the traditional argument for lowering the voting age to 16 is that it ' s an anomaly : you can have sex legally, pay tax and go to war, but you can ' t partake in a little democracy. but, fundamentally, the debate hinges on whether or not the vote at 16 would improve political participation. the figures show conclusively that the younger you are, the less likely you are to vote. at the last election, for instance, national turnout was 59 %, but among 18 - 24 year olds it was just 39 %. professor charles pattie of sheffield university, an expert in voting patterns, says that lowering the voting age would increase the proportion of people who don ' t vote. turnout could dip below 50 %, threatening the legitimacy of any government. this could have the perverse effect of decreasing representation, he argues. " if a substantial cohort never votes, the risk is that the parties stop trying to attract them. in america, where turnout is lower, the republicans and democrats don ' t focus on social policies to help the poorest, they focus on low tax to help the richest. that ' s where the votes are. it could raise the real risk of a substantial part of the electorate never having a say because they ' ve opted out. " but perhaps if they were better represented, young people could become more engaged. research by matt henn and mark weinstein of nottingham trent university shows that 71 % of people who were 18 at the last election feel there aren ' t enough opportunities for young people to influence government. furthermore, young people are nervous of the vote because they don ' t feel they know enough : henn and weinstein ' s research reveals that 60 % of young people lacked confidence about their knowledge and understanding of british politics. this is where citizenship education could make a difference. glyn mathias, the electoral commissioner who chaired the report group, says that this was the most " powerful " argument - that school leavers should cap off compulsory citizenship education at 16 by addressing their new right to vote, rather than waiting another two years. the report concluded that citizenship teaching isn ' t good enough yet to live up to this promise, but it is one of the areas where the commission will look for improvement when they revisit the debate in five years ' time. it ' s a chicken and egg situation. young people don ' t want the vote because they feel they are not listened to. but voting is an essential part of the process of being listened to. what if the vote at 16


years ' time. it ' s a chicken and egg situation. young people don ' t want the vote because they feel they are not listened to. but voting is an essential part of the process of being listened to. what if the vote at 16 were the panacea for falling participation? beth breeze, former deputy director of the social market foundation, last year carried out research to " explore how people develop the habit of voting ". she interviewed people who were only just too young to vote in an election, meaning they were at least 23 before they got their first chance. those who voted while still at school were more likely to vote again. a later poll by yougov for the new statesman backed this up : it showed that turnout among 27 - year - olds was only 49 %, compared with 65 % among 28 - year - olds who were old enough to vote in the 1992 election. breeze says : " at 23 you ' ve gone through the list of ' things to do '. why would you try something new? when you ' re 18 and at sixth form and doing new things, you can form the habit. " but if 16 - and 17 - year - olds were to become fully signed - up members of the democracy, how would they use their votes? a recent poll of 5, 000 12 - 18 year olds for the teenagers ' magazine bliss painted a picture of young people as " strait laced " and conservative ; more saffy from absolutely fabulous than the young ones. according to the results, a large majority of young people support the introduction of id cards, tougher sentences for criminals and sending so - called " bogus " asylum seekers back where they came from. but they felt as strongly that britain should not have gone into the iraq war, they don ' t believe the government will improve schools, and they don ' t trust tony blair. asked about a range of political and social issues, they had very strong views. this feeds into the idea that young people are " engaged sceptics " - interested in the issues but mistrustful of politicians. henn and weinstein ' s research shows a british youth keen to play a more active role in the process, but turned off by politicians and political parties. an earlier 2002 electoral commission report on young people and politics con cluded that political parties are trying to engage young voters, but failing. " partly these plans may have been poorly conceived, but partly they suffer from a strategic weakness - being tarred with the same brush as the ' party politics '


started conversation may 4, 2004 it ' s incorrect to say that " gyratory system " is just the name for a roundabout that has got too big for its boots. in fact it ' s the original term which was soon displaced when they became common. i ' m not sure if the term " gyratory circus " was ever really used. there are a number of junctions in london known as circuses after the circular range of buildings around them. this was a particularly 18th century fashion, so of course the most famously beautiful one is in bath. the oed says of " gyratory " : applied to a system of directing road traffic round a roundabout or through a system of one - way streets to avoid the need for one line of traffic to intersect another. 1909 westm. gaz. 7 aug. 4 / 2 the gyratory principle, by which vehicles are directed into circular lines ingeniously devised to avoid intersection. 1926 rep. comm. police metropolis, 1925 16 in parl. papers ( cmd. 2660 ) xv. 239 gyratory systems for the circulation of traffic, after years of discussion, reached the point of practical demonstration this year. 1928 observer 5 feb. 13 / 7 now that every week dedicates a new bunch of streets to the gyratory system. 1966 guardian 8 sept. 5 / 4 a new gyratory road system to ease traffic congestion.. is to be built.. at stretford. and of " roundabout " : a junction at which traffic moves one way round a central island. cf. rondpoint b, rotary n. 3. 1927 glasgow herald 3 jan. 7 / 2 there is only one draw ~ back to the roundabout, and that is the inconvenience caused to pedestrians. 1937 times 13 apr. ( british motor no. ) p. viii / 1 roundabouts.. have the advantage of keeping vehicles on the move. 1947 daily mail 22 may 3 / 4 removal of the mansion house to make room for a big round - about. 1955 times 2 aug. 9 / 7 makeshift tactics are particularly evident in the proposed treatment at hyde park corner which includes an extremely complicated roundabout. 1967 listener 28 sept. 398 / 1 people make only occasional use of their speedometer.. on such critical occasions as the approach to roundabouts. 1977 belfast tel. 14 feb. 5 / 9, 12 shots were fired at an armoured police vehicle near the roundabout at narrow ~ water castle. and of " circus " : a circular


.. on such critical occasions as the approach to roundabouts. 1977 belfast tel. 14 feb. 5 / 9, 12 shots were fired at an armoured police vehicle near the roundabout at narrow ~ water castle. and of " circus " : a circular range of houses. also, a traffic roundabout. often in proper names as oxford circus, regent circus. 1714 pope rape lock iv. 117 sooner shall grass in hide - park circus grow. 1766 anstey bath guide ii. ix. 57 to breathe a purer air in the circus or the square. 1771 smollett humph. cl. 23 apr., the same artist who planned the circus has likewise projected a crescent [ at bath ]. ibid. the circus is a pretty bauble.. and looks like vespasian ' s amphitheatre turned outside in. 1794 looker - on no. 89 the squares and circuses are no longer the only scenes of dignified dissipation. 1898 tit - bits 15 jan. 300 / 3 bridges, of light and tasty design, across all the main thoroughfares, and at the various ‘ circuses ’ and cross roads. posted sep 2, 2004 i ' m a little confused. the definitions you gave seem to support the idea that there * is * a difference between a roundabout and a gyratory. those definitions say that a roundabout is a junction, while a gyratory is a particular kind of one way system. of course a roundabout could be viewed as a very small one way system, so you could argue that all roundabouts are gyratories. but not all gyratories are really roundabouts according to the definitions you produced. ( specifically, a gyratory consisting of more than one junction is, by definition, not a roundabout. ) but in practice, isn ' t the common usage pretty much as i suggested? i ' m only actually aware of two road systems commonly referred to as gyratories - one is the subject of this article, and the other is in reading. and both of them are distinctly on the large side. in particular, they both have multiple junctions. so the common usage of the word seems to be to describe overgrown roundabouts ( and more specifically, multi - junction ones ) in practice. can you point to any counterexamples in real use? i ' m just going on the gyratories i know - i ' ve not done any exhaustive research on gryatories across the nation. posted


habitat for humanity colombia habitat ' s work in colombia housing need in colombia inadequate housing, overcrowding and insufficient utilities such as water and sanitation are all contributors to the housing problem in colombia. more than 11. 5 million homes in colombia do not satisfactorily meet the basic necessities of the families that live in them. more than 40 percent of that figure represents inadequate housing and overcrowding, while another 20 percent demonstrates problems with public utilities. likewise, 9. 8 percent of the families suffering from poverty find themselves in this situation due to inadequate housing, and 10. 6 percent due to inadequate utilities. the rural housing deficit has increased in recent years, due to a lack of new programs. colombia ’ s qualitative housing deficit ( that is, houses that exist but are inadequate in their conditions ) is currently in the vicinity of 900, 000 units, out of which 200, 000 are located in rural zones. that deficit has increased in the last five years, since the financing of possible solutions has become so difficult through typical lending institutions. the housing shortage in colombia prevents adequate sanitary conditions for many low - income families, so they erectcambuches or tin huts, without public services. this promotes disease, such as dengue, which arises from stagnant water due to a lack of sewers. inadequate housing also affects children ’ s education ; many cannot go to school because they lack a home that provides them with the stability required to enter an educational center. in addition, many school - age children are forced to work, in order to contribute something to the family ’ s income. habitat for humanity in colombia habitat for humanity was established in colombia in 1991, when a teacher from a rural school in quimbaya, quindio, became aware of the organization through a magazine article. three years later, the construction of the first 28 houses began in the los cerezos de quimbaya neighborhood. habitat colombia is governed by a national board of directors, and has five branches : eje cafetero, valle del cauca, antioquia, and the north of cauca and cundinamarca. habitat for humanity colombia strives to become an alternative for low income families, helping families to build and improve their own homes. habitat colombia seeks support and partnership from government, the private sector and civil society — especially young people. habitat for humanity colombia supports several initiatives, in addition to traditional home construction. healthy housing in san andres : in november 2008, phase ii of this healthy housing in san


support and partnership from government, the private sector and civil society — especially young people. habitat for humanity colombia supports several initiatives, in addition to traditional home construction. healthy housing in san andres : in november 2008, phase ii of this healthy housing in san andres was approved. in addition to housing improvements for 305 families, the project also aims to decrease the risk of illness by improving access and management of potable water, adequately managing sewage waste, and implementing a “ healthy home ” educational program. government subsidies for housing : a significant cause for growth in housing numbers between 2007 and 2008 can be attributed to the effective utilization of government subsidies – for both new house constructions as well as repairs and improvements. habitat programs are seeking to make good use of these subsidies by ensuring high - quality constructions for families, as well as efficient operations, so as to make best use of the limited resources. habitat for humanity colombia is one of the four national organizations that have received consultants to help assess their subsidy - funded programs, and three of these are financing growth with loans from habitat international. financial education : this project is aimed at educating and accompanying partner families in the planning and administration of their home economy. the manuals and methodology used are the result of a project designed by habitat for humanity international and financed by citi foundation. through a series of workshops, families learn to administer their income and expenses, and learn to design a budget, analyze and control their expenses, and follow a savings plan. families are also informed about the risks and advantages of taking out loans with habitat for humanity or other organizations. complete houses : in addition to the projects above, habitat for humanity colombia continues to build complete homes. homeowners invest hundreds of hours of their own labor, helping to build their houses and the houses of others, together with volunteers. their monthly payments go into a local rotating fund, which allows the construction of new homes. learn more about habitat for humanity in latin america and the caribbean.


