is triggered by exertion, such as exercise or sex. - musculoskeletal problems, such as injuries or poor posture, can cause or contribute to headaches such as tension and migraine headaches. - headaches soon after trauma ( injury ) to the head may be caused by subdural ( inner layer of the brain ) or epidural ( outer layer of the brain ) hematomas ( blood clots ). - headaches that persistently occur on the same side are often secondary headaches associated with conditions such as brain tumors or arteriovenous malformations ( abnormal clusters of blood vessels in the brain ). - bacterial meningitis is a rapidly progressive and life - threatening disease with fever, headaches, stiff neck, and deterioration in mental function. herpes simplex encephalitis ( brain swelling caused by a herpes virus ) is an infection of the brain that causes death of brain tissue. symptoms include fever, headache, and deterioration in mental function. early treatment with antibiotics and anti - viral agents can decrease the extent of brain damage and improve survival. - associated temporary weakness of the extremities or facial muscles can be symptoms of transient ischemic attacks ( tias, or temporary lack of oxygen to the brain ). tias are warning signals for future strokes that can cause permanent brain damage. headache also can accompany strokes and intracerebral bleeding ( bleeding into the brain ). copyright © 2011 natural standard ( www. naturalstandard. com ) the information in this monograph is intended for informational purposes only, and is meant to help users better understand health concerns. information is based on review of scientific research data, historical practice patterns, and clinical experience. this information should not be interpreted as specific medical advice. users should consult with a qualified healthcare provider for specific questions regarding therapies, diagnosis and / or health conditions, prior to making therapeutic decisions.


guidebooks and reference material | dictionaries & encyclopedias | databases | statistical sources | tests | certification | directories | curriculum center | web sites school of education at gonzaga university guidebooks to information sources determine if the library has a handbook for the broad subject area or discipline which would encompass the topic you are researching. handbooks will identify and discuss the reference sources, periodical indexes, bibliographies and major publications pertinent to research in that area. - concepts in composition : theory and practice in the the teaching of english pe 1404. c528 2003 enriching esl pedagogy : readings and activities for reading, engagement and inquiry pe 1128. a2 e58 2002 esl : a handbook for teachers and administrators netlibrary resource implementing the esl standards for prek - 12 students through teacher education pe 1128. a2 i55 2000 managing the assessment process : a framework for measuring student attainment of the esl standards pe 1128. a2 m36 1998 multicultural issues in literacy research and practice lc 151. m85 2003 the practice of english language teaching pe 1128. a2 h34 2001 program standards for adult esol programs pe 1128. a2 p76 2000 research methods for english language teachers pe 1128. a2 m384 1997 scenarios for esl standards based assessment pe 1128. a2 s316 2000 successful dissertations and theses : a guide to graduate student research from proposal to completion ref lb 2369. m32 1992 - teaching language : from grammar to grammaring pe 1128. a2 l348 2003 training others to use the esl standards : a professional development manual pe 1128. a2 t73 2000 dictionaries and encyclopedias use these sources to define terms, obtain background information, identify issues and get names or dates, and identify further sources in a topic area. encyclopedia of bilingualism and bilingual education. ref lc3707. e53 1998 encyclopedia of education ref lb 15. e47 2003 international encyclopedia of curriculum. ref lb570. i5676 1991 international encyclopedia of education. ref lb15. i569 1994 international encyclopedia of the sociology of education. ref lc191. i49 1997 international encyclopedia of educational technology, 2nd edition. ref lb1028. 3. i567 1996 critical dictionary of educational concepts. ref lb15. b29 1986 language of learning : a guide to education terms. ref lb15. m32 1997 periodical indexes and abstracts indexes and abstracts help you locate articles


. 3. i567 1996 critical dictionary of educational concepts. ref lb15. b29 1986 language of learning : a guide to education terms. ref lb15. m32 1997 periodical indexes and abstracts indexes and abstracts help you locate articles on specific topics in journals and magazines. indexes to journal articles are often discipline - oriented in their coverage, and both eric and the education index primarily focus on the field of education and related fields of study. because education has many multi - disciplinary aspects, other disciplinary indexes may also be useful, depending upon the research topic. many periodical indexes are available on the foley library homepage under " indexes and databases. " - academic search premier - provides full text for nearly 4, 600 scholarly publications, including full text for more than 3, 500 peer - reviewed journals in virtually every area of academic study. - eric ( educational resources information center ) - contains over 2, 200 digests, references for additional information, citations and abstracts from over 980 educational and education - related journals. articles with accession numbers beginning with ed are also available downstairs at the foley center library in microfiche. - tesol quarterly - click here for instant access to online holdings from 2001 - 2005. if you want to access earlier tesol articles ( 1967 - 1998 ) please go to foley ' s reserves / circulation desk, and ask for the tesol cd - rom ( pe 1128. a2 t454 ). - access to 12 excellent education journals including the tesol quarterly. - professional development collection. - designed for professional educators, this database provides a highly specialized collection of more than 750 full text journals, including more than 350 peer - reviewed titles. professional development collection is the most comprehensive collection of full text education journals in the world. - proquest direct. - includes summaries of articles from over 5, 000 publications, with many articles in full - text, full - image format covering a wide range of subject areas. proquest also covers major national newspapers as well as selected articles from newspapers in spokane, seattle and other cities in washington state. - psychology & behavioral sciences collection. - this database provides coverage of nearly 550 full text journals, including more than 500 peer - reviewed titles, covering topics such as emotional and behavioral characteristics, psychiatry & psychology, mental processes, anthropology, and observational and experimental methods. nearly every full text title included in this database is indexed in psycinfo. updated daily via ebsco host - american psychological association ' s online index of journal articles, chapters,


mental processes, anthropology, and observational and experimental methods. nearly every full text title included in this database is indexed in psycinfo. updated daily via ebsco host - american psychological association ' s online index of journal articles, chapters, books, dissertations and reports on psychology and related fields. coverage from 1887 - present. - socindex with full text - test locator & test review. - from the buros institute, this online database has information on over 10, 000 tests and research instruments. in addition, it provides citations to reviews of educational and psychological tests and measures. located under ' reference ' on foley library ' s indexes & databases page. use these sources or similar ones to gather relevant statistics on your topic condition of education. docs ref ( annual ) us ed1. 109 dictionary of statistics and methodology. ref ha 7. v64 1999 education in states and nations. docs us ed 1. 102 : n21 ( 1993 - ) education statistics of the u. s. ref lb 2844. e38 2000 educational rankings. ref 2331. 63. e34 2000 - present fact book on higher education. ref ( annual ) la227. 3. a44a 1974 - 77 historical statistics of the u. s., colonial times to 1970. ref ha202. b87 1975 nces statistical standards. docs us ed 1. 302 : st 2 statistical abstract of the united states. docs ref ( latest at ref. desk ) us c 3. 134 : washington state assessment program : grades 4, 8, and 11 : a five - year summary of achievement test trends in washington school districts for the years 1993 - 1997. docs wa 370 ed8fiv y 1993 - 97 use these sources to identify published tests and assessments on a topic, including reviews. note : foley center does not maintain a collection of tests. mental measurements yearbook. ref bf176. m46 1941 - present. psychological assessment in the schools. stacks bf 722. p 793 1994 test critiques. ref bf176. t419 v. 1 1984 - present. tests : a comprehensive reference for assessments in psychology, education and business. ref bf176. t43 1997 ref bf176. t43 1983 - present. tests and measurements in child development. ref bf 722. j64 1971 tests in print. ref bf176. t47 v. 1 - present. use the following reference books to determine the certification requirements for teachers and


) - with resources in children ' s literature for teachers, librarians, scholars, parents and even children, the site ' s goal is to " use electronic resources to further the reading of books " by listing teaching ideas, award lists, discussion boards, commentary and reference sources. - developing educational standards. ( http : / / circle. adventist. org / browse / resource. phtml? leaf = 303 ) - a comprehensive directory with links to national, state and local educational standards with standards listed by state and by subject area. also links to education centers, clearinghouses and labs, as well as state - focused groups and other organizations including councils, federations and associations. - educator ' s reference desk - the educator ' s reference desk is a project of the information institute of syracuse and provides access to the following resources : - resource collection - links to resources on a variety of educational issues. - lesson plans - over 2, 000 unique lesson plans written and submitted by teachers from all over the united states. - question archive - a collection of over 200 responses to popular questions on the practice, theory, and research of education. - eric database - this is a web - based version of the eric database, updated monthly. - eurybase. ( www. eurydice. org ) - an excellent source of information for european educational regulations, higher education options, teacher requirements and statistics for the 15 countries of the european union as well as iceland, liechtenstein and norway. - national center for education statistics. ( http : / / nces. ed. gov / edstats ) - includes data from nces sources including the condition of education, the digest of education statistics, and projections of education statistics. - office of superintendent of public instruction. ( www. k12. wa. us ) - provides data, demographics, certification requirements, policies, legislation, publications, programs, strategies, standards and ealrs from the k - 12 education office for the state of washington. - u. s. department of education. ( www. ed. gov ) - a comprehensive site for resources with a focus on education issues for prek - 12, higher education, and career and lifelong learning, as well as resources for grants and contracts, research and statistics, policies and financial aid. - u. s. department of education ' s office of educational research and improvement. ( http : / / www. ed. gov / offices / oeri ) - link to major education research and development centers, including a search engine whereby all or


