banned 12 pops, nicknamed “ the dirty dozen ”. ( these include : aldicarb, toxaphene, chlordane and heptachlor, chlordimeform, chlorobenzilate, dbcp, ddt, " drins " ( aldrin, dieldrin and endrin ), edb, hch and lindane, paraquat, parathion and methyl parathion, pentachlorophenol, and 2, 4, 5 - t. ) this took force on 17 may 2004. australia ratified the convention only three days later and became a party to it in august that year. well before this, australia had been well advanced in meeting the measures agreed upon under the convention. production, import and use of aldrin, chlordane, ddt, dieldrin, hexachlorobenzene ( hcb ), heptachlor, endrin, and toxaphene are not permitted in australia. production and importation of polychlorinated biphenyls ( pcbs ) are not permitted in australia, with the phase - out of existing pcbs being managed under the national strategy for the management of scheduled waste. this strategy also addresses how australia will manage hcb waste and organochlorine pesticides. legislation in australia on the import, use and disposal of dieldrin and other organochlorines has been extensive and covers mainly environmental and potential health impacts on the population. - jubb, a. h. ( 1975 ). basic organic chemistry, part 5 industrial products. london : wiley. isbn 0 - 471 - 85014 - 4. - ( orris et al. 2000 ) - s. kegley, b. hill, s. orme, pan pesticide database, pesticide action network, north america ( san francisco, ca. 2007 ), http : / / www. pesticideinfo. org - dieldrin linked to earlier onset of parkinson ' s disease - dieldrin and breast cancer : a literature review, australian national university / doctors for the environment australia - mandocdoc, m. and david, c. p. 2008. dieldrin contamination of the groundwater in a former us military base ( clark air base, philippines ). clean air, soil, water journal 36 ( 10 – 11 ), 870 - 874. - international programme on chemical safety


portrait of dostoyevsky in 1872 painted by vasily perov | born | | fyodor mikhailovich dostoyevsky 11 november 1821 moscow, russian empire | died | | 9 february 1881 saint petersburg, russian empire | education | | military engineering - technical university, st. petersburg | | genres | | novel, short story, journalism | | subjects | | psychology, philosophy, religion | fyodor mikhailovich dostoyevsky [ a ] ( russian : федор михаилович достоевскии ; ipa : [ ˈfʲodər mʲɪˈxajləvʲɪtɕ dəstɐˈjefskʲɪj ] ( listen ) ; 11 november 1821 – 9 february 1881 [ b ] ), sometimes transliterated dostoevsky, was a russian novelist, short story writer and essayist. dostoyevsky ' s literary works explore human psychology in the context of the troubled political, social and spiritual atmosphere of 19th - century russia. although he began writing in the mid - 1840s, his most memorable works — including crime and punishment, the idiot and the brothers karamazov — are from his later years. his output consists of eleven novels, three novellas, seventeen short novels and numerous other works. many literary critics rate him as one of the greatest and most prominent psychologists in world literature. dostoyevsky was born in moscow. he was introduced to literature at an early age through fairy tales and legends and through books by russian and foreign authors. his mother died suddenly in 1837, when he was 15, and around the same time he left school to enter the nikolayev military engineering institute. after graduating, he worked as an engineer and briefly enjoyed a lavish lifestyle. he soon began translating books to earn extra money. in the mid - 1840s he wrote his first novel, poor folk, gaining him entry into st. petersburg ' s literary circles. in 1849 he was arrested for his involvement with the petrashevsky circle, a secret society of liberal utopians that also functioned as a literary discussion group. he and other members were condemned to death, but at the last moment, a note from tsar nicholas i was delivered to the scene of the firing squad, commuting the sentence to four years ' hard labour in siberia. his seizures increased in frequency there, and he was diagnosed with epilepsy. on his release, he was forced to serve as a soldier, but he was discharged on grounds of ill health.


the sentence to four years ' hard labour in siberia. his seizures increased in frequency there, and he was diagnosed with epilepsy. on his release, he was forced to serve as a soldier, but he was discharged on grounds of ill health. in the following years, dostoyevsky worked as a journalist, publishing and editing several magazines of his own and, later, a writer ' s diary, a collection of his writings. he began to travel around western europe and developed a gambling addiction, which led to financial hardship. for a time, he had to beg for money, but he eventually became one of the most widely read and highly regarded russian writers. his books have been translated into more than 170 languages and have sold around 15 million copies. dostoyevsky influenced a multitude of writers, from anton chekhov and james joyce to ernest hemingway and jean - paul sartre. early life family background fyodor dostoyevsky was born on 11 november [ o. s. 30 october ] 1821, the second child of mikhail dostoyevsky and maria nechayeva. the dostoyevskys were a multi - ethnic and multi - denominational lithuanian noble family from the pinsk region, with roots dating to the 16th century. branches of the family included russian orthodox christians and catholics, but dostoyevsky ' s immediate ancestors on his father ' s side were non - monastic clergy, and on his mother ' s side russian merchants. dostoyevsky ' s paternal great - grandfather and grandfather were priests in the ukrainian town of bratslav. mikhail was expected to join the clergy too, but instead of entering a seminary he ran away from home and broke with his family permanently. in 1809, when he was twenty years old, mikhail was admitted to moscow ' s imperial medical - surgical academy. from there he was assigned to a moscow hospital, where he served as military doctor, and in 1818 he was appointed senior physician. in 1819 he married maria nechayeva. the following year, he resigned from his post to accept a new job at the mariinsky hospital for the poor. after the birth of his first two sons, mikhail and fyodor, he was promoted to collegiate assessor, a position which raised his legal status to that of the nobility and enabled him to acquire a small estate in darovoye, a town 150 versts ( about 150 km or 100 miles ) from moscow. mikhail and maria subsequently had six more children : varvara ( 1822 – 92 ), andrei ( 1825 – 97 ), lyubov


in darovoye, a town 150 versts ( about 150 km or 100 miles ) from moscow. mikhail and maria subsequently had six more children : varvara ( 1822 – 92 ), andrei ( 1825 – 97 ), lyubov ( born and died 1829 ), vera ( 1829 – 96 ), nikolai ( 1831 – 83 ) and aleksandra ( 1835 – 89 ). dostoyevsky was raised in the family home in the grounds of the mariinsky hospital. the family usually spent the summers at their estate in darovoye when he was a child. at age three, fyodor was introduced to heroic sagas, fairy tales and legends, and under the influence of his nannies, he became intensely religious. one nanny, alena frolovna, was an especially influential figure in his childhood, as was marei, a serf and farmer from darovoye, who was a family friend and helped dostoyevsky to deal with his hallucinations. having discovered the hospital garden, which was separated from the family ' s private garden by a large fence, dostoyevsky would often talk with the patients, although his parents forbade it. he once encountered a nine - year - old girl who had been raped, an event that traumatised him. his parents valued education, and when he was four his mother used the bible to teach him to read and write. he eagerly anticipated his parents ' nightly readings. they introduced him to a wide range of literature at an early age, including russian writers karamzin, pushkin and derzhavin ; gothic fiction such as ann radcliffe ; romantic works by schiller and goethe ; heroic tales by cervantes and walter scott ; and homer ' s epics. although dostoyevsky had a delicate physical constitution, standing only 2 arshins and 6 vershoks ( approximately 1. 6 metres or 5 feet 3 inches ) shortly before his imprisonment, he had a powerful personality. his parents described him as hot - headed, stubborn and cheeky. in 1833, dostoyevsky ' s father, who was strict and profoundly religious, sent him to a french boarding school and then on to the chermak boarding school, where several people described him as a pale, introverted dreamer and an over - excitable romantic. to pay the school fees, his father borrowed money and extended his private medical practice. dostoyevsky felt out of place among his aristocratic classmates at the moscow school, and the experience was later reflected in his works,


over - excitable romantic. to pay the school fees, his father borrowed money and extended his private medical practice. dostoyevsky felt out of place among his aristocratic classmates at the moscow school, and the experience was later reflected in his works, notably the adolescent. a school day usually began at six o ' clock in the morning and ended fifteen hours later. on 27 september 1837 dostoyevsky ' s mother died of tuberculosis. the previous may, his parents had sent fyodor and his brother mikhail to st petersburg to attend the free nikolayev military engineering institute, forcing the brothers to abandon their academic studies for military careers. fyodor entered the academy in january 1838, but only with the help of family members. mikhail was refused admission on health grounds and was sent to the academy in reval, estonia. dostoyevsky disliked the academy, primarily because of his lack of interest in science, mathematics and military engineering and his preference for drawing and architecture. as his friend konstantin trutovsky once said, " there was no student in the entire institution with less of a military bearing than f. m. dostoyevsky. he moved clumsily and jerkily ; his uniform hung awkwardly on him ; and his knapsack, shako and rifle all looked like some sort of fetter he had been forced to wear for a time and which lay heavily on him. " dostoyevsky ' s character and interests made him an outsider among his 120 classmates : he showed bravery and a strong sense of justice, protected newcomers, aligned himself with teachers, criticised corruption among officers and helped poor farmers. although he was solitary and inhabited his own literary world, he was respected by his classmates. his reclusiveness and interest in religion earned him the nickname " monk photius ". dostoyevsky ' s first seizure may have occurred after learning of the death of his father on 16 june 1839, although reports of this originated from accounts ( now considered unreliable ) written by his daughter and later expanded by sigmund freud. the father ' s official cause of death was an apoplectic stroke, but a neighbour, pavel khotiaintsev, accused the father ' s serfs of murder. had the serfs been found guilty and sent to siberia, khotiaintsev would have been in a position to buy the vacated land. the serfs were acquitted in a trial in tula, but dostoyevsky ' s brother andrei perpetuated the story. after his father ' s death, dostoyevsky