a string is a list of characters. string constants in haskell are values of type string. this library provides support for strict state threads, as described in the pldi ' 94 paper by john launchbury and simon peyton jones lazy functional state threads. mutable references in the ( strict ) st monad. mutable references in the ( strict ) st monad ( re - export of data. stref ) the string type and associated operations. utilities for primitive marshalling of c strings. the marshalling converts each haskell character, representing a unicode code point, to one or more bytes in a manner that, by default, is determined by the current locale. as a consequence, no guarantees can be made about the relative length of a haskell string and its corresponding c string, and therefore all the marshalling routines include memory allocation. the translation between unicode and the encoding of the current locale may be lossy. this module is part of the foreign function interface ( ffi ) and will usually be imported via the module foreign. the module foreign. storable provides most elementary support for marshalling and is part of the language - independent portion of the foreign function interface ( ffi ), and will normally be imported via the foreign module. the lazy state - transformer monad. a computation of type st s a transforms an internal state indexed by s, and returns a value of type a. the s parameter is either * an unstantiated type variable ( inside invocations of runst ), or * realworld ( inside invocations of sttoio ). it serves to keep the internal states of different invocations of runst separate from each other and from invocations of sttoio. the > > = and > > operations are not strict in the state. for example, > runst ( writestref _ | _ v > > = readstref _ | _ > > return 2 ) = 2 the strict state - transformer monad. a computation of type st s a transforms an internal state indexed by s, and returns a value of type a. the s parameter is either * an uninstantiated type variable ( inside invocations of runst ), or * realworld ( inside invocations of control. monad. st. sttoio ). it serves to keep the internal states of different invocations of runst separate from each other and from invocations of control. monad. st. sttoio


but the programmer should take remedial action immediately. a handle managing output to the haskell program ' s standard error channel. a handle managing input from the haskell program ' s standard input channel. a handle managing output to the haskell program ' s standard output channel. increases the precedence context by one. the member functions of this class facilitate writing values of primitive types to raw memory ( which may have been allocated with the above mentioned routines ) and reading values from blocks of raw memory. the class, furthermore, includes support for computing the storage requirements and alignment restrictions of storable types. memory addresses are represented as values of type ptr a, for some a which is an instance of class storable. the type argument to ptr helps provide some valuable type safety in ffi code ( you can ' t mix pointers of different types without an explicit cast ), while helping the haskell type system figure out which marshalling method is needed for a given pointer. all marshalling between haskell and a foreign language ultimately boils down to translating haskell data structures into the binary representation of a corresponding data structure of the foreign language and vice versa. to code this marshalling in haskell, it is necessary to manipulate primitive data types stored in unstructured memory blocks. the class storable facilitates this manipulation on all types for which it is instantiated, which are the standard basic types of haskell, the fixed size int types ( int8, int16, int32, int64 ), the fixed size word types ( word8, word16, word32, word64 ), stableptr, all types from foreign. c. types, as well as ptr. minimal complete definition : sizeof, alignment, one of peek, peekelemoff and peekbyteoff, and one of poke, pokeelemoff and pokebyteoff. show more results


courses : problems in postcolonial literature : violence, terror, and identity ( comlh377a01 ) cross - listed in english enrollment limited to 15 students. the colonized man finds his freedom in and through violencefrantz fanon, wretched of the earth. the decisive role that fanon attributes to violence in the colonial context has had an inexorable afterlife in the postcolonial world. fanon argues that violence functions like a language in the colonial system, such that the militant who seeks to overthrow the colonizer is only writing back in the colonizers own language. the texts we will be reading for the course explore this dialectic of violation and violence but, contrary to fanon, they present it as a mutating, complex phenomenon that draws its energies from multiple histories and traditions that are not always centered on the colonial experience. among other matters, these texts expose : the brutalities of despotic states and rulers ; the entanglement of family dynamics in resistance to an oppressive state ; the effects of the unthinking intrusion of metropolitan values into poverty - stricken societies on the brink of chaos ; the dangers and beauty of bearing witness to violation ; the collision of sexual excitement, feminine rebellion, political repression, and armed resistance ; and the tensions and conflicts existing between different communities that co - exist precariously in the world. however, though these texts have in common a concern with political violence they locate it in relation to culturally specific values such as shame, honor, purity, and sacrifice. in addition, they draw their peculiar charge from the ways the corporeality or the embodied politics of the militant or the victim is made to stand in for the body politic. in representing the material violence of political repression and insurgency these texts lead us to ask with jacques derrida whether representation itself is originally violent, and whether violence is congenital to phenomenality, that is to say whether it is the enabling condition and essential feature of speech and visibility. the specific aesthetic challenges and narrative pressures generated by these explosive topics will be the continuing focus of our analyses. we will explore the strategies of historical referencing these texts adopt, and ask whether their sometimes overwrought symbolism undercuts their political urgency. we will consider how the extremity of the subject matter of these texts demands their reaching beyond the conventions of realism into the realms of the magical, the surreal, and the grotesque. of related interest will be the ways these texts experiment with temporal sequence and continuity, and often stage apocalyptic


we had a longer than usual spell of strong trade winds this december, so it might be helpful for those that don ’ t live here year - round to find out about our wind patterns. trade winds account for 70 % of all winds in hawaii and are the most common winds over hawaiian waters. these winds, which blow from a ne to ene direction, became known as trade winds hundreds of years ago when trade ships carrying cargo depended on these easterly winds around the earth in the subtropics for speedy passage. during the summer, trades prevail more than 90 % of the time, sometimes persisting throughout an entire month. however, in the winter ( january through march ), trade winds may occur only 40 % to 60 % of the time. though pleasantly brisk and refreshingly cool on land, strong, gusty trade winds can cause problems for mariners. blowing from the ne through east direction, these strong trades funnel through the major channels between the islands at speeds 5 - 20 knots faster than the speeds over the open ocean. north pacific high - pressure systems are responsible for the majority of gusty trade winds over hawaiian waters, which commonly persist for several days before tapering off. trade winds are usually at their lowest frequency in september and october. kona winds is a hawaiian term for the stormy, rain - bearing winds that blow over the islands from the sw or ssw in the opposite direction of trade winds. the western, or leeward sides of the islands, then become windward in this case, as the predominant wind pattern is reversed. kona winds occur when a low - pressure center is within 500 miles northwest of the islands. although strong kona winds usually don ’ t last for more than a day or so. * * information from the pacific disaster center


black smoke, cause, impact, and prevention we have all seen clouds of black smoke emanating from the exhaust stacks of heavy duty diesel trucks especially when the truck is under high load or hard acceleration. the black smoke is composed primarily of elemental carbon from incomplete combustion of diesel fuel and traces of engine lubricant. the exhaust of a typical diesel engine contains elemental carbon ( soot ), semi - volatile organic hydrocarbons, sulfates ( primarily sulfuric acid ), and water vapor. elemental carbon which is black is formed for a wide range of reasons when the diesel fuel charge in the combustion cylinder is incompletely combusted. incomplete combustion occurs and soot is formed when there is an over abundance of fuel ( both diesel fuel and lube oil ), insufficient residence time in the combustion zone, and / or non - availability of sufficient oxidants. over - fueling is the primary cause of black smoke from the exhaust of a heavy duty diesel engine. over - fueling can be caused by diesel fuel injector wear that enlarges the nozzle hole or erodes the injector needle and allows excess fuel to flow into the combustion chamber. in many cases the nozzle and needle wear is due to corrosion from contaminated or high sulfur diesel fuel. diesel engines are not designed to efficiently burn excess fuel so much of the fuel is wasted and exits the engine only partially combusted. nozzle and needle wear can increase particulate emissions ( pm ) by as much as 85 % *. dirty air - filters that do not allow sufficient air ( oxidant ) into the combustion chamber for complete combustion of the fuel charge contribute to black smoke. it is estimated that dirty air cleaners can increase pm emissions by as much as 40 to 50 %. excessive oil consumption due to worn valves and valve stem seals, worn or stuck / sluggish rings from deposits, and worn cylinder liners contribute to black smoke. engine wear and deposit can result from using the wrong oil for the application, excessive oil drain intervals, contaminated oil, and failing to maintain the proper oil levels in the engine. performing regular maintenance with the recommended engine lubricant can minimize wear and deposits. excessive oil consumption can increase pm by up to 85 %. regular maintenance and the use of the right oil for the application can prevent premature engine wear and deposits that contribute to black smoke. fuel injector nozzles may need to be cleaned or replaced. air cleaners may need to be checked and cleaned or replaced as necessary. regular


