are descriptions of some different kinds of clinical research. treatment research ( also called “ clinical trials ” ) generally involves an intervention such as medication, psychotherapy, new devices, or new approaches to surgery or radiation therapy. prevention research looks for better ways to prevent disorders from developing or returning. different kinds of prevention research may study medicines, vitamins, vaccines, minerals, or lifestyle changes. this refers to the practice of looking for better ways to identify a particular disorder or condition. screening research aims to find the best ways to detect certain disorders or health conditions. quality of life also known as “ supportive care, ” this research explores ways to improve comfort and the quality of life for individuals with a chronic illness. genetic studies aim to improve the prediction of disorders by identifying and understanding how genes and illnesses may be related. research in this area may explore ways in which a person ’ s genes make him or her more or less likely to develop a disorder. this may lead to development of tailor - made treatments based on a patient ’ s genetic make - up. epidemiological studies seek to identify the patterns, causes, and control of disorders in groups of people. an important note : some clinical research is “ outpatient, ” meaning that participants do not stay overnight at the hospital. some is “ inpatient, ” meaning that participants will need to stay for at least one night in the hospital or research center. be sure to ask the researchers what their study requires. phases of clinical trials : when clinical research is used to evaluate medications and devices clinical trials are a kind of clinical research designed to evaluate and test new interventions such as psychotherapy or medications. clinical trials are often conducted in four phases. the trials at each phase have a different purpose and help scientists answer different questions. phase i trials researchers test an experimental drug or treatment in a small group of people for the first time. the researchers evaluate the treatment ’ s safety, determine a safe dosage range, and identify side effects. phase ii trials the experimental drug or treatment is given to a larger group of people to see if it is effective and to further evaluate its safety. phase iii trials the experimental study drug or treatment is given to large groups of people. researchers confirm its effectiveness, monitor side effects, compare it to commonly used treatments, and collect information that will allow the experimental drug or treatment to be used safely. phase iv trials post - marketing studies, which are conducted after a treatment is approved for use by the fda, provide additional information including the treatment or drug ’ s risks, benefits, and


that will allow the experimental drug or treatment to be used safely. phase iv trials post - marketing studies, which are conducted after a treatment is approved for use by the fda, provide additional information including the treatment or drug ’ s risks, benefits, and best use. examples of other kinds of clinical research many people believe that all clinical research involves testing of new medications or devices. this is not true, however. some studies do not involve testing medications and a person ’ s regular medications may not need to be changed. healthy volunteers are also needed so that researchers can compare their results to results of people with the illness being studied. some examples of other kinds of research include the following : - a long - term study that involves psychological tests or brain scans - a genetic study that involves blood tests but no changes in medication - a study of family history that involves talking to family members to learn about people ’ s medical needs and history. what are the risks and benefits of participating in research? clinical research can involve risk, but it is important to remember that routine medical care also involves risk. it is important that you weigh the risks and benefits of participating in research before enrolling. when thinking about risk, consider two important questions : - what is the chance that the study will cause me harm? - if there is a chance of harm, how much harm could i experience? if you are interested in participating in a study, ask the researchers any questions that will help you decide whether to participate. taking time to share your concerns will help you feel safe if you do decide to volunteer. ( you can find sample questions at the end of this booklet. ) it may be helpful to involve close family members, your doctors, or friends in this decision - making process. the nature of the risks depends on the kind of study. often, clinical studies pose the risk of only minor discomfort that lasts for a short time. for example, in some mental health studies, participants take psychological tests ; this is obviously a different kind of risk from undergoing surgery as part of a study. a participant in a study requiring surgery may risk greater complications. risk can occur in many different ways, and it is important to speak with the research team to understand the risks in a particular study. keep in mind that all research sites are required to review their studies for any possible harm, and to share any potential risks with study volunteers. possible risks include the following : - the treatment involved may have health risks for you, such as unwanted side effects. - the study may require more time and attention than


their studies for any possible harm, and to share any potential risks with study volunteers. possible risks include the following : - the treatment involved may have health risks for you, such as unwanted side effects. - the study may require more time and attention than standard treatment. you may need to visit the study site, take additional blood tests, stay in the hospital, or manage complex dosage requirements for medication. - the treatment may not make you or other participants better. - you may enroll in the study hoping to receive a new treatment, but you may be randomly assigned to receive a standard treatment or placebo ( inactive pill ). - whether a new treatment will work cannot be known ahead of time. there is always a chance that a new treatment may not work better than a standard treatment, may not work at all, or may be harmful. - the treatment you receive may cause side effects that are serious enough to require medical attention. benefits to participating in a study include : - treatment with experimental or study medications not widely available elsewhere. - care from a research team that includes doctors and other health care professionals who are familiar with the most advanced treatments available. - treatment that has been reviewed by many people, including other doctors and researchers. - research - related care or medicine at no cost. - the opportunity to learn more about an illness and how to take care of it. - the satisfaction of helping others by contributing to medical knowledge, or helping to identify possible new treatments. what rights do i have? deciding whether or not to participate if you are eligible for a clinical study, you will be given information that will help you decide whether or not to take part. as a patient, you have the right to : - be told about important risks and benefits. - require confidentiality, or having maintained as private all personal medical information and personal identity. - know how the researchers plan to carry out the research, how long your participation will take, and where the study will take place. - know what is expected of you. - know any costs you or your insurers will be responsible for. - know if you will receive any financial compensation or reimbursement for expenses. - be informed about any medical or personal information that may be shared with other researchers directly involved in the clinical research. - talk openly with doctors and ask any questions. once you have decided to participate after you join a clinical research study, you have the right to : - leave the study at any time. participation is strictly voluntary. you can choose not to participate in any part


openly with doctors and ask any questions. once you have decided to participate after you join a clinical research study, you have the right to : - leave the study at any time. participation is strictly voluntary. you can choose not to participate in any part of the research. however, you should not enroll if you do not plan to complete the study. - receive any new information that might affect your decision to be in the study. - continue to ask questions and get answers. - maintain your privacy. neither your name nor any other identifying information will appear in any reports based on the study. - ask about your treatment assignment once the study is completed, if you participated in a study that randomly assigned you to a treatment group. what are the possible financial costs? in some clinical research studies, the medical facility conducting the research pays for your treatment and other expenses. in other trials, you may be responsible for costs. be sure to ask about possible expenses. - you or your health insurer may have to pay for some costs of your treatment that are considered part of standard care. this may include hospital stays, laboratory and other tests, and medical procedures. - if you have health insurance, find out exactly what it will cover. if you don ’ t have health insurance, or if your insurance company will not cover your costs, talk to the researchers or their staff about other options for covering the cost of your care. - you also may need to pay for travel between your home and the clinic. who can participate in clinical research? each clinical research study has different requirements that determine whether a person can participate. these requirements are called “ inclusion ” and “ exclusion ” criteria. the criteria are used to help researchers answer the study questions and to ensure the safety of all volunteers. depending on what the study is testing, inclusion and exclusion criteria may include a person ’ s : - health history - past or current treatment - age or sex - address ( a person living too far from where the study takes place may not be eligible to participate ). what is randomization? in clinical research studies that seek to test the effectiveness of a new intervention ( for example : a new medication or a new psychotherapy technique ), participants will usually be evenly placed in different study groups. participants do not know to which group they have been assigned. one group receives the experimental intervention ; the other receives standard or no treatment. this process, called randomization, allows researchers to compare results between the two groups. it is important to note that many studies — such as those involving brain imaging


been assigned. one group receives the experimental intervention ; the other receives standard or no treatment. this process, called randomization, allows researchers to compare results between the two groups. it is important to note that many studies — such as those involving brain imaging or genetics — may not require randomization. people who take part in studies requiring randomization are generally placed in a group based on chance, not choice. some participants are placed in the “ experimental ” group, and the others are placed in the “ control ” group. the control group will receive standard treatment, a placebo, or other intervention based on the design of the study. to understand how this works, imagine that 100 people decide to participate in a study that compares a new treatment to a standard treatment. each participant is randomly assigned to either the treatment group or the control group. to do this, researchers use a “ coin toss ” or similar method. half of the people are assigned to the treatment group and half are assigned to the control group. the researchers then compare the results of the two groups to see which treatment works better. they also try to figure out why it works better. the picture below helps explain how randomization works. what is informed consent? before you take part in a study, it is important to fully understand it and to understand what participation may be like. researchers will help by providing an “ informed consent ” statement. this is a document that has detailed information about the study, including its length, the number of visits required, and the medical procedures and medications in which you will take part. the document also provides expected outcomes, potential benefits, possible risks, any available treatment alternatives, expenses, terms of confidentiality, and contact information for people you can call if you have questions or concerns. when needed, a translator may be provided. researchers will review the informed consent statement with you and answer your questions. if you decide to participate after reviewing the statement, getting all the information you need, and talking with staff and your family, you will need to sign the informed consent statement. your signature indicates that you understand the study and agree to participate voluntarily. you may still leave a study at any time and for any reason even after signing the informed consent document. sometimes, a potential participant may not be able to give informed consent because of memory problems or mental confusion. someone else, usually a family member with a durable power of attorney, can give consent for that participant. that caregiver must be confident there is small risk to the participant, and that he or she would


