacy and cultural references in his introduction to the oxford university press edition of browning ' s poems 1833 - 1864 ian jack comments that thomas hardy, rudyard kipling, ezra pound and t. s. eliot " all learned from browning ' s exploration of the exploration of the possibilities of dramatic poetry and of colloquial idiom ". in 1930 the story of browning and his wife elizabeth was made into a play the barretts of wimpole street, by rudolph besier. the play was a success and brought popular fame to the couple in the united states. the role of elizabeth became a signature role for the actress katharine cornell. it was twice adapted into film. it was also the basis of the stage musical robert and elizabeth, with music by ron grainer and book and lyrics by ronald millar. in the browning version ( terence rattigan ' s 1948 play or one of several film adaptations ), a pupil makes a parting present to his teacher of an inscribed copy of robert browning ' s translation of the agamemnon of aeschylus. a memorial plaque on the site of his london home, warwick crescent, was unveiled on 11 december 1993. browning close in royston, hertfordshire, is named after robert browning. complete list of works - pauline : a fragment of a confession ( 1833 ) - paracelsus ( 1835 ) - strafford ( play ) ( 1837 ) - sordello ( 1840 ) - bells and pomegranates no. i : pippa passes ( play ) ( 1841 ) - bells and pomegranates no. ii : king victor and king charles ( play ) ( 1842 ) - bells and pomegranates no. iii : dramatic lyrics ( 1842 ) - bells and pomegranates no. iv : the return of the druses ( play ) ( 1843 ) - bells and pomegranates no. v : a blot in the ' scutcheon ( play ) ( 1843 ) - bells and pomegranates no. vi : colombe ' s birthday ( play ) ( 1844 ) - bells and pomegranates no. vii : dramatic romances and lyrics ( 1845 ) - bells and pomegranates no. viii : luria and a soul ' s tragedy ( plays ) ( 1846 ) - christmas - eve and easter - day (


##in, daniel. the courtship of robert browning and elizabeth barrett. ( oxford, 1985 ) - kelley, philip et al. ( eds. ) the brownings ' correspondence. 19 vols. to date. ( wedgestone, 1984 - ) ( complete letters of elizabeth barrett browning and robert browning to 1853. ) - litzinger, boyd and smalley, donald ( eds. ) robert browning : the critical heritage. ( routledge, 1995 ) - markus, julia. dared and done : the marriage of elizabeth barrett and robert browning ( bloomsbury, 1995 ) - maynard, john. browning ' s youth. ( harvard univ. press, 1977 ) - ryals, clyde de l. the life of robert browning : a critical biography. ( blackwell, 1993 ) - woolford, john and karlin, daniel. robert browning. ( longman, 1996 ) | wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to : robert browning | | wikisource has original works written by or about : | wikimedia commons has media related to : robert browning | - profile and poems written and audio at the poetry archive - profile and poems at the poetry foundation - profile and poems at poets. org - the brownings : a research guide ( baylor university ) - the browning letters project ( baylor university ) - the browning collection at balliol college, university of oxford - the browning society - works by robert browning at project gutenberg - works by or about robert browning in libraries ( worldcat catalog ) - works by robert browning in e - book - an analysis of " home thoughts, from abroad " - browning archive at the harry ransom center at the university of texas at austin - works by robert browning, from the internet archive - the british library - robert browning read by robert hardy and greg wise hear audio recordings of browning ' s poetry with accompanying biography and discussion


| | this article needs additional citations for verification. ( november 2009 ) | romantic nationalism ( also national romanticism, organic nationalism, identity nationalism ) is the form of nationalism in which the state derives its political legitimacy as an organic consequence of the unity of those it governs. this includes, depending on the particular manner of practice, the language, race, culture, religion, and customs of the " nation " in its primal sense of those who were " born " within its culture. this form of nationalism arose in reaction to dynastic or imperial hegemony, which assessed the legitimacy of the state from the " top down ", emanating from a monarch or other authority, which justified its existence. such downward - radiating power might ultimately derive from a god or gods ( see the divine right of kings and the mandate of heaven ). among the key themes of romanticism, and its most enduring legacy, the cultural assertions of romantic nationalism have also been central in post - enlightenment art and political philosophy. from its earliest stirrings, with their focus on the development of national languages and folklore, and the spiritual value of local customs and traditions, to the movements that would redraw the map of europe and lead to calls for " self - determination " of nationalities, nationalism was one of the key issues in romanticism, determining its roles, expressions and meanings. brief history the ideas of rousseau ( 1712 - 1778 ) and of johann gottfried von herder ( 1744 - 1803 ) inspired much early romantic nationalism in europe. in 1784 herder argued that geography formed the natural economy of a people, and that their customs and society would develop along the lines that their basic environment favored. from its beginnings in the late 18th century, romantic nationalism has relied upon the existence of a historical ethnic culture which meets the romantic ideal ; folklore developed as a romantic nationalist concept. the brothers grimm, inspired by herder ' s writings, put together an idealized collection of tales, which they labeled as authentically german. the concept of an inherited cultural patrimony from a common origin rapidly became central to a divisive question within romantic nationalism : specifically, is a nation unified because it comes from the same genetic source, that is because of race, or is the participation in the organic nature of the " folk " culture self - fulfilling? this issue lies at the heart of disagreements which rage to this day. romantic nationalism formed a key strand in the philosophy of hegel ( 1770 - 1831 ), who argued that there was a " spirit of the age "