you ’ ll probably notice a sharp drop in your toddler ’ s appetite after his first birthday. suddenly he ’ s picky about what he eats, turns his head away after just a few bites, or resists coming to the table at mealtimes. it may seem as if he should be eating more now that he ’ s so active, but there ’ s a good reason for the change. his growth rate has slowed, and he really doesn ’ t require as much food now. your toddler needs about 1, 000 calories a day to meet his needs for growth, energy, and good nutrition. if you ’ ve ever been on a 1, 000 - calorie diet, you know it ’ s not a lot of food. but your child will do just fine with it, divided among three small meals and two snacks a day. don ’ t count on his always eating it that way, however, because the eating habits of toddlers are erratic and unpredictable from one day to the next. he may eat everything in sight at breakfast but almost nothing else for the rest of the day. or he may eat only his favorite food for three days in a row, and then reject it entirely. or he may eat 1, 000 calories one day, but then eat noticeably more or less on the subsequent day or two. your child ’ s needs will vary, depending on his activity level, his growth rate, and his metabolism. as a general rule, it ’ s a real mistake to turn mealtimes into sparring matches to get him to eat a balanced diet. he ’ s not rejecting you when he turns down the food you prepared, so don ’ t take it personally. besides, the harder you push him to eat, the less likely he is to comply. instead, offer him a selection of nutritious foods at each sitting, and let him choose what he wants. vary the tastes and consistencies as much as you can. if he rejects everything, you might try saving the plate for later when he ’ s hungry. however, don ’ t allow him to fill up on cookies or sweets after refusing his meal, since that will just fuel his interest in empty - calorie foods ( those that are high in calories but relatively low in important nutrients, such as vitamins and minerals ) and diminish his appetite for nutritious ones. hard as it may be to believe, your child ’ s diet will balance out over several days if you make a range of wholesome


in important nutrients, such as vitamins and minerals ) and diminish his appetite for nutritious ones. hard as it may be to believe, your child ’ s diet will balance out over several days if you make a range of wholesome foods available and don ’ t pressure him to eat a particular one at any given time. your toddler needs foods from the same four basic nutrition groups that you do : meat, fish, poultry, eggs fruits and vegetables cereal grains, potatoes, rice, breads, pasta when planning your child ’ s menu, remember that cholesterol and other fats are very important for his normal growth and development, so they should not be restricted during this period. babies and young toddlers should get about half of their calories from fat. you can gradually decrease the fat consumption once your child has reached the age of two ( lowering it to about one - third of daily calories by ages four to five ). while you should not lose sight of the fact that childhood obesity is a growing problem, youngsters in the second year of life need dietary fat. if you keep your child ’ s caloric intake at about 1, 000 calories a day, you shouldn ’ t have to worry about overfeeding him and putting him at risk of gaining too much weight. by his first birthday, your child should be able to handle most of the foods you serve the rest of the family — but with a few precautions. first, be sure the food is cool enough so that it won ’ t burn his mouth. test the temperature yourself, because he ’ ll dig in without considering the heat. also, don ’ t give him foods that are heavily spiced, salted, buttered, or sweetened. these additions prevent your child from experiencing the natural taste of foods, and they may be harmful to his long - term good health. young children seem to be more sensitive than adults to these flavorings and may reject heavily spiced foods. your little one can still choke on chunks of food that are large enough to plug his airway. keep in mind that children don ’ t learn to chew with a grinding motion until they ’ re about four years old. in his second year of life, make sure anything you give him is mashed or cut into small, easily chewable pieces. never offer him peanuts, whole grapes, cherry tomatoes ( unless they ’ re cut in quarters ), carrots, seeds ( i. e., processed pumpkin or sunflower seeds ), whole or large


november 23, 2000 studies of worms that fail to brake for food yield new serotonin receptor researchers studying the roundworm have identified a new type of serotonin receptor. if this type of receptor is found in humans, it may become an additional target for drugs designed to treat a wide range of disorders caused by serotonin imbalance, including mood disorders, migraine headaches and obesity. the identification of the new serotonin receptor began with experiments designed to probe why certain strains of the roundworm, fail to slow down when they encounter food. when well - fed worms are presented with food, their rate of locomotion slows in what scientists call the " basal slowing response. " in contrast, worms that have been deprived of food for 30 minutes before encountering food exhibit an " enhanced slowing response. " in an article published in the november 23, 2000, issue of the journal, howard hughes medical institute ( hhmi ) investigator h. robert horvitz and colleagues at the massachusetts institute of technology ( mit ) report that they have isolated one of the genes responsible for the enhanced slowing response. “ if this type of receptor exists in humans, it could become an important target of therapeutic drugs. ” h. robert horvitz earlier this year, horvitz and his colleagues, including former mit graduate student elizabeth r. sawin, identified 17 worm strains that showed a defective enhanced slowing response. extending this work, graduate student rajesh ranganathan, an hhmi predoctoral fellow and lead author of the paper, sought to identify one key gene responsible for controlling the enhanced slowing response. ranganathan and his colleagues isolated the gene and showed that it encoded a serotonin receptora cell membrane protein that binds to the neurotransmitter serotonin. " although we had evidence that serotonin is involved in the enhanced slowing response, " said ranganathan, " we did not expect the mod - 1 protein to represent an entirely new kind of serotonin receptor. " there are two basic types of serotonin receptor, those that trigger fast responses in neurons and those that trigger slow responses. while the " slow " receptors can either excite or inhibit the firing of neurons, the " fast " receptors discovered to date can only excite neurons. " with the identification of the mod - 1 protein, we have discovered the first fast serotonin receptor that can lead to inhibition, " said ranganathan. " this was quite surprising, since in mammals there are


can only excite neurons. " with the identification of the mod - 1 protein, we have discovered the first fast serotonin receptor that can lead to inhibition, " said ranganathan. " this was quite surprising, since in mammals there are six types of the slow serotonin receptor, but only one subtype of the fast receptor. " additional understanding of the serotonin receptor ' s properties came in experiments carried out in collaboration with stephen c. cannon of harvard medical school. the investigators inserted rna into frog eggs, which then expressed the mod - 1 protein in the cell membrane. the scientists conducted electrical and chemical studies on these altered frog eggs to determine the function of the receptor. they discovered that the receptor acts as a selective ion channel that opens to allow the influx of chloride ions. negatively charged chloride ions alter the electrical properties of neurons, making them more refractory to excitation that would trigger transmission of a nerve signal. according to horvitz, many questions remain for future studies, not the least of which is determining whether such a receptor exists in mammals. " the sequence of the mod - 1 receptor protein looks quite different from the fast serotonin receptors known to exist in humans, " he said. " however, the discovery that has a fast serotonin receptor that is likely to be inhibitory raises the possibility that a receptor with such properties will likely be found in mammals. " if this type of receptor exists in humans, it could become an important target of therapeutic drugs, said horvitz. serotonin function is already targeted in the treatment of mood disorders, migraine headaches, obesity and other problems. version en espanol


the civil war 150 is an immersive online experience, featuring infographics, historian picks and topical information, that highlights the 150 people, places, events and technology that defined america ' s greatest conflict. the interactive commemorates the civil war ' s 150th anniversary, and utilizes six thematic infographics to create an even more engaging " who knew? " experience : five deadliest battles – nearly a quarter of a million men were killed or wounded during the five bloodiest clashes of the civil war. find out what happened at gettysburg, chickamauga, chancellorsville, spotsylvania court house and the wilderness. who they were – some wore blue and some wore gray, but the 3 million soldiers who fought in the civil war had more in common than you might expect. west point warriors – almost 900 west point alums served in the civil war — in fact, they faced off against each other in 55 of the war ' s 60 major battles. paying for the war – costing $ 146 billion in today ' s money, the civil war saw rampant inflation — 9000 % in the south by the end of the war — and the first u. s. income tax. weapons of war – the napoleon field gun, the minie ball, the spencer repeating rifle, the telegraph and the railroad all helped to turn the tide of battle and changed the face of warfare forever. how they died – one in four soldiers — 620, 000 people — died as a result of the civil war. that ' s 2 percent of the population — 6. 14 million people in today ' s terms. civil war 150 civil war 150 civil war 150interactive abraham lincolnvideo clip ( 3 : 48 ) video clip ( 3 : 48 ) today he is known as one of the greatest american presidents, but at the time of his election no one would have predicted lincoln ' s success. the gettysburg address the gettysburg addressvideo clip ( 1 : 36 ) video clip ( 1 : 36 ) abraham lincoln ' s gettysburg address is regarded as one of the most powerful and poignant speeches in american history. america dividedvideo clip ( 3 : 54 ) video clip ( 3 : 54 ) america is at the brink of a civil war as cotton spreads west and threatens to expand slavery into new territories. the original gettysburg address the original gettysburg addressvideo clip ( 2 : 58 ) video clip ( 2 : 58 ) original or facsimile? the original gettysburg address bears creases in it it from when abraham lincoln placed it in his pocket.