us 6594503 b1 a communication device ( 200 ), such as a cellular mobile phone or a cordless phone, has a dial unit ( 208 ) for communication with a base station. an input device for dialing a phone number which forwards a coded dial signal ( 215 ) to the dial unit ( 208 ) is implemented as an optical character recognition ( ocr ) scanner ( 210 ) that reads phone numbers ( 202 ) from a printed or hand - written original ( 201 ). optionally, especially for recognizing hand - writing, the scanner ( 210 ) sends graphical representations of input data to the base station that obtains the code dial signals by an external processor. 1. communication device having a dial unit to establish communication via a communication channel, said communication device characterized by a built - in optical character recognition reader to receive a dial identification from an original, wherein said reader collects image data of said dial identification by being in a predetermined distance from said original during a predetermined data collecting time. 2. the communication device of 3. communication device having a dial unit to establish communication via a communication channel, said communication device characterized by a built - in optical character recognition reader to receive a dial identification from an original, wherein said reader comprises a contact camera that receives said dial identification when touching said original during a predetermined data collecting time. 4. the communication device of 5. the communication device of 6. the communication device of 7. the communication device of 8. the communication device of 9. the communication device of 10. the communication device of the present invention generally relates to a communication device, and, more particularly, to a portable phone. a communication device is often used in a network having a plurality of nodes. when a user wants to establish a communication between the device and a node, then the user usually manually inputs a node identifier through a keyboard of the device. for example, the device is a portable phone operating in a public or private telephone network where the nodes are further phones ( e. g., cellular phones or fixed network phones ). the user establishes a communication by dialing a phone number. however, typing a number into a keyboard by a human might cause misled phone calls. a physically challenged person might not be able to use the keyboard. phones having a dial function that is supported by voice recognition became recently available on the market. apart from technical problems occurring in a noisy environment, some users hesitate from speaking a phone number into the phone, for example, because they fear


use the keyboard. phones having a dial function that is supported by voice recognition became recently available on the market. apart from technical problems occurring in a noisy environment, some users hesitate from speaking a phone number into the phone, for example, because they fear to disclose the number in public. jp 9307617 teaches a portable phone where the number is dialed by a bar - code scanner ; requiring that numbers have to be available in a bar - code format. u. s. pat. no. 5, 966, 669 teaches a portable phone that can be connected to an external bar - code / ocr reader. further references for ocr readers are u. s. pat. no. 4, 408, 344, u. s. pat. no. 4, 075, 605, u. s. pat. no. 5, 574, 804, european patent specification ep 0063243b1, and european patent application ep 0062777a2. the present invention seeks to provide a communication device which mitigate or avoid these and other disadvantages and limitations of the prior art. fig. 1 illustrates a communication device with a built - in ocr reader according to the present invention ; fig. 2 illustrates the communication device of fig. 1 with more detail as well as illustrates a phone network base station ; fig. 3 illustrates the communication device of fig. 1 having the reader implemented by a line scanner ; fig. 4 illustrates the communication device of fig. 1 having the reader implemented by an autofocus objective ; fig. 5 illustrates the communication device of fig. 1 having the reader implemented by a contact camera ; fig. 6 illustrates the communication device of fig. 5 with a transparent camera ; fig. 7 illustrate the communication device of fig. 1 having the reader implemented as a visiting card reader ; fig. 8 illustrates the communication device of fig. 1 with a confirmation interface ; fig. 9 illustrates the communication device of fig. 1 with a sensor that activates the reader ; fig. 10 illustrates a simplified method flow chart diagram of a method according to the present invention ; and fig. 11 illustrates a portable phone in an embodiment of the communication device. fig. 1 illustrates a simplified diagram of communication device 100 ( hereinafter “ device 100 ” ) with built - in ocr reader 110 according to the present invention. illustrated are device 100, original 101, dial identification 102, dial unit 108, communication channel 109, and ocr reader 110. preferably, device


the well known ocr procedures, and uses a coded representation ( e. g., ascii - code, see fig. 2 ) of identification 102 to dial. fig. 2 illustrates device 100 with more detail as well as illustrates phone network base station 141. illustrated are device 100 ( dashed frame ), original 101 ( below ), reader 110, optical scanner 120, character recognition processor 130, external character recognition processor 140, code representation 145 ( “ ascii ” ), base station 141, transmitter 151, receiver 152, and graphical representation 155 ( e. g., “ 0611 ” as pixels ). reader 110 of device 100 preferably comprises optical scanner 120 and character recognition processor 130. examples for ocr - readers are given, for example, in u. s. pat. no. 5, 574, 804 ; 4, 408, 344 ; and 4, 075, 605. optionally, processor 130 can be coupled to or can comprise memory 135 for storing phone numbers ( or other identification 102 ) that have been recognized. preferably, character recognition processor 130 has a reduced recognition algorithm that recognizes numbers and control characters ( such as hyphens and a few symbols ) only, but not letters. in a convenient embodiment, processor 130 recognizes the presence of phone number indicators 102 ( and / or fax number indicators, see above ) on original 101. such indicators can be keywords ( e. g., in english “ phone ”, “ phone ”, “ call ”, “ telephone ” ), phrases ( e. g., “ call 1 - 800 ”, “ call me under ” ), or pictograms ( e. g., for “ phone ” as illustrated ; language or country code identifiers with flags, etc. ). recognition is not limited to the latin alphabet, languages that use non - latin characters ( e. g., russian, korean, chinese, japanese ) can also be considered. pictograms are also useful. for example, scanning the symbol “ information ” ( cf. illustrated in original 101 on the right ) would connect the user to directory enquiries or any other operator assisted information service. further modifications are also useful. for example, device 100 can be coupled to an information network that allows the user to scan in keywords and to get connected to an assistant. for example, of the user would read in the words “ hotel ” and “ wiesbaden ” then a call to the tourist


be coupled to an information network that allows the user to scan in keywords and to get connected to an assistant. for example, of the user would read in the words “ hotel ” and “ wiesbaden ” then a call to the tourist information service center in wiesbaden could be established. it is convenient to have processor 130 being part of device 100, but not essential for the present invention. additionally to scanner 120, reader 110 can optionally comprise transmitter 151 to send graphical representation 155 ( of dial identification 102 ) to external character recognition processor 140 and receiver 152 ( of code representation 145 ) of dial identification from external processor 140. preferably, transmitter 151 and receiver 152 operate through channel 109. this optional external recognition can be activated, for example, when dial identification 102 is written by hand and built - in processor 130 does not recognize the hand - writing. preferably, external processor 140 is located in base station 141 ( e. g., of a cellular phone network ). in such an implementation, the network provider can charge the user for recognition ( “ pay per scan ” ). reader 110 of device 100 can also scan further information ( e. g., a picture ) from original 101 to be transmitted to a further device ( e. g., a fax machine, printer ) without ocr. when ocr is used, then device 100 can transmit further information as a short message in a cellular phone network ( so called sms ). this optional feature is useful, for example, to transmit addresses from a visiting card ( “ calling card ”, “ business card ”, details fig. 7 ). fig. 3 illustrates device 100 having reader 110 implemented by line scanner 121. illustrated are device 100, original 101, dial identification 102, reader 110 and line scanner 121 with wheel 107 ( optional ). reader 110 receives dial identification 102 by line scanner 121 when device 100 is moved over original 101 in a first direction during a predetermined reading time ( e. g., a few milliseconds ). for example, the user can sweep device 100 over a text showing a phone number. optionally, reader 110 touches original 101 by wheel 107 to obtain synchronization information. fig. 4 illustrates device 100 having reader 110 implemented by an autofocus objective 122 projecting the picture to a ccd - matrix or other type of image sensor. illustrated are device 100, original 101, dial identification 102, and reader 110 with autofocus objective 122. reader 110 collects image data of dial


autofocus objective 122 projecting the picture to a ccd - matrix or other type of image sensor. illustrated are device 100, original 101, dial identification 102, and reader 110 with autofocus objective 122. reader 110 collects image data of dial identification 102 by being in a predetermined distance d ( e. g., 2... 300 milli meters ) from original 101 during a predetermined data collecting time. in other words, the user holds device 100 near original 101 that is snap - shooting. fig. 5 illustrates device 100 having reader 110 implemented by contact camera 123 where distance d is substantially zero. illustrated are device 100 having outer surface 105, original 101, dial identification 102, reader 110, contact camera 123 with active background light 125 or florescent background light 126, as well as display 162. reader 110 comprises contact camera 123 that receives dial identification 102 when touching original 101 during a predetermined data collecting time tc ( short as in fig. 4 ). preferably, camera 123 has equal or larger dimensions than original 101. for example, for a printed 12 - digit phone number ( 14 point letters ) that is about 30 milli meters long and 3 milli meters high, camera 123 could have that dimensions. contact camera 123 can be provided, for example, by a ccd - matrix that has the same dimensions as identification 102. camera 123 can also be implemented by a scanning array with row and columns of photo sensitive diodes as explained in above mentioned u. s. pat. no. 4, 408, 344. device 100 preferably incorporates camera 123 on an outer surface 105, preferably on its backside, opposite to display 162 ( cf. figs. 6 and 8 ). the user simply puts device 100 on the original. it is an advantage of the embodiment in fig. 5 that it is not required to move device 100. fig. 5 also illustrates how the light to operate camera 123 is obtained. contact camera 123 can have active background light 125 ( e. g., located inside device 100, light emitting diodes leds ) ; or contact camera 123 has florescent background light 126 ( e. g., layer above camera 123 ) that is activated before receiving dial identification 102 by exposing device 100 to environment light. a further way to obtain the light is mentioned in connection with fig. 6. fig. 6 illustrates the device of fig. 5 with a transparent camera. illustrated are device 100, original 101, dial identification 102, contact camera