19 october 1844, asking to resign his post. shortly thereafter, he wrote his second novel, the double, which appeared in the journal notes of the fatherland on 30 january 1846, before being published in february. around 1846, dostoyevsky discovered socialism through the writings of french socialists fourier, cabet, proudhon and saint - simon. through his relationship with belinsky, he expanded his knowledge of the philosophy of socialism, becoming attracted to its logic, its sense of justice and its preoccupation with the destitute and the disadvantaged. his relationship with belinsky became increasingly strained as belinsky ' s atheism and dislike of religion clashed with dostoyevsky ' s russian orthodox beliefs. dostoyevsky eventually parted with him and his associates. after the double received negative reviews, dostoyevsky ' s health declined and he had more frequent seizures, but he continued writing. from 1846 to 1848 he released several short stories in the magazine annals of the fatherland, including " mr. prokharchin ", " the landlady ", " a weak heart ", and " white nights ". these stories were unsuccessful, leaving dostoyevsky once more in financial trouble, so he joined the utopian socialist betekov circle, a tightly knit community which helped him to survive. when the circle dissolved, dostoyevsky befriended apollon maykov and his brother valerian. in 1846, on the recommendation of the poet aleksey pleshcheyev, he joined the socio - christian petrashevsky circle, founded by mikhail petrashevsky, who had proposed social reforms in russia. mikhail bakunin once wrote to alexander herzen that the group was " the most innocent and harmless company " and its members were " systematic opponents of all revolutionary goals and means ". dostoyevsky used the circle ' s library on saturdays and sundays and occasionally participated in their discussions on freedom from censorship and the abolition of serfdom. in 1849, the first parts of netochka nezvanova, a novel dostoyevsky had been planning since 1846, were published in annals of the fatherland, but his banishment ended the project. dostoyevsky never attempted to complete it. siberian exile the members of the petrashevsky circle were denounced to liprandi, an official at the ministry of international affairs. dostoyevsky was accused of reading works by belinsky, including correspondence with gogol, and of circulating copies of these and other works. antonelli, the government agent who had reported the group, wrote in his


at the ministry of international affairs. dostoyevsky was accused of reading works by belinsky, including correspondence with gogol, and of circulating copies of these and other works. antonelli, the government agent who had reported the group, wrote in his statement that at least one of the papers criticised russian politics and religion. dostoyevsky responded to these charges by declaring that he had read the essays only " as a literary monument, neither more nor less " ; he spoke of " personality and human egoism " rather than of politics. even so, he and his fellow " conspirators " were arrested on 22 april 1849 at the request of count a. orlov and emperor nicolas i, who feared a revolution like the decembrist revolt of 1825 in russia and the revolutions of 1848 in europe. the members were held in the well - defended peter and paul fortress, which housed the most dangerous convicts. the case was discussed for four months by an investigative commission headed by the tsar, with adjutant general ivan nabokov, senator count pavel gagarin, count vasili dolgorukov, general yakov rostovtsev and general leonty dubelt, head of the secret police. they sentenced the members of the circle to death by firing squad, and the prisoners were taken to semyonov place in st petersburg on 23 december 1849. the execution was stayed when a cart delivered a letter from the tsar commuting the sentence. dostoyevsky served four years of exile with hard labour at a katorga prison camp in omsk, siberia, followed by a term of compulsory military service. after a fourteen - day sleigh ride, the prisoners reached tobolsk, a prisoner way station. despite the circumstances, dostoyevsky consoled the other prisoners, such as the petrashevist ivan yastrzhembsky, who was surprised by dostoevsky ' s kindness and eventually abandoned his decision to commit suicide. in tobolsk, the members received food and clothes from the decembrist women, as well as several copies of the new testament with a ten - ruble banknote inside each copy. eleven days later, dostoyevsky reached omsk together with just one other member of the petrashevsky circle, the poet sergei durov. dostoevsky described his barracks : in summer, intolerable closeness ; in winter, unendurable cold. all the floors were rotten. filth on the floors an inch thick ; one could slip and fall... we


durov. dostoevsky described his barracks : in summer, intolerable closeness ; in winter, unendurable cold. all the floors were rotten. filth on the floors an inch thick ; one could slip and fall... we were packed like herrings in a barrel... there was no room to turn around. from dusk to dawn it was impossible not to behave like pigs... fleas, lice, and black beetles by the bushel... — fyodor dostoyevsky, pisma, i : pp. 135 – 7. classified as " one of the most dangerous convicts ", dostoyevsky had his feet and hands shackled until his release. he was permitted to read nothing but his new testament. in addition to his seizures, he had haemorrhoids, lost weight and was " burned by some fever, trembling and feeling too hot or too cold every night ". the smell of the privy pervaded the entire building, and the small bathroom had to suffice for more than 200 people. dostoyevsky was occasionally sent to the military hospital, where he read newspapers and dickens novels. he was generally respected by the prisoners, but despised by some because of his xenophobic statements. release from prison after his release on 14 february 1854, dostoyevsky asked mikhail to help him financially and to send him books by vico, guizot, ranke, hegel and kant. he began to write the house of the dead, based on his experience in prison ; it became the first novel to be written about russian prisons. before moving in mid - march to semipalatinsk, where he was forced to serve in the siberian army corps of the seventh line battalion, dostoyevsky met geographer pyotr semyonov and ethnographer shokan walikhanuli. around november 1854, he met baron alexander egorovich wrangel, an admirer of his books, who had attended the aborted execution. they both rented houses in the cossack garden outside semipalatinsk. wrangel remarked that dostoyevsky " looked morose. his sickly, pale face was covered with freckles, and his blond hair was cut short. he was a little over average height and looked at me intensely with his sharp, grey - blue eyes. it was as if he were trying to look into my soul and discover what kind of man i was. " in semipalatinsk, dostoyevsky


a little over average height and looked at me intensely with his sharp, grey - blue eyes. it was as if he were trying to look into my soul and discover what kind of man i was. " in semipalatinsk, dostoyevsky tutored several schoolchildren and came into contact with upper - class families, including that of lieutenant - colonel belikhov, who used to invite him to read passages from newspapers and magazines. during a visit to belikhov, dostoyevsky met the family of alexander ivanovich isaev and maria dmitrievna isaeva and soon fell in love with the latter. alexander isaev took a new post in kuznetsk, where he died in august 1855. maria then moved with dostoyevsky to barnaul. in 1856 dostoyevsky sent a letter through wrangel to general eduard totleben, apologising for his activity in several utopian circles. as a result, he obtained the right to publish books and to marry, although he remained under police surveillance for the rest of his life. he married maria in semipalatinsk on 7 february 1857. maria had initially refused his marriage proposal, stating that they were not meant for each other and that his poor financial situation precluded marriage. when dostoyevsky later went to kuznetsk, he discovered her affair with 24 - year - old schoolmaster nikolay vergunov. despite this, maria married dostoyevsky in semipalatinsk on 7 february 1857. their family life was unhappy and she found it difficult to cope with his seizures. describing their relationship, he wrote : " because of her strange, suspicious and fantastic character, we were definitely not happy together, but we could not stop loving each other ; and the more unhappy we were, the more attached to each other we became ". they mostly lived apart. in 1859 he was released from military service because of deteriorating health and was granted permission to return to russia, first to tver, where he met his brother for the first time in ten years, and then to st petersburg. " a little hero " ( dostoyevsky ' s only work completed in prison ) appeared in a journal, but " uncle ' s dream " and " the village of stepanchikovo " were not published until 1860. notes from the house of the dead was released in russky mir ( russian world ) in september 1860. " the insulted and the injured " was published in the new vremya ( time ) magazine, [ c


" were not published until 1860. notes from the house of the dead was released in russky mir ( russian world ) in september 1860. " the insulted and the injured " was published in the new vremya ( time ) magazine, [ c ] which had been created with the help of funds from his brother ' s cigarette factory. dostoyevsky travelled to western europe for the first time on 7 june 1862, visiting cologne, berlin, dresden, wiesbaden, belgium and paris. in london he met herzen and visited the crystal palace. he travelled with nikolay strakhov through switzerland and several north italian cities, including turin, livorno and florence. he recorded his impressions of those trips in winter notes on summer impressions, in which he criticised capitalism, social modernisation, materialism, catholicism and protestantism. from august to october 1863, dostoyevsky made another trip to western europe. he met his second love, polina suslova, in paris and lost nearly all his money gambling in wiesbaden and baden - baden. in 1864 his wife maria and brother mikhail died, and dostoyevsky became the lone parent of his stepson pasha and the sole supporter of his brother ' s family. the failure of epoch, the magazine he had founded with mikhail after the suppression of vremya, worsened his financial situation, although the continued help of his relatives and friends averted bankruptcy. marriage and honeymoon dostoyevsky returned to saint petersburg in mid - september and promised his editor, fyodor stellovsky, that he would complete the gambler, a short novel focused on gambling addiction, by november, although he had not yet begun writing it. one of dostoyevsky ' s friends, milyukov, advised him to hire a secretary. dostoyevsky contacted stenographer pavel olkhin from saint petersburg, who recommended his pupil anna grigoryevna snitkina. her shorthand helped dostoyevsky to complete the gambler on 30 october, after 26 days ' work. she remarked that dostoyevsky was of average height but always tried to carry himself erect. " he had light brown, slightly reddish hair, he used some hair conditioner, and he combed his hair in a diligent way... his eyes, they were different : one was dark brown ; in the other, the pupil was so big that you could not see its color, [ this was caused by an injury ]. the strangeness of his eyes gave dostoyevsky


.. his eyes, they were different : one was dark brown ; in the other, the pupil was so big that you could not see its color, [ this was caused by an injury ]. the strangeness of his eyes gave dostoyevsky some mysterious appearance. his face was pale, and it looked unhealthy. " on 15 february 1867 dostoyevsky married snitkina in trinity cathedral, saint petersburg. the 7, 000 rubles he had earned from crime and punishment did not cover their debts, forcing anna to sell her valuables. on 14 april 1867 they began a delayed honeymoon in germany with the money gained from the sale. they stayed in berlin and visited the gemaldegalerie alte meister, where he sought inspiration for his writing. they continued their trip through germany, visiting frankfurt, darmstadt, heidelberg and karlsruhe and finally staying in geneva. their first child, sonya, was conceived in baden - baden, and was born there on 5 march 1868. the baby died of pneumonia three months later, and anna recalled how dostoyevsky " wept and sobbed like a woman in despair ". in september 1868, dostoyevsky began work on the idiot, managing to complete 100 pages in only 23 days. the couple moved from geneva to vevey and then to milan, where they endured some rainy autumn months before continuing to florence. the idiot was completed there in january 1869 and serialised in the russian messenger. anna gave birth to their second daughter, lyubov, on 26 september 1869 in dresden. in april 1871, dostoyevsky made a final visit to a gambling hall in wiesbaden. anna claimed that he stopped gambling after the birth of their second daughter, but this is a subject of debate. [ d ] after hearing news that the socialist revolutionary group " people ' s vengeance " had murdered one of its own members, ivan ivanov, on 21 november 1869, dostoyevsky began writing demons. in 1871, dostoyevsky and anna travelled by train to berlin. during the trip he burnt several manuscripts, including those of the idiot, because he was concerned about potential problems with customs. the family arrived in saint petersburg on 8 july, marking the end of a honeymoon ( originally planned for three months ) that had lasted over four years. return to russia back in russia in july 1871, the family was again in financial trouble and had to sell their remaining possessions. their son fyodor was born on 16 july, and they moved to an apartment near the institute of technology soon