original gettysburg address the original gettysburg addressvideo clip ( 2 : 58 ) video clip ( 2 : 58 ) original or facsimile? the original gettysburg address bears creases in it it from when abraham lincoln placed it in his pocket. lincoln ' s most pivotal speech lincoln ' s most pivotal speechvideo clip ( 3 : 02 ) video clip ( 3 : 02 ) which of president lincoln ' s many eloquent speeches was the most important? civil war in one word civil war in one wordvideo clip ( 1 : 13 ) video clip ( 1 : 13 ) if you had just one word to describe the civil war, what would it be? america and the civil war america and the civil warvideo clip ( 4 : 04 ) video clip ( 4 : 04 ) discover how the bloodiest war in american history transformed the face of the nation. the gettysburg address : a new declaration of independence the gettysburg address : a new declaration of independencevideo clip ( 1 : 45 ) video clip ( 1 : 45 ) after the carnage at the battle of gettysburg, lincoln reaffirms his commitment to achieving freedom for all. legacy of the civil war legacy of the civil warvideo clip ( 1 : 22 ) video clip ( 1 : 22 ) one hundred and fifty years after it began, the civil war is still an important component of our national character. civil war turning point civil war turning pointvideo clip ( 3 : 08 ) video clip ( 3 : 08 ) find out what event turned the tide of the civil war. lincoln ' s life masks lincoln ' s life masksvideo clip ( 1 : 43 ) video clip ( 1 : 43 ) life masks of abraham lincoln taken in 1860 and 1865 reveal the physical changes that the president experienced during four years of war. civil war ' s greatest myth civil war ' s greatest mythvideo clip ( 2 : 41 ) video clip ( 2 : 41 ) what you think you know about the civil war may not be the whole truth. chamberlain at gettysburg chamberlain at gettysburgvideo clip ( 1 : 26 ) video clip ( 1 : 26 ) find out how the actions of a former maine professor helped the union win at gettysburg, the deadliest battle of the civil war. the battle of gettysburg the battle of gettysburgvideo clip ( 2 : 38 ) video clip ( 2 : 38 ) for three days in july 1863, union and confederate forces clash at gettysburg in one of the most pivotal battles of the civil war. lincoln : an american icon lincoln : an american iconvid


clip ( 2 : 38 ) video clip ( 2 : 38 ) for three days in july 1863, union and confederate forces clash at gettysburg in one of the most pivotal battles of the civil war. lincoln : an american icon lincoln : an american iconvideo clip ( 1 : 23 ) video clip ( 1 : 23 ) how did the civil war transform lincoln ' s political philosophy and make his presidency one of the most iconic in history? the lincoln legacy the lincoln legacyvideo clip ( 3 : 49 ) video clip ( 3 : 49 ) president abraham lincoln presents his vision for america during his second inaugural address, but his life is cut short by an assassin before he can bring it to fruition. photo galleries ( 3 ) abraham lincoln ( 19 photos ) see pictures from the life and presidency of abraham lincoln. faces of the civil war faces of the civil war ( 28 photos ) the library of congress recently acquired a rare collection of nearly 700 civil war - era ambrotype and tintype photographs, donated by the liljenquist family. civil war : gettysburg civil war : gettysburg ( 12 photos ) explore the historic civil war battle of gettysburg through photographs of the battlefield, the soldiers, and the memorials. speeches & audio ( 10 ) nixon orders invasion of cambodia nixon orders invasion of cambodiaaudio clip ( 1 : 02 ) audio clip ( 1 : 02 ) on april 30, 1970, president richard nixon asks the american people to support his decision to send troops into cambodia in response to north vietnam ’ s invasion of the country. franklin d. roosevelt on american progress in world war ii franklin d. roosevelt on american progress in world war iiaudio clip ( 1 : 00 ) audio clip ( 1 : 00 ) with the united states now entered into world war ii, president franklin d. roosevelt uses the occasion of washington ’ s birthday to broadcast to the nation on february 23, 1942, an outline of america ’ s progress in the war. franklin d. roosevelt ' s fourth of july address franklin d. roosevelt ' s fourth of july addressaudio clip ( 2 : 07 ) audio clip ( 2 : 07 ) in a broadcast from his home in hyde park, new york, on july 4, 1941, president franklin d. roosevelt warns americans who wish not to get involved in the war that " the united states will never survive as a happy and fertile oasis of liberty surrounded by a cruel desert of dictatorship. " franklin d. roosevelt ' s fourth inaugural address franklin d. roosevelt ' s fourth inaugural addressaudio clip ( 6 : 22 ) audio


the united states will never survive as a happy and fertile oasis of liberty surrounded by a cruel desert of dictatorship. " franklin d. roosevelt ' s fourth inaugural address franklin d. roosevelt ' s fourth inaugural addressaudio clip ( 6 : 22 ) audio clip ( 6 : 22 ) with the country at war at the start of his unprecedented fourth term as president of the united states, franklin d. roosevelt delivers a short and somber inaugural address at a simple ceremony without a parade or ball on january 20, 1945. franklin d. roosevelt reports on teheran and cairo conferences franklin d. roosevelt reports on teheran and cairo conferencesaudio clip ( 2 : 36 ) audio clip ( 2 : 36 ) following the 1943 big four meetings in teheran and cairo, president franklin d. roosevelt delivers a christmas eve broadcast promising the nation that they can look forward to peace, though at a high cost. franklin d. roosevelt delivers d - day prayer franklin d. roosevelt delivers d - day prayeraudio clip ( 3 : 37 ) audio clip ( 3 : 37 ) in a national radio broadcast on june 6, 1944, as 160, 000 allied troops land in normandy in an attempt to liberate france, president franklin d. roosevelt asks america to join him in a prayer. truman announces japan ' s surrender truman announces japan ' s surrenderaudio clip ( 1 : 57 ) audio clip ( 1 : 57 ) on september 1, 1945, in a radio address to the american people, president harry truman announces the unconditional surrender of japan, formalized aboard the u. s. s. missouri. franklin d. roosevelt ' s 1941 labor day speech franklin d. roosevelt ' s 1941 labor day speechaudio clip ( 1 : 37 ) audio clip ( 1 : 37 ) in his labor day radio broadcast in 1941, president franklin d. roosevelt reminds his fellow citizens of the need to devote america ’ s industrial effort to building weaponry in order to " crush hitler and his nazi forces. " clinton commits the united states to the kosovo war clinton commits the united states to the kosovo waraudio clip ( 0 : 43 ) audio clip ( 0 : 43 ) on march 24, 1999, after serbian leaders refused to discuss peace and instead launched an attack against kosovo, the united states joined forces with nato in airstrikes against serbian forces. in an address to the nation, president bill clinton explains why the military action is necessary. bush on iraq ' s invasion of kuwait bush on iraq ' s invasion of kuwaitaudio clip ( 1 : 38 )


in scientific terms, alcohol is the term for any one of a group of organic chemical compounds. alcohols, specifically ethanol, are what makes fermented beverages intoxicating. the abbreviation abv ( or abv ) means ' ( percent of ) alcohol by volume '. types of alcohol there are many known alcohols, but only a few that will ever concern the home fermenter : methyl alcohol, or methanol, is similar in chemical composition to ethanol, but very different in effect. while the body breaks down ethyl alcohol into harmless substances, the results of breaking down methyl alcohol are highly toxic formic acid and formaldehyde. drinking methyl alcohol in significant amounts can cause nervous system damage, including blindness, and eventually death. methanol is present in small amounts in most fermented beverages ; it is created primarily by the fermentation of pectin in wine production. however, in these amounts it is not a significant health risk, and there is no way a home fermenter can create dangerous levels of methanol during fermentation through contamination or any other means. methanol is concentrated along with ethanol during distillation. however, even in distillation the health risks are small and easily dealt with by removing the " distillation head ", which contains most of the methanol. stories about people going blind during prohibition were common not because home distillation was inherently dangerous, but because unscrupulous illegal producers sometimes " cut " their product with methanol or methylated spirits to increase their profits. denatured alcohol refers to ethyl alcohol intended for industrial use that has been treated to make it unsuitable as a beverage ; this allows the manufacturer to avoid the tax on alcoholic beverages. alcohol may be denatured either by adding a strong, unpleasant flavorant, usually a bitterant. it may also be denatured by adding a small but dangerous amount of methanol ; the resulting undrinkable alcohol is called methylated spirits. there are many other forms of alcohol, but none of them are likely to appear in fermented beverages. expressing alcohol content there are a number of ways of expressing the alcohol content of a fermented beverage. alcohol by volume and weight the most commonly used measure of alcohol among home fermenters is alcohol by volume ', abbreviated abv. this reflects the percentage of the volume of liquid that consists of alcohol. some commercial brewers measure alcohol by weight instead ; for the same beverage, the measurement of alcohol


world aids day world aids day is celebrated on december 1st each year around the world. it is a key opportunity to raise awareness of hiv and aids, to commemorate those who have died, and celebrate victories such as increased access to treatment and prevention services. world aids day 2012 is about “ getting to zero. ” zero new hiv infections, zero discrimination and zero aids related deaths. backed by the united nations the “ getting to zero ” campaign runs until 2015. from december 1st 2011 to 2015 it ’ s envisioned that different regions and groups will each year chose one or all of the “ zeros ” that best addresses their situation. there is positive news in the latest world aids day report by the joint united nations programme on hiv / aids ( unaids ), which shows that a 50 % reduction in the rate of new hiv infections ( hiv incidence ) has been achieved in 25 low - and middle - income countries between 2001 and 2011. in some of the highest prevalence countries in the world, rates of new hiv infections have been cut dramatically since 2001 ; by 73 % in malawi, 71 % in botswana, 68 % in namibia and 58 % in zambia. in the last two years, there has been a 60 % increase in the number of people accessing life - saving treatment – 8 million people are now on antiretroviral therapy. however, the total number of new hiv infections remains high at 2. 5 million in 2011 and the report shows that hiv continues to have a disproportionate impact on sex workers, men who have sex with men ( msm ) and people who inject drugs. in 2011, an estimated : - 34 million [ 31. 4 million – 35. 9 million ] people globally living with hiv - 2. 5 million [ 2. 2 million – 2. 8 million ] became newly infected with hiv - 1. 7 million [ 1. 5 million – 1. 9 million ] people died from aids - related illnesses latest irish hiv data the latest hiv report from the health protection surveillance centre ( hpsc ) describes new hiv diagnoses in ireland in quarter 3 2012. during q3, there were 91 new diagnoses with 50 % among msm, 31 % among heterosexuals and 3 % among idus. seventy four percent were male and the median age was 34 years. of the cases where cd4 count was known ( 70 % of cases in q3 ), 47 % were diagnosed at a late stage of infection ( cd4 count < 350 cells / mm3 ) and 23 % were severely