100 to environment light. a further way to obtain the light is mentioned in connection with fig. 6. fig. 6 illustrates the device of fig. 5 with a transparent camera. illustrated are device 100, original 101, dial identification 102, contact camera 123, and lcd display 162. contact camera 123 is based on a translucent material ( e. g., glass, or polymer ) to let environment light reaching original 102. if the material is also transparent, then the user has the advantage to see original 102 while operating reader 110. further, the material that carries camera 123 can have a liquid crystal display lcd for a confirmation function ( details fig. 8 ). fig. 7 illustrate device 100 having reader 110 implemented as a visiting card reader. illustrated are device 100, original 101 ( e. g., card ), recess 106, and reader 110 ( dashed ). the user temporarily inserts original 101 into recess 106 ( or pushes it through ). fig. 8 illustrates device 100 with confirmation interface 160. illustrated are device 100, dial identification 102, reader 110, interface 160, voice generator 161, loudspeaker 162, and display 163. device 100 receives a confirmation from the user via interface 160, for example, when the user presses key 169 ( “ dial ” ). preferably, the user can also input a rejection ( by a key or otherwise ). confirmation interface 160 returns the recognized dial identification 102 to the user, for example through voice generator 161 and loudspeaker 162 or through display 163. preferably, display 163 is arranged such that display 163 is visible to the user when reader 110 is operating. in the above mentioned example, where original 101 shows identification “ 0611 ”, loudspeaker 162 would speak “ zero - six - one - one ” and / or display 163 would indicate “ 0611 ”. optionally, interface 160 returns the recognized dial identification 102 to the user together with a redundant check information derived from dial identification. to use the example again, loudspeaker 162 would output “ zero - six - one - one wiesbaden ” and / or display 163 would indicate “ 0611 wiesbaden ”. when in case of an recognition error, device 100 outputs “ 0911 nuernberg ” so that the user can easily recognize the error. further modifications can be implemented without departing from the scope of the present invention. for example, device 100 could memorize ( cf. memory 135 in fig. 2 ) frequently used area codes. in case of an infr


can easily recognize the error. further modifications can be implemented without departing from the scope of the present invention. for example, device 100 could memorize ( cf. memory 135 in fig. 2 ) frequently used area codes. in case of an infrequent recognized number, device 100 could ask the user to verify ( “ you really want to call to nuernberg? ” ). fig. 9 illustrates device 100 with sensor 170 that activates reader 110. illustrated are device 100, original 101, sensor 170 as mechanical switch 175. reader 110 is activated by sensor 170 that senses the presence of original 101. sensor 170 can be implemented, for example, by a proximity sensor. in the example of fig. 9, sensor 170 is implemented by mechanical switch 175. further modifications, to device 100 can be accomplished. for example, dial unit 108 ( cf. fig. 1 ) can be implemented by a loudspeaker ( e. g., loudspeaker 162 in fig. 8 ) to output a representation of dial identification 102 by a dual tone multi frequency ( dtmf ) signal. without the need to type in a single digit into a conventional phone keyboard or to read a phone number from paper by his or her eyes, the user can set up a phone call by simply scanning a phone number and holding device 100 to the microphone of a conventional phone ( channel 109 ). such a “ dial assistant ” is convenient for users that are physically challenged. various further possibilities can be obtained when reader 110 is a color reader. to mention only a few advantages, the above mentioned recognition of national flags would be enhanced. for example, tricolors used in many european countries can be distinguished with higher accuracy. fig. 10 illustrates a simplified method flow chart diagram of method 300 according to the present invention. method 300 for communicating node identifier 102 through portable communication device 100 to a network ( represented by base station 141 in fig. 2 ) having a plurality of nodes ( wherein identifier / phone number 102 is available on original 101 ) comprises the steps of scanning 310, converting 320, and dialing 330. in scanning step 310, original 101 is at least partially scanned into a memory ( like memory 135 ) of device 100 to obtain graphical representation 155 ( e. g., pixel image ) of identifier 102. in converting step 320, graphical representation 155 is converted into a code representation, wherein ocr techniques are used. in dialing step 330, the code representation is send to the network. optionally, converting


pixel image ) of identifier 102. in converting step 320, graphical representation 155 is converted into a code representation, wherein ocr techniques are used. in dialing step 330, the code representation is send to the network. optionally, converting step 320 can comprise the steps transmitting 321 the graphical representation to an external processor ( cf. processor 141 in fig. 2 ) and processing 322 the graphical representation by the external processor to the code representation. fig. 11 illustrates portable phone 200 in a preferred embodiment of communication device 100 according to the present invention. preferably, portable phone 200 is a cellular mobile phone or a cord less phone ( mentioned above ). as illustrated, portable phone 200 has loudspeaker 291, microphone 292, display 262 ( optional ) and dial unit 208 for communication with a base station ( e. g., station 141 in fig. 2 ). for simplicity, unit 208 is symbolized only by an antenna. as in most phones, phone 200 has an input device for dialing a phone number which forwards a coded dial signal 215 to dial unit 208. according to the present invention, the input device is implemented as scanner 210 ( details in figs. 1 - 10 ) with a character recognition function to convert a written dial identifier 202 ( cf. 102, phone number ) on paper 201 ( cf. original 101 ) to coded dial signal 215. fig. 11 indicates that the user sweeps phone 200 over paper 201 by the hand in arrow direction ( reverse direction also possible ). preferably, scanner 210 is limited to recognize numbers. optionally, scanner 210 converts alphanumeric representations ( e. g., names, internet addresses ) of dial identifier 202 to phone numbers by using a look - up table ( not illustrated ). when required, for example, to recognize hand - writing, scanner 210 sends graphical representations of input data to the base station that obtains the code dial signals ( cf. external processor 140 in fig. 2 ). while the invention has been described in terms of particular structures, devices and methods, those of skill in the art will understand based on the description herein that it is not limited merely to such examples and that the full scope of the invention is properly determined by the claims that follow. citas de patentes


eleven - year old christopher adam scott rode his bicycle across the pedestrian overpass of the clearview expressway in bayside. as he reached the corner of 46th avenue and the expressway service road, a car struck him, killing him almost instantly. six years before, 12 - year - old john shim was riding a bicycle in the same spot. he too was struck by a car and died of his injuries nine months later. local residents believe a stop sign could have helped save the lives of both boys. about 200 pedestrians are killed by cars in new york city every year. traffic engineers suggest that stop signs can help remedy the problem by regulating the flow of traffic in a busy neighborhood. the new york city department of transportation says that stop signs should be used to alert drivers and pedestrians as to who has the right of way. but stop signs cannot solve all traffic safety problems, transportation experts say. for example, the u. s. department of transportation, which sets standards for stop signs and traffic lights, cautions, " stop signs should never be installed as a routine, cure - all approach to curtail speeding, prevent collisions at intersections, or discourage traffic from entering a neighborhood. " and when they are misplaced, stop signs can make a situation worse. " studies have found when stop sign are placed at intersections where they are not really needed, motorists become careless about stopping, " says an information sheet issued by the center for transportation research and education in ames, iowa. given all this, there is no guarantee that a request for a new stop sign will be granted. the department of transportation suggests that residents who believe their intersection meets the requirements write a letter to transportation commissioner iris weinshall at the department of transportation, 40 worth street, new york, ny 10013. the department provides an online form for this purpose. the department refers the request to the traffic engineering unit in your borough. that office makes a preliminary study of the street corner in question, including traffic and pedestrian volumes, vehicular speeds, accident history and sign spacing. eventually the unit will conduct a field investigation to observe traffic on the street corner at various times and on different days of the week, over a period of several weeks. the inspectors want to determine whether conditions at the intersection meet federal standards for traffic lights and signals set out in the manual on uniform traffic control devices published by the u. s. department of transportation. the investigation takes about six weeks. then, if the department approves the request, an installation will be scheduled. the sign is usually


and signals set out in the manual on uniform traffic control devices published by the u. s. department of transportation. the investigation takes about six weeks. then, if the department approves the request, an installation will be scheduled. the sign is usually put in within three or four months. this sounds efficient and thorough, but is it really? daraio estimates that 95 percent of her requests for stop signs have been fulfilled. " you just have to be a little creative, " she says. simply following transportation department ' s instructions is not enough. comet keeps a close watch on corners and records problems, listening to accident reports on a police scanner. " you should always be able to say what dates and times the accidents occur, " says daraio. " the more clearly you express ( the problem ) to the agency, the more likely they are to respond. " typically, she writes to the head of the queens borough transportation office, joseph cannisi, rather than to commissioner weinshall, as the city guidelines suggest. since weinshall ' s office receives thousands of requests each year and forwards them to the boroughs, daraio says, writing directly to the borough office eliminates one step. daraio also advises that the letter provide as many details as possible about the street corner, such as how many children live nearby or if there is a school. she strongly suggests enlisting local community organizations in the quest, because they probably have a working relationship with key officials, as comet does with commissioner cannisi. the borough transportation office works closely with the local police precinct to assess the need for the sign. to get the police on your side, daraio advises reminding the police of the frequency of accidents on your specific corner. sometimes, dot decides to install a stop sign — even if community residents would prefer another remedy such as a traffic light. that is fine with daraio. " i find that when drivers see yellow lights ahead of them, they floor it, ' she said. " we know night drivers don ' t come to a full stop at a stop sign, but at least they slow down a little. " in deciding between a stop sign and a traffic light, transportation officials consider the number of vehicles that go through an intersection as well as how fast they are traveling. visibility and the presence of other traffic lights nearby can also affect the decision. but evidence of need does not guarantee that the city will install a sign — or a signal. the intersection in bayside where the fatal accident occurred still