because of memory problems or mental confusion. someone else, usually a family member with a durable power of attorney, can give consent for that participant. that caregiver must be confident there is small risk to the participant, and that he or she would have agreed to consent if able to do so. what else should i consider? you should consider whether you want to empower someone you trust to make health decisions for you if you become sick. this is very important if you choose to participate in a study that changes your regular medication routine, and you and the researchers are unsure about how your body will react. for example, if your thinking becomes impaired, you might make a decision that you would not make if you were thinking clearly. in this case, you may want someone you trust to make a decision for you. you are not always required to name someone else to make decisions if you become impaired. if you wish to do so, however, speak to the researcher to make sure he or she understands what you want ; you may also want to ask what kind of paperwork is required to ensure that your representative will be contacted. how do researchers make sure that participants are safe? it ’ s a good idea to ask questions and gather information before you make a decision about participating in research. it ’ s also important to remember that strict rules protect participants in research studies. researchers take these rules very seriously because they care about participants ’ health. additionally, researchers must follow the rules if they want to be allowed to do more research. below is information about how study participants are kept safe. - protect the rights and well - being of clinical research participants. federal agencies including the fda and nih oversee much of the medical research in the united states. - informed consent is the process of learning about a clinical research study before you decide if you want to participate. for more information about informed consent, see the “ what is informed consent? ” section in this guide. institutional review boards ( irbs ) - irbs oversee the research centers where clinical studies are conducted. irbs review and approve study protocols ( plans ) for scientific merit, participant safety, and ethical considerations. participants who have questions may contact the irbs at the research center they are considering. irb members usually include scientific experts as well as community members. leaving the trial - participants who wish to leave the trial because they feel unsafe may do so without penalty. - federal agencies may review individuals and institutions conducting research. primary health care - if you participate in a study, talk with your regular doctor to


. leaving the trial - participants who wish to leave the trial because they feel unsafe may do so without penalty. - federal agencies may review individuals and institutions conducting research. primary health care - if you participate in a study, talk with your regular doctor to be sure that medications you normally take are safe to use with any medications you may take for the study. sometimes the researcher will ask for permission to speak with your regular doctors to make sure you get the best treatment. - a protocol is a plan that details what researchers will do during a study. every study must have a protocol. the protocol includes information on how researchers will work to keep participants safe. what kinds of results will come from the research? - researchers will sum up what they learned from the study. - researchers will never identify you individually. they usually discuss trends and sometimes provide examples or stories, if they can do so without identifying participants. - if you would like to know what the researcher learns from the study, ask how and when you can expect to find out about the results. - the researcher may suggest that you contact the study ’ s office at a certain time, that you provide your contact information so study results can be mailed or e - mailed to you, or that you check online. - a frustrating thing about research is that it can take a long time to complete. sometimes, years may pass between the time you were involved in the study and the time when results become available. - the researchers may need to work with many more participants after you, and then analyze all the results. - check in with the researcher if you do not hear about results at the expected time. how can i enroll in clinical research? as a starting point for information on nimh research studies, visit the nimh web site. nih also maintains a database that includes information on clinical trials. visit the nih clinical trials database. this web site provides information on federally funded and other clinical trials. on clinicaltrials. gov, a contact person and phone number or e - mail address is usually listed with each study description. information about clinical studies is also sometimes advertised in local newspapers, magazines or on radio and television. for a clinical study that you may have heard about or seen advertised, you can contact the clinical trial or study coordinator. you can find this information in the description. your health care provider may also want to talk to this person about your health conditions. the first step after finding out about a study is to set up a screening appointment. during this appointment, researchers


coordinator. you can find this information in the description. your health care provider may also want to talk to this person about your health conditions. the first step after finding out about a study is to set up a screening appointment. during this appointment, researchers will ask you questions and may test you to see if you meet the needs of the study. what kinds of questions should i ask the researcher? as a participant, you are a partner in the study. it is important that you know what is likely to happen during the study and the purpose of the research. one good way to find out about whether you want to participate is to ask the researcher questions. below are some ideas about what to ask. feel free to add your own questions. - why do you want me in your study? - what is the research about? how will this research help doctors treat or understand my disorder? - how might this study help me, my relatives, or other people with my disorder? - will taking part in this study affect my daily life? - what are the standard treatments for my illness or condition? - what is likely to happen to me without a new treatment? - are there risks for me if i participate? if so, what are they? - will this study involve any change in my medications? remember to ask again if you would like further explanation or if you did not understand the answer you received. you are entitled to understand! if you forget to ask a question or forget the answers to the questions, ask again. it is part of the researcher ’ s job to help you understand. essential terms for understanding mental health clinical research comparison – to learn more, researchers compare results from patients in the experimental groups with results from patients in the control groups. confidentiality regarding participants – this refers to the practice of maintaining as private all information related to clinical trial participants, including their personal identity and all personal medical information. results from the study will usually be presented in terms of trends or overall findings and will not mention any specific participants. control group – the group of participants that receives standard treatment or a placebo. the control group may also be made up of healthy volunteers. researchers compare results from the control group with results from the experimental group to find and learn from any differences. double - blind research design – a study in which neither the participant nor the researcher knows whether the participant is in the treatment or control group. durable power of attorney – the authority to act for another person in specified or all legal or financial matters. double - blind, randomized, controlled


study in which neither the participant nor the researcher knows whether the participant is in the treatment or control group. durable power of attorney – the authority to act for another person in specified or all legal or financial matters. double - blind, randomized, controlled clinical trial – this is a clinical trial in which the researchers evenly divide study participants into a group receiving the experimental intervention and a group receiving standard or no treatment. neither group knows how it has been assigned. this practice reduces the chance for a “ placebo effect, ” in which a treatment with no active ingredient produces results expected from a treatment with an active ingredient. experiment – a study done to answer a question. other words to describe an experiment are “ research, ” “ study, ” and “ protocol. ” experimental group – the group of participants in a study that receive the experimental or study intervention ( such as medication or psychotherapy ). food and drug administration ( fda ) – the fda is the federal agency responsible for ensuring that foods are safe, wholesome and sanitary ; human and veterinary drugs, biological products, and medical devices are safe and effective ; cosmetics are safe ; and electronic products that emit radiation are safe. some of the agency ’ s specific responsibilities include regulating medications and devices. healthy volunteer – in a clinical study, a person who does not have the disorder or disease being studied. results from healthy controls are compared to results from the group being studied. inclusion / exclusion criteria – inclusion criteria are the factors that allow someone to participate in a clinical trial. exclusion criteria are the factors that prevent someone from participating in the trial. these factors may include a person ’ s illness, health history, past treatment, age, sex, or where he or she lives. informed consent – when a participant provides informed consent, it means that he or she has learned the key facts about a research study and agrees to take part in it. for more detailed information, see the “ what is informed consent? ” section in this guide. inpatient – a person who is hospitalized for at least one night to receive treatment or participate in a study. national institutes of health ( nih ) – part of the u. s. department of health and human services, nih is the primary federal agency for conducting and supporting medical research. nih scientists investigate ways to prevent disease as well as the causes, treatments, and even cures for common and rare diseases. composed of 27 institutes and centers, nih provides leadership and financial support to researchers in every state and throughout the world. outpatient – a person


to prevent disease as well as the causes, treatments, and even cures for common and rare diseases. composed of 27 institutes and centers, nih provides leadership and financial support to researchers in every state and throughout the world. outpatient – a person who receives treatment or participates in a study but is not hospitalized overnight. placebo – an inactive pill. this is sometimes called a “ sugar pill. ” in some studies, participants may be assigned to take a placebo rather than the study medication. ask the researcher if this is a possibility for the study that interests you. placebo effect – sometimes people taking a study medication receive benefits that are not from the chemicals in the medicine. this is called a “ placebo effect. ” for example, if a participant feels hopeful about a treatment, he or she may be more likely to notice positive changes than negatives ones. a researcher ’ s hope may also sway a participant ’ s response. double - blind research design helps minimize the placebo effect. post - marketing studies – studies done after a treatment, medication or device is approved for use by the fda. these studies gather additional information about a product ’ s safety, effectiveness, or best use. protocol – a study done to answer a question. other words to describe a protocol are “ research, ” “ study, ” and “ experiment. ” “ protocol ” also refers to the plan that details what researchers will do during the study. randomization / random assignment – this is the process in which researchers evenly assign study participants into a group receiving the experimental treatment being studied, and others into a group receiving standard or no treatment. participants are assigned to a group based on chance, not choice. you have the same chance to be placed in any of the test groups. research – a study done to answer a question. scientists do research when they ’ re not sure what will work best to help people with an illness. other words to describe clinical research are “ clinical trial, ” “ protocol, ” “ study, ” and “ experiment. ” sponsors – clinical trials are sponsored or funded by various organizations or individuals, including physicians, foundations, medical institutions, voluntary groups, and pharmaceutical companies, as well as federal agencies such as nih, fda, the department of defense, and the department of veterans affairs. standard treatment – the treatment that medical professionals consider at the time of the study to be the most prevalent and best available treatment. standardized procedures – these are study rules that researchers must follow exactly for every participant, regardless of what each participant is used to