age was 34 years. of the cases where cd4 count was known ( 70 % of cases in q3 ), 47 % were diagnosed at a late stage of infection ( cd4 count < 350 cells / mm3 ) and 23 % were severely immunocompromised at the time of diagnosis ( cd4 count < 200 cells / mm3 ). this compares to the 2011 data where 52 % of new cases were diagnosed at a late stage and 27 % were severely immunocompromised at diagnosis ( of the cases where cd4 count was known : 67 % of cases ). in recent years, men who have sex with men ( msm ) are the group in ireland most severely affected by hiv in ireland and accounted for 43 % of new diagnoses in 2011. figure 1 shows the trends in the three main risk groups, msm, heterosexuals and injecting drug users ( idus ) from 2000 to 2011. the full version of the quarter 3 2012 hiv report and other hiv reports can be found on the hpsc website. for information on events happening in ireland to mark world aids day 2012, please see here. if you require further information on hiv or sexual health, please click here for links to hiv support organisations in ireland. the website www. yoursexualhealth. ie provides a list of clinics where you can organize a confidential hiv test. world aids day themes, 1988 – present 1990 women and aids 1991 sharing the challenge 1992 community commitment 1994 aids and the family 1995 shared rights, shared responsibilities 1996 one world. one hope 1997 children living in a world with aids 1998 force for change : world aids campaign with young people 1999 listen, learn, live : world aids campaign with children & young people 2000 aids : men make a difference 2001 i care. do you? 2002 stigma and discrimination 2003 stigma and discrimination 2004 women, girls, hiv and aids 2005 stop aids. keep the promise 2006 stop aids. keep the promise – accountability 2007 stop aids. keep the promise – leadership 2008 stop aids. keep the promise – lead – empower – deliver 2009 universal access and human rights 2010 universal access and human rights 2011 getting to zero. zero new hiv infections 2012 getting to zero. zero new hiv infections, zero discrimination and zero aids related deaths last updated : 28 november 2012 - wild poliovirus in somalia 14 may 2013 - novel coronavirus : update on cases - 13th may 2013 13 may 2013 - hepatitis a in travellers returning from egypt 03 may 2013 - measles outbreak in england and wales - update 25


a notch or groove cut into a piece of material to allow two sections to be combined with a flush joint. a woodcutting tool used to cut an l - shaped groove into a piece of material. see also rabbet a strong current in a stream or river. 1. an enclosed metal channel, usually fire - resistant, installed in a building to hold electrical wiring. 2. a chute that directs the flow of a material to a specific location in a device. a channel holding electrical wiring that is designed to look like a piece of decorative trim or molding. a channel holding electrical wiring designed to be installed on a floor. the unit has a low profile and sloping edges to facilitate walking over it. the illegal practice of directing certain races away from some neighborhoods and into others. 1. a storage unit designed to hold various objects. 2. to cause a structure to shift so that it is out of plumb. 1. a force that causes a structure to shift so that it is out of plumb. 2. installation of bricks or other masonry units so that each course is stepped back from the previous one. straight - line outward movement from a circle ' s center. a power saw with a circular blade that is mounted on a moveable arm. the arm is lowered or raised to move the cutting blade to or away from the material to be cut. a drill press with a moveable arm that can be swung to various positions on the work table. an hvac system with ductwork running outward from a central heating and / or cooling unit. the surface of a log cut down the center. heating system where electrical or hot - water heating elements are installed in a concrete slab floor. see radiant heating use of radiation to generate heat such as with baseboard heating where the circulating hot water is radiated through conduction by thin metal fins at the bottom of the wall. the room is warmed by air circulating around the heating unit using convention. heating unit that is exposed and which transfers heat generated by hot eater or steam through conduction. when the air circulates around the radiator using convention, the room is heated. the distance from the center of a circle to the circumference. one - half of the diameter of a circle. a tool used for checking the radii of convex and concave surfaces. radioactive gas that seeps into some homes, from the ground, through sump pumps, cracks in the foundation, etc., it is considered a health hazard. any of the beams that slope from


radii of convex and concave surfaces. radioactive gas that seeps into some homes, from the ground, through sump pumps, cracks in the foundation, etc., it is considered a health hazard. any of the beams that slope from the ridge of a roof to the eaves to serve as support for the roof. a metal fastener attached to the top plate of a wall to hold a rafter. a rafter parallel to the gable end that projects out to form an overhang. the end of a rafter extending beyond the line of a building ' s walls. a guide used when cutting rafters. the top plate of a building ' s walls. the rafters rest on the rafter plate. the vertical cut made into a rafter so it will rest on the wall plate. see also rafter seat cut the horizontal cut made into a rafter so it will rest on the wall plate. see also rafter plumb cut cutting a section off of the end of a rafter equal to one - half of the thickness of the ridge board ( the rafter on the other side of the ridge board receives a similar cut ). tables, often printed on a framing square, containing the data required to calculate angles and lengths of rafters for various roof types. see rafter overhang a horizontal structure used as a handhold or to block off a drop or other unsafe area. 1. continuous metal bars on which wheeled vehicles travel ( i. e. railroads ). 2. the horizontal sections of a panel door. 3. the top and bottom sections of a window sash. waterproof cap, also called weatherheads, mast heads or entrance caps, which is placed at the upper part of an electrical mast at the point where the wires are run to the inside electrical meter. wires hang from the pole to the entrance cap so that the entrance cap is not the low point in the downhill run from the pole because water will run to the low point before dripping to the ground. wires enter the entrance cap at an upward angle through a tight insulator. water is further stopped from getting through the entrance cap because of this entrance angle. wood where the fibers have swelled, usually because of becoming wet. wood is often sanded with the grain raised to achieve an extremely smooth finished surface. 1. a fork - like tool used for gathering materials ( i. e. leaves ) or smoothing an area of soil. 2. a roof overhang on a building ' s gable end. 3. an angle between objects.


medical research council world health organization health systems trust 2011 - 2012 education sector hiv and aids : global progress survey - progression, regression or stagnation? unaids the global forum on msm & hiv ( msmgf ) cervical cancer and hiv : the intimate connection since 1997, over 33 000 women have died of cervical cancer in south africa. this translates into roughly 3 000 per year. in addition, approximately 7000 women develop the disease every year. in 2000, a national cervical cancer screening policy was developed and put into place. the system uses a screening method to prevent the precancerous lesions from developing into cervical cancer through early detection and treatment. screening takes place through pap smears with three free pap smears being offered to women in the public service at the ages of 30, 40 and 50. this policy was viewed as the most rational approach to ensure widest coverage to all women in south africa. statistics suggest since its implementation, less than 20 % of women have used this service. at present, there are approximately, 5. 7 million people living with hivaids in south africa, of which 60 % are women. researchers have identified an increase in morbidity and mortality due to the cancer of the cervix which has been associated with the emergence of hiv / aids. cervical cancer is now regarded as an aids defining illness. as the national cervical cancer screening policy was established before the link between cervical cancer and hiv and aids was firmly established, there is currently a gap in the cervical screening policy. while the need for cervical cancer services is addressed in the hiv / aids / sti national strategic plan, it is not clearly articulated or completely integrated within the broad range of services that would constitute an effective response to these twin diseases.


kid ’ s health – food additives where once we blamed sugar for the wayward behaviour of our children, we now know that it is far more likely to be a chemical of some sort. there is mounting evidence against the use of the many additives in our foods, particularly in foods for children, and indeed, an increasing number of countries are banning the use of more and more additives. of course, many agencies note that additives are important in our food to ensure they remain safe, palatable and last well. recently, some manufacturers have opted to use natural additives, for example natural colourings ; however, even some of these are deemed to have a questionable effect on humans. those of us who are keen to avoid additives need also to be mindful of marketing, for example, the use of terms such as ‘ free from colourings ’ doesn ’ t mean the product is free from additives, just those that are in the colourings category. incidentally, the category of flavourings doesn ’ t appear to be as unregulated as other additives. why are food additives used? additives are commonly used to improve the taste, texture and even appearance of many processed foods ; for example, winterized oils may be rather suspicious - looking and bad - tasting without additives. they are, of course, also used to improve the shelf - life of some foods, and also to prevent them from going off. oils and the addition of antioxidants to slow the rate at which the oil goes off, or oxidizes, is a good example. additives can be used in processing ; for example preserving foods such as dried fruit with sulphur dioxide. lastly, additives can assist companies in reducing waste and improving profit. where can you find a full list of additives? food standards australia new zealand oversees the use of additives in products and their safety for consumers. the food standards website holds a complete list of food additives by both alphabetical and numerical order. what does the research say? it seems that current research highlights at least 50 common additives that are dubious, according to research from the royal prince alfred hospital ’ s allergy unit in sydney. many additives still used in australia and nz are banned overseas, for example food colouring 120 ( yellow ). whole foods, approved organic foods and home - grown foods are naturally good choices if you are seeking to go additive - free. of course, the argument that you ‘ shouldn ’ t throw the baby out with