years. return to russia back in russia in july 1871, the family was again in financial trouble and had to sell their remaining possessions. their son fyodor was born on 16 july, and they moved to an apartment near the institute of technology soon after. they hoped to cancel their large debts by selling their rental house in peski, but difficulties with the tenant resulted in a relatively low selling price, and disputes with their creditors continued. anna proposed that they raise money on her husband ' s copyrights and negotiate with the creditors to pay off their debts in installments. dostoyevsky revived his friendships with maykov and strakhov and made new acquaintances, including church politician terty filipov and the brothers vsevolod and vladimir solovyov. konstantin pobedonostsev, future imperial high commissioner of the most holy synod, influenced dostoyevsky ' s political progression to conservatism. around early 1872 the family spent several months in staraya russa, a town known for its mineral spa. dostoyevsky ' s work was delayed when anna ' s sister maria svatkovskaya died on 1 may 1872, either from typhus or malaria, and anna developed an abscess on her throat. the family returned to st petersburg in september. the possessed was finished on 26 november and released in january 1873 by the " dostoyevsky publishing company ", which was founded by dostoyevsky and his wife. although they only accepted cash payments and the bookshop was in their own apartment, the business was successful, and they sold around 3, 000 copies of the possessed. anna managed the finances. dostoyevsky proposed that they establish a new periodical, which would be called a writer ' s diary and would include a collection of essays, but funds were lacking, and the diary was published in vladimir meshchersky ' s the citizen, beginning on 1 january, in return for a salary of 3, 000 rubles per year. in the summer of 1873, anna returned to staraya russa with the children, while dostoyevsky stayed in st petersburg to continue with his diary. in march 1874 dostoyevsky left the citizen because of the stressful work and interference from the russian bureaucracy. in his fifteen months with the citizen, he had been taken to court twice : on 11 june 1873 for citing the words of prince meshchersky without permission, and again on 23 march 1874. dostoyevsky offered to sell the russian messenger, a new novel he had not yet begun to write, but the


to court twice : on 11 june 1873 for citing the words of prince meshchersky without permission, and again on 23 march 1874. dostoyevsky offered to sell the russian messenger, a new novel he had not yet begun to write, but the magazine refused. nikolay nekrasov suggested that he publish a writer ' s diary in notes of the fatherland ; he would receive 250 rubles for each printer ' s sheet – 100 more than the russian messenger would have earned. dostoyevsky accepted. as his health began to decline, he consulted several doctors in st petersburg and was advised to take a cure outside russia. around july, he reached ems and consulted a physician, who diagnosed him with acute catarrh. during his stay he began the adolescent. he returned to saint petersburg in late july. anna proposed that they spend the winter in staraya russa to allow dostoyevsky to rest, although doctors had suggested a second visit to ems because his health had previously improved there. on 10 august 1875 his son alexey was born in staraya russa, and in mid - september the family returned to saint petersburg. dostoyevsky finished the adolescent at the end of 1875, although passages of it had been serialised in notes of the fatherland since january. the adolescent chronicles the life of arkady dolgoruky, the illegitimate child of the landowner versilov and a peasant mother. it deals primarily with the relationship between father and son, which became a frequent theme in dostoyevsky ' s subsequent works. last years in early 1876, dostoyevsky continued work on his diary. the book includes numerous essays and a few short stories about society, religion politics and ethics. the collection sold more than twice as many copies as his previous books. dostoyevsky received more letters from readers than ever before, and people of all ages and occupations visited him. with assistance from anna ' s brother, the family bought a dacha in staraya russa. in the summer of 1876, dostoyevsky began experiencing shortness of breath again. he visited ems for a third time and was told that he might live for another 15 years if he moved to a healthier climate. when he returned to russia, tsar alexander ii ordered dostoyevsky to visit his palace to present the diary to him, and he asked him to educate his sons, sergey and paul. this visit further increased dosteyevsky ' s circle of acquaintances. he was a frequent guest in several salons in saint petersburg and met many famous people,


the diary to him, and he asked him to educate his sons, sergey and paul. this visit further increased dosteyevsky ' s circle of acquaintances. he was a frequent guest in several salons in saint petersburg and met many famous people, including princess sophia tolstaya, yakov polonsky, sergei witte, alexey suvorin, anton rubinstein and ilya repin. dostoyevsky ' s health declined further, and in march 1877 he had four epileptic seizures. rather than returning to ems, he visited maly prikol, a manor near kursk. while returning to st petersburg to finalise his diary, he visited darovoye, where he had spent much of his childhood. in december he attended nekrasov ' s funeral and gave a speech. he was appointed an honorary member of the russian academy of sciences, from which he received an honorary certificate in february 1879. he declined an invitation to an international congress on copyright in paris after his son alyosha had a severe epileptic seizure and died on 16 may. the family later moved to the apartment where dostoyevsky had written his first works. around this time, he was elected to the board of directors of the slavic benevolent society in saint petersburg. that summer, he was elected to the honorary committee of the association litteraire et artistique internationale, whose members included victor hugo, ivan turgenev, paul heyse, alfred tennyson, anthony trollope, henry longfellow, ralph waldo emerson and leo tolstoy. dostoyevsky made his fourth and final visit to ems in early august 1879. he was diagnosed with early - stage pulmonary emphysema, which his doctor believed could be successfully managed, but not cured. on 3 february 1880 dostoyevsky was elected vice president of the slavic benevolent society, and he was invited to speak at the unveiling of the pushkin memorial in moscow. he delivered his speech from memory two days later, giving an impressive performance that had a significant emotional impact on his audience. his speech was met with thunderous applause, and even his long - time rival turgenev embraced him. the speech was criticized later by liberal political scientist alexander gradovsky, who thought that dostoyevsky idolised " the people ", and by conservative thinker konstantin leontiev, who, in his essay " on universal love ", compared the speech to french utopian socialism. konstantin staniukovich praised the speech in his essay " the pushkin anniversary and dos


people ", and by conservative thinker konstantin leontiev, who, in his essay " on universal love ", compared the speech to french utopian socialism. konstantin staniukovich praised the speech in his essay " the pushkin anniversary and dostoyevsky ' s speech " in the business, writing that " the language of dostoyevsky ' s [ pushkin speech ] really looks like a sermon. he speaks with the tone of a prophet. he makes a sermon like a pastor ; it is very deep, sincere, and we understand that he wants to impress the emotions of his listeners. " the attacks led to a further deterioration in his health. on 25 january 1881, while searching for members of the terrorist organisation narodnaya volya ( " the people ' s will " ) who had assassinated tsar alexander ii, the tsar ' s secret police executed a search warrant in the apartment of one of dostoyevsky ' s neighbours. on the following day, dostoyevsky suffered a pulmonary haemorrhage. anna denied that the search had caused it, saying that the haemorrhage had occurred after her husband had been looking for a dropped pen holder. [ e ] after another haemorrhage, anna called the doctors, who gave a poor prognosis. a third haemorrhage followed shortly afterwards. among dostoyevsky ' s last words was his quotation of matthew 3 : 14 – 15 : " but john forbad him, saying, i have need to be baptised of thee, and comest thou to me? and jesus answering said unto him, suffer it to be so now : for thus it becometh us to fulfil all righteousness ", and he finished with " hear now — permit it. do not restrain me! " when he died, his body was placed on a table, following russian custom. he was interred in the tikhvin cemetery at the alexander nevsky convent, near his favourite poets, karamsin and zhukovsky. it is unclear how many attended his funeral. according to one reporter, more than 100, 000 mourners were present, while others describe attendance between 40, 000 and 50, 000. his tombstone is inscribed with lines from the new testament : verily, verily, i say unto you, except a corn of wheat fall into the ground and die, it abideth alone : but if it die, it bringeth forth much fruit. — jesus, from john 12 : 24 dostoyevsky had his first


, i say unto you, except a corn of wheat fall into the ground and die, it abideth alone : but if it die, it bringeth forth much fruit. — jesus, from john 12 : 24 dostoyevsky had his first known affair with avdotya yakovlevna, whom he met in the panayev circle in the early 1840s. he described her as educated, interested in literature, and a femme fatale. he admitted later that he was uncertain about their relationship. according to anna dostoyevskaya ' s memoirs, dostoyevsky once asked his sister ' s sister - in - law, yelena ivanova, whether she would marry him, hoping to replace her mortally ill husband after he died, but she rejected his proposal. dostoyevsky and polina suslova had a short but intimate affair, which peaked in the winter of 1862 – 63. suslova ' s dalliance with a spaniard in late spring and dostoyevsky ' s gambling addiction and age ended their relationship. he later described her in a letter to nadezhda suslova as a " great egoist. her egoism and her vanity are colossal. she demands everything of other people, all the perfections, and does not pardon the slightest imperfection in the light of other qualities that one may possess ", and later stated " i still love her, but i do not want to love her any more. she doesn ' t deserve this love... " in 1858 dostoyevsky had a romance with comic actress aleksandra ivanovna schubert. although she divorced dostoyevsky ' s friend stepan yanovsky, she would not live with him. dostoyevsky did not love her either, but they were probably good friends. she wrote that he " became very attracted to me ". through a worker in epoch, dostoyevsky learned of the russian - born martha brown ( nee elizaveta andreyevna chlebnikova ), who had had affairs with several westerners. her relationship with dostoyevsky is known only through letters written between november 1864 and january 1865. in 1865, dostoyevsky met anna korvin - krukovskaya. their relationship is not verified ; anna dostoyevskaya spoke of a good affair, but korvin - krukovskaya ' s sister, the mathematician sofia kovalevskaya, thought that korvin - krukovskaya had rejected him. in his youth, dostoyevsky enjoyed reading nikolai karam


good affair, but korvin - krukovskaya ' s sister, the mathematician sofia kovalevskaya, thought that korvin - krukovskaya had rejected him. in his youth, dostoyevsky enjoyed reading nikolai karamzin ' s history of the russian state, which praised conservatism and russian independence, ideas that dostoyevsky would embrace later in life. before his arrest for participating in the petrashevsky circle in 1849, dostoyevsky remarked, " as far as i am concerned, nothing was ever more ridiculous than the idea of a republican government in russia. " in an 1881 edition of his diaries, dostoyevsky stated that the tsar and the people should form a unity : " for the people, the tsar is not an external power, not the power of some conqueror... but a power of all the people, an all - unifying power the people themselves desired. " while critical of serfdom, dostoyevsky was sceptical about the creation of a constitution, a concept he viewed as unrelated to russia ' s history. he described it as a mere " gentleman ' s rule " and believed that " a constitution would simply enslave the people ". he advocated social change instead, for example removal of the feudal system and a weakening of the divisions between the peasantry and the affluent classes. his ideal was a utopian, christianized russia where " if everyone were actively christian, not a single social question would come up... if they were christians they would settle everything ". he thought democracy and oligarchy were poor systems ; of france he wrote, " the oligarchs are only concerned with the interest of the wealthy ; the democrats, only with the interest of the poor ; but the interests of society, the interest of all and the future of france as a whole — no one there bothers about these things. " he maintained that political parties ultimately led to social discord. in the 1860s, he discovered pochvennichestvo, a movement similar to slavophilism in that it rejected europe ' s culture and contemporary philosophical movements, such as nihilism and materialism. pochvennichestvo differed from slavophilism in aiming to establish, not an isolated russia, but a more open state modelled on the russia of peter the great. in his incomplete article " socialism and christianity ", dostoyevsky claimed that civilisation ( " the second stage in human history " ) had become degraded