. standard treatment – the treatment that medical professionals consider at the time of the study to be the most prevalent and best available treatment. standardized procedures – these are study rules that researchers must follow exactly for every participant, regardless of what each participant is used to. for example, if you normally take a medicine by injection but the experiment is testing the same medicine in pill form, the researcher must prescribe pills to you. the researcher cannot use a different method for you. study – conducted by a principal investigator who is often a doctor. members of the research team regularly monitor the participant ’ s health to determine the study ’ s safety and effectiveness. other words to describe a study are “ clinical trial, ” “ protocol, ” “ experiment, ” and “ research. ” single - blind research design – a study in which one party, either the investigator or participant, is unaware of what medication or intervention the participant is taking ; also called single - masked study. for more information on clinical research and clinical trials - visit the national library of medicine ’ s medlineplus, en espanol - information on mental health clinical trials - national library of medicine clinical trials database information from nimh is available in multiple formats. you can browse online, download documents in pdf, and order paper brochures through the mail. if you would like to have nimh publications, you can order them online. for the most up - to - date information on this topic, please check the nimh web site. if you do not have internet access and wish to have information that supplements this publication, please contact the nimh information center at the following numbers : national institute of mental health science writing, press & dissemination branch 6001 executive boulevard room 8184, msc 9663 bethesda, md 20892 - 9663 phone : 301 – 443 – 4513 or 1 – 866 – 615 – nimh ( 6464 ) toll - free tty : 866 – 415 – 8051 toll - free web site : http : / / www. nimh. nih. gov this publication is in the public domain and may be reproduced or copied without permission from nimh. we encourage you to reproduce it and use it in your efforts to improve public health. citation of the national institute of mental health as a source is appreciated. however, using government materials inappropriately can raise legal or ethical concerns, so we ask you to use these guidelines : - nimh does not endorse


improve public health. citation of the national institute of mental health as a source is appreciated. however, using government materials inappropriately can raise legal or ethical concerns, so we ask you to use these guidelines : - nimh does not endorse or recommend any commercial products, processes, or services, and our publications may not be used for advertising or endorsement purposes. - nimh does not provide specific medical advice or treatment recommendations or referrals ; our materials may not be used in a manner that has the appearance of such information. - nimh requests that non - federal organizations not alter our publications in ways that will jeopardize the integrity and “ brand ” when using the publication. - addition of non - federal government logos and web site links may not have the appearance of nimh endorsement of any specific commercial products or services or medical treatments or services. if you have questions regarding these guidelines and use of nimh publications, please contact the nimh information center at 1 – 866 – 615 – 6464 or e - mail at email @ example. com. the photos in this publication are of models and are used for illustrative purposes only. u. s. department of health and human services national institutes of health nih publication no. 08 - 4379


fit is an acronym for feed - in tariffs. what does fit mean? this terminology has become common in today ’ s discussion about solar energy and how it is encouraged by allowing those who create their own solar power with roof - top or pole mount solar panel installations to sell back excess power to their utility company. many times the fit programs make this a lucrative proposition that makes installation of solar technology for individual homeowners and small businesses more economical. as this chart illustrates, germany has a lower fit rate than others but leads the world in solar pv on residential roof tops. where state and federal governments pass these programs they are designed to incentivize solar pv installations. the political arguments run hot on both sides as to how they actually work in the long run. an introduction to feed - in tariffs ( fits ) have you heard about feed - in tariffs ( fits ) but you aren ’ t really sure what fit is or how it works? our purpose in being here is to answer just this kind of question. there ’ s much that could be said about this effort to ultimately increase the amount of renewable energy, including solar power, being used on the planet. here ’ s a brief rundown on fit. feed - in tariffs are designed to encourage individuals and businesses to become producers of renewal energy by offering cost - based compensation along with long - term contracts which help to fund investments in, for instance, solar panels and wind turbines. fits usually include three standard provisions : · long - term contracts for the production of electricity · guaranteed grid access · purchase prices which are grounded upon what the cost is to generate the renewable energy when a feed - in tariff is established in a particular state in the united states or in a country, the private investors, farmers, homeowners, or business owners who provide renewable electricity are paid for the renewable electricity they produce. the beauty of this arrangement is that it encourages the development of renewable energy sources, including solar, wind, and bio - gas. these fits should help to make it cost - effective to install solar panels or whichever form of energy is desired. a huge push toward solar electricity, wind technology, and other sources of clean energy is needed in the united states ; and that ’ s where fits as incentives come in. as to whether fit programs are effective, over 50 countries have enacted feed - in tariff policies, including canada. as for the usa, a few states have adopted fits and more are moving in that direction. actually, compared to european nations, feed - in tariffs are hardly utilized in the us


over 50 countries have enacted feed - in tariff policies, including canada. as for the usa, a few states have adopted fits and more are moving in that direction. actually, compared to european nations, feed - in tariffs are hardly utilized in the us. in fact, in most states, tax incentives and renewable portfolio standards are the more typical inducements toward clean energy sources. policymakers across the usa often drag their feet in pushing for more rapid development of solar power and other forms of renewable energy ; the strength of the fossil fuel and utility industries are among the varied reasons. a program attempting to unleash renewable energy in new york called clean local energy accessible now – feed - in tariff ( clean - fit ) is one example of a targeted effort to increase clean energy sources. besides providing rapid deployment of renewable energy, this program is expected to create many jobs. in ontario, canada, a fit program was recently established ; and, as a result, 20, 000 jobs have been created. from what one of our nass members in ontario tells us, ontario had a program that is called microfit that requires 60 % ontario made components, but also rewarded the investment with electricity that goes back into the grid at a reimbursement rate of 80 cents a kwhr for energy that cost 6 cents a kwhr to buy. that is a super fit deal for sure. the rate of reimbursement has gone down to 54 cents but will still be very much of an incentive. this also supports the manufacturers in ontario that produce solar panels and components. too bad we couldn ’ t get some of that type of action state - side too! fit programs make the financing of projects to create renewable energy less expensive, more appealing, less complicated, and more possible for individuals, communities, and small businesses because they provide an investment climate that ’ s stable. while canada, some states in the us, and other places throughout the world are achieving the desired goal of fit programs, new york policymakers have not enacted the clean - fit program. a new effort is being launched in new york in 2012. a solar renewable energy credit ( srec ) bill is being proposed. while this would be a step in the right direction toward ultimately adopting clean - fit, it falls short of where many believe new york should be in the switch to renewables. every state and community has its own story about the indifference or move towards fit programs.


ways to minimize the risk of contracting the current flu frequent hand - washing just isn ' t enough in the midst of this flu epidemic. " right now we ' re really talking about heroic measures to make sure you are not going to come into the environment where you know [ illness is ] intensified, " said gary munk, chief of virology at hackensack university medical center. some of munk ' s recommendations to minimize the risk may sound extreme : rescheduling gatherings, putting off parties, declining invitations and avoiding crowded places. " i think we ' re there right now, " said munk. " for planning purposes, if you defer for a few more weeks, you will have gotten through. it ' s probably in everyone ' s best interest to do that because you can ' t go somewhere where there ' s not this type of heightened activity right now. " munk and jeffrey kocher, a physician with the department of infectious diseases at englewood hospital, stressed social responsibility, common sense and changes in routine. healthy people need to stay away from people who are obviously sick and avoid indoor crowds, said kocher. munk will not shake hands and he institutes a 7 - foot - rule, attempting to keep that distance between himself and people ( especially sick people ) wherever possible. " if somebody is coughing and sneezing, i don ' t want to step into their sphere if i know they are not being responsible, " he said. " if they ' re sneezing into the air or coughing into the air, i create my own 7 - foot - rule, because it won ' t reach you. it ' s on a cell and the cell, like the magic carpet ride, will settle down. " munk stressed that it is not just influenza making people sick right now. those who feels lousy may assume they have the flu, but many respiratory viruses, two strains of influenza and three strains of parainfluenza are circulating locally at the moment. some people are getting them in succession, with the viruses taking advantage of those who are already at low resistance. other illnesses are causing secondary bacterial infections that might require antibiotic treatment. while certain foods are believed to boost immunity and grandma ' s chicken soup may always make things seem better, these doctors said inundating oneself with supposed flu - fighting superfoods shouldn ' t be considered a way to ward off the current scourge. " adequate nutrition and avoidance of dietary deficiencies is important ; getting enough rest is important,