example food colouring 120 ( yellow ). whole foods, approved organic foods and home - grown foods are naturally good choices if you are seeking to go additive - free. of course, the argument that you ‘ shouldn ’ t throw the baby out with the bath water ’ is likely to be raised. still, if history is a good predictor of the future, you can see the use of additives wouldn ’ t gain more support. but is there more to it than that? well, it seems a number of issues are raising eyebrows. such questions include : - can additives accumulate over time in food sources and the body? - what is the effect of a mix or cocktail of additives? much of the testing is done on single additives. how do they interact with each other and what is the effect on our body? - testing criteria and protocol : would more additives be linked to behavioural and psychological issues if this were included in the testing and research? some living examples so let ’ s take a closer look at just a few of the common additives, and in particular those that appear in foods often eaten by children, so you can make up your own mind. in technical documents benzene is referred to as ‘ a commonly used industrial chemical ’, so it doesn ’ t take much to convince us that it probably isn ’ t ideal in our foods. the addition of sodium benzoate to a product that also has ascorbic acid opens the door to chemical reactions that lead to the production of benzene. benzoic acid and benzoates are thought to be linked to asthma, hyperactivity in children and alter brain functioning. fizzy drinks are common benzene - containing foods as are flavoured mineral waters, cordial, some fruit juices and drinks, energy drinks and flavoured / sports water. however, it can also turn up in oral preparations ( mouth washes etc ), sweets, medicines, and a number of other foods. so next time you stroll down the drinks isle of the supermarket, pick up a couple of these products and scan the ingredients list for sodium benzoate ( 211 ) to see how prevalent it is. sulphur dioxide ( 220 ) a preservative regularly used on dried fruit, but can also turn up in soft drinks, juice, cordial, wine and even vinegar. it is reputed to cause tummy upsets, nausea, diarrhoea and rashes. 220 has also been linked to asthma, and it seems it can also affect some nutrients


soft drinks, juice, cordial, wine and even vinegar. it is reputed to cause tummy upsets, nausea, diarrhoea and rashes. 220 has also been linked to asthma, and it seems it can also affect some nutrients in the body. tartrazine ( 102, yellow ) banned or restricted in a number of countries, 102 turns up in sweets, drinks, jams, cereals, pretty much anything that needs a bit of yellow colouring. possible issues range from links to asthma, skin rashes, behavioural changes, even hyper - agitation in children. chocolate brown ( 155 ) banned or restricted in a number of countries including the usa, norway, france and many more. used in chocolate cake mixes, it ’ s thought to be linked to asthma, cause skin rashes and cause adverse reactions in children with adhd. monosodium l - glutamate ( msg, 621 ) commonly known to many people, possibly one of the early compounds to alert the community to the dangers additives may pose to our health. found in food, notably in many of the ready made noodle packs, cigarettes and animal food, it was once widely used in some takeaway foods but with increased consumer concern it is far less common. asthma seems a reasonable link, along with skin rashes and altered behaviour. aspartame ( nutrasweet, equal, 951 ) a common artificial sweetener which has been reasonably well researched with a number of dubious findings. aspartame appears to cause migraines, and in line with its apparent effect on the brain, research is ongoing in terms of potential links to brain tumours. artificially sweetened products really don ’ t have great support with recent research suggesting they can affect nutrients and may influence weight gain. these are just a few examples ; it seems most additives have some shadow of suspicion over them, depending on whom you talk to. where to start - read ingredients labels ; additives must be labelled if the product is produced in australia or nz ( and most western countries ). - opt for sun - dried or home - prepared dried fruit. - wash all produce thoroughly. - reduce sweets as much as possible to avoid exposure to colourings. - opt for products with natural colourings ( after all, a party sometimes calls for sweets ). - use cold - pressed oils to avoid oils that are so processed they need the addition of antioxidants and other chemicals to stabilise them and make them more pal


natural colourings ( after all, a party sometimes calls for sweets ). - use cold - pressed oils to avoid oils that are so processed they need the addition of antioxidants and other chemicals to stabilise them and make them more palatable. - avoid overly flavoured foods and those with msg ( 621 ), eg. bbq or chicken - flavoured chips and biscuits, also packet noodles notoriously have msg in their flavour sachets. buy plain varieties or brands that don ’ t use additives. - avoid processed meats, they are not only generally the greatest source of trans - fats but also tend to contain a number of nitrite and nitrate - based additives. - avoid ‘ junk ’ drinks such as cordials and fizzy drinks that commonly have benzoates. opt for water or unsweetened, natural, freshly made juices or plain milk ( organic is ideal ). - it ’ s good to keep in mind that ‘ ingredients must be declared in the statement of ingredients in descending order of ingoing weight ’ ( food standards code, statement 1. 2. 4 ). - consider going organic, or at least avoid eggs, meat ( it seems nitrates find their way into mince ), canned fish and other foods that have added colour as a visual enhancer. if you prefer to select just some organics, opt for organic produce where you eat the skin ( which in non - organic produce may be covered with pesticides ). going clean can be confusing as you wade through the well - researched and wellmeaning information, it may become obvious that just because a product is additive - free doesn ’ t mean it is free from ge ingredients, from excessive fat, sugar or salt. furthermore, some just contain too few nutrients. going additive - free is a great idea, but when selecting healthy food it isn ’ t the only consideration. like most things in nutrition, it ’ s about the whole picture. food standards australia nz listing * what do food additives do? some food additives have more than one use. food additives are listed according to their functional or class names. examples of the most common functions are : acids acidity regulators alkalis help to maintain a constant acid level in food. this is important for taste, as well as to influence how other substances in the food function. for example, an acidified food can retard the growth of some micro - organisms. anti - caking agents reduce the tendency


level in food. this is important for taste, as well as to influence how other substances in the food function. for example, an acidified food can retard the growth of some micro - organisms. anti - caking agents reduce the tendency of individual food particles to adhere and improve flow characteristics. for example, seasoning with an added anti - caking agent flows freely and doesn ’ t clump together. antioxidants retard or prevent the oxidative deterioration of foods. for example, in fats and oils, rancid flavours can develop when they are exposed to oxygen. antioxidants prevent this from happening. bulking agents contribute to the volume of the food, without contributing significantly to its available energy. for example, sugar often contributes to the volume of lollies, while some low - joule foods need bulking agents added to them to replace the bulk normally provided by sugar. colourings add or restore colour to foods. for example, icing mixture is coloured to make it more attractive on cakes. emulsifiers facilitate or maintain oil and water from separating into layers. for example, emulsifiers may be used in margarine to prevent oil forming a layer on top of the margarine. firming agents stabilisers maintain the uniform dispersion of substances in solid and semi - solid foods. flavour enhancers enhance the existing taste and / or odour of a food. foaming agents maintain the uniform dispersion of gases in aerated foods. gelling agents modify the texture of the food through gel formation. glazing agents impart a coating to the external surface of the food, for example, a wax coating on fruit to improve its appearance. humectants reduce moisture loss in foods. for example, glycerine may be added to icing to prevent it from drying out. preservatives retard or prevent the deterioration of food by micro - organisms, and thus prevent spoilage of foods. raising agents liberate gases, thereby increasing the volume of a food. raising agents are often used in baked goods. sweeteners replace the sweetness normally provided by sugars in foods without contributing significantly to their available energy. thickeners increase the viscosity of a food. for example, a sauce might contain a thickener to give it the desired consistency. * sourced directly from : food standards australia and new zealand helpful websites and organisations this information has been provided by leanne cooper from sneakys baby and child nutrition


' evolution ' advertisement refutes evolution metaphor by brian thomas, m. s. * on a dallas highway near the institute for creation research offices, a billboard advertising a new computer reads, " the laptop has just evolved. " likely, the statement is not meant to be taken in a literal darwinian sense, since laptops are the product of human engineering. why, then, is the word " evolved " — typically used to describe a natural process — used in the advertisement? technical - minded evolutionary biologists have different definitions of " evolution, " but on the street this term can carry the generalized meaning of onward and upward advancement from simple to complex forms or functions. plainly, it is this concept to which the advertisement appeals. the message is, " if you want the latest pinnacle of technology, then buy this product. it is the most evolved, or advanced, to date. " so, evolution is equated with advancement. the means, or " how, " behind such progress is, however, not explained. but the way this technology became " advanced " contrasts with the way that darwinian evolution supposedly transformed the living world from " simple " to " advanced, " and this falsifies the metaphor. real - life personal design actually went into the advertised product, from its mental conception through its production and marketing. highly refined machines like computers could never assemble themselves or be the result of random forces. complicated, advanced systems in the living world must likewise have shared a similar history of personal design. a different advertisement promoting the engineering department of a nearby university stated " cool stuff doesn ' t just make itself, " implying that " cool stuff " is purposefully engineered. it never happens naturally. the tablet computer advertised on the billboard is " cool stuff. " it is not a product of nature, but was made by technicians. body cells and other living systems are also " cool stuff, " but far more complicated than any man - made computer. they must therefore have come from the ultimate technician. the billboard ' s application of the word " evolved " to something that is clearly the result of intelligent engineering offers an ironic commentary on evolutionary biology ' s similar misuse of the term to explain clearly engineered life. * mr. thomas is science writer at the institute for creation research. article posted on january 26, 2011.