" culture self - fulfilling? this issue lies at the heart of disagreements which rage to this day. romantic nationalism formed a key strand in the philosophy of hegel ( 1770 - 1831 ), who argued that there was a " spirit of the age " or zeitgeist that inhabited a particular people at a particular time, and that, when that people became the active determiner of history, it was simply because their cultural and political moment had come. because of the germans ' role in the protestant reformation, hegel ( a lutheran ) argued that his historical moment had seen the zeitgeist settle on the german - speaking peoples. in continental europe, romantics had embraced the french revolution in its beginnings, then found themselves fighting the counter - revolution in the trans - national imperial system of napoleon. the sense of self - determination and national consciousness that had enabled revolutionary forces to defeat aristocratic regimes in battle became rallying points for resistance against the french empire ( 1804 - 1814 ). in prussia, the development of spiritual renewal as a means to engage in the struggle against napoleon was argued by, among others, johann gottlieb fichte ( 1762 - 1814 ), a disciple of kant. the word volkstum, or " folkhood ", was coined in germany as part of this resistance to french hegemony. fichte expressed the unity of language and nation in his thirteenth address " to the german nation " in 1806 : - the first, original, and truly natural boundaries of states are beyond doubt their internal boundaries. those who speak the same language are joined to each other by a multitude of invisible bonds by nature herself, long before any human art begins ; they understand each other and have the power of continuing to make themselves understood more and more clearly ; they belong together and are by nature one and an inseparable whole. ( kelly, 1968, pp. 190 - 91 ) - only when each people, left to itself, develops and forms itself in accordance with its own peculiar quality, and only when in every people each individual develops himself in accordance with that common quality, as well as in accordance with his own peculiar quality - then, and then only, does the manifestation of divinity appear in its true mirror as it ought to be ; and only a man who either entirely lacks the notion of the rule of law and divine order, or else is an obdurate enemy thereto, could take upon himself to want to interfere with that law, which is the highest law in the spiritual world! ( kelly, 1968,


lacks the notion of the rule of law and divine order, or else is an obdurate enemy thereto, could take upon himself to want to interfere with that law, which is the highest law in the spiritual world! ( kelly, 1968, pp. 197 - 98 ) nationalism and revolution in the balkans, romantic views of a connection with classical greece, which inspired philhellenism infused the greek war of independence ( 1821 - 1832 ), in which the scottish romantic poet lord byron died of high fever. rossini ' s opera william tell ( 1829 ) marked the onset of the romantic opera, using the central national myth unifying switzerland ; and in brussels, a riot ( august 1830 ) after an opera that set a doomed romance against a background of foreign oppression ( auber ' s la muette de portici ) sparked the belgian revolution of 1830 - 1831, the first successful revolution in the model of romantic nationalism. verdi ' s opera choruses of an oppressed people inspired two generations of patriots in italy, especially with " va pensiero " ( nabucco, 1842 ). under the influence of romantic nationalism, among economic and political forces, both germany and italy found political unity, and movements to create nations similarly based upon ethnic groups would flower in the balkans ( see for example, the carinthian plebiscite, 1920 ), along the baltic sea, and in the interior of central europe, where in the eventual outcome, the habsburgs succumbed to the surge of romantic nationalism. in norway, romanticism was embodied, not in literature, but in the movement toward a national style, both in architecture and in ethos. earlier, there was a strong romantic nationalist element mixed with enlightenment rationalism in the rhetoric used in british north america, in the colonists ' declaration of independence and the united states constitution of 1787, as well as the rhetoric in the wave of revolts, inspired by new senses of localized identities, which swept the american colonies of spain, one after the other, from 1811. romantic nationalism inspired the processes whereby folk epics, retold legends and even fairy tales, published in existing dialects, were combined with a modern syntax to create a " revived " version of a language. romantic nationalists expected patriots to then learn that language and raise their children speaking that language – as part of a general program to establish a unique identity. " landsmal ", which is the foundation of modern norwegian, was the first language to follow this program, and it was joined by modern czech, slovak, finnish and later


that language – as part of a general program to establish a unique identity. " landsmal ", which is the foundation of modern norwegian, was the first language to follow this program, and it was joined by modern czech, slovak, finnish and later by hebrew as nationalizing languages. katharevousa greek was constructed as a form of modern greek drawing on classical greek morphology and vocabulary in an attempt to purify the existing demotic greek. the linguistic processes of romantic nationalism demanded linguistic culture models. romantic historiography was centered on biographies and produced culture heroes. the modern italian of risorgimento patriots like alessandro manzoni was based on the tuscan dialects sanctified by dante and petrarch. in english, shakespeare became an iconic figure ( though not a modern linguistic model ). folk culture romantic nationalism inspired the collection of folklore by such people as the brothers grimm. the view that fairy tales, unless contaminated from outside literary sources, were preserved in the same form over thousands of years, was not exclusive to romantic nationalists, but it fit in well with their views that such tales expressed the primordial nature of a people. the brothers grimm were criticized because their first edition was insufficiently german, and they followed the advice. they rejected many tales they collected because of their similarity to tales by charles perrault, which they thought proved they were not truly german tales ; sleeping beauty survived in their collection because the tale of brynhildr convinced them that the figure of the sleeping princess was authentically german. they also altered the language used, changing each " fee " ( fairy ) to an enchantress or wise woman, every " prince " to a " king ' s son ", every " princess " to a " king ' s daughter ". discussing these views in their third editions, they particularly singled out giambattista basile ' s pentamerone as the first national collection of fairy tales, and as capturing neapolitan voice. the work of the brothers grimm influenced other collectors, both inspiring them to collect tales and leading them to similarly believe that the fairy tales of a country were particularly representative of it, to the neglect of cross - cultural influence. among those influenced were the russian alexander afanasyev, the norwegians peter christen asbjørnsen and jørgen moe, and the englishman joseph jacobs. later folklore studies have not borne out this belief in the preservation of folktales from time immemorial. many artists and writers also drew on their native