the white arrows in these two tumor samples point to a subset of tumor cells that are in a resting state. the white arrows in these two tumor samples point to a subset of tumor cells that are in a resting state. nature scientists reported new evidence wednesday that supports a provocative theory about cancer. three separate teams of scientists said they had, for the first time, shown that so - called cancer stem cells can be found naturally in brain tumors and early forms of skin and colon cancer. evidence has been mounting in recent years for the existence of these cells, which would be especially insidious. they are believed to resist standard chemotherapy and radiation and fuel the growth of tumors and relapses. " after a tumor is treated by many conventional forms of therapy, the non - stem cells in a cancer are wiped out but the cancer stem cells may survive and thereafter regenerate an entirely new tumor, leading to what one calls clinical relapse, " said robert weinberg, a cancer biologist at the whitehead institute for biomedical research in boston. the existence of these cells has been highly controversial. the evidence came mostly from manipulating cancer cells in laboratory dishes and transplanting human cancer cells into animals. it remained far from clear whether they really occurred on their own and for all types of cancers. the new experiments set out to answer some of those doubts by studying cancers that occur naturally in laboratory mice. " this was the first example of examination of a spontaneously growing tumor in its normal site of development where we were able to trace the existence of cancer stem cells, " said luis parada, a professor of developmental biology at the university of texas southwestern medical center. parada and his colleagues performed a series of experiments in which they used sophisticated genetic techniques to trace and analyze brain tumor cells in mice. two other teams in europe conducted similar tests, but this time with early forms of either skin cancer or colon cancer. all the research is being published this week in three papers in the journals nature and science. " with these three studies we can say that in fact three different kinds of tumors adhere to the cancer stem cell hypothesis, " parada said. even though the studies were done in mice, weinberg, parada and others say there ' s no reason to think the findings don ' t apply to people. and if that ' s the case, the research could lead to new ways to fight cancer. " it means that we ' ve identified the enemy, finally, " he said. the key to defeating this enemy may be new drugs that specifically target these cancer


if that ' s the case, the research could lead to new ways to fight cancer. " it means that we ' ve identified the enemy, finally, " he said. the key to defeating this enemy may be new drugs that specifically target these cancer stem cells. " previously we thought all we needed to do was kill off all the cells in the tumor without having any recognition of the existence of these subpopulations of cancer stem cells, " weinberg said. " now we come to realize that both the non - stem cells and the stem cells need to be eliminated in a tumor in order for one to have a durable clinical response, which may eventually lead actually to a cure. " but not everyone is convinced. some scientists remain skeptical that what the researchers have found are really cancer stem cells, or that they exist for all forms of cancer. " the main issue is, ' can you prove that these things exist? and that means considering the range of alternative explanations and disproving each one — one after another. and that ' s just not being done, " said scott kern, who studies the genetics of cancer at johns hopkins. " i think the field has not matured. " despite the skeptics, drug companies have already started designing drugs to target cancer stem cells. " these three studies add further impetus to us moving ahead with these trials to try to eliminate these cancer stem cells in the hope that it will improve the outcome for patients with a variety of different kinds of cancer, " said max wicha, who is studying some of the experimental medicines at the university of michigan.


discover our shared heritage travel itinerary places reflecting america ' s diverse cultures explore their stories in the national park system blackstone river valley national heritage corridor massachusetts, rhode island in the area from providence, rhode island to worcester, massachusetts, blackstone river valley national heritage corridor tells the story of industrialization in america and the transformation of a river from a source of food to a floating highway. growth and change in this region is also the story of thousands of people who came from across the globe looking for work. many still come today, creating new communities and adding to the diversity of the area. visitors to blackstone river valley national heritage corridor have the opportunity to explore over 300 years of american history at this birthplace of the american industrial revolution that is a dynamic landscape of historic and natural sites to see. william blackstone and roger williams were among the earliest european settlers in the blackstone river valley. blackstone helped to found boston and then came west to around present - day cumberland, rhode island in 1635. roger williams helped to settle the providence, rhode island area. initially, most of the settlers were farmers. following king phillip ’ s war in the late 1600s, life in the valley began to change. towns rebuilt after the war embraced new technological developments including the widespread use of waterpower and mills for manufacturing. in the late 1700s, moses brown, a merchant from providence, and samuel slater, an englishman, established a successful loom manufacturing company in pawtucket, rhode island at slater mill, america ’ s first textile mill. the company set the standard for the development of mills throughout the blackstone valley. today, visitors can visit old slater mill as part of the slater mill museum and learn more about life in the mills. the need for a faster, cheaper way to move goods from the mills to markets and to bring in raw goods led to the construction of the blackstone canal that runs along, and sometimes in, the blackstone river. completed in 1828, the canal enabled mills to spread throughout the valley from providence to worcester. canal boats pulled by horses transported products and passengers for only about 20 years, after which the railroad replaced boat traffic. in that time, the valley changed dramatically. irish laborers built the canal, which was responsible for bringing immigrants to the united states. between providence and worcester, visitors can bike along portions of the towpath, canoe, or kayak, and explore the history of the canal at a number of museums and historic homes by taking these blackstone valley canal tours. the waters farm in sutton, massachusetts is


worcester, visitors can bike along portions of the towpath, canoe, or kayak, and explore the history of the canal at a number of museums and historic homes by taking these blackstone valley canal tours. the waters farm in sutton, massachusetts is a good example of the farms that dominated the region before mills. the waters family built the first part of the farm in 1728. they produced apples and apple cider to earn a living, but commercial trade was not a major part of life on the farm. instead, the waters family made and maintained the goods they needed on the farm. at one point, the farm had its own blacksmith and carpenter ’ s shop, barn, and cider mill. visitors can tour the farm and learn more about pre - industrial life in the river valley and the waters family, who lived on the property from the early 1700s to the late 1900s. visitors can also explore the historic town of sutton which, like much of the valley, grew more industrialized over time. later, larger mill construction took place in chepachet village, part of gloucester, rhode island, one of the earliest towns changed by the industrial revolution. visitors today can see an early mill constructed in 1814 to take advantage of the water that runs through the village. this mill, the stone mill, is one of a number of downtown buildings that date from the early 1800s. agriculture and family businesses that dominated the area beginning in the 1600s began to give way to other types of commerce. in chepachet, a mill, a masonic hall, a tavern, and a grocery store made the town a center of commercial activity. larger mill buildings from a later period are also in the town. by the mid - 1800s, the larger mills needed more employees, which led to the growth of mill towns. in georgiaville, part of smithfield, rhode island, zachariah allen established a particularly successful mill in 1853 that became the basis for the life of the community. mill housing still lines stillwater road. in this company town, the mill provided both a paycheck and a place to live. workers and supervisors lived in separate employee housing. at georgiaville pond, visitors can look out over a landscape changed for the mill where dams on the woonasquatucket river created ponds that helped ensure a constant water level so that the mill could always run. founded in the 1840s as a utopian village, hopedale, massachusetts is another good example of a mill town. here, as in smithfield, the mill and its owners shaped the


ensure a constant water level so that the mill could always run. founded in the 1840s as a utopian village, hopedale, massachusetts is another good example of a mill town. here, as in smithfield, the mill and its owners shaped the town. the draper corporation constructed houses and institutional buildings. at the time, the company thought that by providing workers with good homes and other amenities, employees would work harder and the company could attract better prospective employees. the draper corporation became the largest manufacturer of equipment for the production of cotton textiles in the country. workers came from all over to work the factory, including men and women from england, scotland, canada, ireland, and italy. by 1916, roughly 1, 700 people worked in the factories ; this number grew to almost 3, 500 by 1951. in the 1920s, mills began to decline in the united states, as manufacturing in the northeast weakened. life in the blackstone river valley is much different now than it was when samuel slater and moses brown teamed up to establish the textile industry in the united states roughly 130 years ago. the presence of the textile industry has diminished, though its impact has not. the area is still home to a rich mix of peoples. until most of the mills closed, french - canadians, lithuanians, ukrainians, swedes, poles, and the portuguese were among the largest immigrant groups to come to the valley looking for opportunities. today, new immigrants come from south america, cambodia, laos, and viet nam. the john h. chafee blackstone river valley national heritage corridor brings alive the story of the industrial revolution in the united states. in its historic mill towns and other sites, visitors can learn firsthand what drew so many diverse peoples to the promise of opportunity there.


§ 140. 3 definitions. as used in this part, ( a ) act means the atomic energy act of 1954 ( 68 stat. 919 ) including any amendments thereto. ( b ) commission means the nuclear regulatory commission or its duly authorized representatives. ( c ) federal agency means a government agency such that any liability in tort based on the activities of such agency would be satisfied by funds appropriated by the congress and paid out of the united states treasury. ( d ) financial protection means the ability to respond in damages for public liability and to meet the cost of investigating and defending claims and settling suits for such damages. ( e ) government agency means any executive department, commission, independent establishment, corporation, wholly or partly owned by the united states of america which is an instrumentality of the united states, or any board, bureau, division, service, office, officer, authority, administration, or other establishment in the executive branch of the government. ( f ) nuclear reactor means any apparatus, other than an atomic weapon, designed or used to sustain nuclear fission in a self - supporting chain reaction. ( g ) person means : ( 1 ) any individual, corporation, partnership, firm, association, trust, estate, public or private institution, group, government agency other than the commission or the department, except that the department shall be considered a person within the meaning of the regulations in this part to the extent that its facilities and activities are subject to the licensing and related regulatory authority of the commission pursuant to section 202 of the energy reorganization act of 1974 ( 88 stat. 1244 ), any state or any political subdivision thereof, or any political entity within a state, any foreign government or nation or any political subdivision of any such government or nation, or other entity ; and ( 2 ) any legal successor, representative, agent, or agency of the foregoing. ( h ) plutonium processing and fuel fabrication plant means a plant in which the following operations or activities are conducted : ( 1 ) operations for manufacture of reactor fuel containing plutonium, where the license or licenses authorize the possession of either five or more kilograms of plutonium, excluding that contained in sealed sources and welded or otherwise sealed unirradiated or irradiated fuel rods, at the site of the plant or authorize the processing of one or more kilograms of plutonium, excluding that contained in sealed sources and welded or otherwise sealed unirradiated or irradiated fuel rods, at the plant, including any of the following processes : ( i ) preparation of fuel material ; (