fast they are traveling. visibility and the presence of other traffic lights nearby can also affect the decision. but evidence of need does not guarantee that the city will install a sign — or a signal. the intersection in bayside where the fatal accident occurred still has no stop sign and does not seem likely to get one. transportation commissioner weinshall told the western queens gazette that, while " it ' s very tragic what happened with this little boy... federal standards were not met " for the installation of a stop sign or a traffic signal no one has told community residents what precise conditions the intersection fails to meet. since the denial of the stop sign, the city transportation department has taken several steps to try to make the intersection safer. it has, for example, installed cone shaped objects to guide oncoming traffic away from the pedestrian bridge and posted a sign on the bridge advising bikers to get off their bikes and walk across the overpass. community residents would prefer a stop sign. and at least some of them think they know why their request was rejected. " this is how politics works — red tape, " local democratic party activist john bisbano told the western queens gazette. " all they know is numbers. " ( do you need a stop sign in your neighborhood? tell us about it by going to the community gazette for your area. ) - - nicole zaray


children ' s encyclopedia selection. related subjects : musical genres, styles, eras and events rapping ( also known as emceeing, mcing, spitting, or just rhyming ) is the rhythmic spoken delivery of rhymes, wordplay, and poetry, one of the elements of hip hop music and culture. the use of the word to describe quick speech or repartee long predates the musical form, meaning originally " to hit ". the word had been used in british english since the 16th century, and specifically meaning " to say " since the 18th. it was part of the african american dialect of english in the 1960s meaning " to converse ", and very soon after that in its present usage as a term denoting the musical style. rapping can be delivered over a beat or without accompaniment. stylistically, rap occupies a gray area among speech, prose, poetry, and song. rap is derived from the griots ( folk poets ) of west africa, and jamaican - style toasting. it also has precedents in traditional celtic music. modern rap battles, for instance, bear a striking resemblance to the limerick game, a traditional gaelic drinking game in which people compete for notoriety by making up insulting limericks about each other, the loser having to buy the next round of drinks. likewise, puirt a beul, a form of scottish mouth music was incorporated into appalachian music and is an early ancestor of modern mouth percussion, or beatboxing. the influence of scottish and irish music on hip hop is not direct, since virtually all of the originators of hip hop culture were african american, but were transferred indirectly by way of american roots music. roots music was created out of the fusion of african and celtic music in the american south and is typified by the combination of african rhythms, gaelic melodies, and ( occasionally ) vocal improvisation. it forms the basis of virtually all american musical styles from bluegrass to the blues, jazz, rock, funk, and country. hip hop grew out of this same tradition ; stripping down the melody, emphasizing the rhythm, and incorporating mouth music, battling, and vocal improvisation. rapping developed both inside and outside of hip hop culture, and began with the street parties thrown in the bronx neighbourhood of new york in the 70s by jamaican expatriate kool herc and others. the parties introduced dancehall and the practice of having a " master of ceremonies, " or mc, get up on stage with the dj and shout encouragements to the crowd in a practice known as


expatriate kool herc and others. the parties introduced dancehall and the practice of having a " master of ceremonies, " or mc, get up on stage with the dj and shout encouragements to the crowd in a practice known as ' toasting '. over time, those shouts of encouragement became more longer and more complex and cross - pollinated with the spoken - word poetry scene to evolve into rap. it ' s believed that the first rapper to actually call himself an mc was melle mel from grandmaster flash and the furious five. he is also credited as being the first hip hop mc to rap in a traditional verse / chorus format. from the beginning hip hop culture has been syncretic, incorporating sounds and elements from radically divergent sources. while funk breaks formed the backbone of early hip hop, kraftwerk and other early techno artists were widely sampled as well. rapping hip hop music can be traced back in many ways to its african roots. centuries before the united states existed, the griots of west africa were delivering stories rhythmically, over drums and sparse instrumentation. because of the time that has passed since the griots of old, the connections between rap and the african griots are widely established, but not clear - cut. however, such connections have been acknowledged by rappers, modern day " griots ", spoken word artists, mainstream news sources, and academics. blues music, rooted in the work songs and spirituals of slavery and influenced greatly by west african musical traditions, was first played by blacks ( and some whites ) in the mississippi delta region of the united states around the time of the emancipation proclamation. grammy - winning blues musician / historian elijah wald and others have argued that the blues were being rapped as early as the 1920s. wald went so far as to call hip hop " the living blues. " jazz, developed from the blues and other african - american musical traditions, originated around the beginning of the 20th century. according to john sobol, the jazz musician and poet who wrote digitopia blues, rap " bears a striking resemblance to the evolution of jazz both stylistically and formally. " during the mid - 20th century, the musical culture of the caribbean was constantly influenced by the concurrent changes in american music. from the 1950s through the 1970s, the descendants of caribbean slaves in jamaica were mixing their traditional folk music styles of mento music with the jazz, soul, rock and blues of america. in jamaica, this influenced the creation of reggae music ( and later dancehall


1950s through the 1970s, the descendants of caribbean slaves in jamaica were mixing their traditional folk music styles of mento music with the jazz, soul, rock and blues of america. in jamaica, this influenced the creation of reggae music ( and later dancehall ). as early as 1956, deejays were toasting ( an african tradition of " rapped out " tales of heroism ) over dubbed jamaican beats. it was called " rap ", expanding the word ' s earlier meaning in the african - american community — " to discuss or debate informally. " the dubbed dancehall toasts of jamaica, as well as the disco - rapping and jazz - based spoken word beat poetry of the united states was a predecessor for the rapping in hip hop music. gil scott - heron, a jazz poet / musician who wrote and released such seminal songs as the revolution will not be televised, h2ogate blues part 2 : we beg your pardon america and johannesberg, has been cited as an influence on many rappers. he released his first album in 1970. similar in style, the last poets who formed in 1969 recited political poetry over drum beats and other instrumentation were another predecessor for rap music. they released their debut album in 1970 reaching the top ten on the billboard charts. one of the first rappers in the beginning of the hip hop period, in the end of ' 70s, was also hip hop ' s first dj ; kool herc. herc, a jamaican immigrant, started delivering simple raps at his parties. as herc would explain in a 1989 interview, | “ | | the whole chemistry came from jamaica. i was listening to american music in jamaica, and my favorite artist was james brown. when i came over here i just had to put it in the american style. | | ” | although rapping in hip hop began with the djs, most rappers today don ' t dj or produce on a regular basis ; coke la rock is cited by kool herc as the first example of such a rapper. by the end of the 1979, hip hop had spread throughout new york, and was getting some radio play. rappers were increasingly writing songs that fit pop music structures and featured continuous rhymes. melle mel ( of the furious five ) stands out as one of the earliest rap innovators. two raps songs recorded in 1979 by separate artists were perhaps the first raps recorded at the beginning of the period where the hip hop movement began. the first, " king tim iii, " was recoded by the funk


innovators. two raps songs recorded in 1979 by separate artists were perhaps the first raps recorded at the beginning of the period where the hip hop movement began. the first, " king tim iii, " was recoded by the funk group fatback band ( later simply " fatback " ). a week later hip hop / funk group the sugarhill gang released rapper ' s delight which charted # 36 on the u. s. pop chart. some music during this period also contained fragmented spoken - word sections on top of standard group instrumentation. gil scott heron and the last poets were part of a poetry - influenced genre, however r & b singers like oscar brown simply weaved rap - style speaking into their studio albums and live routines. from the 1970s to the early 1980s, melle mel set the way for future rappers through his sociopolitical content and creative wordplay. hip hop lyricism saw its biggest change with the popularity of run - d. m. c. ' s raising hell in the mid - 1980s, known especially for the rap / rock collaboration with rock band aerosmith in the song " walk this way ". this album helped set the tone of toughness and lyrical prowess in hip hop ; run - d. m. c. were almost yelling their aggressive lyrics. the 1980s saw a huge wave of commercialized rap music, that with it brought success and international popularity. rap music transcended its original demographic and passed on to the suburbs. the first rap hit of the 80s was blondie ' s " rapture ", following on from " rapper ' s delight " in 1979 from the sugarhill gang. rap music in this time kept its original fan base in the " ghetto " while attracting interest from mainstream consumers. this decade also saw the emergence of what we now know as old school hip hop, artists such as run - d. m. c., ll cool j, public enemy, and the beastie boys. this decade is also referred to as the golden age of hip hop by modern music historians. rap in the early 1980s centered mostly around self promotion e. g., the amount of gold one wears or one ' s prowess with females. however, in 1987 public enemy introduced a more sociopolitical edge, with their debut album yo! bum rush the show. other artists such as the jungle brothers looked to africa for inspiration. in 1987 the rap group n. w. a released their first album entitled n. w. a and the posse, and included rap stars dr. dr