asbjørnsen and jørgen moe, and the englishman joseph jacobs. later folklore studies have not borne out this belief in the preservation of folktales from time immemorial. many artists and writers also drew on their native countries folklore and folktunes for their own work to express their nationalism. national epics the concept of a " national epic ", an extensively mythologized legendary work of poetry of defining importance to a certain nation, is another product of romantic nationalism. the " discovery " of beowulf in a single manuscript, first transcribed in 1818, came under the impetus of romantic nationalism, after the manuscript had lain as an ignored curiosity in scholars ' collections for two centuries. beowulf was felt to provide people self - identified as " anglo - saxon " with their missing " national epic ", just when the need for it was first being felt : the fact that beowulf himself was a geat was easily overlooked. the pseudo - gaelic literary forgeries of " ossian " had failed, finally, to fill the need for the first romantic generation. the first publication of the tale of igor ' s campaign coincided with the rise in russian national spirit in the wake of the napoleonic wars and suvorov ' s campaigns in central europe. the unseen and unheard song of roland had become a dim memory, until the antiquary francisque michel transcribed a worn copy in the bodleian library and put it into print in 1837 ; it was timely : french interest in the national epic revived among the romantic generation. in greece, the iliad and odyssey took on new urgency during the greek war of independence. many other " national epics, " epic poetry considered to reflect the national spirit, were produced or revived under the influence of romantic nationalism : particularly in the russian empire, national minorities seeking to assert their own identities in the face of russification produced new national poetry – either out of whole cloth, or from cobbling together folk poetry, or by resurrecting older narrative poetry. examples include the estonian kalevipoeg, finnish kalevala, polish pan tadeusz, latvian lacplesis, armenian sasuntzi davit by hovhannes tumanyan, and georgian the knight in the panther ' s skin. claims of primacy or superiority at the same time, linguistic and cultural nationality, colored with pre - genetic concepts of race, bolstered two rhetorical claims consistently associated with romantic nationalism to this day : claims of primacy and


' s skin. claims of primacy or superiority at the same time, linguistic and cultural nationality, colored with pre - genetic concepts of race, bolstered two rhetorical claims consistently associated with romantic nationalism to this day : claims of primacy and claims of superiority. primacy is the claimed inalienable right of a culturally and racially defined people to a geographical terrain, a " heartland " ( a vivid expression ) or homeland. the polemics of racial superiority became inexorably intertwined with romantic nationalism. richard wagner notoriously argued that those who were ethnically different could not comprehend the artistic and cultural meaning inherent in national culture. identifying " jewishness " even in musical style, he specifically attacked the jews as being unwilling to assimilate into german culture, and thus unable to truly comprehend the mysteries of its music and language. sometimes " national epics " such as the nibelunglied have had a galvanizing effect on social politics. after the 1870s " national romanticism ", as it is more usually called, became a familiar movement in the arts. romantic musical nationalism is exemplified by the work of bedrich smetana, especially the symphonic poem " vltava ". in scandinavia and the slavic parts of europe especially, " national romanticism " provided a series of answers to the 19th - century search for styles that would be culturally meaningful and evocative, yet not merely historicist. when a church was built over the spot in st petersburg where tsar alexander ii of russia had been assassinated, the " church of the savior on blood ", the natural style to use was one that best evoked traditional russian features ( illustration, left ). in finland, the reassembly of the national epic, the kalevala, inspired paintings and murals in the national romantic style that substituted there for the international art nouveau styles. the foremost proponent in finland was akseli gallen - kallela ( illustration, below right ). by the turn of the century, ethnic self - determination had become an assumption held as being progressive and liberal. there were romantic nationalist movements for separation in finland, the kingdom of bavaria held apart from a united germany, and czech and serb nationalism continued to trouble imperial politics. the flowering of arts which drew inspiration from national epics and song continued unabated. the zionist movement revived hebrew, and began immigration to eretz yisrael, and welsh and irish tongues also experienced a poetic revival. twentieth century political developments in the first two decades of the 20th century, romantic


in the monroe doctrine, and the belief that u. s. - style democracy should prevail over other cultures ( e. g. project for the new american century ), has strongly influenced american foreign policy and is influencing global conflicts, and religious, ethnic and nationalist alignments. see also - norwegian romantic nationalism - ethnic nationalism - middle ages in history - civil religion - polytheistic reconstructionism - national epic - national treasure - national anthem - rise of nationalism in europe - historiography and nationalism - miroslav hroch, " introduction : national romanticism ", in balazs trencsenyi and michal kopecek, eds. discourses of collective identity in central and southeast europe, vol. ii national romanticism : the formation of national movements, 2007 : 4ff. - oscar julius falnes, national romanticism in norway, 1968. - maria tatar, the hard facts of the grimms ' fairy tales, p31, isbn 0 - 691 - 06722 - 8 - benedetto croce, " the fantastic accomplishment of giambattista basile and his tale of tales ", jack zipes, ed., the great fairy tale tradition : from straparola and basile to the brothers grimm, p 888 - 9, isbn 0 - 393 - 97636 - x - jack zipes, the great fairy tale tradition : from straparola and basile to the brothers grimm, p 846, isbn 0 - 393 - 97636 - x - the section " iii. early national poetry " of the cambridge history of english and american literature ( 1907 - 21 ) begins " by far the most important product of the national epos is beowulf... - wagner, das judenthum in der musik 1850. - johann gottlieb fichte, thirteenth address, addresses to the gerrnan nation, ed. george a. kelly ( new york : harper torch books, 1968 ). - johann gottlieb fichte ( 1806 ). " reden an die deutsche nation ". projekt - gutenberg. retrieved may 20, 2006.