one or more kilograms of plutonium, excluding that contained in sealed sources and welded or otherwise sealed unirradiated or irradiated fuel rods, at the plant, including any of the following processes : ( i ) preparation of fuel material ; ( ii ) formation of fuel material into desired shapes ; ( iii ) application of protective cladding ; ( iv ) recovery of scrap material ; and ( v ) storage associated with such operations ; or ( 2 ) research and development activities involving any of the operations described in paragraph ( h ) ( 1 ) of this section, except for research and development activities where the operator is licensed to possess or use plutonium in amounts less than those specified in paragraph ( h ) ( 1 ). ( i ) source material means source material as defined in the regulations contained in part 40 of this chapter. ( j ) special nuclear material means : ( 1 ) plutonium, uranium 233, uranium enriched in the isotope 233 or in the isotope 235, and any other material which the commission, pursuant to the provisions of section 51 of the act, determines to be special nuclear material, but does not include source material ; or ( 2 ) any material artifically enriched by any of the foregoing, but does not include source material. ( k ) testing reactor means a nuclear reactor which is of a type described in § 50. 21 ( c ) of this chapter and for which an application has been filed for a license authorizing operation at : ( 1 ) a thermal power level in excess of 10 megawatts ; or ( 2 ) a thermal power level in excess of 1 megawatt, if the reactor is to contain : ( i ) a circulating loop through the core in which the applicant proposes to conduct fuel experiments ; or ( ii ) a liquid fuel loading ; or ( iii ) an experimental facility in the core in excess of 16 square inches in cross - section. ( l ) department means the department of energy established by the department of energy organization act ( pub. l. 95 - 91, 91 stat. 565, 42 u. s. c. 7101 et seq. ), to the extent that the department, or its duly authorized representatives, exercises functions formerly vested in the u. s. atomic energy commission, its chairman, members, officers and components and transferred to the u. s. energy research and development administration and to the administrator thereof pursuant to sections 104 ( b ), ( c ) and ( d ) of the energy reorganization act of 1974 ( pub. l. 93 - 438


components and transferred to the u. s. energy research and development administration and to the administrator thereof pursuant to sections 104 ( b ), ( c ) and ( d ) of the energy reorganization act of 1974 ( pub. l. 93 - 438, 88 stat. 1233 at 1237, 42 u. s. c. 5814 ) and retransferred to the secretary of energy pursuant to section 301 ( a ) of the department of energy organization act ( pub. l. 95 - 91, 91 stat. 565 at 577 - 578, 42 u. s. c. 7151 ). ( m ) uranium enrichment facility means : ( 1 ) any facility used for separating the isotopes of uranium or enriching uranium in the isotope 235, except laboratory scale facilities designed or used for experimental or analytical purposes only ; or ( 2 ) any equipment or device, or important component part especially designed for such equipment or device, capable of separating the isotopes of uranium or enriching uranium in the isotope 235. [ 25 fr 2944, apr. 7, 1960, as amended at 40 fr 8793, mar. 3, 1975 ; 42 fr 48, jan. 3, 1977 ; 45 fr 14201, mar. 5, 1980 ; 57 fr 18394, apr. 30, 1992 ]


environmental news : media centermain page | archive embargoed until tuesday, february 6, 2001 press contact : elliott negin or liz heyd, 202 - 289 - 6868 if you are not a member of the press, please write to us at email @ example. com or see our contact page. nrdc proposes ' responsible ' energy policy for the 21st century report shows that america can meet its energy needs without drilling in alaska wildlife refuge or suspending clean - air standards in california washington ( february 6, 2001 ) - nrdc ( natural resources defense council ) today released a balanced plan for u. s. energy policy that would meet the nation ’ s needs and save consumers billions of dollars annually - - without destroying pristine wilderness areas or rolling back environmental safeguards. the report also offers a solution for california ’ s electricity crisis that would not suspend state or federal air quality standards. among other things, nrdc ’ s analysis shows that president bush ’ s proposal to open the arctic national wildlife refuge coastal plain to oil development would not lessen u. s. oil dependence, lower gasoline prices, or have an impact on the california electricity crisis. the president ’ s proposal will be the centerpiece of an omnibus senate republican energy bill that is expected to be introduced sometime this month. " drilling for oil in the arctic refuge coastal plain makes no sense from an environmental, economic or energy perspective, " said gregory wetstone, nrdc ’ s director of programs. " one can quibble over just how much economically recoverable oil there is under the coastal plain ’ s tundra, but there ’ s not enough to make a difference. the real solution to our energy problems is increased fuel efficiency. it would be faster, cheaper and cleaner than drilling in the refuge. " according to nrdc, drilling proponents grossly overstate how much oil could be recovered in the arctic refuge and understate the potential environmental consequences. the u. s. geological survey concluded that the area likely holds only about 3. 2 billion barrels of economically recoverable oil - - less than what the nation uses in six months. production would be spread over the 50 years of the field ’ s lifetime and would likely peak at 150 million barrels per year in 2027 - - amounting to only 1. 5 percent of projected u. s. consumption that year. given that current u. s. demand for oil - - which is more than 7. 1 billion barrels per year - - is increasing about 2 percent annually, the coastal plain would contribute less than 1


of projected u. s. consumption that year. given that current u. s. demand for oil - - which is more than 7. 1 billion barrels per year - - is increasing about 2 percent annually, the coastal plain would contribute less than 1 percent of the oil we are projected to consume over the next 50 years. moreover, even if oil companies started exploration in the arctic refuge today, it would take at least 10 years for the first oil to arrive at west coast refineries. the cornerstone of nrdc ’ s plan is increased energy efficiency relying on readily available and cost - effective processes and technologies. in the short term, the plan calls for increased reliance on natural gas as a bridge to renewable and environmentally sound energy sources in the future. correspondingly, the plan calls for reducing reliance on dirtier fossil fuels - - oil and coal. key nrdc recommendations include : - raising fuel economy standards for new cars, sport utility vehicles ( suvs ) and other light trucks to an average of 39 miles per gallon over the next decade ; - requiring replacement tires to be as fuel - efficient as the original tires on new vehicles ; - expanding programs to weatherize housing for low - income americans ; - keeping development out of the arctic national wildlife refuge and sensitive offshore areas, including moratorium areas, alaska and the eastern gulf of mexico ; - maintaining protections for sensitive onshore public lands and extend protection to other special places ; - establishing comprehensive limits on power plant air pollution covering emissions of carbon, nitrogen, sulfur and mercury ; - ending subsidies for so - called " clean coal " technology and nuclear power ; - providing incentives for the construction of energy - efficient buildings and manufacturing of energy efficient heating, cooling and water - heating equipment ; and - planning a gas pipeline if needed to deliver prudhoe bay gas to the lower 48 states that follows the trans - alaska pipeline and the alaska - canadian highway, complies with all environmental laws, and incorporates the best pipeline safety and environmental measures. " the united states cannot produce its way out of oil dependence, " said dr. daniel lashof, an nrdc senior scientist. " what we can do is dampen u. s. consumption, which amounts to about 25 percent of world petroleum demand. for example, increasing average fuel efficiency for new cars, suvs and light trucks to 39 miles per gallon over the next decade would save 51 billion barrels of oil over the next 50 years - - more than 15 times the likely yield from the arctic refuge. " nrdc does welcome provisions it expects to see


suvs and light trucks to 39 miles per gallon over the next decade would save 51 billion barrels of oil over the next 50 years - - more than 15 times the likely yield from the arctic refuge. " nrdc does welcome provisions it expects to see in the senate republican energy bill providing tax incentives for energy - efficiency improvements, but the group rejects any legislation allowing oil drilling in the arctic refuge in exchange for energy - efficiency measures. " as long as the bush administration and senator frank murkowski insist on opening the arctic refuge to oil development, the positive elements in their package are nothing more than a trojan horse, " said chuck clusen, an nrdc senior policy analyst. " if republican leaders are serious about enacting energy - efficiency provisions, they ’ ll have to come up with a clean bill. " finally, the public does not support oil development in the arctic refuge coastal plain. according to a associated press poll announced last week, americans, by a 53 to 33 percent margin, oppose the plan to explore for oil in the refuge. ( an additional 13 percent said they did not know. ) the natural resources defense council is a national, nonprofit organization of scientists, lawyers and environmental specialists dedicated to protecting public health and the environment. founded in 1970, nrdc has more than 400, 000 members nationwide, served from offices in new york, washington, los angeles and san francisco. related nrdc pages a responsible energy policy for the 21st century additional downloadable materials for the press introductory statement of greg wetstone in microsoft word format, 87k sign up for nrdc ' s online newsletter nrdc gets top ratings from the charity watchdogs - charity navigator awards nrdc its 4 - star top rating. - worth magazine named nrdc one of america ' s 100 best charities. - nrdc meets the highest standards of the wise giving alliance of the better business bureau.