! bum rush the show. other artists such as the jungle brothers looked to africa for inspiration. in 1987 the rap group n. w. a released their first album entitled n. w. a and the posse, and included rap stars dr. dre, ice cube, eazy - e, and mc ren. this release marked the first shift from the golden age to the ensuing ages of gangsta rap and g - funk. rap in the 1990s saw a substantial change in direction of the style of rapping. while the 1980s were characterized by verses mostly constrained to straightforward structures and rhyme schemes, rappers in the 1990s explored deviations from those basic forms, freeing up the lyrical flow and switching up the patterns to create a much more fluid and complex style. the style on the east coast became more aggressive, pioneered by artists like the wu - tang clan and notorious b. i. g., while west coast hip hop became more laid - back and smooth, as made popular by dr. dre and 2pac. in terms of subject matter, the 1990s saw a shift from personal promotion and glorification to narratives of street experience and darker social observation, although this shift was more pronounced on the east coast than the west. the 1990s were also marked by a tense rivalry between mcs of the east and west coast, including a feud between sean " puffy " combs ' ( bad boy records ) in the east, including the notorious b. i. g., and dr. dre and suge knight ' s death row records ( including 2pac and snoop dogg ). freestyling became a skill that demonstrates an mc ' s versatility and creativity, but also as a verbal duel or spar. the mid 1990s were marked by the violent deaths of tupac shakur, notorious b. i. g., freaky tah, and big l, among others. by the end of the 1990s, hip hop became widely accepted in mainstream music. the stereotypical image of male rappers in the 1990s often depicted someone wearing the rastafari colors ( red, yellow, and green ), oversize jeans worn below the waist that commonly exposed the underwear, and oversize shirts and jackets. these fashions were then imitated by youngsters and created a separation beyond the rappers ' circle by dividing economic classes in the public eye, meaning that lower - class youth dressing in this manner stuck out among the middle to upper - class youth. this image, idealized by urban youth, was further supported by the lyrics of


the rappers ' circle by dividing economic classes in the public eye, meaning that lower - class youth dressing in this manner stuck out among the middle to upper - class youth. this image, idealized by urban youth, was further supported by the lyrics of rap underground. the lyrics often reflect the culture and lifestyles of urban and gang violence, drugs, corruption, and sexuality. the expansion of rap across cultures and borders allowed for expansion and transformation of the music and the image of what rap was. hip hop in its modern iteration has been increasingly influenced by other musical forms. notably, remixes of existing hits with current notable rappers has become an increasing trend. the influence of rap has increased internationally with independent styles, such as grime, trip hop, and hyphy. southern, northern, and midwestern, and even native american rap have also gained increasing popularity, and penetrated the coastal markets on a large scale for the first time alongside the increasing commercialization of rap and hip hop culture, some artists such as nas have claimed that " hip hop is dead ". vocal techniques and lyrics aside from " flow " ( the voice and tone of a particular mc ), and rhythmic delivery, the only other central element of rapping is rhyme. in classical poetry, rhymes that span many syllables are often considered whimsical, but in hip hop the ability to construct raps with large sets of rhyming syllables is valued. rap can contain any and all forms of rhyme found in classical poetry such as consonance, assonance, half rhyme, or internal rhyme. rappers are known for their style of rhyming. juelz santana often avoids full rhymes in favour of assonance, consonance, half rhymes, and internal rhymes. eminem, on the other hand, often focuses on complex and lengthy multisyllabic rhyme schemes, while " flowas " like rakim use metaphorical, emotional, rhyming, and story telling to communicate a message. a well - known example of the use of internal rhyme is found in big pun ' s 1998 song " twinz ", in which he raps : - dead in the middle of little italy, little did we know - that we riddled two middlemen who didn ' t do diddly diction and dialect many hip hop listeners believe that a rapper ' s lyrics are enhanced by a complex vocabulary. kool moe dee claims that he appealed to older audiences by using a complex vocabulary in his raps. rap is famous, however, for having its own


dialect many hip hop listeners believe that a rapper ' s lyrics are enhanced by a complex vocabulary. kool moe dee claims that he appealed to older audiences by using a complex vocabulary in his raps. rap is famous, however, for having its own vocabulary — from international hip hop slang to regional slang. some artists, like the wu - tang clan, develop an entire lexicon among their clique. african american vernacular english has always had a significant effect on hip hop slang and vice versa. certain regions have introduced their unique regional slang to hip hop culture, such as the bay area ( mac dre, e - 40 ), houston ( chamillionaire, paul wall ), atlanta ( ludacris, lil jon, t. i. ), and kentucky ( nappy roots ). the nation of gods and earths, a religious / spiritual group spun off from the nation of islam, has influenced mainstream hip hop slang with the introduction of phrases such as " word is bond " that have since lost much of their original spiritual meaning. preference toward one or the other has much to do with the individual ; gza, for example, prides himself on being very visual and metaphorical but also succinct, whereas underground rapper mf doom is known for heaping similes upon similes. in still another variation, 2pac was known for saying exactly what he meant, literally and clearly. " party rhymes ", meant to pump up the crowd at a party, were nearly the exclusive focus of old school hip hop, and they remain a staple of hip hop music to this day. in addition to party raps, rappers also tend to make references to love and sex. love raps were first popularized by spoonie gee of the treacherous three, and later, in the golden age of hip hop, big daddy kane, heavy d, and ll cool j would continue this tradition. 2 live crew, a miami bass group, were among the first hip hop acts to be have overtly sexual and profane content in their lyrics. the roots of raps are in the beat poetry of the last poets and gil scott - heron. " the message ", written by melle mel and performed by grandmaster flash and the furious five, pioneered the inclusion of political content in hip hop rhymes, expanding beyond basic personal issues and party raps. in the golden age of hip hop, public enemy emerged, with a focus on political and social issues. modern east coast hip hop artists such as mos def, talib kw


hip hop rhymes, expanding beyond basic personal issues and party raps. in the golden age of hip hop, public enemy emerged, with a focus on political and social issues. modern east coast hip hop artists such as mos def, talib kweli, jay - z, nas, and dead prez are known for their sociopolitical subject matter. their west coast counterparts include emcee lynx, the coup, paris, and michael franti. other rappers take a less critical approach to urbanity, sometimes even embracing such aspects as crime. schoolly d was the first notable mc to rap about crime. early on krs - one was accused of celebrating crime and a hedonistic lifestyle, but after the death of his dj, scott la rock, krs - one went on to speak out against violence in hip hop and has spent the majority of his career condemning violence and writing on issues of race and class. several years later, he would go on to influence ice t, who had more overtly " gangsta " lyrics. gangsta rap, made popular largely because of n. w. a, brought rapping about crime and the gangster lifestyle into the musical mainstream. various politicians, journalists, and religious leaders have accused rappers of fostering a culture of violence and hedonism among hip hop listeners through their lyrics. however, there are also rappers whose messages may not be in conflict with these views, for example christian hip hop. in contrast to the more hedonistic approach of gangsta rappers, some rappers have a spiritual or religious focus. christian rap is currently the most commercially successful form of religious rap. aside from christianity, the five percent nation, a gnostic religious / spiritual group, has been represented more than any religious group in popular hip hop. artists such as rakim, the members of the wu - tang clan, brand nubian, x - clan, busta rhymes, and nas, have had success in spreading the theology of the five percenters. rap delivery, or " flow ", is defined by prosody, cadence, and speed. cadence deals with the dynamics and patterns of the rhythm. in addition to rubato ( changes in tempo for the purpose of expression ), cadence can also serve to reinforce song structure through ritardando ( the gradual slowing down of tempo ). old school rappers generally maintained a simple cadence, without much deviation, while golden age rappers such as rakim experimented extensively with cadence. present day popular rappers like method man, snoop dogg, bone thugs - n -


the gradual slowing down of tempo ). old school rappers generally maintained a simple cadence, without much deviation, while golden age rappers such as rakim experimented extensively with cadence. present day popular rappers like method man, snoop dogg, bone thugs - n - harmony, busta rhymes, big pun, and andre 3000 are considered to have a versatile cadence because of their ability to rap over disparate beats equally well. a common way mcs judge how to flow in a verse is by writing a rhyme such that the most stressed words coincide with the beat in a way that makes the rhyming sound more musical ( as opposed to spoken word ) and that better combines the mc ' s voice with the musical backdrop. rakim — whom many credit with changing the way most rappers flow on a song — experimented not only with following the beat, but also with complementing the song ' s melody with his own voice, making his flow sound like that of an instrument ( a saxophone in particular ). the ability to rap quickly and clearly is sometimes regarded as an important sign of skill. in certain hip hop subgenres such as chopped and screwed, slow - paced rapping is often considered optimal. the current record for fastest rapper is held by chicago native rebel xd, who rapped 852 syllables in 42 seconds ( 20. 3 syllables per second ) on july 27, 2007. kenyan rapper mc delicate is also one of the african rappers capitalizing on speed rap, due to his ability to roll over several syllables in a couple of seconds. to successfully deliver a nicely flowing rap, a rapper must also develop vocal presence, enunciation, and breath control. vocal presence is the distinctiveness of a rapper ' s voice on record. enunciation is essential to a flowing rap ; some rappers choose also to exaggerate it for comic and artistic effect. breath control, taking in air without interrupting one ' s delivery, is an important skill for a rapper to master, and a must for any mc. an mc with poor breath control cannot deliver difficult verses without making unintentional pauses. raps are sometimes delivered with melody. west coast rapper egyptian lover was the first notable mc to deliver " sing - raps. " popular rappers such as 50 cent and ja rule add a slight melody to their otherwise purely percussive raps whereas some rappers such as cee - lo are able to harmonize their raps with the beat. the midwestern group bone thugs - n - harmony was one of the first groups to achieve nationwide recognition for using the