basil of caesarea | saint basil the great | st. basil as depicted in the church of the theotokos peribleptos in ohrid, macedonia. | bishop, confessor and doctor of the church ; great hierarch | | born | | 329 or 330 | died | | january 2, 379 ) [ note 1 ]. | honored in | | eastern and western christianity | | attributes | | vested as bishop, wearing omophorion, holding a gospel book or scroll. st. basil is depicted in icons as thin and ascetic with a long, tapering black beard. | | patronage | | russia, cappadocia, hospital administrators, reformers, monks, education, exorcism, liturgists | basil of caesarea, also called saint basil the great, ( 329 or 330 – january 1, 379 ) ( greek : αγιος βασιλειος ο μεγας ) was the greek bishop of caesarea mazaca in cappadocia, asia minor ( modern - day turkey ). he was an influential theologian who supported the nicene creed and opposed the heresies of the early christian church, fighting against both arianism and the followers of apollinaris of laodicea. his ability to balance his theological convictions with his political connections made basil a powerful advocate for the nicene position. in addition to his work as a theologian, basil was known for his care of the poor and underprivileged. basil established guidelines for monastic life which focus on community life, liturgical prayer, and manual labour. together with pachomius he is remembered as a father of communal monasticism in eastern christianity. he is considered a saint by the traditions of both eastern and western christianity. basil, gregory of nazianzus, and gregory of nyssa are collectively referred to as the cappadocian fathers. the eastern orthodox church and eastern catholic churches have given him, together with gregory of nazianzus and john chrysostom, the title of great hierarch. his is recognised as a doctor of the church in both eastern orthodoxy and in the roman catholic church. he is sometimes referred to by the epithet " ουρανοφαντωρ ", " revealer of heavenly mysteries ". early life and education basil was born into the wealthy family of basil the elder, a famous rhetor, and emmelia of caesarea, in pontus, around


, dianius of caesarea, who had subscribed only to the earlier nicene form of agreement. some years later basil abandoned the homoiousians, emerging instead as a supporter of the nicene creed. in 362, basil was ordained a deacon by bishop meletius of antioch. he was summoned by eusebius to his city, and was ordained presbyter of the church there in 365. his ordination was probably the result of the entreaties of his ecclesiastical superiors. basil and gregory nazianzus spent the next few years combating the arian heresy, which threatened to divide the region of cappadocia. the two friends then entered a period of close fraternal cooperation as they participated in a great rhetorical contest of the caesarean church precipitated by the arrival of accomplished arian theologians and rhetors. in the subsequent public debates, presided over by agents of valens, gregory and basil emerged triumphant. this success confirmed for both gregory and basil that their futures lay in administration of the church. basil next took on functional administration of the diocese of caesarea. eusebius is reported as becoming jealous of the reputation and influence which basil quickly developed, and allowed basil to return to his earlier solitude. later, however, gregory persuaded basil to return. basil did so, and became the effective manager of the diocese for several years, while giving all the credit to eusebius. in 370, eusebius died, and basil was chosen to succeed him, and was consecrated bishop on june 14, 370. his new post as bishop of caesarea also gave him the powers of exarch of pontus and metropolitan of five suffragan bishops, many of whom had opposed him in the election for eusebius ' s successor. it was then that his great powers were called into action. hot - blooded and somewhat imperious, basil was also generous and sympathetic. he personally organized a soup kitchen and distributed food to the poor during a famine following a drought. he gave away his personal family inheritance to benefit the poor of his diocese. his letters show that he actively worked to reform thieves and prostitutes. they also show him encouraging his clergy not to be tempted by wealth or the comparatively easy life of a priest, and that he personally took care in selecting worthy candidates for holy orders. he also had the courage to criticize public officials who failed in their duty of administering justice. at the same time, he preached every morning and evening in his own church to large congregations.


he personally took care in selecting worthy candidates for holy orders. he also had the courage to criticize public officials who failed in their duty of administering justice. at the same time, he preached every morning and evening in his own church to large congregations. in addition to all the above, he built a large complex just outside caesarea, called the basiliad, which included a poorhouse, hospice, and hospital, and was regarded at the time as one of the wonders of the world. his zeal for orthodoxy did not blind him to what was good in an opponent ; and for the sake of peace and charity he was content to waive the use of orthodox terminology when it could be surrendered without a sacrifice of truth. the emperor valens, who was an adherent of the arian philosophy, sent his prefect modestus to at least agree to a compromise with the arian faction. basil ' s adamant negative response prompted modestus to say that no one had ever spoken to him in that way before. basil replied, " perhaps you have never yet had to deal with a bishop. " modestus reported back to valens that he believed nothing short of violence would avail against basil. valens was apparently unwilling to engage in violence. he did however issue orders banishing basil repeatedly, none of which succeeded. valens came himself to attend when basil celebrated the divine liturgy on the feast of the theophany ( epiphany ), and at that time was so impressed by basil that he donated to him some land for the building of the basiliad. this interaction helped to define the limits of governmental power over the church. basil then had to face the growing spread of arianism. this belief system, which denied that christ was consubstantial with the father, was quickly gaining adherents and was seen by many, particularly those in alexandria most familiar with it, as posing a threat to the unity of the church. basil entered into connections with the west, and with the help of athanasius, he tried to overcome its distrustful attitude toward the homoiousians. the difficulties had been enhanced by bringing in the question as to the essence of the holy spirit. although basil advocated objectively the consubstantiality of the holy spirit with the father and the son, he belonged to those, who, faithful to eastern tradition, would not allow the predicate homoousios to the former ; for this he was reproached as early as 371 by the orthodox zealots among the monks, and at


he belonged to those, who, faithful to eastern tradition, would not allow the predicate homoousios to the former ; for this he was reproached as early as 371 by the orthodox zealots among the monks, and athanasius defended him. he maintained a relationship with eustathius despite dogmatic differences. on the other hand, basil was grievously offended by the extreme adherents of homoousianism, who seemed to him to be reviving the sabellian heresy. basil corresponded with pope damasus in the hope of having the roman bishop condemn heresy wherever found, both east and west. the pope ' s apparent indifference upset basil ' s zeal and he turned around in distress and sadness. it is still a point of controversy over how much he believed the roman see could do for the churches in the east, as many roman catholic theologians claim the primacy of the roman bishopric over the rest of the churches, both in doctrine and in authoritative strength. he did not live to see the end of the factional disturbances and the complete success of his continued exertions in behalf of the church. he suffered from liver illness and his excessive asceticism seems to have hastened him to an early death. a lasting monument of his episcopal care for the poor was the great institute before the gates of caesarea, which was used as poorhouse, hospital, and hospice. the principal theological writings of basil are his on the holy spirit, a lucid and edifying appeal to scripture and early christian tradition ( to prove the divinity of the holy spirit ), and his refutation of the apology of the impious eunomius, written in 363 or 364, three books against eunomius of cyzicus, the chief exponent of anomoian arianism. the first three books of the refutation are his work ; the fourth and fifth books that are usually included do not belong to basil, or to apollinaris of laodicea, but probably to didymus " the blind " of alexandria. he was a famous preacher, and many of his homilies, including a series of lenten lectures on the hexaemeron ( the six days of creation ), and an exposition of the psalter, have been preserved. some, like that against usury and that on the famine in 368, are valuable for the history of morals ; others illustrate the honor paid to martyrs and relics ; the address to young men on the study of