leptospirosis and equine recurrent uveitis in horses from time - to - time, horse owners and veterinarians see equine recurrent uveitis, also known as periodic ophthalmia or moon blindness, in horses. horse owners will see this as a painful eye. painful eyes result from either damage or disease to the cornea or to the uvea ( iris, ciliary body and choroid ). the differential diagnosis includes traumatic injury, parasite infection by onchocerca cervicalis, face fly irritation, and leptospira - induced uveitis. shapiro and stevenson recently reported equine abortions and recurrent uveitis associated with leptospirosis infections in horses in eastern ontario ( 1, 2 ). leptospires are motile bacteria called spirochetes. the leptospires are grouped into serovars and serogroups of which pomona, grippotyphosa, hardjo, bratislava, canicola, and icterohaemmorhagiae are the ones we are most interested in. leptospires are very common in domestic and wild animals and can also infect humans. in particular regions, there will be one or more maintenance hosts which serve as the reservoir for the infection. leptospires will be transmitted to incidental hosts by shedding into the environment from a maintenance host. they can invade the mucous membranes and / or damaged skin and migrate to various body organs of an incidental host ( 3 ). the maintenance hosts can be wildlife such as deer, raccoons, and rodents. researchers have believed that recurrent uveitis was an immune - mediated reaction and a sequella to a leptospira pomona infection which occurred months or years previously ( 4 ). however, a recent german study isolated leptospires from the eyes of 27 % of 130 affected horses. these isolates belong to the grippotyphosa serogroup ( n = 31 ) and to the australis serogroup ( n = 4 ). this is a remarkable achievement because of the difficulty of isolating this bacterium. ( 5 ) clinical signs will often disappear followed by recurrence. severe attacks can lead to calcific band keratopathy ( calcification of the cornea ), permanent blindness, atrophy of the eye and / or glaucoma. the horse is presented with signs of


inside relativelayoutby james elliott, coauthor of java swing, 2nd edition as promised in my first article, " relativelayout : a constraint - based layout manager, " here ' s a look inside the relativelayout package. this article explains how the layout manager works, and discusses how to extend it to support new kinds of constraints. readers should be familiar with the original article, which introduces relativelayout and explains how to use it as a tool. once you download and expand the source archive, you ' ll find the following items inside of it ( figure 1 shows everything it will contain once you ' re ready to build and run figure 1 : relativelayout source this is a build file for the ant tool from apache ' s jakarta project. it is used to compile and test relativelayout. once you have installed ant on your system ( which you have likely done already, since it has rapidly and deservedly become the build tool of choice for java projects ) you can compile relativelayout simply by moving to the top - level source directory and typing ant compile ( after you ' ve set up the lib directory as described below ). other interesting build targets you can run include : ant ex1 : runs the first example program discussed in the first article. similarly, the targets ex3run the second and third examples. ant doc : builds the javadoc for relativelayout. you may want to refer to this documentation from time to time as you read the overview of how the classes work, below. ant dist : builds the distribution file relativelayout. jarso you can easily use relativelayoutwith other projects. ant clean : cleans up any generated files and removes the these files are used by the xml - based examples in the first article. they contain the layout constraints used by the second and third example programs. contains libraries used by relativelayout. it ' s empty when you first download and expand the source archive, because these libraries are available from separate organizations. in order to compile and use relativelayout, you ' ll need the jdom library and ( if you ' re using a java sdk earlier than version 1. 4 ) an xml parser such as apache xerces, as discussed in the first article. once you ' ve downloaded any libraries you need ( which you likely did in order to run the examples when reading part 1 ), copy their library jars ( e. g. xerces. jar ) into the lib directory, and


article. once you ' ve downloaded any libraries you need ( which you likely did in order to run the examples when reading part 1 ), copy their library jars ( e. g. xerces. jar ) into the lib directory, and relativelayout will compile and run properly. i used this file along with a test program while i was developing relativelayout. it ' s not too useful now, unless you want to study and play with that test program. note that the current configuration of the program ( invoked through ant test ) and this file are inconsistent and cause an over - constraint error to be reported. if you ' re into that sort of thing, debugging and fixing the problem could be an interesting exercise. the rest of the source is organized under the src directory, so let ' s move in there and see what we find. - the files these are the three example programs discussed in part 1. this is the test program that works with test. xmlas described above. it ' s no longer of much interest except for software archaeology, in that it provides a little insight into the development of the package. this package overview document is used by javadoc to provide introductory information on the starting page. the java source for relativelayoutitself is grouped under this directory. to be precise, it ' s in the nested directory src / com / brunchboy / util / swing / relativelayout, corresponding to the package in which the classes themselves are organized, com. brunchboy. util. swing. relativelayout. the classes that make up relativelayoutare explained in the next few sections. you ' ll best understand how everything works if you can examine the source itself while you read the descriptions below, perhaps by printing one or the other. relativelayoutdirectory also contains the file package. html, used by javadoc to provide an introductory explanation for the classes in the directory, and constraint - set. dtd, the xml document type definition ( described below ), used by xmlconstraintbuilderto parse constraint specifications expressed as xml.


heat loss and hydrothermal ciruculation due to sea - floor spreading. abstract ( summary ) lithospheric cooling along the galapagos spreading center at 86°w longitude, as determined by surface heat - flow measurements, appears dominated by hydrothermal circulation. this same phenomena apparently exists on the mid - atlantic ridge at 36°n and presumably, in some form on all active oceanic ridges. it is responsible for removing the majority of the heat ( ) 80 % ) lost through young ( few m. y. old ) oceanic crust. this component of heat has been ignored in previous calculations of the total rate of heat loss by the earth. a theoretical expression is used to estimate the heat released by sea - floor spreading, since current technology does not provide any means for direct measurement. the revised va lue of lo. 2 x iol2 cal / sec ( il5 % ) represents a 32 % increase over previous estimates. more than 20 % of this heat apparently escapes through hydrothermal vents near sea - floor spreading centers. the previously accepted equality of oceanic and continental heat flux is invalid. the revised analysis indicates the oceanic heat flux is 2. 2 x io - 6 cal / cm2 - sec ( hfu ) versus l. 5 hfu for the continents. the average for the earth is then approximately 2. 0 hfu. the horizontal wavelength of inferred hydrothermal convection at the galapagos spreading center, in the one dimension measured, is 6 il km. the systematic modulation suggests cellular convection. if the system is dominated by cellular convection, the depth of penetration, based on laboratory modeling experiments should be 3 to 4 kilometers. - 3 - the data from the galapagos spreading center and laboratory experiments both suggest that the position of the cells in a cellular convection system can be a strong function of the local topography, the rising limbs of flow being located beneath topographic highs and the descending limbs beneath topographic lows. the addition of topography enhances the heat transfer efficiency of a convection system. lateral variation in permeability or the systems bottom boundary condition will also influence the position of cells. even if the circulation system were strongly influenced by some combination of variations in the strength of the heat source, topography or discrete zones of high permeability, it would probably still be cellular in nature, and similar deep penetration is indicated. if the galapagos spreading center is typical, there are presumably numerous hydrothermal springs and fissures in each square kilometer of near - ridge sea floor and sediment thicknesses of at least 50


cellular in nature, and similar deep penetration is indicated. if the galapagos spreading center is typical, there are presumably numerous hydrothermal springs and fissures in each square kilometer of near - ridge sea floor and sediment thicknesses of at least 50 meters are apparently penetrable to the flow of water. as the sea floor ages the surface of the hydrothermal system becomes less permeable and eventually both the surface and the deep system are completely clogged and sealed. the age at which this occurs varies from ridge to ridge but there is evidence that suggests it may not be complete until the crust is at least 8 m. y. old and possibly as much as 40 - 50 m. y. old. most of the surface is apparently sealed long before hydrothermal circulation stops, although some vents do persist. this behavior of the hydrothermal system has a dramatic effect on conductive heat - flow measurements and is largely responsibte - - fbr ene variations observed in conductive heat flow near active spreading ridges. the results of this study show the difficulties in resolving systematic patterns in the heat - flow distribution on spreading ridges. numerous, closely - spaced measurements with precise navigation combined with a relatively uniform sediment cover, appear to be necessary ingredients for recognition of the heat - flow pattern near active sea - floor spreading centers. thesis supervisor : dr. richard p. von herzen ti tle : senior scientist - 4 - school location : usa - massachusetts source type : master ' s thesis date of publication :


t ' vault, william g. ( 1806 - 1869 ) william green t ’ vault had a wide - ranging career in early oregon. a truculent and controversial political figure during the territorial and civil war periods, t ' vault was a slavery - and - secession advocate who became a prominent, strident voice for the minority of oregonians who agreed with him. t ’ vault was born in 1806, but his birthplace is uncertain. some accounts give it as tennessee, but others report that he was born either during his immigrant parents ’ voyage from france or soon after their arrival in charleston, south carolina. he grew up in tennessee, where he studied law, married the widow rhoda boone burns ( a granddaughter of daniel boone ), and may have run for local office before immigrating to oregon in 1845. the leader of a 300 - person wagon party on the overland trail, t ' vault was named oregon ’ s first postmaster - general soon after he reached oregon city. in 1846, he won election to the provisional legislature and became oregon ’ s first newspaper editor, overseeing publication of oregon city ’ s oregon spectator until differences with the paper ’ s owners led to his departure. t ’ vault joined several partners in establishing an express mail service through the rogue river valley to link the town of winchester with the mining camp of yreka, california. he led some of the trips himself. in 1851, he rode with major phil kearney ’ s army detachment heading south to california and took part in kearney ’ s battle with the takelma indians near present - day shady cove. later that year, t ’ vault led an ill - fated attempt to find a route up the rugged rogue river canyon from the coast, intending to join the california - oregon trail in the rogue ’ s main valley. he assumed that the distance between the ocean and the valley could be little more than forty miles, but the group soon found their way blocked by sheer cliffs and steep slopes covered with dense brush. turning north, they wandered through the upper coquille river country until the terrain gentled and the river widened. a local native offered to guide them to the coast by canoe, but within a few miles of the ocean the men were attacked by coquille indians and barely escaped with their lives. the following year, t ’ vault led another freight - route exploration from the umpqua river overland toward port orford. he filed a land claim in what would become jackson county at a narrow rocky place on the rogue river he named “ dardenelles "