purely percussive raps whereas some rappers such as cee - lo are able to harmonize their raps with the beat. the midwestern group bone thugs - n - harmony was one of the first groups to achieve nationwide recognition for using the fast - paced, melodic and harmonic raps that are also practiced by do or die, another midwestern group. another rapper to harmonize his rhymes is nate dogg, a rapper part of the group 213. there are two kinds of freestyle rapping : one is scripted ( recitation ), but having no particular overriding subject matter, the second typically referred to as " freestyling " or " spitting ", is the improvisation of rapped lyrics. when freestyling, some rappers inadvertently reuse old lines, or even " cheat " by preparing segments or entire verses in advance. therefore, freestyles with proven spontaneity are valued above generic, always usable lines. rappers will often reference places or objects in their immediate setting, or specific ( usually demeaning ) characteristics of opponents, to prove their authenticity and originality. battle rapping, which can be freestyled, is the competition between two or more rappers in front of an audience. the tradition of insulting one ' s friends or acquaintances in rhyme goes back to the dozens, and was portrayed famously by muhammad ali in his boxing matches. the winner of a battle is decided by the crowd and / or preselected judges. according to kool moe dee, a successful battle rap focuses on an opponent ' s weaknesses, rather than one ' s own strengths. television shows such as bet ' s 106 and park and mtv ' s dfx host weekly freestyle battles live on the air. battle rapping gained widespread public recognition outside of the african - american community with rapper eminem ' s movie, 8 mile. the strongest battle rappers will generally perform their rap fully freestyled. this is the most effective form in a battle as the rapper can comment on the other person, whether it be what they look like, or how they talk, or what they wear. it also allows the rapper to reverse a line used to " diss " him or her if they are the second rapper to battle. race and class by the united states 2000 census, three quarters of the united states ' population is white, while one eighth is black. however, most mainstream rappers in the united states are black. some believe this discrepancy is a good thing ; popular rapper kanye west has said : " i hate music where white


united states ' population is white, while one eighth is black. however, most mainstream rappers in the united states are black. some believe this discrepancy is a good thing ; popular rapper kanye west has said : " i hate music where white people are trying to sound black. the white music i like is white ". other artists reject such distinctions and argue that it ' s absurd to racially segregate music four decades after the civil rights movement. some prominent caucasian mcs include eminem, aesop rock, paul wall, r. a. the rugged man, and the uk ' s the streets. very few white hip hop artists claim anglo - saxon or caucasian ancestry ; virtually all of them are members of other ethnic groups that have faced varying degrees of discrimination only to be later assimilated. for artists like house of pain, the beastie boys, and beltaine ' s fire ; hip hop culture provides a way to reject that assimilation and differentiate themselves from the dominant anglo - american culture by asserting a separate ethnic identity. while they have been successful, artists such as the beastie boys and vanilla ice are labeled as sub - categories of rap, alternative and gimmick respectively. white hip hop artists have advanced the genre of rap by bringing in a larger and more diverse audience and recognition for rap as a musical genre, however they have had much less of an effect on the overall musical trajectory of the rap scene than their counterparts. wealth and class have always been significant issues in hip hop, a culture which was developed mainly among the lower and lower - middle class blacks of inner - city new york. any view of money that can be seen in real life can also be seen in the lyrics of rap — just as there are rappers who often brag about their extravagant wealth or more specifically their " rags to riches " stories, there are political militants who decry materialism. although most of hip hop ' s famous and influential rappers have come from inner - city ghettos, hip hop has always represented a variety of economic backgrounds. for example, run - d. m. c., beastie boys, soulja boy, rakim, black sheep, and kanye west were middle - class when they began rapping. race issues often intersect with class issues. vanilla ice, a white pop rapper, went so far as to lie about his place of origin, claiming that he came from the inner - city of miami, florida, when he was actually from suburban texas. according to vanilla ice, he was encouraged to lie by


a white pop rapper, went so far as to lie about his place of origin, claiming that he came from the inner - city of miami, florida, when he was actually from suburban texas. according to vanilla ice, he was encouraged to lie by his record company to increase their profits. in juxtaposition to vanilla ice stand the beastie boys, a rap group composed of white jewish teenagers. the beastie boys didn ' t lie about their middle - class and suburban upbringing, and managed to sell millions of records while maintaining the respect of the hip hop community. house of pain, an irish - american crew with members from los angeles and new york, were downright assertive about their ethnicity, including footage of a st. patrick ' s day parade in the music video for their first hit single jump around and name - checking prominent irish americans in their lyrics. they also incorporated time signatures associated with traditional irish folk music such as jigs and reels into their songs — a major deviation from mainstream hip hop where virtually every song is done in 4 / 4 time. the most recent mainstream exception to the skin colour trend in mainstream rap is eminem, who is of mainly scottish descent, and who grew up in the primarily black city of detroit. in his song " white america ", eminem attributes his selling success to his being more easily digestible by a white audience, because he " looks like them. " other prominent american rappers of primarily european decent include sage francis, paul wall ( who is 1 / 4 mexican ), emcee lynx, mike shinoda ( who is half japanese ), el - producto, aesop rock, and many others. race, class, and ethnicity remain prominent themes in hip hop music in general, regardless of race. emcee lynx in particular is notable for addressing these issues from an explicitly anti - racist and anti - imperialist perspective in his music, while referencing his scottish and irish heritage as a point of pride. despite the fact that the majority of american rap artists in the mainstream are black, some statistics indicate that most hip hop record purchasers are white, reflecting demographics and economics. according to musicologist arthur kempton, " today 70 percent of hip - hop is bought by white kids ". boots riley has criticized these figures, pointing out that they only count soundscan sales, which exclude the mom - and - pop record stores located in majority black and latino neighborhoods that major music chains tend to avoid, and thus dramatically underrepresents the number of sales made in such communities


pointing out that they only count soundscan sales, which exclude the mom - and - pop record stores located in majority black and latino neighborhoods that major music chains tend to avoid, and thus dramatically underrepresents the number of sales made in such communities. according to political rapper zion of zion i, socially conscious hip hop in particular has a majority white audience : "... so many black people don ' t want to hear it. they want that thug shit. " in addition to zion, several other underground rappers such as boots riley of the coup, report nearly all white audiences. chicano rap is a subgenre of hip hop music, latin rap, and gangsta rap that embodies aspects of west coast and southwest mexican american ( chicano ) culture and is typically performed by american rap singers and musicians of mexican descent. the first widely recognized chicano rap artist was kid frost, whose 1990 debut album " hispanic causing panic " driven by the hit single " la raza " brought new attention to chicano rappers in hip hop. cuban - american artist mellow man ace was the first latino artist to have a major bilingual single, which was attached to his 1989 debut. although mellow man often used chicano slang as a result of his east los angeles upbringing, kid frost receives the credit as the first major chicano rapper, given that mellow man was not of mexican descent. mellow man, referred to as the " godfather of latin rap ", brought mainstream attention to spanglish rhyming with his platinum single " mentirosa ". cypress hill, of which mellow man ace was a member before going solo, is sometimes considered to produce chicano rap due to their use of spanish and popular chicano slang, as well as the lead rapper ' s background of being part mexican. they were the first latino rap group to reach platinum status, with big pun credited as the first latino solo artist to reach platinum sales for an lp. one of the most widely recognized chicano rappers today is lil rob of san diego, whose single " summer nights " was considered a major crossover and received heavy rotation on radio station and video programs not directly related to chicano rap music. many chicano rappers have been heavily influenced by mexican history, including many themes relevant to the mexican and chicano people living in the united states and mexico. chicano rap is mainly enjoyed by hip hop listeners in the united states and has also established a cult fan base following in japan, although its main audience consists of hispanics or latino


the mexican and chicano people living in the united states and mexico. chicano rap is mainly enjoyed by hip hop listeners in the united states and has also established a cult fan base following in japan, although its main audience consists of hispanics or latinos living on the west coast, the southwest, and the midwest. its ability to reach large audiences without mainstream airplay or media promotion is due in part to nationwide lowrider car tours and their accompanying concerts headlined by chicano rappers. this environment allows chicanorrap artists to earn significant incomes through independent label releases while promoting directly to a target audience. rapcore or rap - rock it is a form of music featuring rap lyrics over rock, hardcore punk and funk beats. well known rapcore artists include the beastie boys, run - d. m. c., limp bizkit, linkin park and papa roach. derivatives and influence throughout hip hop ' s history, new musical styles and genres have developed that contain rapping. entire genres, such as rapcore ( rock / metal / punk with rapped vocals ) and hip house have resulted from the fusion of rap and other styles. many popular music genres with a focus on percussion have contained rapping at some point ; be it disco ( dj hollywood ), jazz ( gang starr ), new wave ( blondie ), funk ( fatback band ), contemporary r & b ( mary j. blige ), reggaeton ( daddy yankee ), or even japanese dance music, such as ( soul ' d out ). uk garage music has begun to focus increasingly on rappers in a new subgenre called grime, pioneered and popularized by the mc dizzee rascal. increased popularity with the music has shown more uk rappers going to america as well as tour there, such as sway dasafo possibly signing with akon ' s label konvict. hyphy is the latest of these spin - offs. the style originated in oakland california and gained national attention in 2006, beginning with e - 40 ' s album my ghetto report card. it is typified by slowed - down atonal vocals with instrumentals that borrow heavily from the rave scene and lyrics centered on illegal street racing and car culture. another oakland, california group, beltaine ' s fire, has recently gained attention for their celtic fusion sound which blends hip hop beats with celtic melodies. unlike the majority of hip hop artists, all their music is performed live without samples, synths, or drum machines, drawing comparisons to the roots