a separate individual. later theologians explicitly explain this as an example of how the saints become an image of the one common nature of the persons of the trinity. his three hundred letters reveal a rich and observant nature, which, despite the troubles of ill - health and ecclesiastical unrest, remained optimistic, tender and even playful. his principal efforts as a reformer were directed towards the improvement of the liturgy, and the reformation of the monastic institutions of the east. most of his extant works, and a few spuriously attributed to him, are available in the patrologia graeca, which includes latin translations of varying quality. several of st. basil ' s works have appeared in the late twentieth century in the sources chretiennes collection. liturgical contributions saint basil of caesarea holds a very important place in the history of christian liturgy, coming as he did at the end of the age of persecution. basil ' s liturgical influence is well attested in early sources. though it is difficult at this time to know exactly which parts of the divine liturgies which bear his name are actually his work, a vast corpus of prayers attributed to him has survived in the various eastern christian churches. tradition also credits basil with the elevation of the iconostasis to its present height. most of the liturgies bearing the name of basil are not entirely his work in their present form, but they nevertheless preserve a recollection of basil ' s activity in this field in formularizing liturgical prayers and promoting church - song. patristics scholars conclude that the liturgy of saint basil " bears, unmistakably, the personal hand, pen, mind and heart of st. basil the great. " one liturgy that can be attributed to him is the divine liturgy of saint basil the great, a liturgy that is somewhat longer than the more commonly used divine liturgy of st. john chrysostom. the difference between the two is primarily in the silent prayers said by the priest, and in the use of the hymn to the theotokos, all of creation, instead of the axion estin of saint john chrysostom ' s liturgy. chrysostom ' s liturgy has come to replace saint basil ' s on most days in the eastern orthodox and byzantine catholic liturgical traditions. however, they still use saint basil ' s liturgy on certain feast days : the first five sundays of great lent, the eves of nativity and theophany, on great and holy thursday and holy saturday and on the feast of saint basil, january 1 ( for


use saint basil ' s liturgy on certain feast days : the first five sundays of great lent, the eves of nativity and theophany, on great and holy thursday and holy saturday and on the feast of saint basil, january 1 ( for those churches which follow the julian calendar, their january 1 falls on january 14 of the gregorian calendar ). the eastern churches preserve numerous other prayers attributed to saint basil, including three prayers of exorcism, several morning and evening prayers, the " prayer of the hours " which is read at each service of the daily office, and the " kneeling prayers " which are recited by the priest at vespers on pentecost in the byzantine rite. influence on monasticism through his examples and teachings basil effected a noteworthy moderation in the austere practices which were previously characteristic of monastic life. he is also credited with coordinating the duties of work and prayer to ensure a proper balance between the two. basil is remembered as one of the most influential figures in the development of christian monasticism. not only is basil recognised as the father of eastern monasticism ; historians recognize that his legacy extends also to the western church, largely due to his influence on saint benedict. patristic scholars such as meredith assert that benedict himself recognized this when he wrote in the epilogue to his rule that his monks, in addition to the bible, should read " the confessions of the fathers and their institutes and their lives and the rule of our holy father, basil. basil ' s teachings on monasticism, as encoded in works such as his small asketikon, was transmitted to the west via rufinus during the last 4th century. as a result of his influence, numerous religious orders in eastern christianity bear his name. in the roman catholic church, the basilian fathers, also known as the congregation of st. basil, an international order of priests and students studying for the priesthood, is named after him. commemorations of basil st basil was given the title doctor of the church for his contributions to the debate initiated by the arian controversy regarding the nature of the trinity, and especially the question of the divinity of the holy spirit. basil was responsible for defining the terms " ousia " ( essence / substance ) and " hypostasis " ( person / reality ), and for defining the classic formulation of three persons in one nature. his single greatest contribution was his insistence on the divinity and consubstantiality of the holy spirit with the father and the son. in greek tradition, he brings gifts


), and for defining the classic formulation of three persons in one nature. his single greatest contribution was his insistence on the divinity and consubstantiality of the holy spirit with the father and the son. in greek tradition, he brings gifts to children every january 1 ( st basil ' s day ) — unlike other traditions where father christmas arrives either on december 6 ( saint nicholas day ) or on christmas eve ( december 24 ). it is traditional on st basil ' s day to serve vasilopita, a rich bread baked with a coin inside. it is customary on his feast day to visit the homes of friends and relatives, to sing new year ' s carols, and to set an extra place at the table for saint basil. basil, being born into a wealthy family, gave away all his possessions to the poor, the underprivileged, those in need, and children. a similar story exists for another greek bishop, saint nicholas of myra. over the centuries the two legends have blended together, though the western santa claus remains associated with nicholas, while the eastern " santa " is identified with basil. saint basil died on january 1, and the eastern orthodox church celebrates his feast day together with that of the feast of the circumcision on that day. this was also the day on which the roman catholic calendar of saints celebrated it at first ; but in the 13th century it was moved to june 14, a date believed to be that of his ordination as bishop, and it remained on that date until the 1969 revision of the calendar, which moved it to january 2, rather than january 1, because the latter date is occupied by the solemnity of mary, mother of god. on january 2 saint basil is celebrated together with saint gregory nazianzen. some traditionalist catholics continue to observe pre - 1970 calendars. the coptic orthodox church of alexandria celebrates the feast day of saint basil on the 6th of tobi ( 6th of terr on the ethiopian calendar of the ethiopian orthodox tewahedo church ). at present, this corresponds to january 14, january 15 during leap year. the macedonian orthodox church celebrates saint basil ' s feast on january 14. he is considered as one of the greatest saints in thi christianity and is called st. basil the great ( macedonian : свети василиј велики ). there are numerous relics of saint basil throughout the world. one of the most important is his head, which is preserved to this day at