, not an isolated russia, but a more open state modelled on the russia of peter the great. in his incomplete article " socialism and christianity ", dostoyevsky claimed that civilisation ( " the second stage in human history " ) had become degraded, and that it was moving towards liberalism and losing its faith in god. he asserted that the traditional concept of christianity should be recovered. he thought that contemporary western europe had " rejected the single formula for their salvation that came from god and was proclaimed through revelation, ' thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself ', and replaced it with practical conclusions such as, ' chacun pour soi et dieu pour tous ' [ every man for himself and god for all ], or scientific slogans like ' the struggle for survival ' ". he considered this crisis to be the consequence of the collision between communal and individual interests, brought about by a decline in religious and moral principles. dostoyevsky distinguished three " enormous world ideas " prevalent in his time : roman catholicism, protestantism and russian orthodoxy. he claimed that catholicism had continued the tradition of imperial rome and had thus become anti - christian and proto - socialist, inasmuch as the church ' s interest in political and mundane affairs led it to abandon the idea of christ. for dostoyevsky, socialism was " the latest incarnation of the catholic idea " and its " natural ally ". he found protestantism self - contradictory and claimed that it would ultimately lose power and spirituality. he deemed russian orthodoxy to be the ideal form of christianity. during the russo - turkish war ( 1877 – 1878 ), dostoyevsky asserted that war might be necessary if salvation were to be granted. he wanted the muslim ottoman empire eliminated and the christian byzantine empire restored, and he hoped for the liberation of balkan slavs and their unification with the russian empire. dostoyevsky expressed antisemitic sentiments, some of which are found in his diaries, but he also stood up for the rights of jews. in a review of joseph frank ' s book the mantle of the prophet, orlando figes states that a writer ' s diary is " filled with politics, literary criticism, and pan - slav diatribes about the virtues of the russian empire, [ and ] represents a major challenge to the dostoyevsky fan, not least on account of its frequent expressions of antisemitism. " in his foreword for david i. goldstein ' s book dostoevsky and the jews, frank tried to paint dostoyevsky as a product of his


dostoyevsky fan, not least on account of its frequent expressions of antisemitism. " in his foreword for david i. goldstein ' s book dostoevsky and the jews, frank tried to paint dostoyevsky as a product of his time, noting that dostoyevsky made antisemitic remarks, but was not entirely comfortable with these views. he supported equal rights for the russian jewish population, which was an unpopular position in russia. he stated that he did not hate jewish people and was not antisemitic. he claimed that jews might exert a negative influence, but he advised the tsar to allow them to occupy influential positions such as university professorships. the antisemitism label does not reflect his expressed desire to reconcile jews and christians peacefully in a universal brotherhood of mankind. dostoyevsky was raised in a religious family and knew the gospel from a very young age. he was influenced by the russian translation of johannes hubner ' s one hundred and four sacred stories from the old and new testaments selected for children ( partly a german bible for children and partly a catechism ). he attended sunday services from an early age and took part in annual pilgrimages to the st sergius trinity monastery. a deacon at the hospital gave him religious instruction. among his most cherished childhood memories were the prayers he used to recite in front of guests and a reading from the book of job that impressed him while " still almost a child ". according to an officer at the military academy, dostoyevsky was profoundly religious, followed orthodox practice, and regularly read the gospels and heinrich zschokke ' s die stunden der andacht ( " hours of devotion " ), which " preached a sentimental version of christianity entirely free from dogmatic content and with a strong emphasis on giving christian love a social application ". this book may have prompted his later interest in christian socialism. through the literature of hoffmann, balzac, eugene sue and goethe, dostoyevsky created his own belief system, similar to russian sectarianism and the old belief. after his arrest, aborted execution and subsequent imprisonment, he focused intensely on the figure of christ and on the new testament, the only book allowed in prison. in a january 1854 letter to the woman who had sent him the testament, dostoyevsky wrote that he was a " child of unbelief and doubt up to this moment, and i am certain that i shall remain so to the grave ". he also wrote that " even if someone were


sent him the testament, dostoyevsky wrote that he was a " child of unbelief and doubt up to this moment, and i am certain that i shall remain so to the grave ". he also wrote that " even if someone were to prove to me that the truth lay outside christ, i should choose to remain with christ rather than with the truth ". in semipalatinsk, dostoyevsky revived his faith by looking frequently at the stars. wrangel said that he was " rather pious, but did not often go to church, and disliked priests, especially the siberian ones. but he spoke about christ ecstatically. " both planned to translate hegel ' s works and carus ' psyche. dostoyevsky explored islam, asking his brother to send him a copy of the quran. two pilgrimages and two works by dmitri rostovsky, an archbishop who influenced ukrainian and russian literature by composing groundbreaking religious plays, strengthened his beliefs. through his visits to western europe and discussions with herzen, grigoriev, and strakhov, dostoyevsky discovered the pochvennichestvo movement and the theory that the catholic church had adopted the principles of rationalism, legalism, materialism and individualism from ancient rome and had passed on its philosophy to protestantism and consequently to atheistic socialism. dostoyevsky ' s fundamental beliefs remain uncertain, since he never fully stated them. in april 1876, in response to a question about a suicide in diary of a writer, he remarked that he was a " philosophical deist " — this was a quote from the adolescent, though he did not say that it was. but his belief in doctrines such as the trinity — clearly discussed in the brothers karamazov, for example — suggests that he may not have fully understood the meaning of this term. two months later, he wrote in his diaries that his heroine george sand " died a deiste, firmly believing in god and in the immortality of the soul ", although deists at that time had a range of beliefs about the immortality of the soul. from an analysis of religious perspectives in crime and punishment, the idiot, demons, and the brothers karamazov, james townsend concludes that dostoyevsky held orthodox christian beliefs except for his view of salvation from sin. according to townsend, " dostoevsky almost seemed to embrace an in - this - life purgatory ", in which people suffer to atone from their sins, in contrast with the christian doctrine of salvation through


his view of salvation from sin. according to townsend, " dostoevsky almost seemed to embrace an in - this - life purgatory ", in which people suffer to atone from their sins, in contrast with the christian doctrine of salvation through christ. malcolm v. jones has found elements of islam and buddhism in dostoyevsky ' s religious convictions. themes and style dostoyevsky expressed religious, psychological and philosophical ideas in his writings. his works explore such themes as suicide, poverty, human manipulation, and morality. psychological themes include dreaming, first seen in " white nights ", and the father - son relationship, beginning in the adolescent. most of his works demonstrate a vision of the chaotic sociopolitical structure of contemporary russia. his early works viewed society ( for example, the differences between poor and rich ) through the lens of literary realism and naturalism. the influences of other writers, particularly evident in his early works, led to accusations of plagiarism, but his style gradually became more individual. after his release from prison, dostoyevsky incorporated religious themes, especially those of russian orthodoxy, into his writing. elements of gothic fiction, romanticism, and satire are observable in some of his books. the main stylistic elements in his works are polyphony and autobiographical or semi - autobiographical details. his negative characters, such as the underground man in notes from underground, raskolnikov in crime and punishment, ippolit in the idiot, kirillov in demons, and ivan karamazov and smerdiakov in the brothers karamazov are products of their times and eventually commit either a crime or suicide. dostoyevsky ' s works were often called " philosophical ", although he described himself as " weak in philosophy ". " fyodor mikhailovich loved these questions about the essence of things and the limits of knowledge ", wrote strakhov. although theologian george florovsky described dostoyevsky as a " philosophical problem ", because it is unknown whether dostoyevsky believed in what he wrote, many philosophical ideas are found in books such as a writer ' s diary and the brothers karamazov. he may have been critical of rational and logical thinking because he was " more a sage and an artist than a strictly logical, consistent thinker ". he represented kierkegaardian irrationalism in works such as house of the dead, notes from underground, crime and punishment and demons. his irrationalism is mentioned in william barrett ' s irrational man : a study


logical, consistent thinker ". he represented kierkegaardian irrationalism in works such as house of the dead, notes from underground, crime and punishment and demons. his irrationalism is mentioned in william barrett ' s irrational man : a study in existential philosophy and in walter kaufmann ' s existentialisms from dostoevsky to sartre. reception and influence together with tolstoy, dostoyevsky is often regarded as one of the greatest and most influential novelists of the golden age of russian literature. albert einstein put him above the mathematician carl friedrich gauss, calling him a " great religious writer " who explores " the mystery of spiritual existence ". friedrich nietzsche called dostoyevsky " the only psychologist... from whom i had something to learn ; he ranks among the most beautiful strokes of fortune in my life ". hermann hesse enjoyed dostoyevsky ' s work and cautioned that to read him is like a " glimpse into the havoc ". the norwegian novelist knut hamsun wrote that " no one has analysed the complicated human structure as dostoyevsky. his psychologic sense is overwhelming and visionary. " in his posthumous collection of sketches a moveable feast, ernest hemingway stated that in dostoevsky " there were things believable and not to be believed, but some so true that they changed you as you read them ; frailty and madness, wickedness and saintliness, and the insanity of gambling were there to know ". james joyce praised dostoyevsky ' s prose : "... he is the man more than any other who has created modern prose, and intensified it to its present - day pitch. it was his explosive power which shattered the victorian novel with its simpering maidens and ordered commonplaces ; books which were without imagination or violence. " in her essay the russian point of view, virginia woolf said, " out of shakespeare there is no more exciting reading ". franz kafka called dostoyevsky his " blood - relative " and was heavily influenced by his works, particularly the brothers karamazov and crime and punishment, both of which profoundly influenced the trial. sigmund freud called the brothers karamazov " the most significant novel ever written ". modern cultural movements such as the surrealists, the existentialists and the beats cite dostoyevsky as an influence, and he is cited as the forerunner of russian symbolism, existentialism, expressionism and psychoanalysis. in 1956 an olive - green postage stamp dedicated to dostoyevsky