year, t ’ vault led another freight - route exploration from the umpqua river overland toward port orford. he filed a land claim in what would become jackson county at a narrow rocky place on the rogue river he named “ dardenelles " ; it later came to be called rock point. t ’ vault ’ s interest in southern oregon increased in 1852 when gold strikes were made near jacksonville. in 1853, he served with joseph lane and other volunteers during the brief 1853 rogue river war. in 1855, he established jacksonville ' s table rock sentinel ( changing its name to oregon sentinel in 1858 ), using the newspaper — the first in southern oregon — to renew his political career and to propose the creation of a territory of jackson in southern - most oregon that would be open to slavery. praising the u. s. supreme court ' s dred scott decision of 1857, he defended the rights of slaveholders to bring their human property to oregon despite the territorial constitution ' s prohibition of chattel slavery. supported by a considerable number of states - rights democrats in jackson county, t ' vault won election to the territorial legislature in 1858 ; once in salem, he was chosen as speaker of the house. by 1859, some of t ' vault ' s opinions echoed those of extremist southern fire - eaters in the east, and he was out of office by 1860. when the south ' s firing on fort sumter brought a temporary alliance between oregon republicans and pro - union democrats, pro - secessionist figures like t ' vault declined in popularity. he sold the newspaper to a colleague and left for the gold strikes in idaho as the civil war got underway. returning to jackson county in 1862, t ' vault trumpeted the idea of an independent, slave - holding pacific republic comprised of california, oregon, and nearby territories. disgusted to find that republicans now owned the sentinel, he termed it the " scent - in - hell. " in 1863, he founded the oregon intelligencer, in which he castigated his opponents as a " black republican, union, negro - worshipping gang " that blindly followed " their dictator lincoln. " by the end of the war, with his political star burned out, t ' vault was considered a local aberration, a colorful anachronism. an 1884 history of southern oregon recalled that he had " force of character … and a lack of culture … uncompromising in his animosities but fair to his friends. " he died in jacksonville in 1869 of smallpox during the closing days of the town


winter isn ' t easy on most of us. piles of ice and snow greet us weekly, and short days make brief periods of sunshine even harder to come by. that, combined with bitterly cold temperatures, means most of us wind up staying inside our well - sealed energy - efficient homes, rather than get outside for fresh air. and that could put your lungs at risk. there are a wide variety of toxic chemicals lurking in your home, and while you can take steps to minimize them, one the most prevalent chemicals in your home isn ' t easy to get rid of. formaldehyde, a volatile organic compound that is emitted in low levels by a variety of household building products and furniture, may cause cancer in humans and has been known to trigger asthma attacks and allergic reactions when present in high levels. a common component of glues that hold pressed - wood or particleboard furniture and cabinets together, it ' s also emitted by natural gas stoves, carpet glues, flooring glues, caulks, sealants, paints, furniture finishes, and the water - and stain - repellent finishes applied to upholstery and clothing. government regulations have reduced the amount of formaldehyde that is used in insulation and particleboard furniture, but the sheer number of potential formaldehyde emitters found in the average home makes the chemical difficult to avoid. the good news is, you have a cheap, easy, green tool at your disposal to get rid of it. in 1989, nasa scientists tested a variety of houseplants for their ability to remove formaldehyde from the air, and one of the authors, b. c. wolverton, later published the findings in a book titled how to grow fresh air ( penguin, 1996 ). following is a list of their top formaldehyde removers, as well as a few other plants that clean the air and may bring a little sunshine into your winter. but before you head to your local greenhouse, ask your friends if they can give you any clippings or root cuttings. not only are they free, but it ' s also difficult ( if not impossible ) to find organically grown houseplants. greenhouses are breeding grounds for aphids and other plant pests, and as a result, growers commonly use herbicides and fumigants. keep reading for the 7 best air - cleaning plants. # 1 : boston fern. boston ferns remove more formaldehyde than any other plant. they ' re also highly efficient at removing other indoor


. janet craigs will tolerate more abuse and neglect than rubber trees, but rubber trees are a little more aesthetically pleasing. # 4 : english ivy. grown outdoors, english ivy is an invasive species that can damage your home ' s exterior and tear off your gutters. but bring it inside, and it ' s an effective formaldehyde remover. thanks to its ability to climb structures, it ' s easy to grow as topiary and use as a decorative element in your living spaces. english ivy likes part sun and part shade, so it ' s a good plant to try indoors, and it ' s not as temperamental as boston ferns are. occasional waterings and mistings during the winter will keep it healthy. # 5 : peace lily. one of few houseplants that will bloom indoors, the peace lily with its seashell - shaped spathes really will bring a touch of summer into a dreary winter. one of the best plants for removing formaldehyde, it also removes benzene and certain vocs that are emitted by harsh cleaning products ( making it another good office plant, particularly if your maintenance staff doesn ' t use green cleaners ). it also prefers low - light conditions and has a high transpiration rate that will humidify your air. just be aware that the leaves can be poisonous to pets and children, so peace lily may not be a great choice for new parents or pet owners. # 6 : golden pothos. though not high on the list of formaldehyde removers, we ' ve included this plant because you can practically hit it with a hammer and not kill it. it tolerates a lot of neglect and is forgiving when over - watered. and it ' s still relatively effective at removing air pollutants. for those reasons, it ' s a great " starter houseplant " for people without much indoor - gardening experience. golden pothos are often mistakenly sold as philodendrons, which are related plants that are equally good at removing formaldehyde, and almost as forgiving to newbie houseplant tenders. # 7 : flowering air purifiers. nothing is better at beating the trifecta of winter blues — dirty air, and lackluster decor — than a flowering houseplant. florists ' mum and gerbera daisies ( pictured ) are the best at removing formaldehyde, with tulips not far behind. of course, nothing worth having comes easy. flowering plants require more careful watering and feeding,


1. industrial shanghai vs. interior china - part three the tragedy of shanghai industry is that it does nothing to improve the economy of the interior. shanghai is actually a foreign city. only 20 % to 25 % of the raw cotton in 1940 was supplied by chinese farmers, and this came from japanese territory. during the first five months of 1940 shanghai imported us $ 24, 000, 000 " worth of cotton ( 101, 428 tons ) from the united states, india, egypt and africa. during january - may, 1940, shanghai exports of cotton yarn and piece goods averaged us $ 2, 000, 000 monthly, one - third being yam and two - thirds piece goods. half the piece goods and 65 % of the yarn was marketed in the asiatic parts of the british empire. british india, the netherlands east indies, siam and the philippines are the best customers outside the british empire. shanghai accounted for over half of all the foreign commerce of china, and only 1 / 5th of the city ' s trade was produced from, and goods sent to, the interior. of china ' s total imports in 1939 valued at gold customs units 539, 000, 000 ( as compared with gu 386, 000, 000 for 1938 ), the japanese empire supplied 34 % - - in spite of the great quantities of raw cotton brought from elsewhere and the competitive textile boom in shanghai. the united states supplied 16 %. in 1939 raw cotton was imported from abroad to the value of gu 69, 700, 000, whereas in 1938, also a year of heaw imoorts, the figure 5, 500, 000. the abnormal and unhealthy condition in this fantastic city of shanghai can hardly be described. the price level rose to more than four times the pre - war figure, and the real wages of labor dropped over half. rice riots and strikes resulted, while industry was reaping huge profits. due to the uncertain status of the city, investment is largely speculative - - it seeks inordinate short - term profits hoping to withdraw when danger threatens. in 1938, for example, one of the chinese sung sing cotton mills in shanghai made a profit of $ 9, 000, 000, unprecedented in history. ewo, the big british cotton mill, made a profit of $ 8, 000, 000, while all the cotton mills in the settlement made profits of over a million. since the beginning of 1938 net profit on a bale of yam manufactured has been from $ 50 to $ 150 - - this in spite of the low


000, 000, while all the cotton mills in the settlement made profits of over a million. since the beginning of 1938 net profit on a bale of yam manufactured has been from $ 50 to $ 150 - - this in spite of the low exchange of chinese currency for purchase of raw cotton abroad. how does this compare with the situation in free china? according to the above tables, about nine chinese mills have been in continuous operation outside of shanghai, presumably in free china, and about six moved their machinery to free china. these tables may not be quite complete, as the ministry of economics reported that 80 weaving and spinning units were transported inland, though probably most of these were small factories not counted among the big mills, and some are for silk, ramie, etc. no separate figures on textile factories were available when these figures were given out. as compared with 100 big cotton mills in shanghai and japanese - occupied territory, 71 being in the hands of the japanese, free china has probably about a dozen big mills operating and three times as many smaller factories, aside from the industrial cooperatives who have about 600 wool and cotton weaving societies, and employ in addition about 35, 000 men and women spinners and weavers, with over 50, 000 spindles and looms. in addition domestic industry is being revived.