( macedonian : свети василиј велики ). there are numerous relics of saint basil throughout the world. one of the most important is his head, which is preserved to this day at the monastery of the great lavra on mount athos in greece. the mythical sword durandal is said to contain some of basil ' s blood. see also - list of catholic saints - cappadocian fathers - gregory of nyssa - gregory nazianzus - john chrysostom - basilian monk - christian mystics - the exact date of basil ' s death is debated by historians. see rousseau ( 1994 ), pp. 360 – 363, appendix iii : the date of basil ' s death and of the hexaemeron for details. - great synaxaristes : ( greek ) ο αγιος βασιλειος ο μεγας ο καππαδοκης. 1 ιανουαριου. μεγασ συναξαριστησ. - st basil the great the archbishop of caesarea, in cappadocia. oca - feasts and saints. - great synaxaristes : ( greek ) οι αγιοι τρεις ιεραρχες. 30 ιανουαριου. μεγασ συναξαριστησ. - synaxis of the ecumenical teachers and hierarchs : basil the great, gregory the theologian, and john chrysostom. oca - feasts and saints. - fedwick ( 1981 ), p. 5 - st basil the great the archbishop of caesarea, in cappadocia. orthodox church in america website. retrieved 2007 - 12 - 15 - quasten ( 1986 ), p. 204. - bowersock et al. ( 1999 ), p. 336 - oratio 43. 4, pg 36. 500b, tr. p. 30, as presented in rousseau ( 1994 ), p. 4. - davies ( 1991 ), p. 12. - rousseau ( 1994 ), p. 4. - rousseau ( 1994 ), p. 12 & p. 4 respectively - hildebrand ( 2007 ), p. 19. - norris, frederick ( 1997 ). " basil of caesarea "


- rousseau ( 1994 ), p. 4. - rousseau ( 1994 ), p. 12 & p. 4 respectively - hildebrand ( 2007 ), p. 19. - norris, frederick ( 1997 ). " basil of caesarea ". in ferguson, everett. the encyclopedia of early christianity ( second edition ). new york : garland press - ruether ( 1969 ), pp. 19, 25. - rousseau ( 1994 ), pp. 32 – 40. - rousseau ( 1994 ), p. 1. - hildebrand ( 2007 ), pp. 19 – 20. - basil, ep. 223, 2, as quoted in quasten ( 1986 ), p. 205. - quasten ( 1986 ), p. 205. - encyclopaedia britannica ( 15th ed. ) vol. 1, p. 938. - merredith ( 1995 ), p. 21. - encyclopaedia britannica ( 15th ed. ) vol. 1, p. 938. - mod. yesilırmak and kelkit cayi rivers, see rousseau ( 1994 ), p. 62. - the new westminster dictionary of church history : the early, medieval, and reformation eras, vol. 1, westminster john knox press, 2008, isbn 0 - 664 - 22416 - 4, p. 75. - st. basil the great in catholic encyclopedia : " in 373... eustathius of sebaste ( became ) a traitor to the faith and a personal foe " - attwater, donald and catherine rachel john. the penguin dictionary of saints. 3rd edition. new york : penguin books, 1993. isbn 0 - 14 - 051312 - 4. - rousseau ( 1994 ), p. 66. - merredith ( 1995 ), pp. 21 – 22. - meredith ( 1995 ), p. 22. - mcguckin ( 2001 ), p. 143. - meredith ( 1995 ), p. 23 - foley, o. f. m., leonard ( 2003 ). " st. basil the great ( 329 - 379 ) ". in mccloskey, o. f. m., pat ( rev. ). saint of the day : lives, lessons and feasts ( 5th revised edition ). cincinnati, ohio : st. anthony messenger press. isbn 0 - 86716 - 535 - 9. archived from the original on 23 december 2007


. ). saint of the day : lives, lessons and feasts ( 5th revised edition ). cincinnati, ohio : st. anthony messenger press. isbn 0 - 86716 - 535 - 9. archived from the original on 23 december 2007. retrieved 2007 - 12 - 15 - catholic encyclopedia article on saint basil makes such a claim :. - deferrari, roy j. " the classics and the greek writers of the early church : saint basil. " the classical journal vol. 13, no. 8 ( may, 1918 ). 579 – 91. - basil. " hexameron, 9. 1 ". in schaff, philip. nicene and post - nicene fathers ( 2nd series ). 8 basil : letters and select works. edinburgh : t & t clark ( 1895 ). p. 102. retrieved 2007 - 12 - 15. cf. hexameron, 3. 9 ( ibid., pp. 70 - 71 ). - bebis ( 1997 ), p. 283 - murphy ( 1930 ), p. 94. - murphy ( 1930 ), p. 95. - see k. e. kirk, the vision of god : the christian document of the summum bonun, ( london, 1931 ), 9. 118, ( as quoted in meredith ) - meredith ( 1995 ), p. 24 - silvas ( 2002 ), pp. 247 - 259, in vigliae christanae - " santa claus ". eastern - orthodoxy. com. archived from the original on 18 january 2008. retrieved 2008 - 01 - 02. - calendarium romanum, libreria editrice vaticana 1969, p. 84 - keary ( 1882 ), p. 512 - basil of caesarea, hexaemeron, london, 2013. limovia. net isbn 9781783362110 ( digital version - ebook ) - st basil the great, on the holy spirit ’ ’, trans david anderson, ( crestwood, ny : st vladimir ’ s seminary press, 1980 ) - bebis, george ( fall - winter 1997 ). " introduction to the liturgical theology of st basil the great ". greek orthodox theological review 42 ( 3 - 4 ) : 273 – 285. issn 0017 - 3894. - paul jonathan fedwick, ed. ( 1981 ). basil of caesarea, christian, humanist, ascetic : a sixteen - hundredth anniversary symposium, part 1. pontifical institute of mediaeval studies. isbn