, the existentialists and the beats cite dostoyevsky as an influence, and he is cited as the forerunner of russian symbolism, existentialism, expressionism and psychoanalysis. in 1956 an olive - green postage stamp dedicated to dostoyevsky was released in the soviet union, with a print run of 1, 000 copies. a dostoevsky museum was opened on 12 november 1971 in the apartment where he wrote his first and final novels. a crater on mercury was named after him in 1979, and a minor planet discovered in 1981 by lyudmila karachkina was named 3453 dostoevsky. music critic and broadcaster artemy troitsky has hosted the radio show " fm достоевскии " ( fm dostoyevsky ) since 1997. j. m. coetzee featured dostoyevsky as the protagonist in his 1997 novel the master of petersburg. viewers of the tv show name of russia voted him the ninth greatest russian of all time, behind chemist dmitry mendeleev and ahead of ruler ivan iv. an eagle award - winning tv series directed by vladimir khotinenko about dostoyevsky ' s life was screened in 2011. numerous memorials were inaugurated in cities and regions such as moscow, saint petersburg, novosibirsk, omsk, semipalatinsk, kusnetsk, darovoye, staraya russa, lyublino, tallinn, dresden, baden - baden and wiesbaden. the dostoyevskaya metro station in saint petersburg was opened on 30 december 1991, and the station of the same name in moscow was opened on 19 june 2010, the 75th anniversary of the moscow metro. the moscow station is decorated with murals by artist ivan nikolaev depicting scenes from dostoyevsky ' s works, such as controversial suicides. dostoyevsky ' s work did not always gain a positive reception. several critics, such as nikolay dobrolyubov, ivan bunin and vladimir nabokov, viewed his writing as excessively psychological and philosophical rather than artistic. others found fault with chaotic and disorganised plots, and others, like turgenev, objected to " excessive psychologising " and too - detailed naturalism. his style was deemed " prolix, repetitious and lacking in polish, balance, restraint and good taste ". saltykov - shchedrin, tolstoy, nikolay mikhaylovsky and others criticised his puppet - like characters, most prominently in the idiot, the possessed


, repetitious and lacking in polish, balance, restraint and good taste ". saltykov - shchedrin, tolstoy, nikolay mikhaylovsky and others criticised his puppet - like characters, most prominently in the idiot, the possessed and the brothers karamazov. these characters were compared to those of hoffmann, an author whom dostoyevsky admired. basing his estimation on stated criteria of enduring art and individual genius, nabokov judges dostoyevsky " not a great writer, but rather a mediocre one — with flashes of excellent humour but, alas, with wastelands of literary platitudes in between ". nabokov complains that the novels are peopled by " neurotics and lunatics " and states that dostoyevsky ' s characters do not develop : " we get them all complete at the beginning of the tale and so they remain. " he finds the novels full of contrived " surprises and complications of plot ", which are effective when first read, but on second reading, without the shock and benefit of these surprises, appear loaded with " glorified cliche ". dostoyevsky ' s books have been translated into more than 170 languages and have sold around 15 million copies. the german translator wilhelm wolfsohn published one of the first translations, parts of poor folk, in an 1846 – 1847 magazine, and a french translation followed. french, german and italian translations usually came directly from the original, while english translations were second - hand and of poor quality. the first english translations were by marie von thilo in 1881, but the first highly regarded ones were produced between 1912 and 1920 by constance garnett. her flowing and easy translations helped popularize dostoyevsky ' s novels in anglophone countries, and bakthin ' s problems of dostoevsky ' s poetics ( 1929 ) provided further understanding of his style. dostoyevsky ' s works were interpreted in film and on stage in many different countries. princess varvara dmitrevna obolenskaya was among the first to propose staging crime and punishment. dostoyevsky did not refuse permission, but he advised against it, as he believed that " each art corresponds to a series of poetic thoughts, so that one idea cannot be expressed in another non - corresponding form ". his extensive explanations in opposition to the transposition of his works into other media were groundbreaking in fidelity criticism. he thought that just one episode should be dramatised, or an idea should be taken and incorporated


expressed in another non - corresponding form ". his extensive explanations in opposition to the transposition of his works into other media were groundbreaking in fidelity criticism. he thought that just one episode should be dramatised, or an idea should be taken and incorporated into a separate plot. according to critic alexander burry, some of the most effective adaptions are sergei prokofiev ' s opera the gambler, leos janacek ' s opera from the house of the dead, akira kurosawa ' s film the idiot and andrzej wajda ' s film the possessed. after the 1917 russian revolution, dostoyevsky ' s books were often censored or banned. his philosophy, particularly in demons, was deemed capitalist and anti - communist, leading maxim gorky to dub the author " our evil genius ". reading dostoyevsky was forbidden, and those caught doing so were imprisoned. during the second world war, however, his works were used as propaganda by both the soviets and the nazis, and after the war the soviet prohibition was overturned. although the 125th anniversary of his birth was celebrated throughout russia in 1947, his works were banned again until nikita khrushchev ' s accession to power ten years later, following de - stalinization and a softening of repressive laws. dostoyevsky ' s works of fiction include 15 novels and novellas, 17 short stories, and 5 translations. many of his longer novels were first published in serialised form in literary magazines and journals. the years given below indicate the year in which the novel ' s final part or first complete book edition was published. in english many of his novels and stories are known by different titles. major works poor folk poor folk is an epistolary novel that describes the relationship between the small, elderly official makar devushkin and the young seamstress varvara dobroselova, remote relatives who write letters to each other. makar ' s tender, sentimental adoration for varvara and her confident, warm friendship for him explain their evident preference for a simple life, although it keeps them in humiliating poverty. an unscrupulous merchant finds the inexperienced girl and hires her as his housewife and guarantor. he sends her to a manor somewhere on a steppe, while makar alleviates his misery and pain with alcohol. the story focuses on poor people who struggle with their lack of self - esteem. their misery leads to the loss of their inner freedom, to dependence on the social authorities, and to the extinction of


makar alleviates his misery and pain with alcohol. the story focuses on poor people who struggle with their lack of self - esteem. their misery leads to the loss of their inner freedom, to dependence on the social authorities, and to the extinction of their individuality. dostoyevsky shows how poverty and dependence are indissolubly aligned with deflection and deformation of self - esteem, combining inward and outerward suffering. notes from underground notes from underground is split into two stylistically different parts, the first essay - like, the second in narrative style. the protagonist and first - person narrator is an unnamed 40 - year - old civil servant known as the underground man. the only known facts about his situation are that he has quit the service, lives in a basement flat on the outskirts of saint petersburg and finances his livelihood from a modest inheritance. the first part is a record of his thoughts about society and his character. he describes himself as vicious, squalid and ugly ; the chief focuses of his polemic are the " modern human " and his vision of the world, which he attacks severely and cynically, and towards which he develops aggression and vengefulness. he considers his own decline natural and necessary. although he emphasizes that he does not intend to publish his notes for the public, the narrator appeals repeatedly to an ill - described audience, whose questions he tries to address. in the second part he describes scenes from his life that are responsible for his failure in personal and professional life and in his love life. he tells of meeting old school friends, who are in secure positions and treat him with condescension. his aggression turns inward on to himself and he tries to humiliate himself further. he presents himself as a possible saviour to the poor prostitute lisa, advising her to reject self - reproach when she looks to him for hope. dostoyevsky added a short commentary saying that although the storyline and characters are fictional, such things were inevitable in contemporary society. crime and punishment a detective novel, crime and punishment describes rodion raskolnikov ' s life, from the murder of a pawnbroker, through spiritual regeneration with the help of sonya ( a " hooker with a heart of gold " ), to his sentence in siberia. strakhov liked the novel, remarking that " only crime and punishment was read in 1866 " and that dostoyevsky had managed to portray a russian person aptly and realistically. otherwise, it received a mixed reception from critics, with most


critics and scholars agree that dostoyevsky is attacking roman catholicism and socialist atheism, both represented by the inquisitor. he warns the readers against a terrible revelation in the future, referring to the donation of pepin around 750 and the spanish inquisition in the 16th century, which in his view corrupted true christianity. novels and novellas short stories essay collections - ( 1843 ) eugenie grandet ( honore de balzac ) - ( 1843 ) la derniere aldini ( george sand ) - ( 1843 ) mary stuart ( friedrich schiller ) - ( 1843 ) boris godunov ( alexander pushkin ) - his name has been variously transcribed into english, his first name sometimes being rendered as theodore or fedor. before the post - revolutionary orthographic reform which, among other things, replaced the cyrillic letter ( ' th ' ) with the cyrillic letter ф ( ' f ' ), dostoyevsky ' s name was written ( theodor ) михаиловичъ достоевскіи. - old style date 30 october 1821 – 28 january 1881 - time magazine was a popular periodical with more than 4, 000 subscribers before it was closed on 24 may 1863 by the tsarist regime after publishing an essay by nikolay strakhov about the polish revolt in russia. vremya and its 1864 successor epokha expressed the philosophy of the conservative and slavophile movement pochvennichestvo, supported by dostoyevsky during his term of imprisonment and in the following years. - another reason for his abstinence might have been the closure of casinos in germany in 1872 and 1873 ( it was not until the rise of adolf hitler that they were reopened ) or his entering a synagogue that he confused with a gambling hall. according to biographer joseph frank, dostoyevsky took that as a sign not to gamble anymore. - the haemorrhage could also have been triggered by heated disputes with his sister vera about his aunt aleksandra kumanina ' s estate, which was settled on 30 march and discussed in the st petersburg city court on 24 july 1879. anna later acquired a part of his estate consisting of around 185 desiatina ( around 500 acres or 202 ha ) of forest and 92 desiatina of farmland. - scanlan, james patrick ( 2002 ). dostoevsky the thinker : a philosophical study. cornell university press. isbn 978 - 0 - 8014 - 3994 - 0. - kjet


and 92 desiatina of farmland. - scanlan, james patrick ( 2002 ). dostoevsky the thinker : a philosophical study. cornell university press. isbn 978 - 0 - 8014 - 3994 - 0. - kjetsaa 1989, pp. 1 – 5. - frank 1979, pp. 6 – 22. - kjetsaa 1989, p. 11. - terras, victor ( 1985 ). handbook of russian literature. yale university press. p. 102. isbn 0 - 300 - 04868 - 8. - kjetsaa 1989, pp. 6 – 11. - frank 1979, pp. 23 – 54. - sekirin 1997, p. 108. - kjetsaa 1989, p. 6. - kjetsaa 1989, p. 39. - kjetsaa 1989, pp. 14 – 5. - kjetsaa 1989, pp. 17 – 23. - frank 1979, pp. 69 – 90. - lantz 2004, p. 2. - kjetsaa 1989, pp. 24 – 7. - frank 1979, pp. 69 – 111. - sekirin 1997, p. 59. - lantz 2004, p. 109. - kjetsaa 1989, pp. 31 – 6. - frank 1979, pp. 114 – 5. - kjetsaa 1989, pp. 36 – 7. - dostoyevsky, fyodor. " letters of fyodor michailovitch dostoyevsky to his family and friends ". translated by ethel golburn mayne. retrieved 3 october 2012. - sekirin 1997, p. 73. - frank 1979, pp. 113 – 57. - kjetsaa 1989, pp. 42 – 9. - frank 1979, pp. 159 – 82. - kjetsaa 1989, pp. 53 – 5. - mochulsky 1967, pp. 115 – 21. - kjetsaa 1989, p. 59. - frank 1979, pp. 239 – 46, 259 – 346. - kjetsaa 1989, pp. 58 – 69. - mochulsky 1967, pp. 99 – 101. - mochulsky 1967, pp. 121 – 33. - frank 1987, pp. 6 – 68. - kjetsaa 1989, pp. 72 – 9. - kjetsaa 1989, pp. 79 – 96. - sekirin 1997, p