fire, has recently gained attention for their celtic fusion sound which blends hip hop beats with celtic melodies. unlike the majority of hip hop artists, all their music is performed live without samples, synths, or drum machines, drawing comparisons to the roots and rage against the machine. bhangra, a widely popular style of music from punjab ( india ) has been mixed numerous times with reggae and hip hop music. the most popular song in this genre in the united states was " mundian to bach ke " or " beware the boys " by panjabi mc and jay - z. although " mundian to bach ke " had been released previously, the mixing with jay - z popularized the genre further. in the 21st century, rap and hip hop are transcending cultural lines like never before. the youtube phenomenon has made it relatively simple for any computer user around the world to find professionally produced rap in nearly any major spoken language, including chinese, mongolian, hungarian, haitian, tamil, amharic, malagasy, maori, and persian rap, which has recently been targeted for censure by the iranian government. nederhop is hip hop with dutch rapping. the first successful nederhop record was " rap around the clock " ( 7 ", 1986 ) by extince, which was followed by rap duo mc miker g & dj sven with the 12 " " holiday rap ", a benelux # 1 hit that was distributed in 34 countries. the rap group osdorp posse from amsterdam stood in the late 80s at the base of dutch rap. when rapper def p, the frontman of osdorp posse, began translating idiomatic english lyrics with " ghetto " themes literally into dutch, the term nederhop was coined. famous nederhop rappers and groups include opgezwolle, the opposites, cilvaringz, osdorp posse, abn, appa, fata morgana, raymzter, extince, kempi, postmen, duvel, and brainpower. outside of the united states the largest hip hop scene is in france, and artists such as mc solaar and les nubians have even crossed over into the american market. as with early american hip hop, social and political issues figure strongly in much of french hip hop and the majority of performers come from the country ' s ethnic minorities, notably the arab population. greek hip hop refers to hip hop music originating in greece, either in greek or english. the earliest


and political issues figure strongly in much of french hip hop and the majority of performers come from the country ' s ethnic minorities, notably the arab population. greek hip hop refers to hip hop music originating in greece, either in greek or english. the earliest greek hip hop groups date back to 1987, though native language albums did not appear until the mid - 1990s. some of the most important early hip - hop groups in greece were imiskoumbria, terror x crew ( members : artemis, efthimis, dj alx ), ff. c ( members : ruthmodamastis, dj everlast, skinothetis, plus many guests ) and active member. this differentiation caused a lot of tension among the greek hip hop fans. between 1995 and 2000, there was a lot of conflict, relatively speaking. things escalated from there when the battle rap era in greece begun with the group zn ( living dead ) started dissing active member and other hip hop groups. as american hip hop lyrics became more widely violent, so did international hip hop lyrics, and greece was no exception. rapping about guns, drugs, violence and sex became the norm. hardcore greek rap had swept the genre, and commercial hip hop followed suit. commercial hip hop in greece has become hugely successful, with acts like imiskoumbria, terror x crew and goin ' through blazing the trails. imiskoumbria and terror x crew both were the first to have their records going gold. portuguese hip hop ( hip hop portugues ), mostly known as hip hop tuga, is the portuguese variety of hip hop music, although different because it is mixed with african music from lusophone africa and reggae. popular portuguese rappers include cla da matarroa, valete, da weasel, boss ac, sam the kid ( rapper and producer ), dealema, mind da gap, bonus, adamastor and dj bomberjack. canadian hip hop started with a slow momentum in toronto at the end of the 1980s with mcs like maestro dominating the scene mostly rapping about parties and girls. by the mid - 1990s, rappers such as kardinal offishall, choclair, and saukrates as well as rap groups like rascalz created a buzz in canada as hip hop ' s popularity suddenly rose. the beginning of the movement was marked by the lyrics of the song northern touch performed by a consortium of canadian mcs, all lauching their careers ; which really put canadian hip hop on the map. content in songs


hop ' s popularity suddenly rose. the beginning of the movement was marked by the lyrics of the song northern touch performed by a consortium of canadian mcs, all lauching their careers ; which really put canadian hip hop on the map. content in songs are often related to life in the streets of canadian urban centers like toronto and vancouver. montreal also saw its version of francophone hip hop arise. rappers like yvon kreve and sanspression, as well as groups like muzion and dubmatique made it to the top of the charts in quebec. montreal also has an english rappers like malicious and bless of platinumberg. the beats used are diverse but sometimes resemble east coast hip hop. canadian hip hop combines canadian english with a caribbean vibe due to the strong jamaican and haitian heritage of most canadian rappers. most canadian rappers frequently use metaphors and similes to get their message across and have versatile flows. unfortunately, hip hop artists from canada are often unknown outside the country. only a few rappers have made it to us markets. the uk scene has also gained international prominence, especially since their performance language, english, makes them more marketable to american audiences than their french counterparts. the uk is fairly unique in having created its own genres of rapping in a highly original style. in the early 1990s groups from bristol such as massive attack pioneered trip - hop, a genre with slower beats and flows, creating a more ' chilled ', soulful sound. at the same time jungle music was popular, and mcs would often rap fast over a fast drum beat. this evolved into drum ' n ' bass, and dnb mcs like skibadee are known as among the fastest in the world. fusing jungle and hip hop, uk garage ( see so solid crew ) evolved quickly into grime. grime is a genre with a deep, heavy bass line and highly electronic beats. mcs rap quickly over it and often add a set phrase to the end of a line : shy crew leave on deep remix roll deep lyrics wen i ' m ' ere get sticked with wits with the glits wen i ' m ' ere grime was pioneered by wiley and his crew roll deep are still one of the prominent groups. other big names in grime are dizzee rascal, lady sovereign, skepta, jme, kano, ghetto and shystie. grime has been brought more attention thanks to channel u tv. outside of grime, there is a prominent uk hiphop scene which


lessons from the tragedy how to prevent these deaths dr abdul majid siraj in the panorama of media hype, many promises were made following the tragic events in g. b panth hospital. this episode must be looked at holistically on the health services of j & k that in itself is a huge undertaking. nevertheless having worked in children ’ s hospitals of world repute, i will try to make a few facts known. no doctor will contribute to a death of a patient unless he is a psychopath. the g. b panth saga is a culmination of vagaries of systemic failure. and deaths will not stop, no matter how many incubators and doctors are recruited to service. doctors have to be made aware of legal obligations in duty of care towards fetus. there is no liability until damnum and injuria concur. during delivery of a foetus a duty of care arises for the doctor to avoid injury to the emerging baby. as soon as the baby is born and ceases to be a foetus and becomes a person, there is a concurrence between damnum and injuria and the baby has a right to sue for negligence. a new born becomes a plaintiff for ‘ wrongful life ’ being born with disability. the law did not make the doctor liable for not helping the child not to be born. the new born babies always pose a challenge for the doctors after the mother completes her period of gestation. the baby is examined at birth for any congenital abnormalities for signs of respiratory distress syndrome ( rds ) or fibrocystic disease or congenital displacement of hips ( cdh ) and heart problems like septal defects ( asd or vsd ) or combined defects like fallot ’ s tetrology or patent ductus arteriosus ( pda ) or spina bifida. some babies may go home with disability and some do not make it. a recent study ( see, brazier & cave medicine, patients and the law 4rth edn. 2007 penguin ) has shown that just 16 % of babies born at 23 weeks and only 44 % born at 24 weeks survive. babies born at 23 weeks who survived to 6th birthday 25 % had severe disability. these figures make a useful reading to explain panth saga of deaths. premature babies referred from other hospitals and nursing homes have a lesser chance to live in kashmir because the routine neonatal screening is not done. in this study only two babies born at 22 weeks survived. severe disability like hydro - ce


to live for 3 days is a difficult question to confront. a baby born without intestine can be kept living with iv feeds, but for how long? the incubators remain a scarce commodity all over the developing world. amniocentesis offers a chance to diagnose cystic fibrosis or down ’ s syndrome and laws in uk allow termination to the end of pregnancy. philosophers contend in variance saying that you kill a foetus at 38 weeks but save a premature baby of 24 weeks. what moral difference does the journey through the birth canal make? in most cases of ill children it is the fault of mothers. the child ’ s rights are derivative only. for instance a blood transfusion in one case had rendered the couple rhesus incompatible creating a danger to the baby. it is common for doctors to be prescribing drugs to the women of child bearing age and not watch for or warn about the risks to the baby. the drug thalidomide, tetracycline benzodiazapines etc are examples. the mother could be affected by drugs, smoking, radiation or infections. hospitals are held negligent for want of facilities. in premnath hospital v poonam mangla 11 ( 1998 ) cpj ( haryana ) case the hospital the district forum ( consumer protection act 1986 ) held the hospital negligent in not providing incubator for the treatment of the premature baby. it is essential to give all supportive facilities for a modern children ’ s hospital to save the fragile babies who are at the thin edge of their lives. that may be a dream for our state but possible contingency measures are listed. 1. all private nursing homes where babies are born must have a basic intensive care facility with an incubator and monitoring system and graduated oxygen supply. they must have expertise for venupuncture to draw blood and setup an iv lines. transporting critical babies is dangerous. 2. the maternity hospitals must be equipped to diagnose and administer first line of treatment for the neonates. 3 a children ’ s surgical hospital must be started with immediate effect. the kashmir nursing home is the most appropriate building and can be used with minimal effort. that will not only save many thousands of lives but also take the burden of the existing beds for children. 4. the infrastructure of the panth children ’ s hospital has to be redone with a fresh look at the drawings that created it. a project report can be drafted and work started forthwith. lastupdate on


the existing beds for children. 4. the infrastructure of the panth children ’ s hospital has to be redone with a fresh look at the drawings that created it. a project report can be drafted and work started forthwith. lastupdate on : tue, 22 may 2012 21 : 30 : 00 makkah time lastupdate on : tue, 22 may 2012 18 : 30 : 00 gmt lastupdate on : wed, 23 may 2012 00 : 00 : 00 ist - more from opinion ‘ it can help restore peace, normalcy ’ srinagar, may 22 : governor n n vohra tuesday said that peace and normalcy cannot be achieved through the efforts of governments and ministers alone but rather through the true understanding of philosophical more - srinagar city no such proposal as stretch falls in cantonment domain : beacon shabir ibn yusuf srinagar, may 22 : contrary to government claims that efforts were on to widen the congested pantha chowk, a vital link to south kashmir, the beacon which looks after the highway works has distanced itself more pins hope on indo - pak secretary level talks gool ( ramban ), may 22 : reiterating demand of providing requisite facilities to further facilitate the cross loc trade, patron of the peoples democratic party, mufti muhammad sayeed, today hoped that some more - south asia nisar ahmed thokar islamabad, may 22 : the chief of jamat - e - islami pakistan syed munawar hassan on tuesday said that the party will continue its support to kashmir issue unless the people of kashmir achieve their globally more