southeast asia is characterized by very rapid economic growth, increasing land and water degradation, and large pockets of rural poor. ifpri has worked in the region — particularly in indonesia, the philippines, thailand, and vietnam — for more than 20 years, assisting governments to devise alternative natural resource management policies, food marketing strategies, and other initiatives to help these countries cope with their significant and ongoing agricultural transformations. during the past 20 years, vietnam has shifted from seeking to achieve rice self - sufficiency to maximizing rice production and exports to promoting crop and income diversification. because diversification into high - value agricultural commodities is viewed as a key strategy to raise rural incomes and reduce rural poverty, ifpri ' s markets, trade, and institutions division ( mtid ) is examining the process in the northern uplands region of vietnam. mtid is also carrying out a study that compares contract and non - contract growers of selected horticultural crops and poultry in thailand, indonesia, china, and india. working with local research institutes and universities, it is carrying out farm surveys and semi - structured interviews with processors and exporters to estimate the impact of contract farming on input use, productivity, and farm income ; to test whether these variables are affected differently by local and foreign buyers ; and to see whether contract farming has a pro - poor impact. in many river floodplain and lowland areas, the rainy season brings floods that last several months and make crop production impossible. however, enclosing parts of the floodwater areas can give rise to an alternative form of agricultural production : fish culture, which has the potential to provide more high - quality, nutrient - dense food production and farm income for all rural stakeholders, especially the poor. therefore, ifpri ' s environment and production technology division ( eptd ) is working with a number of partners in vietnam, cambodia, china, bangladesh, india, and mali to examine the potential of community - based fish culture. indonesia ' s extensive and biologically diverse tropical forests support tens of millions of indonesians who gather forest products for their daily needs or work in wood - processing sectors. however, illegal logging and agriculture - induced deforestation is believed to have destroyed some 10 million hectares of forest. like some of its innovative counterparts in latin america, the indonesian government has initiated a program to encourage farmers to protect the remaining forests by offering them greater tenure security. eptd is helping to examine the challenges confronting this asian - modified payment for environmental services program by developing best practice models. credit constraints and pathways from


environment - current issues : increased solar ultraviolet radiation resulting from the antarctic ozone hole in recent years, reducing marine primary productivity ( phytoplankton ) by as much as 15 % and damaging the dna of some fish ; illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing in recent years, especially the landing of an estimated five to six times more patagonian toothfish than the regulated fishery, which is likely to affect the sustainability of the stock ; large amount of incidental mortality of seabirds resulting from long - line fishing for toothfish note : the now - protected fur seal population is making a strong comeback after severe overexploitation in the 18th and 19th centuries definition : this entry lists the most pressing and important environmental problems. the following terms and abbreviations are used throughout the entry : acidification - the lowering of soil and water ph due to acid precipitation and deposition usually through precipitation ; this process disrupts ecosystem nutrient flows and may kill freshwater fish and plants dependent on more neutral or alkaline conditions ( see acid rain ). acid rain - characterized as containing harmful levels of sulfur dioxide or nitrogen oxide ; acid rain is damaging and potentially deadly to the earth ' s fragile ecosystems ; acidity is measured using the ph scale where 7 is neutral, values greater than 7 are considered alkaline, and values below 5. 6 are considered acid precipitation ; note - a ph of 2. 4 ( the acidity of vinegar ) has been measured in rainfall in new england. aerosol - a collection of airborne particles dispersed in a gas, smoke, or fog. afforestation - converting a bare or agricultural space by planting trees and plants ; reforestation involves replanting trees on areas that have been cut or destroyed by fire. asbestos - a naturally occurring soft fibrous mineral commonly used in fireproofing materials and considered to be highly carcinogenic in particulate form. biodiversity - also biological diversity ; the relative number of species, diverse in form and function, at the genetic, organism, community, and ecosystem level ; loss of biodiversity reduces an ecosystem ' s ability to recover from natural or man - induced disruption. bio - indicators - a plant or animal species whose presence, abundance, and health reveal the general condition of its habitat. biomass - the total weight or volume of living matter in a given area or volume. carbon cycle - the term used to describe the exchange of carbon ( in various forms, e. g., as carbon dioxide ) between the atmosphere, ocean, terrestrial biosphere, and geological


or volume of living matter in a given area or volume. carbon cycle - the term used to describe the exchange of carbon ( in various forms, e. g., as carbon dioxide ) between the atmosphere, ocean, terrestrial biosphere, and geological deposits. catchments - assemblages used to capture and retain rainwater and runoff ; an important water management technique in areas with limited freshwater resources, such as gibraltar. ddt ( dichloro - diphenyl - trichloro - ethane ) - a colorless, odorless insecticide that has toxic effects on most animals ; the use of ddt was banned in the us in 1972. defoliants - chemicals which cause plants to lose their leaves artificially ; often used in agricultural practices for weed control, and may have detrimental impacts on human and ecosystem health. deforestation - the destruction of vast areas of forest ( e. g., unsustainable forestry practices, agricultural and range land clearing, and the over exploitation of wood products for use as fuel ) without planting new growth. desertification - the spread of desert - like conditions in arid or semi - arid areas, due to overgrazing, loss of agriculturally productive soils, or climate change. dredging - the practice of deepening an existing waterway ; also, a technique used for collecting bottom - dwelling marine organisms ( e. g., shellfish ) or harvesting coral, often causing significant destruction of reef and ocean - floor ecosystems. drift - net fishing - done with a net, miles in extent, that is generally anchored to a boat and left to float with the tide ; often results in an over harvesting and waste of large populations of non - commercial marine species ( by - catch ) by its effect of " sweeping the ocean clean. " ecosystems - ecological units comprised of complex communities of organisms and their specific environments. effluents - waste materials, such as smoke, sewage, or industrial waste which are released into the environment, subsequently polluting it. endangered species - a species that is threatened with extinction either by direct hunting or habitat destruction. freshwater - water with very low soluble mineral content ; sources include lakes, streams, rivers, glaciers, and underground aquifers. greenhouse gas - a gas that " traps " infrared radiation in the lower atmosphere causing surface warming ; water vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane, hydrofluorocarbons, and ozone are the primary greenhouse gases in the earth ' s atmosphere. groundwater - water sources found below the surface of


the lower atmosphere causing surface warming ; water vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane, hydrofluorocarbons, and ozone are the primary greenhouse gases in the earth ' s atmosphere. groundwater - water sources found below the surface of the earth often in naturally occurring reservoirs in permeable rock strata ; the source for wells and natural springs. highlands water project - a series of dams constructed jointly by lesotho and south africa to redirect lesotho ' s abundant water supply into a rapidly growing area in south africa ; while it is the largest infrastructure project in southern africa, it is also the most costly and controversial ; objections to the project include claims that it forces people from their homes, submerges farmlands, and squanders economic resources. inuit circumpolar conference ( icc ) - represents the 145, 000 inuits of russia, alaska, canada, and greenland in international environmental issues ; a general assembly convenes every three years to determine the focus of the icc ; the most current concerns are long - range transport of pollutants, sustainable development, and climate change. metallurgical plants - industries which specialize in the science, technology, and processing of metals ; these plants produce highly concentrated and toxic wastes which can contribute to pollution of ground water and air when not properly disposed. noxious substances - injurious, very harmful to living beings. overgrazing - the grazing of animals on plant material faster than it can naturally regrow leading to the permanent loss of plant cover, a common effect of too many animals grazing limited range land. ozone shield - a layer of the atmosphere composed of ozone gas ( o3 ) that resides approximately 25 miles above the earth ' s surface and absorbs solar ultraviolet radiation that can be harmful to living organisms. poaching - the illegal killing of animals or fish, a great concern with respect to endangered or threatened species. pollution - the contamination of a healthy environment by man - made waste. potable water - water that is drinkable, safe to be consumed. salination - the process through which fresh ( drinkable ) water becomes salt ( undrinkable ) water ; hence, desalination is the reverse process ; also involves the accumulation of salts in topsoil caused by evaporation of excessive irrigation water, a process that can eventually render soil incapable of supporting crops. siltation - occurs when water channels and reservoirs become clotted with silt and mud, a side effect of deforestation and soil erosion. slash -


##poration of excessive irrigation water, a process that can eventually render soil incapable of supporting crops. siltation - occurs when water channels and reservoirs become clotted with silt and mud, a side effect of deforestation and soil erosion. slash - and - burn agriculture - a rotating cultivation technique in which trees are cut down and burned in order to clear land for temporary agriculture ; the land is used until its productivity declines at which point a new plot is selected and the process repeats ; this practice is sustainable while population levels are low and time is permitted for regrowth of natural vegetation ; conversely, where these conditions do not exist, the practice can have disastrous consequences for the environment. soil degradation - damage to the land ' s productive capacity because of poor agricultural practices such as the excessive use of pesticides or fertilizers, soil compaction from heavy equipment, or erosion of topsoil, eventually resulting in reduced ability to produce agricultural products. soil erosion - the removal of soil by the action of water or wind, compounded by poor agricultural practices, deforestation, overgrazing, and desertification. ultraviolet ( uv ) radiation - a portion of the electromagnetic energy emitted by the sun and naturally filtered in the upper atmosphere by the ozone layer ; uv radiation can be harmful to living organisms and has been linked to increasing rates of skin cancer in humans. water - born diseases - those in which bacteria survive in, and are transmitted through, water ; always a serious threat in areas with an untreated water supply. source : cia world factbook - unless otherwise noted, information in this page is accurate as of february 21, 2013


financial inclusion and mobile payments professor jaideep prabhu professor jaideep prabhu is exploring financial inclusion and mobile payments. large numbers of people in emerging markets are currently unbanked and therefore do not benefit from the many financial services that banks provide. while microfinance institutions have risen up to provide unbanked consumers access to relatively cheap credit, access to safe, reliable and cheap means of sending, saving, and spending money still remain outside their reach. a major innovation that has the potential to bridge this gap are mobile phone based payment systems. these payment systems have already met with considerable success in some markets. in kenya, for instance, over eight million subscribers of safaricom ( a telecommunications firm ) use their cell phones today to send, spend and save money. in the philippines g - cash, a service offered by globe telecom, enables consumers to send money from cell phone to cell phone, buy goods and services, pay for business permits and pay off micro loans. firms, governments and ngos in countries as far afield as india, south africa, ghana, bangladesh, pakistan and sierra leone are now looking seriously at introducing such services to unbanked and underbanked consumers. interestingly, some companies like obopay have also introduced such services in developed economies such as the united states. mobile payment services offer many opportunities as well as pose challenges for firms and governments alike. for firms, the key questions include : - which consumer segments are most likely to adopt such services first? - what business model or models would work best? - specifically, how should these services be priced, distributed and promoted to target consumers? for governments, the questions are : - what impact are these services likely to have on consumer welfare? - what are the potential hazards of such services? - what are the regulatory implications : namely, what role should non - banking institutions such as mobile operators play in offering financial services to economically vulnerable consumers? along with colleagues at the centre and elsewhere, jaideep is engaged in research that aims to find answers to these questions. this research uses multiple methods ( interviews, financial diaries and large surveys ) and looks across time and countries. the key countries where this research is currently being done ( or will be done shortly ) include kenya, india and south africa. while this research is likely to take time and require considerable money and effort, its fruits are bound to have significant implications for countries, companies and consumers alike. use of ' information for action ' based on health management information systems implemented at state and district levels throughout india