, pp. 121 – 33. - frank 1987, pp. 6 – 68. - kjetsaa 1989, pp. 72 – 9. - kjetsaa 1989, pp. 79 – 96. - sekirin 1997, p. 113. - sekirin 1997, p. 131. - kjetsaa 1989, pp. 96 – 108. - frank 1988, pp. 8 – 20. - sekirin 1997, pp. 107 – 21. - kjetsaa 1989, pp. 112 – 3. - frank 1987, pp. 165 – 267. - kjetsaa 1989, pp. 108 – 13. - sekirin 1997, p. 168. - frank 1987, pp. 175 – 221. - kjetsaa 1989, pp. 115 – 63. - frank 1988, pp. 34 – 64. - frank 1987, pp. 290 et seq. - frank 1988, pp. 8 – 62. - kjetsaa 1989, pp. 135 – 7. - frank 1988, pp. 233 – 49. - kjetsaa 1989, pp. 143 – 5. - frank 1988, pp. 197 – 211, 283 – 94, 248 – 365. - kjetsaa 1989, pp. 151 – 75. - frank 2009, p. 462. - leatherbarrow 2002, p. 83. - frank 1997, pp. 42 – 183. - kjetsaa 1989, pp. 162 – 96. - sekirin 1997, p. 178. - kjetsaa 1989, p. 219. - frank 1997, pp. 151 – 363. - kjetsaa 1989, pp. 201 – 37. - kjetsaa 1989, p. 245. - frank 2003, p. 639. - kjetsaa 1989, pp. 240 – 61. - frank 1997, pp. 241 – 363. - kjetsaa 1989, p. 265. - frank 2003, pp. 14 – 63. - kjetsaa 1989, pp. 265 – 7. - " the dostoyevsky encyclopedia – about dostoyevsky " ( in russian ). nikolay nasedkin. retrieved 1 march 2013. - kjetsaa 1989, pp. 268 – 71. - frank 2003, pp. 38 – 118. - kjetsaa 1989, pp. 269 – 89. - frank 2003, pp. 120 – 47. - kjetsaa 1989, pp


27. - lantz 2004, pp. 185. - figes, orlando ( 29 september 2002 ). " dostoevsky ' s leap of faith ". sunday telegraph. p. 13. - goldstein 1981, p. xiv. - cassedy 2005, pp. 67 – 80. - frank 1979, p. 401. - kjetsaa 1989, pp. 8 – 9. - jones 2005, p. 1. - kjetsaa 1989, pp. 7 – 9. - frank 2009, pp. 24, 30. - jones 2005, p. 2. - jones 2005, p. 6. - jones 2005, p. 7. - frank 1979, pp. 22 – 3. - jones 2005, p. 7 - 9. - pattison & thompson 2001, p. 136. - cassedy 2005, p. 64. - frank 2003, p. 223. - townsend, james ( autumn 1997 ). " dostoyevsky and his theology ". journal of the grace evangelical society ( grace evangelical society ). 10 : 19. retrieved 13 april 2013. - jones 2005, p. 68 - 9. - frank 2009, p. 110. - catteau, jacques ( 1989 ). dostoyevsky and the process of literary creation. cambridge university press. p. 282. isbn 978 - 0 - 521 - 32436 - 6. - terras 1998, p. 59. - terras 1998, p. 14. - bloshteyn 2007, p. 3. - lantz 2004, pp. 167 - 70. - lantz 2004, pp. 361 - 4. - scanlan 2002, p. 59. - " достоевскии федор михаилович : стихотворения " [ fyodor mikhailovich dostoyevsky : poems ] ( in russian ). lib. ru. retrieved 22 september 2012. - paperno 1997, pp. 123 – 6. - lantz 2004, pp. 424 – 8. - dostoyevskaya anna. полное собрание сочинении ф. м. достоевского, st. petersburg, 1882 – 83, 1 : 225 - solovyov, vladimir. собрание сочинении вл


м. достоевского, st. petersburg, 1882 – 83, 1 : 225 - solovyov, vladimir. собрание сочинении владимира сергеевича соловьева, st. petersburg, общественная польза, 1901 – 07, 5 : 382 - scanlan 2002, p. 3 - 6. - lauer 2000, p. 364. - vucinich, alexander ( 2001 ). einstein and soviet ideology. stanford university press. p. 181. isbn 0 - 8047 - 4209 - x. - muller 1982, p. 7. - muller 1982, p. 8. - lavrin 1947, p. 161. - dahiya, bhim s. ( 1992 ). hemingway ' s a farewell to arms : a critical study. academic foundation. p. 15. isbn 978 - 81 - 269 - 0772 - 4. - power, arthur ; joyce, james. conversations with james joyce. university of toronto. pp. 51 – 60. isbn 978 - 1 - 901866 - 41 - 4. - woolf, virginia. " chapter 16 : the russian point of view ". the common reader. houghton mifflin harcourt. isbn 978 - 0 - 15 - 602778 - 6. - bridgwater, patrick ( 2003 ). kafka : gothic and fairytale. rodopi. p. 9. isbn 978 - 90 - 420 - 1194 - 6. - struc, roman s. " kafka and dostoevsky as ' blood relatives ' ". university of toronto. retrieved 8 june 2012. - rieff, philip ( 1979 ). freud, the mind of the moralist ( 3rd ed. ). university of chicago press. p. 132. isbn 978 - 0 - 226 - 71639 - 8. - bloshteyn 2007, p. 5. - lavrin2 2005, p. 38. - bloom 2004, p. 108. - burry 2011, p. 57. - breger 2008, p. 270. - " ussr ( soviet union ) postage – stamps : 1956 – 1960 ". cpa – " souzpechat " central philatelic agency. retrieved 10 may 2012. - "


57. - breger 2008, p. 270. - " ussr ( soviet union ) postage – stamps : 1956 – 1960 ". cpa – " souzpechat " central philatelic agency. retrieved 10 may 2012. - " museum ". fyodor dostoevsky literary memorial museum. retrieved 10 may 2012. - " радио финам фм 99. 6 " ( in russian ). финам. retrieved 20 april 2013. - " результаты интернет голосования " [ internet voting results ] ( in russian ). name of russia. retrieved 15 may 2012. - " liublinsko - dmitrovskaya line ". moscow metro. retrieved 10 may 2012. - " opening delayed for moscow metro ' s " station of suicides " ". russia today. tv - novosti. 15 may 2010. retrieved 10 may 2012. - terras 1998, pp. 3 – 4. - nabokov, vladamir ( 1981 ). lectures on russian literature. harvest book / harcourt. pp. 97 – 135. isbn 0 - 15 - 602776 - 3. - kjetsaa 1989, p. foreword. - meier - grafe 1988, p. 492. - bloshteyn 2007, p. 26. - jones & terry 2010, p. 216. - france, peter ( 2001 ). the oxford guide to literature in english translation. oxford university press. pp. 594 – 8. isbn 0 - 19 - 818359 - 3. - burry 2011, p. 3. - burry 2011, p. 5. - bloshteyn 2007, pp. 7 – 8. - kjetsaa 1989, pp. 69 – 103. - halliwell, martin ( 2006 ). transatlantic modernism : moral dilemmas in modernist fiction. edinburgh university press. p. 13. isbn 0 - 7486 - 2393 - 0. - eysteinsson, astraður ( 1990 ). the concept of modernism. cornell university press. p. 29. isbn 0 - 8014 - 8077 - 9. - cicovacki 2012, p. 80. - kjetsaa 1989, p. 183. - frank 1997, p. 45, 60 – 182. - kjetsaa 1989, pp. 274 – 309. -


9. - cicovacki 2012, p. 80. - kjetsaa 1989, p. 183. - frank 1997, p. 45, 60 – 182. - kjetsaa 1989, pp. 274 – 309. - kjetsaa 1989, pp. 310 – 322. - frank 2003, pp. 390 – 441. - frank 1997, pp. 567 – 705. - kjetsaa 1989, pp. 337 – 414. - muller 1982, pp. 91 – 103. - bercken, wil van den ( 2011 ). christian fiction and religious realism in the novels of dostoevsky. anthem press. isbn 978 - 0 - 85728 - 976 - 6. - bloshteyn, maria r. ( 2007 ). the making of a counter - culture icon : henry miller ' s dostoevsky. university of toronto press. isbn 978 - 0 - 8020 - 9228 - 1. - breger, louis ( 2008 ). dostoevsky : the author as psychoanalyst. transaction publishers. isbn 978 - 1 - 4128 - 0843 - 9. - burry, alexander ( 2011 ). multi - mediated dostoevsky : transposing novels into opera, film, and drama. northwestern university press. isbn 978 - 0 - 8101 - 2715 - 9. - cassedy, steven ( 2005 ). dostoevsky ' s religion. stanford university press. isbn 0 - 8047 - 5137 - 4. - cicovacki, predrag ( 2012 ). dostoevsky and the affirmation of life. transaction publishers. isbn 978 - 1 - 4128 - 4606 - 6. - frank, joseph ( 1981 ). " foreword ". in goldstein, david. dostoevsky and the jews. university of texas press. isbn 978 - 0 - 292 - 71528 - 8. - jones, malcolm v. ( 2005 ). dostoevsky and the dynamics of religious experience. anthem press. isbn 978 - 1 - 84331 - 205 - 5. - jones, malcom v. ; terry, garth m. ( 2010 ). new essays on dostoyevsky. cambridge university press. isbn 978 - 0 - 521 - 15531 - 1. - lantz, kenneth a. ( 2004 ). the dostoevsky encyclopedia. greenwood publishing group. isbn 978 - 0 - 313 - 30384 - 5. - lauer, reinhard ( 2000