demand for air travel is growing rapidly. shortfalls in capacity and other constraints on the efficiency of airport and aircraft operations have negative effects on airline costs, passenger convenience, and the environment. making efficient use of finite airspace and airport resources while ensuring high levels of safety is the primary mission of atm which involves considerable coordination of planning and operations among regulators, service providers, and users at the global, regional, and national levels. this section discusses the conventional atm system in the context of operational phases of flight, highlighting constraints and limitations and the negative effects they have on airport and aircraft operations - including unnecessary fuel burn and, consequently, excessive emissions. the section then describes changes anticipated for the future based on new technologies and improved procedures that are expected to lead to the creation of a more efficient and integrated global atm system. improved atm as envisaged will encompass traditional elements of air traffic services ( ats ) - air traffic control ( atc ), air traffic flow management ( atfm ), and airspace management ( asm ) - but will also functionally integrate these elements with atm - related aspects of flight operations into a total system. today, atc accounts for the greatest percentage of ats on a global basis ; atc serves primarily to prevent collisions between aircraft and between aircraft and obstructions in the airport maneuvering area and to expedite and maintain an orderly flow of air traffic. for current ( i. e., 1998 - 99 ), worldwide aircraft fleet operations, improvements to the atm system alone could reduce fuel burn per trip by 6 - 12 % ( eurocontrol, 1997b ; faa, 1998a ; icao, 1998b ). improving atm requires that advanced technological and management systems and procedures be adopted more rapidly and on a broader scale than is presently the case. specific improvements related to atm and the operation of aircraft that could reduce fuel burn are covered in this chapter ; institutional, regulatory, and economic policy measures that could also have an important influence on future traffic growth and associated fuel burn are covered in chapter 10. in 1983, the icao council established a committee to identify and assess new technologies and make recommendations for the future development of air navigation. after close analysis, the special committee on the future air navigation system ( fans ) recognized that the existing air navigation system and its subsystems suffered from technical, operational, procedural, economic, and implementation shortcomings. in addition to infrastructure constraints, conventional airspace organization of flight information regions and their supporting infrastructure of routes and ground - based facilities and services are based largely on national rather than international


suffered from technical, operational, procedural, economic, and implementation shortcomings. in addition to infrastructure constraints, conventional airspace organization of flight information regions and their supporting infrastructure of routes and ground - based facilities and services are based largely on national rather than international requirements. for these reasons, aircraft must plan their flights along strictly defined routes and be channelled, to a certain degree, so that air traffic controllers can keep aircraft safely separated from each other. in some regions, limited airport capacity is one of the main constraints on continued growth in air transport ; this limited capacity results in congestion and delays. there is also a lack of adequate awareness and shared decisionmaking among atc, ramp, and taxi areas. in low - visibility conditions, movements are severely restricted, and there is increased risk of runway incursion. insufficiently developed taxiways and aprons also limit runway and airport capacity. operational limitations for noise control may also have a negative effect on access to and from key airports. automated ground - based systems to manage departures and arrivals efficiently are not available in most cases, and onboard automation is therefore underutilized. published arrival and departure procedures - created to ease controller workload and ensure separation between departures and arrivals - are often inflexible, indirect, and less than optimum. the existing worldwide route structure often imposes mileage penalties compared to the most economic routes ( generally great - circle routes ) ; it also takes into account wind, temperature, and other factors such as aircraft weight, charges, and safety. use of a fixed - route network often results in concentration of traffic flows at major intersections, which can lead to a reduction in the number of routes and flight levels that are available. studies on penalties to air traffic associated with the european ats route network alone suggest that atm - related problems add an average of about 9 - 10 % to the flight track distance of all european flights en route and in terminal maneuvering areas ( tma ) ( eurocontrol, 1992 ). lack of international coordination in the development of ground atc systems exacerbates these problems. examples include inconsistent separation standards in radar and non - radar airspace and operation at less than optimum flight levels in oceanic airspace as a result of communication deficiencies. currently, three main areas can be distinguished in which improvements need to be made in the way meteorological information is provided to international civil aviation : timeliness, presentation, and accuracy. timeliness problems are largely related to the inability of telecommunications channels in some regions to cope with increasing message traffic. as


in which improvements need to be made in the way meteorological information is provided to international civil aviation : timeliness, presentation, and accuracy. timeliness problems are largely related to the inability of telecommunications channels in some regions to cope with increasing message traffic. as a result, tight restrictions have been established concerning the exchange of operational meteorological information, which now does not fully meet flight planning requirements for increasingly long - range aircraft operations. the presentation of meteorological information has also been largely dictated by the telecommunications channels used, which have imposed a predominance of alphanumeric messages over graphical information, especially in the cockpit. finally, the accuracy of meteorological information needs improvement. for the en route phase of flight, the information provided is not always based on output from the most advanced numerical weather prediction models. in the terminal area, up - to - date and accurate meteorological information may not be available to the pilot because of congestion of voice channels and / or lack of modern observing systems. the fundamental premise that every state has complete and exclusive sovereignty over the airspace above its territory can be traced to the convention on international civil aviation ( icao, 1997 ). states implement restrictions on the use of airspace for a variety of reasons, including technological limitations, political considerations, security, and environmental concerns. however, by far the most important reason for restricted airspace is to accommodate the needs of states ' military forces. restricted airspace does not allow aircraft to minimize their emissions by direct routing between two points. significant regions of airspace are permanently reserved or restricted, thereby forcing civil air transport to circumnavigate these areas. the extent of the problem varies by region. in the european region, for example, 24 states are applying the flexible use of airspace ( fua ) concept ( eurocontrol, 1998a ). the basis for fua is that airspace should no longer be considered as either military or civil airspace but should be considered as a continuum, shared in accordance with user needs and used flexibly on a day - to - day basis. although national security requirements must be key factors in revising a nation ' s restricted airspace allocation, problems related to restricted and military airspace could partly be solved by modernization of the atm system. negotiation of overflying rights to shorten routes would also contribute to solving the problems. other reports in this collection


this chapter evaluates the suitability of models ( in particular coupled atmosphere - ocean general circulation models ) for use in climate change projection and in detection and attribution studies. we concentrate on the variables and time - scales that are important for this task. models are evaluated against observations and differences between models are explored using information from a number of systematic model intercomparisons. even if a model is assessed as performing credibly when simulating the present climate, this does not necessarily guarantee that the response to a perturbation remains credible. therefore, we also assess the performance of the models in simulating the climate over the 20th century and for selected palaeoclimates. incremental improvements in the performance of coupled models have occurred since the ipcc wgi second assessment report ( ipcc, 1996 ) ( hereafter sar ) resulting from advances in the modelling of the atmosphere, ocean, sea ice and land surface as well as improvements in the coupling of these components. - coupled models can provide credible simulations of both the present annual mean climate and the climatological seasonal cycle over broad continental scales for most variables of interest for climate change. clouds and humidity remain sources of significant uncertainty but there have been incremental improvements in simulations of these quantities. - confidence in model projections is increased by the improved performance of several models that do not use flux adjustment. these models now maintain stable, multi - century simulations of surface climate that are considered to be of sufficient quality to allow their use for climate change projections. - there is no systematic difference between flux adjusted and non - flux adjusted models in the simulation of internal climate variability. this supports the use of both types of model in detection and attribution of climate change. - confidence in the ability of models to project future climates is increased by the ability of several models to reproduce the warming trend in 20th century surface air temperature when driven by radiative forcing due to increasing greenhouse gases and sulphate aerosols. however, only idealised scenarios of only sulphate aerosols have been used. - some modelling studies suggest that inclusion of additional forcings such as solar variability and volcanic aerosols may improve some aspects of the simulated climate variability of the 20th century. - confidence in simulating future climates has been enhanced following a systematic evaluation of models under a limited number of past climates. - the performance of coupled models in simulating the el nino - southern oscillation ( enso ) has improved ; however, the region of maximum sea surface temperature variability associated with el nino events


evaluation of models under a limited number of past climates. - the performance of coupled models in simulating the el nino - southern oscillation ( enso ) has improved ; however, the region of maximum sea surface temperature variability associated with el nino events is displaced westward and its strength is generally underestimated. when suitably initialised with an ocean data assimilation system, some coupled models have had a degree of success in predicting el nino events. - other phenomena previously not well simulated in coupled models are now handled reasonably well, including monsoons and the north atlantic oscillation. - some palaeoclimate modelling studies, and some land - surface experiments ( including deforestation, desertification and land cover change ), have revealed the importance of vegetation feedbacks at sub - continental scales. whether or not vegetation changes are important for future climate projections should - analysis of, and confidence in, extreme events simulated within climate models is emerging, particularly for storm tracks and storm frequency. " tropical cyclone - like " vortices are being simulated in climate models, although enough uncertainty remains over their interpretation to warrant caution in projections of tropical cyclone changes. coupled models have evolved and improved significantly since the sar. in general, they provide credible simulations of climate, at least down to sub - continental scales and over temporal scales from seasonal to decadal. the varying sets of strengths and weaknesses that models display lead us to conclude that no single model can be considered " best " and it is important to utilise results from a range of coupled models. we consider coupled models, as a class, to be suitable tools to provide useful projections of future climates.