research is likely to take time and require considerable money and effort, its fruits are bound to have significant implications for countries, companies and consumers alike. use of ' information for action ' based on health management information systems implemented at state and district levels throughout india professor geoff walsham professor geoff walsham has just completed a one - month action research project based at the national health systems resource centre ( nhsrc ) in new delhi. the nhsrc is a technical support institution of the national rural health mission ( nrhm ) of the government of india. the nrhm was launched in 2005 to bring about substantial positive change in the way that public health care is delivered in india, especially to the rural poor. the focus of geoff ' s work was to advise the nhsrc on the use of ' information for action ' based on health management information systems implemented at state and district levels throughout india. the work resulted in a series of recommendations on issues such as organisational design and human capacity development, and the development of a new tool called a state readiness matrix. professor walsham will be presenting a seminar on the work in michaelmas term 2009. note to protectionists : globalisation of r & d isn ' t a zero - sum game professor jaideep prabhu professor jaideep prabhu, the nehru professor of indian business, is exploring the globalisation of r & d centres by multinationals, especially in india and china. his preliminary research, based on a survey of 500 largest mncs, show that : - contrary to the received wisdom, a large number of mncs are locating their r & d centers outside the developed nations - china and india are rising in terms of multinational r & d facilities - the us still dominates in terms of inbound r & d facilities - patterns of r & d location vary across industries - the number of a country ' s science and engineering phds is the most important driver of multinationals ' r & d location in that country these findings have several managerial and public policy implications, which are discussed in his upcoming paper, co - authored with gerard j. tellis, andreas b. eisingerich, jaideep c. prabhu, and rajesh k. chandy. download jaideep ' s full paper ( pdf, 126kb ) implications of indian liberalisation : more than meets the eye dr paul kattuman dr paul kattuman analysed the evolution of market competitiveness in indian manufacturing industries over the 17 - year period from 1981, spanning the domestic liberalisation of


) implications of indian liberalisation : more than meets the eye dr paul kattuman dr paul kattuman analysed the evolution of market competitiveness in indian manufacturing industries over the 17 - year period from 1981, spanning the domestic liberalisation of 1985 and the more comprehensive reforms of 1991. an observer looking at summary measures of market concentration might conclude that not much happened under either liberalisation episode. in fact, paul ' s research shows that market share grew significantly more turbulent, and the relationship between market share growth and initial share changed considerably. domestic and comprehensive liberalisation saw different types of course corrections in these processes. but in both liberalisation episodes they tended to offset one another in their impact on observed market concentration, which therefore, changed little. download paul ' s full paper ( pdf, 280kb ) call - centre jobs are anything but ' electronic sweatshops ' dr bhaskar vira extensive field research conducted with indian call centre employees by dr bhaskar vira, a lecturer in the university of cambridge ' s geography department, debunks the widely held perception of call centre jobs as ' dead - end ' work ; instead these jobs are perceived by indian workers as opportunities for a newly emergent middle class to enjoy access to relatively high incomes, and high consumption lifestyles, while also providing workers with transferable skills that are potentially of value in the development of the wider ( service ) economy.


( last updated on : 01 / 12 / 2010 ) fasting therapy is one of the most ancient customs. this is nature ` s oldest, most effective and yet least expensive method of treating diseases, recognised as the achievement of natural healing. throughout medical history, it has been regarded as one of the most dependable curative methods. it refers to complete abstinence from food for a particular period pertaining to a specific purpose. the common cause of all diseases is the accumulation of waste and poisonous matter in the body which results from overeating. the majority of people eats too much and follows sedentary occupations which do not permit sufficient and proper exercise for utilisation of this large quantity of food. this surplus overburdens the digestive organs and clogs up the system with impurities or poisons. digestion and elimination become slow and the functional activity of the whole system gets deranged. every disease can be healed by only one remedy - by doing just the opposite of what causes it, that is, by reducing the food intake or fasting. by depriving the body of food for a time, the organs of elimination such as the bowels, kidneys, skin and lungs are given opportunity to expel, unhampered, the overload of accumulated waste from the system. thus, fasting therapy is merely the process of purification and an effective and quick method of cure. duration of fasting the duration of the fast depends on the age of the patient, the nature of the disease and the amount and type of drugs previously used. the duration is important, because long periods of fasting can be dangerous if undertaken without competent professional guidance. it is, therefore, advisable to undertake a series of short fasts of two to three days and gradually increase the duration of each succeeding fast by a day or so. the period, however, should not exceed a week of total fasting at a time. a correct mode of living and a balanced diet after the fast will restore vigour and vitality to the individual. fasting is highly beneficial in practically all kinds of stomach and intestinal disorders and in serious conditions of the kidneys and liver. it is a miracle cure for eczema and other skin diseases and offers the only hope of permanent cure in many cases. the various nervous disorders also respond favourably to this mode of treatment. methods of fasting therapy the best, safest and most effective method of fasting therapy is juice fasting. vitamins, minerals, enzymes


of permanent cure in many cases. the various nervous disorders also respond favourably to this mode of treatment. methods of fasting therapy the best, safest and most effective method of fasting therapy is juice fasting. vitamins, minerals, enzymes and trace elements in fresh, raw vegetable and fruit juices are extremely beneficial in normalising all the body processes. they supply essential elements for the body ` s own healing activity and cell regeneration and thus speeding the recovery. all juices should be prepared from fresh fruit immediately before drinking. the patient should get as much fresh air as possible and should drink plain lukewarm water when thirsty. fresh juices may be diluted with pure water. the total liquid intake should be approximately six to eight glasses. only very simple exercises like short walks may be undertaken during the fast. a warm water or neutral bath may be taken during the period. cold baths are not advisable. sun and air baths should be taken daily. fasting sometimes produces a state of sleeplessness which can be overcome by a warm tub bath, keeping hot water bottles at the feet and by drinking one or two glasses of hot water. benefits of fasting therapy there are several benefits of fasting. during a long fast, the body feeds upon its reserves. being deprived of needed nutrients, particularly of protein and fats, it will burn and digest its own tissues by the process of autolysis or self - digestion. but it will not do so indiscriminately. the body will first decompose and burn those cells and tissues which are diseased, damaged, aged or dead. the essential tissues and vital organs, the glands, the nervous system and the brain are not damaged or digested in fasting. here lies the secret of the effectiveness of fasting as a curative and rejuvenating method. during fasting, the building of new and healthy cells is speeded up by the amino acids released from the diseased cells. the capacity of the eliminative organs, that is, lungs, liver, kidneys and the skin is greatly increased as they are relieved of the usual burden of digesting food and eliminating the resultant wastes. they are, therefore, able to quickly expel old accumulated wastes and toxins. fasting affords a physiological rest to the digestive, assimilative and protective organs. as a result, the digestion of food and the utilisation of nutrients are greatly improved after fasting. breaking of fast the success of the fast depends


william henry lytton earle bulwer, baron dalling and bulwer bulwer, william henry lytton earle, baron dalling and bulwer ( bolˈwər ; litˈən ) [ key ], 1801 – 72, english diplomat and author ; brother of the novelist edward bulwer - lytton. he was known most of his life as sir henry bulwer. although he sat in parliament for some years ( 1830 – 37, 1868 – 71 ), he was most prominent as a diplomat. as secretary of the embassy in constantinople ( 1837 – 38 ) he secured a commercial treaty with turkey. he was ambassador to spain ( 1843 – 48 ) during the affair of the spanish marriages ( see isabella ii ) but was ordered to leave by the dictator ramon narvaez, whom he offended. as minister to washington ( 1849 – 52 ), he concluded the important clayton - bulwer treaty of 1850. among his later diplomatic posts were florence, bucharest, and, again, constantinople ( 1858 – 65 ). he was created a baron in 1871. his writings include an autumn in greece ( 1826 ), france : social, literary, and political ( 1834 – 36 ), historical characters ( 1867 ), and biographies of lord byron ( 1835 ) and viscount palmerston ( 1870 – 74, unfinished ). the columbia electronic encyclopedia, 6th ed. copyright © 2012, columbia university press. all rights reserved. see more encyclopedia articles on : british and irish history : biographies


pewter, any of a number of ductile, silver - white alloys consisting principally of tin. the properties vary with the percentage of tin and the nature of the added materials. lead, when added, imparts a bluish tinge and increased malleability and tends to escape from the alloy in poisonous quantities if the percentage used is too large ; antimony adds whiteness and hardness. other metals including copper, bismuth, and zinc can also be added. pewter is shaped by casting, hammering, or lathe spinning on a mold and is usually simply ornamented with rims, moldings, or engraving, although some continental display ware, especially of the renaissance period in france and germany, shows intricate ornamentation. pewter was early used in east asia, and roman pieces are extant. england was a pewter center from the middle ages ; pewter was the chief tableware until it was superseded by china. america imported much english pewter in colonial times and from c. 1700 made large quantities. the craft had virtually disappeared by 1850 but was revived in the 20th cent. in reproductions and in pieces of modern design. the collection and study of pewter are increasingly popular, although relatively little old pewter has been preserved because of its small intrinsic value and of the ease with which it may be melted and reused. pieces made of britannia metal are similar in appearance to pewter ware. see l. l. laughlin, pewter in america ( 1969 ) ; and h. j. kauffman, the american pewterer ( 1970 ) ; c. f. montgomery, a history of american pewter ( 1973 ). more on pewter from infoplease : see more encyclopedia articles on : arts and crafts