- 3894. - paul jonathan fedwick, ed. ( 1981 ). basil of caesarea, christian, humanist, ascetic : a sixteen - hundredth anniversary symposium, part 1. pontifical institute of mediaeval studies. isbn 978 - 0 - 88844 - 412 - 7. - bowersock, glen warren, brown, peter & grabar, oleg, ed. ( 1999 ). late antiquity : a guide to the postclassical world, with alphabetical guide. harvard university press. isbn 978 - 0 - 67451 - 173 - 6. - the new encyclopaedia britannica, 15th edition, v. 1. london : encyclopaedia britannica. - hildebrand, stephen m. ( 2007 ). the trinitarian theology of basil of caesarea. washington, d. c. : catholic university of america press. isbn 978 - 0 - 8132 - 1473 - 3. - keary, charles francis ( 1882 ). outline of primitive belief among the indo - european races. new york : c. scribner ' s sons. - meredith, anthony ( 1995 ). the cappadocians. crestwood, ny : st. vladimir ' s seminar press. isbn 0 - 88141 - 112 - 4. - migne, jacques paul ( ed. ) ( 1857 – 1866 ). cursus completus patrologiae graecae. paris : imprimerie catholique. - murphy, margaret gertrude ( 1930 ). st. basil and monasticism : catholic university of america series on patristic studies, vol. xxv. new york : ams press. isbn 0 - 404 - 04543 - x. - rousseau, phillip ( 1994 ). basil of caesarea. berkeley : university of california press. isbn 0 - 520 - 08238 - 9. - ruether, rosemary radford ( 1969 ). gregory of nazianzus. oxford : oxford university press. - silvas, anna m. ( september 2002 ). " edessa to cassino : the passage of basil ' s asketikon to the west ". vigliae christianae ( brill academic ) 56 ( 3 ) : 247 – 259. doi : 10. 1163 / 157007202760235382. issn 042 - 6032. - corona, gabriella, ed. ( 2006 ). aelfric ' s life


3 ) : 247 – 259. doi : 10. 1163 / 157007202760235382. issn 042 - 6032. - corona, gabriella, ed. ( 2006 ). aelfric ' s life of saint basil the great : background and content. anglo - saxon texts 5. cambridge : d. s. brewer. isbn 978 - 1 - 84384 - 095 - 4. - this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain : jackson, samuel macauley, ed. ( 1914 ). " article name needed ". new schaff – herzog encyclopedia of religious knowledge ( third ed. ). london and new york : funk and wagnalls. - st. basil the great, on he holy spirit, london, 2012. limovia. net isbn 978 - 1 - 78336 - 002 - 4 - basil of caesarea, hexaemeron, london, 2013. limovia. net isbn 9781783362110 ( digital version - ebook ) | wikimedia commons has media related to : basil of caesarea | | wikisource has the text of the 1911 encyclopædia britannica article basil. | - the life of st. basil the great, bishop of caesarea & doctor of the catholic church - christian classics ethereal library, early church fathers, series ii, vol. viii contains the treatise on the holy spirit, the hexaemeron, some of the homilies and the letters - st. basil the great in english and greek, select resources - basil the great article from orthodox wikipedia has a slightly longer article on st. basil - the heritage of the holy fathers has a more complete collection of his homilies ( and some other works, but only a few of his letters ) — in russian - excerpts from basil the great - catholic online : st. basil the great - " st. basil the great ". catholic encyclopedia. new york : robert appleton company. 1913. - american catholic : st. basil the great - basil of caesarea and his influence on monastic mission benedictines. org. uk - preface to the asketikon english translation by oxford university press - st. basil the great the archbishop of caesarea, in cappadocia orthodox icon and synaxarion - st. basil ' s sermons about fasting, translated by kent berghuis - gregory of nyssa, a eulogy for basil the great


der struwwelpeter ( 1845 ) ( or shockheaded peter ) is a german children ' s book by heinrich hoffmann. it comprises ten illustrated and rhymed stories, mostly about children. each has a clear moral that demonstrates the disastrous consequences of misbehavior in an exaggerated way. the title of the first story provides the title of the whole book. background and publication history hoffmann wrote struwwelpeter in reaction to the lack of good children ' s books. intending to buy a picture book as a christmas present for his three - year - old son, hoffmann instead wrote and illustrated his own book. in 1845 he was persuaded by friends to publish the book anonymously as lustige geschichten und drollige bilder mit 15 schon kolorierten tafeln fur kinder von 3 – 6 jahren ( funny stories and whimsical pictures with 15 beautifully coloured panels for children aged 3 to 6 ). for third edition, published in 1858, the title changed to struwwelpeter, the name of the character in the first story. the book became popular among children throughout europe, and, writes author and researcher penni cotton, the pictures and characters showed a great deal of originality and directness. struwwelpeter has been translated into several languages. in 1891, mark twain wrote his own translation of the book but because of copyright issues, twain ' s " slovenly peter " was not published until 25 years after his death in 1935. - " struwwelpeter " describes a boy who does not groom himself properly and is consequently unpopular. - in " die geschichte vom bosen friederich " ( the story of bad frederick ), a violent boy terrorizes animals and people. eventually he is bitten by a dog, who goes on to eat the boy ' s sausage while he is bedridden. - in " die gar traurige geschichte mit dem feuerzeug " ( the dreadful story of the matches ), a girl plays with matches and burns to death. - in " die geschichte von den schwarzen buben " ( the story of the black boys ), saint nicholas catches three boys teasing a dark - skinned boy. to teach them a lesson, he dips the three boys in black ink, to make them even darker - skinned than the boy they ' d teased. - " die geschichte von dem wilden jager " ( the story of the wild huntsman ) is the only story