- 521 - 15531 - 1. - lantz, kenneth a. ( 2004 ). the dostoevsky encyclopedia. greenwood publishing group. isbn 978 - 0 - 313 - 30384 - 5. - lauer, reinhard ( 2000 ). geschichte der russischen literatur : von 1700 bis zur gegenwart ( in german ). verlag c. h. beck. isbn 978 - 3 - 406 - 50267 - 5. - lavrin, janko ( 2005 ). dostoevsky : a study. kessinger publishing. isbn 978 - 1 - 4179 - 8844 - 0. - leatherbarrow, william j ( 2002 ). the cambridge companion to dostoevskii. cambridge university press. isbn 978 - 0 - 521 - 65473 - 9. - meier - grafe, julius ( 1988 ). dostojewski der dichter ( in german ). insel verlag. isbn 3 - 458 - 32799 - 1. - mochulsky, konstantin ( 1967 ). dostoevsky : his life and work. minihan, michael a. ( translator ). princeton university press. isbn 0 - 691 - 01299 - 7. - muller, ludolf ( 1982 ). dostojewskij : sein leben, sein werk, sein vermachtnis ( in german ). erich wewel verlag. isbn 978 - 3 - 87904 - 100 - 8. - paperno, irina ( 1997 ). suicide as a cultural institution in dostoevsky ' s russia. cornell university press. isbn 978 - 0 - 8014 - 8425 - 4. - pattison, george ; thompson, diane oenning ( 2001 ). dostoevsky and the christian tradition. cambridge university press. isbn 978 - 0 - 521 - 78278 - 4. - scanlan, james patrick ( 2002 ). dostoevsky the thinker. cornell university press. isbn 978 - 0 - 8014 - 3994 - 0. - sekirin, peter, ed. ( 1997 ). the dostoevsky archive : firsthand accounts of the novelist from contemporaries ' memoirs and rare periodicals, most translated into english for the first time, with a detailed lifetime chronology and annotated bibliography. mcfarland. isbn 978 - 0 - 7864 - 0264 - 9. - terras, victor ( 1998 ). reading dostoevsky. university of wisconsin press


the first time, with a detailed lifetime chronology and annotated bibliography. mcfarland. isbn 978 - 0 - 7864 - 0264 - 9. - terras, victor ( 1998 ). reading dostoevsky. university of wisconsin press. isbn 978 - 0 - 299 - 16054 - 8. - bloom, harold ( 2004 ). fyodor dostoevsky. infobase publishing. isbn 978 - 0 - 7910 - 8117 - 4. - frank, joseph ( 2009 ). dostoevsky : a writer in his time. princeton university press. isbn 978 - 0 - 691 - 12819 - 1. - frank, joseph ( 1979 ). dostoevsky : the seeds of revolt, 1821 – 1849. princeton university press. isbn 978 - 0 - 691 - 01355 - 8. - frank, joseph ( 1987 ). dostoevsky : the years of ordeal, 1850 – 1859. princeton university press. isbn 978 - 0 - 691 - 01422 - 7. - frank, joseph ( 1988 ). dostoevsky : the stir of liberation, 1860 – 1865. princeton university press. isbn 978 - 0 - 691 - 01452 - 4. - frank, joseph ( 1997 ). dostoevsky : the miraculous years, 1865 – 1871. princeton university press. isbn 978 - 0 - 691 - 01587 - 3. - frank, joseph ( 2003 ). dostoevsky : the mantle of the prophet, 1871 – 1881. princeton university press. isbn 978 - 0 - 691 - 11569 - 6. - kjetsaa, geir ( 1989 ). a writer ' s life. fawcett columbine. isbn 978 - 0 - 449 - 90334 - 6. - lavrin, janko ( 1947 ). dostoevksy. new york the macmillan company. oclc 646160256. | find more about fyodor dostoyevsky at wikipedia ' s sister projects | | media from commons | | quotations from wikiquote | | source texts from wikisource | - information about dostoyevsky ( german ) - fyodordostoevsky. com – forum, quotes, essays, photos, bio, ebooks and more - complete works ( russian ) - complete journalistic works ( russian ) - dostoyevsky studies - biographical and critical material - dostoyevsky ' s family tree - works by fyodor dostoyevsky at project gut


hydrilla ( esthwaite waterweed or hydrilla ) is an aquatic plant genus, usually treated as containing just one species, hydrilla verticillata, though some botanists divide it into several species. synonyms include h. asiatica, h. japonica, h. lithuanica, and h. ovalifolica. it is native to the cool and warm waters of the old world in asia, europe, africa and australia, with a sparse, scattered distribution ; in europe, it is reported from ireland, great britain, germany, and the baltic states, and in australia from northern territory, queensland, and new south wales.. the stems grow up to 1 – 2 m long. the leaves are arranged in whorls of two to eight around the stem, each leaf 5 – 20 mm long and 0. 7 – 2 mm broad, with serrations or small spines along the leaf margins ; the leaf midrib is often reddish when fresh. it is monoecious ( sometimes dioecious ), with male and female flowers produced separately on a single plant ; the flowers are small, with three sepals and three petals, the petals 3 – 5 mm long, transparent with red streaks. it reproduces primarily vegetatively by fragmentation and by rhizomes and turions ( overwintering ), and flowers are rarely seen. hydrilla has a high resistance to salinity ( > 1 - 100000ppt ) compared to many other freshwater associated aquatic plants. the name esthwaite waterweed comes from its occurrence in esthwaite water in northwestern england, the only english site where it is native, but now presumed extinct, having not been seen since 1941. hydrilla closely resembles some other related aquatic plants, including egeria and elodea. status as an invasive plant hydrilla is naturalised and invasive in the united states following release in the 1960s from aquariums into waterways in florida. it is now established in canada and the southeast from connecticut to texas, and also in california. by the 1990s control and management were costing millions of dollars each year. hydrilla can be controlled by the application of aquatic herbicides and it is also eaten by grass carp, itself an invasive species in north america. insects used as biological pest control for this plant include weevils of the genus bagous and the asian hydrilla leaf - mining fly ( hydrellia pakistanae ). tube


grass carp, itself an invasive species in north america. insects used as biological pest control for this plant include weevils of the genus bagous and the asian hydrilla leaf - mining fly ( hydrellia pakistanae ). tubers pose a problem as they can lie dormant for a number of years, making it even more difficult to remove from waterways and estuaries. as an invasive species in florida, hydrilla has become the most serious aquatic weed problem for florida and most of the u. s. because it was such a threat as an invasive species, restrictions were placed to allow only a single type of chemical, fluridone, to be used as an herbicide. this was done to prevent the evolution of multiple mutants, and resulted in fluridone resistant hydrilla. “ as hydrilla spread rapidly to lakes across the southern united states in the past, the expansion of resistant biotypes is likely to pose significant environmental challenges in the future. ” in 2011 the inlet of cayuga lake, one of the finger lakes in new york state, used the chemical herbicide endothall to try and head off a possible future disaster. the first year nearly $ 100, 000 and numerous man - hours were spent trying to eradicate the hydrilla infestation. follow - up treatments were planned for at least five years. the city of ithaca as well as other local officials are willing to pay the price because without quick action the plant could get into the lake and possibly spread to other finger lakes in the region. | wikimedia commons has media related to : hydrilla verticillata | - flora europaea : hydrilla - flora of taiwan : hydrilla - australian plant name index : hydrilla - flora of nw europe : hydrilla verticillata - blamey, m. & grey - wilson, c. ( 1989 ). flora of britain and northern europe. isbn 0 - 340 - 40170 - 2 - huxley, a., ed. ( 1992 ). new rhs dictionary of gardening. macmillan isbn 0 - 333 - 47494 - 5. - environmental change network : esthwaite water - flora of north america : hydrilla verticillata - predicting the potential invasive distributions of four alien plant species in north america. peterson, a. townsend, papes, monica. weed science v. 51 no. 6 ( november / december 2003 )


| era | | southern and northern dynasties, sui dynasty, tang dynasty, song dynasty | | writing system | | chinese characters | middle chinese ( simplified chinese : 中 古 ; traditional chinese : 中 古 漢 語 ; pinyin : zhonggu hanyu ), formerly known as ancient chinese, is the historical chinese dialect recorded in the qieyun, a rime dictionary first published in 601 and followed by several revised and expanded editions. the fanqie method used to indicate pronunciation in these dictionaries, though an improvement on earlier methods, proved awkward in practice. the 12th - century yunjing and other rime tables incorporate a more sophisticated and convenient analysis of the qieyun phonology. the rime tables attest to a number of sound changes that had occurred over the centuries following the publication of the qieyun. linguists sometimes refer to the system of the qieyun as early middle chinese and the variant revealed by the rime tables as late middle chinese. the dictionaries and tables describe pronunciations in relative terms, but do not give their actual sounds. the swedish linguist bernard karlgren believed that the dictionaries recorded a speech standard of the capital chang ' an of the sui and tang dynasties, and produced a reconstruction of its sounds. however, based on the more recently recovered preface of the qieyun, most scholars now believe that it records a compromise between northern and southern reading and poetic traditions from the late southern and northern dynasties period. this composite system contains important information for the reconstruction of the preceding system of old chinese phonology ( 1st millennium bc ). the middle chinese system is often used as a framework for the study and description of various modern varieties of chinese. branches of the chinese family such as mandarin chinese ( including standard chinese, based on the speech of beijing ), yue chinese and wu chinese can be largely treated as divergent developments from the qieyun system. the study of middle chinese also provides for a better understanding and analysis of classical chinese poetry, such as the study of tang poetry. the reconstruction of middle chinese phonology is largely dependent upon detailed descriptions in a few original sources. the most important of these is the qieyun rime dictionary ( 601 ad ) and its revisions. the qieyun is often used together with interpretations in song dynasty rime tables such as the yunjing, qiyinlue, and the later qieyun zhizhangtu and sisheng dengzi. the documentary sources are supplemented by comparison with modern chinese