spinach and silicon for solar powercategory : science & technology posted : september 4, 2012 05 : 31pm when thinking about solar power, some may think it is this new technology that has been developed most extensively in recent times as a clean energy source. the truth is though that solar power has been in development for millions and even billions of years. nature has been harnessing the power of sunlight for longer than man has existed, and researchers know that and are trying to take advantage of that. photosystem 1 ( ps1 ) is a protein involved in photosynthesis that can convert sunlight to electrical energy with almost 100 % efficiency ; almost three times higher than the maximum efficiency possible with typical semiconductor solar cells. this protein also can continue function after it has been harvested from plants like spinach, but not always for long and is difficult to integrate with our technology. researchers at vanderbilt university overcame this though by doping the silicon substrate ps - 1 was placed on. this is to prevent the protein from pulling electrons from the silicon to fill holes formed by the useable electric current. the biohybrid solar cell the researchers created was able to generate 850 microamps per square centimeter and 0. 3 v. that may not sound like much but represents nearly two and a half times better performance than previous biohybrid solar cells. with further work the researchers are confident they can improve the cells ' performance even further and give new meaning to the phase ' green energy. '


hormone inhibin a the inhibin a test is done to measure the amount of this reference hormone opens new window in a pregnant woman ' s blood to see if the baby may have reference down syndrome opens new window. inhibin a is made by the reference placenta opens new window during pregnancy. the level of inhibin a in the blood is used in a reference maternal serum quadruple screening test. generally done between 15 and 20 weeks, this test checks the levels of four substances in a pregnant woman ' s blood. the quad screen checks alpha - fetoprotein ( afp ), human chorionic gonadotropin ( hcg ), a type of estrogen ( unconjugated estriol, or ue3 ), and the hormone inhibin a. the levels of these substances — along with a woman ' s age and other factors — help the doctor estimate the chance that the baby may have certain problems or birth defects. - opens new window pregnancy : should i have the maternal serum triple or quadruple test? opens new window | by : | | reference healthwise staff | | last revised : reference april 4, 2012 | | medical review : | | reference sarah marshall, md - family medicine reference siobhan m. dolan, md, mph - reproductive genetics


what is the appendix? the appendix is a 3 - 5 centimeter tubular structure which is connected to the cecum, the first part of the colon. the purpose of the appendix isn ' t known, but it does not aid in digestion and there are no side effects of having it removed. what is appendicitis? appendicitis is when the appendix becomes inflamed. this happens when the opening to the appendix becomes obstructed, or blocked, usually by stool or by swollen lymph tissue. in older people, cancer can sometimes cause the obstruction. appendicitis is the most common abdominal surgical emergency - 250, 000 appendectomies are performed each year in the united states. the lifetime risk of having appendicitis is 7 %. the peak age of occurrence is between 10 - 30 years. what are the usual symptoms of appendicitis? appendicitis begins as abdominal pain, frequently around the belly button. this pain then moves to the right lower abdomen and is usually constant. nausea is frequently present with occasional vomiting. a low - grade fever may also be present. how is appendicitis diagnosed? appendicitis is diagnosed by an experienced doctor based upon the history that the patient gives as well as the examination that the doctor performs. if these are inconclusive, then a ct scan is usually ordered. the symptoms of appendicitis can be similar to several other conditions, which sometimes makes the diagnosis difficult. how is the appendix removed? the appendix can be removed through an open operation or performed laparoscopically. in the open procedure, a 3 - 4 cm incision is made in the right lower abdomen, just over the appendix. the appendix is then divided at its connection to the colon. when done laparoscopically, there are 3 very small incisions used to insert instruments and a camera. there are benefits to both the open and laparoscopic procedure. surgeons decide on a case by case basis which procedure is best for the patient. what if my appendix is ruptured? the longer the appendix is inflamed, the more likely it is to rupture. once symptoms have been present for 36 hours, about 50 % of patients will have had their appendix rupture. at 48 hours, this reaches 75 %. when this occurs, there are more likely to be complications, including wound infections, intra - abdominal abscess, and ileus ( bowels are slow to return to normal


this act states that food must not be contaminated by any pest species and food premises should have suitable controls in place to do this. they should protect food against external sources of pests and must also avoid harbouring pests within their premises. refuse stores should be designed and constructed to prevent pests gaining access and windows in food preparation, processing or treatment rooms must, where necessary, be fitted with insect - proof screens. penalties include : - as described under the food safety act above. health and safety at work etc. act ( including control of substances hazardous to employers must take the necessary measures to secure the health, safety and welfare of employees and other people, to avoid, for example, pathogenic diseases carried by pests, slippery conditions caused by bird droppings, bites from fleas and contamination of food by pests. · improvement notices. · prohibition notices. · maximum penalty two years imprisonment plus unlimited fines. other acts include : · the local authorities act · protection of animals act ( control of substances hazardous to health regulations ) these regulations, made under the health and safety at work etc. act are designed to protect people from harmful substances that they may encounter at work. each time our technicians visit your premises, they complete a pest prevention report which lists the substances which have been used, in order to minimise the risks that accompany the use of pesticides. a schedule of pesticides is also present in the pest prevention folders that we provide to our contract customers, which gives further details on these substances. safety data sheets are also available on request. guardian technicians are trained and equipped to apply pesticides correctly and safely. all the pesticides that we use are approved by the control of pesticides regulations and treatments are made in the appropriate places where they will be most effective.


washington, d. c. - 06 / 11 / 2002 - the science needed for government regulators to assess allergies in genetically engineered foods could be greatly improved, according to a new report issued today from the pew initiative on food and biotechnology. the report, " a snapshot of federal research on food allergy : implications for genetically modified food, " found that nine federal agencies or institutes currently supervise 33 food allergy research projects totaling between $ 4. 2 and $ 7 million, but that those funds are spread thin and with little coordination among federal agencies or between research teams. moreover, the study found that the existing research focuses on known allergens such as peanuts and milk, and that almost no studies examine the allergenicity of novel proteins potentially introduced by foods created through biotechnology. in other words, the funds that have been committed to address the problem are not being strategically allocated to ensure research needs and opportunities are fully met. food allergy is an immune - mediated disease caused by food antigens ; it occurs only among people who are sensitive to those antigens. as many as 10 million americans are estimated to have allergies to one or more foods, and for them, reactions to those foods can result in illness or even death. little is known today about why some people have reactions to food in general. in addition, the increasing use of genetically modified ( gm ) crops raises several issues relevant to food allergies. on the one hand, biotechnology may help remove or change proteins that can cause allergies, but genetically modified foods could also introduce new proteins into foods that could cause allergic reactions. without prior experience with the new protein, it is difficult for regulators to predict the potential of the protein to be a serious allergen. gm foods currently on the market have been screened for possible allergenicity problems. but some new gm foods may be difficult to judge with current science, as illustrated recently in the case of starlink, a type of genetically modified corn that was approved for use only in animal feed because it could not be shown that the new protein in the corn was not an allergen. " almost two years ago, starlink accidentally made its way into the human food supply, " noted michael rodemeyer, executive director of the initiative. " after massive consumer product recalls, lawsuits, buybacks from farmers and a disruption to american farm export markets that continues today, we still lack answers to the basic science questions posed by government regulators whether starlink was or was not an allergen, " he said


consumer product recalls, lawsuits, buybacks from farmers and a disruption to american farm export markets that continues today, we still lack answers to the basic science questions posed by government regulators whether starlink was or was not an allergen, " he said. " was the starlink recall even necessary for allergy reasons? we just don ’ t know. " unfortunately, this lack of scientific knowledge is hindering both the government as well as the private sector - - we need to invest in the science to give regulators the tools and information they need to evaluate new products and protect the public, " he concluded drs. lynn r. goldman and luca bucchini of the johns hopkins bloomberg school of public health conducted the study. the authors reviewed food allergy research funded by the federal government and aimed at investigating food safety. research abstracts were sourced from crisp ( computer retrieval of information on scientific projects ), a database of research supported by the department of health and human services, and cris ( current research information system ), a database supported by the us department of agriculture as well as additional sources. because of the way crisp and cris are maintained, the study is a snapshot in time ; it captures research projects that were active in q3 2001 and does not account for studies that may have just been completed or that will soon be approved. the study also does not include research undertaken by the private sector, ngos or states, which all may have an impact on the advancement of food allergy research but are not easily investigated. the study did not include ongoing federal research projects that more generally investigate allergy and may, in time, produce results that contribute to understanding of food allergy. the pew initiative on food and biotechnology is a nonprofit, nonpartisan research project whose goal is to inform the public and policymakers on issues about genetically modified food and agricultural biotechnology, including its importance, as well as concerns about it and its regulation. it is funded by a grant from the pew charitable trusts to the university of richmond.