, he dips the three boys in black ink, to make them even darker - skinned than the boy they ' d teased. - " die geschichte von dem wilden jager " ( the story of the wild huntsman ) is the only story not primarily focused on children. in it, a hare steals a hunter ' s musket and eyeglasses and begins to hunt the hunter. in the ensuing chaos, the hare ' s child is burned by hot coffee and the hunter falls into a well, presumably to his death. - in " die geschichte vom daumenlutscher " ( the story of the thumb - sucker ), a mother warns her son not to suck his thumbs. however, when she goes out of the house he resumes his thumb sucking, until a roving tailor appears and cuts off his thumbs with giant scissors. - " die geschichte vom suppen - kaspar " ( the story of the soup - kaspar ) begins as kaspar, a healthy, strong boy, proclaims that he will no longer eat his soup. over the next five days he wastes away and dies. - in " die geschichte vom zappel - philipp " ( the story of the fidgety philip ), a boy who won ' t sit still at dinner accidentally knocks all of the food onto the floor, to his parents ' great displeasure. - " die geschichte von hans guck - in - die - luft " ( the story of johnny head - in - air ) concerns a boy who habitually fails to watch where he ' s walking. one day he walks into a river ; he is soon rescued, but his writing - book drifts away. - in " die geschichte vom fliegenden robert " ( the story of the flying robert ), a boy goes outside during a storm. the wind catches his umbrella and sends him to places unknown, and presumably to his doom. music, film and stage adaptations american composer michael schelle composed the song cycle struwwelpeter in 1991. this highly dramatic / theatrical / operatic 28 : 00 cycle for voice and piano uses seven ( 7 ) tales from the original struwwelpeter collection ( slovenly peter, flying robert, cry baby, fat augustus, the inky boys, cruel frederick and conrad suck - a - thumb ). he orchestrated the piece for voice and small chamber ensemble in 2007 ( that version was premiered at symphony space in new york city, featuring tenor steve stolen ). he


augustus, the inky boys, cruel frederick and conrad suck - a - thumb ). he orchestrated the piece for voice and small chamber ensemble in 2007 ( that version was premiered at symphony space in new york city, featuring tenor steve stolen ). he orchestrated the piece for larger chamber ensemble in 2013 ( that version was premiered at the schrott center for the performing arts in indianapolis, featuring tenor steve stolen ). little suck - a - thumb ( 1992 ), is a psychosexual interpretation of the infamous cautionary tale from heinrich hoffman ' s storybook. the short film by writer / director david kaplan stars cork hubbert ( the ballad of the sad cafe ), evelyn solann, and jim hilbert as the great tall scissorman. it won awards at the 1992 chicago film festival, the 1992 cork film festival, and the 1993 grenoble film festival. it was also awarded 2nd place at the nyu tisch school of the arts annual film festival and was screened as an official selection at the 1992 munich international festival of film schools. it is collected with 2 other short films on the dvd little red riding hood and other stories. influence and references the struwwelpeter characters make another appearance in heinrich hoffmann ' s 1851 illustrated children ' s book konig nussknacker und der arme reinhold. the characters are portrayed as living inhabitants of a fantasy world visited by the protagonist, reinhold, and the struwwelpeter book itself is depicted as one of the christmas presents that appear beneath reinhold ' s christmas tree. writing for the journal neurotica in 1951, dr. rudolph friedmann studied the stories so intensely for analytic psychosexual imagery that dwight macdonald was moved to include the essay in his 1960 anthology of parodies as a sincere but inadvertent example of the form. w. h. auden refers to the scissor - man in his 1930 ' s poem " the witnesses " ( also known as " the two " ) : and now with sudden swift emergence come the women in dark glasses, the humpbacked surgeons and the scissor man. the " story of soup - kaspar " is parodied in astrid lindgren ' s pippi longstocking ( 1945 ), with a tall story about a chinese boy named peter who refuses to eat a swallow ' s nest served to him by his father, and dies of starvation five months later. jasper fforde ' s novel the fourth bear features a town heavily influenced by "


a tall story about a chinese boy named peter who refuses to eat a swallow ' s nest served to him by his father, and dies of starvation five months later. jasper fforde ' s novel the fourth bear features a town heavily influenced by " cautionary tales " based on stories from struwwelpeter. m. j. trow in " the adventures of inspector lestrade " recreates each of the cautionary tales as the work of a serial killer. paulinchen, the young girl burned to death, was featured in campaign posters of the christian democratic union party in german elections in the 1990s. playing up on her green dress and red bows and shoes, voters were warned " keine rot - grunen experimente! " ( " no red - green experiments! " ), the implication being that a coalition of the spd ( social democrats, who traditionally use red in their campaign material ) and greens would entail a disastrous outcome for germany. in a 2005 episode of the american version of the office ( " take your daughter to work day ", season 2 ), dwight attempts to entertain the children of several employees by reading " die geschichte vom daumenlutscher " in an episode of family guy ( " business guy " season 8 ), peter remarks that lois is more disheartening than a german bedtime story. the scene then cuts away to a depiction of " die geschichte vom daumenlutscher ". in 2009 german comic artist david fuleki released two modern version of struwwelpeter : a manga - style comic book featuring all original characters in a fight against a totalitarian dictatorship and a newly illustrated version of the original book. - cotton, penni ( 2000 ). picture books sans frontieres. trentham books. p. 11. isbn 1 - 85856 - 183 - 3. - ashton ( 1995 ). " fetching the jingle along : mark twain ' s slovenly peter ". children ' s literature association quarterly. retrieved 2011 - 12 - 23. - elyse sommer ( 2005 ). " shockheaded peter makes a comeback ". curtainup. retrieved 2009 - 02 - 19. - " little suck - a - thumb : a cautionary tale ". malaprop productions. 2009. retrieved 2009 - 05 - 14. - macdonald, dwight, parodies, random house, 1960, pgs. 493 - 501 further reading - ashton, susanna m. ; petersen, amy jean ( spring 1995 )