often used together with interpretations in song dynasty rime tables such as the yunjing, qiyinlue, and the later qieyun zhizhangtu and sisheng dengzi. the documentary sources are supplemented by comparison with modern chinese varieties, pronunciation of chinese words borrowed by other languages ( particularly japanese, korean and vietnamese ), transcription into chinese characters of foreign names, transcription of chinese names in alphabetic scripts ( such as brahmi, tibetan and uygur ), and evidence regarding rhyme and tone patterns from classical chinese poetry. rime dictionaries medieval chinese scholars devoted a great deal of effort to describing the sounds of their language, especially to aid in reading the classics aloud and in the correct composition of poetry. chinese poetry abounded during the tang era, sometimes with a rigid verse structure relied upon the tones within verse lines and rhyming of end words. the rime dictionaries ( the spelling " rime " is normally preferred in this context ) were a primary aid to authors in composing this poetry, or to readers judging it. the qieyun ( 601 ad ), is the oldest of the rime dictionaries and the main source for the pronunciation of characters in early middle chinese ( emc ). at the time of bernhard karlgren ' s seminal work on middle chinese in the early 20th century, only fragments of the qieyun were known, and scholars relied on the guangyun ( 1008 ), a much expanded edition from the song dynasty. however, significant sections of a version of the qieyun itself were subsequently discovered in the caves of dunhuang, and a complete copy of wang renxu ' s kanmiu buque qieyun ( 706 ) from the palace library was found in 1947. the qieyun organizes chinese characters by their pronunciation, according to a hierarchy of tone, rhyme and homophony. characters with identical pronunciations are grouped into homophone classes, whose pronunciation is described using two fanqie characters, the first of which has the initial sound of the characters in the homophone class and second of which has the same sound as the rest of the syllable ( the final ). the use of fanqie was an important innovation of the qieyun and allowed the pronunciation of all characters to be described exactly ; earlier dictionaries simply described the pronunciation of unfamiliar characters in terms of the most similar - sounding familiar character. the qieyun uses multiple equivalent fanqie characters to represent each particular initial, and likewise


pronunciation of all characters to be described exactly ; earlier dictionaries simply described the pronunciation of unfamiliar characters in terms of the most similar - sounding familiar character. the qieyun uses multiple equivalent fanqie characters to represent each particular initial, and likewise for finals. determining the number of categories of initials and finals actually represented thus took a good deal of careful work on the part of chinese linguists. this was done was by equating two fanqie initials ( or finals ) whenever one is used in the fanqie spelling of the pronunciation of the other, and then following chains of such equivalences to create larger groups. ( for example, if the pronunciation of a particular character is defined using the fanqie spelling ab, and the pronunciation of character a is defined using the fanqie spelling cd, and the pronunciation of character c is defined using the fanqie spelling ef, then characters a, c and e are all equivalent fanqie characters for the same initial sound. ) the qieyun classifies homonyms under 193 rhyme classes, each of which is placed within one of the four tones. a single rhyme class may contain multiple finals, generally differing only in the medial ( especially when it is / w / ) or in so - called chongniu doublets ( see below ). rime tables the yunjing ( c. 1150 ad ) is the oldest of the so - called rime tables, which provide a more detailed phonological analysis of the system contained in the qieyun. the yunjing was created centuries after the qieyun, and the authors of the yunjing were attempting to interpret a phonological system that differed in significant ways from that of their own late middle chinese ( lmc ) dialect. they were aware of this, and attempted to reconstruct qieyun phonology as well as possible through a close analysis of regularities in the system and co - occurrence relationships between the initials and finals indicated by the fanqie characters. however, the analysis inevitably shows some influence from lmc, which needs to be taken into account when interpreting difficult aspects of the system. the yunjing is organized into 43 tables, each covering several qieyun rhyme classes, and classified as : - one of 16 she, the broad rhyme classes of lmc. each she is either " inner " ( nei ) or " outer " ( wai 外 ). the meaning of this is debated but it has been suggested that it refers to the height of the


, the broad rhyme classes of lmc. each she is either " inner " ( nei ) or " outer " ( wai 外 ). the meaning of this is debated but it has been suggested that it refers to the height of the main vowel, with " outer " finals having a low vowel ( / ɑ / or / a, æ / ) and " inner " finals having a non - low vowel. - " open mouth " ( kaikou 口 ) or " closed mouth " ( hekou 合 口 ), indicating whether lip rounding is present. " closed " finals either have a rounded vowel ( e. g. / u / ) or rounded glide. each table has 23 columns, one for each initial ( shengmu " sound mother " ). although the yunjing distinguishes 36 initials, they are placed in 23 columns by combining palatals, retroflexes, and dentals under the same column. this does not lead to cases where two homophone classes are conflated, as the grades ( rows ) are arranged so that all would - be minimal pairs distinguished only by the retroflex vs. palatal vs. alveolar character of the initial end up in different rows. each initial is further classified as follows : - place of articulation : labials ( chun " lip " ), alveolars ( she " tongue " ), velars ( ya " back tooth " ), affricates and sibilants ( chi " front tooth " ), and gutturals ( hou " throat " ) - phonation : voiceless ( qing 清 " clear " ), voiceless aspirated ( ciqing 清 " secondary clear " ), voiced ( zhuo " muddy " ) or nasal or liquid ( qingzhuo 清 " clear muddy " ) each table also has 16 rows, with a group of 4 rows for each of the 4 tones ( shengdiao " sound intonation " ) of the traditional system in which finals ending in / p /, / t / or / k / are considered to be entering tone variants of finals ending in / m /, / n / or / ŋ / rather than separate finals in their own right. the significance of the 4 rows ( deng " class ", " grade " or " group " ) within each tone is difficult to interpret, and is strongly debated. these rows are usually denoted i, ii, iii and iv, and are thought


the significance of the 4 rows ( deng " class ", " grade " or " group " ) within each tone is difficult to interpret, and is strongly debated. these rows are usually denoted i, ii, iii and iv, and are thought to relate to differences in palatalization or retroflexion of the syllable ' s initial or medial, or differences in the quality of similar main vowels ( e. g. / ɑ /, / a /, / ɛ / ). other scholars view them not as phonetic categories but formal devices exploiting distributional patterns in the qieyun to achieve a compact presentation. each square in a table contains a character corresponding to a particular homophone class in the qieyun, if any such character exists. from this arrangement, each homophone class can be placed in the above categories. modern dialects and sino - xenic pronunciations the rime dictionaries and rime tables identify categories of phonetic distinctions, but do not indicate the actual pronunciations of these categories. the varied pronunciations of words in modern varieties of chinese can help, but most modern varieties descend from a late middle chinese koine and cannot very easily be used to determine the pronunciation of early middle chinese. during the early middle chinese period, large amounts of chinese vocabulary were systematically borrowed by vietnamese, korean and japanese ( collectively known as sino - xenic vocabularies ), but many distinctions were inevitably lost in mapping chinese phonology onto foreign phonological systems. for example, the following table shows the pronunciation of the numerals in three modern chinese varieties, as well as borrowed forms in vietnamese, korean and japanese : | modern chinese varieties | | sino - vietnamese | | sino - korean | | sino - japanese | | middle chinese [ a ] | | 10 | | 十 | | shi | | | | sap6 | | thap | | sip | | ju < | | dzyip | transcription evidence although the evidence from chinese transcriptions of foreign words is much more limited, and is similarly obscured by the mapping of foreign pronunciations onto chinese phonology, it serves as direct evidence of a sort that is lacking in all the other types of data, since the pronunciation of the foreign languages borrowed from – especially sanskrit – is known in great detail. for example, the sanskrit word dravida was translated by religious scribes into a series of characters that are now read in standard mandarin as daluopitu. this suggests that mandarin - uo is


known in great detail. for example, the sanskrit word dravida was translated by religious scribes into a series of characters that are now read in standard mandarin as daluopitu. this suggests that mandarin - uo is the modern reflex of an ancient / a / - like sound, and that the mandarin second tone is a reflex of ancient voiced consonants. the nasal initials / m /, / n / and / ŋ / were used to transcribe sanskrit nasals in the early tang, but later they were used for sanskrit voiced initials, suggesting that they had become prenasalized stops in some dialects. the rime dictionaries and rime tables yield phonological categories, but with little hint of what sounds they represent. at the end of the 19th century, european students of chinese sought to solve this problem by applying the methods of historical linguistics that had been used in reconstructing proto - indo - european. volpicelli ( 1896 ) and schaank ( 1897 ) compared the rime tables at the front of the kangxi dictionary with modern pronunciations in several varieties, but had little knowledge of linguistics. karlgren, trained in transcription of swedish dialects, carried out the first systematic survey of varieties of chinese. he used the oldest known rime tables as descriptions of the sounds of the rime dictionaries, and also studied the guangyun, at that time the oldest known rime dictionary. unaware of chen li ' s study, he repeated the analysis of the fanqie required to identify the initials and finals of the dictionary. he believed that the resulting categories reflected the speech standard of the capital chang ' an of the sui and tang dynasties. he interpreted the many distinctions as a narrow transcription of the precise sounds of this language, which he sought to reconstruct by treating the sino - xenic and modern dialect pronunciations as reflexes of the qieyun categories. a small number of qieyun categories were not distinguished in any of the surviving pronunciations, and karlgren assigned them identical reconstructions. karlgren ' s transcription involved a large number of consonants and vowels, many of them very unevenly distributed. chao yuen ren and samuel e. martin accepted karlgren ' s reconstruction as a description of medieval speech, and analysed its contrasts to extract a phonemic description. hugh m. stimson simplified martin ' s system as an approximate indication of the pronunciation of tang poetry. karlgren himself viewed phonemic analysis as a detrimental "


of medieval speech, and analysed its contrasts to extract a phonemic description. hugh m. stimson simplified martin ' s system as an approximate indication of the pronunciation of tang poetry. karlgren himself viewed phonemic analysis as a detrimental " craze ". older versions of the rime dictionaries and rime tables came to light over the first half of the 20th century, and were used by such linguists as wang li, dong tonghe and li rong in their own reconstructions. edwin pulleyblank argued that the systems of the qieyun and the rime tables should be reconstructed as two separate ( but related ) systems, which he called early and late middle chinese respectively. he further argued that his late middle chinese reflected the standard language of the late tang dynasty. the preface of the qieyun recovered in 1947 indicates that it records a compromise between northern and southern reading and poetic traditions from the late southern and northern dynasties period ( a diasystem ). most linguists now believe that no single dialect contained all the distinctions recorded, but that each distinction did occur somewhere. several scholars have compared the qieyun system to cross - dialectal descriptions of english pronunciations, such as john c. wells ' s lexical sets, or the notation used in some dictionaries. thus for example the words " trap ", " bath ", " palm ", " lot ", " cloth " and " thought " contain four different vowels in received pronunciation and three in general american ; both these pronunciations ( and many others ) can be specified in terms of these six cases. although the qieyun system is no longer viewed as describing a single form of speech, linguists argue that this enhances its value in reconstructing earlier forms of chinese, just as a cross - dialectal description of english pronunciations contains more information about earlier forms of english than any single modern form. the emphasis has shifted from precise sounds ( phonetics ) to the structure of the phonological system. thus li fang - kuei, as a prelude to his reconstruction of old chinese, produced a revision of karlgren ' s notation, adding new notations for the few categories not distinguished by karlgren, without assigning them pronunciations. this notation is still widely used, but its symbols, based on johan august lundell ' s swedish dialect alphabet, differ from the familiar international phonetic alphabet. to remedy this, william h. baxter produced his own notation for the qieyun and rime table categories