spent the remainder of the war as a pow held in italian captivity at asinara island. there henlein spent his time studying the history of the german turner ( gymnastics ) movement of friedrich ludwig jahn. he returned home after the breakup of the austro - hungarian monarchy in 1919. henlein worked as a bank clerk in gablonz, part of the newly established czechoslovakian state. influenced by the german national movement, henlein became a gym teacher of the gymnastics club in asch ( as ) in 1925, which, similar to the czech sokol movement, took an active part in sudeten german communal life. party leader on 1 october 1933, henlein founded the sudetendeutsche heimatfront ( " sudeten german home front ", shf ). although the shf was originally meant as a successor organisation of the banned anti - czech german national socialist workers ' party and german national party, it soon became a big tent right - wing movement in order to achieve a status of autonomy for the german minority, rivalling with the german social democratic workers party. on 19 april 1935 the shf was renamed sudeten german party ( sudetendeutsche partei, sdp ) under pressure from the czechoslovak government. in the first half of the 1930s, henlein held a pro - czechoslovak and overtly anti - nazi view in his public views and speeches. in the parliamentary election of may 1935, the sdp with massive support by the nazi party gained 15. 2 % of the votes cast, becoming the strongest of all czechoslovak parties, and had won about 68 % of the german votes. even with the newfound power of the sdp, gained with the help of the nazis, henlein did not become a declared follower of adolf hitler until 1937 ; after the pro - german camp within the sdp represented by karl hermann frank emerged victorious. newer research shows his position within the sdp became very difficult, when in 1937 heinz rutha, one of his closest allies, was tipped off to the czechoslovak authorities ( possibly by german secret service ) and imprisoned for alleged homosexuality. henlein then swiftly aligned himself with the slogan ein volk, ein reich, ein fuhrer! ( " one people, one country, one leader! " ), thus calling for the predominantly ( typically more than 80 % ) german - speaking sudetenland to be a part of germany. henlein ' s political party ' s dominance of the sudetenland in the 1930s contributed to the munich agreement


, thus calling for the predominantly ( typically more than 80 % ) german - speaking sudetenland to be a part of germany. henlein ' s political party ' s dominance of the sudetenland in the 1930s contributed to the munich agreement on 30 september 1938, which was due in part to his influence with the british delegate lord runciman during the latter ' s visit of czechoslovakia. henlein presented his party ' s policy as striving to fulfill the " justified claims " of the then largely nazified german minority. henlein, often under direct orders from berlin, deliberately had worked to help create a sense of crisis that was useful to hitler ' s diplomatic and military efforts ; as he once stated, " we must make demands that cannot be satisfied ". from 12 september 1938, forward, he helped organise hundreds of terrorist attacks and two coup attempts by the sudetendeutsches freikorps paramilitary organisation affiliated with the ss - totenkopfverbande, immediately after hitler ' s frenetic and threatening speech in nuremberg at the nazi party ' s annual rally. the attempted uprising was quickly suppressed by czechoslovak forces, whereafter henlein fled to germany only to start numerous intrusions into czechoslovak territory around asch as a commander of sudeten german guerilla bands. german occupation upon the wehrmacht ' s entry into the sudetenland, henlein was appointed reichskommissar and became a ss - gruppenfuhrer ( later an ss - obergruppenfuhrer ). the sdp merged with hitler ' s nsdap on 5 november 1938. henlein joined the nazi party in january 1939 and was appointed reichstag deputy. in march and april 1939 he served as the head of civil service in the protectorate of bohemia and moravia but soon most of the power went to the hands of his long - time rival karl hermann frank. on 1 may 1939 henlein was named reichsstatthalter and gauleiter of the newly established reichsgau sudetenland, a position he held until the end of the war. his political influence was limited. several attempts by rsha leader reinhard heydrich and others to remove him from office, supposedly because he was not radical enough, failed due to henlein ' s good relations with hitler. in fiction in harry turtledove ' s " hitler ' s war ", henlein is assassinated by a czech named jaroslav stribny around 28 september 1938. hitler, in the story, then


| the formation of neural crest during the process of neurulation. neural crest is first induced in the region of the neural plate border. after neural tube closure, neural crest delaminates from the region between the dorsal neural tube and overlying ectoderm and migrates out towards the periphery. | neural crest cells are a transient, multipotent, migratory cell population unique to vertebrates that gives rise to a diverse cell lineage including melanocytes, craniofacial cartilage and bone, smooth muscle, peripheral and enteric neurons and glia. after gastrulation, neural crest cells are specified at the border of the neural plate and the non - neural ectoderm. during neurulation, the borders of the neural plate, also known as the neural folds, converge at the dorsal midline to form the neural tube. subsequently, neural crest cells from the roof plate of the neural tube undergo an epithelial to mesenchymal transition, delaminating from the neuroepithelium and migrating through the periphery where they differentiate into varied cell types. the emergence of neural crest was important in vertebrate evolution because many of its structural derivatives are defining features of the vertebrate clade. underlying the development of neural crest is a gene regulatory network, described as a set of interacting signals, transcription factors, and downstream effector genes that confer cell characteristics such as multipotency and migratory capabilities. understanding the molecular mechanisms of neural crest formation is important for our knowledge of human disease because of its contributions to multiple cell lineages. abnormalities in neural crest development cause neurocristopathies, which include conditions such as frontonasal dysplasia, waardenburg - shah syndrome, and digeorge syndrome. therefore, defining the mechanisms of neural crest development may reveal key insights into vertebrate evolution and neurocristopathies. neural crest was first described in the chick embryo by wilhelm his in 1868 as " the cord in between " ( zwischenstrang ) because of its origin between the neural plate and non - neural ectoderm. he named the tissue ganglionic crest since its final destination was each lateral side of the neural tube where it differentiated into spinal ganglia. during the first half of the 20th century the majority of research on neural crest was done using amphibian embryos which was reviewed by horstadius ( 1950 ) in a well known monograph. cell labeling techniques advanced the field of neural crest because they allowed researchers to visual


of the 20th century the majority of research on neural crest was done using amphibian embryos which was reviewed by horstadius ( 1950 ) in a well known monograph. cell labeling techniques advanced the field of neural crest because they allowed researchers to visualize the migration of the tissue throughout the developing embryos. in the 1960s weston and chibon utilized radioisotopic labeling of the nucleus with tritiated thymidine in chick and amphibian embryo respectively. however, this method suffers from drawbacks of stability, since every time the labeled cell divides the signal is diluted. modern cell labeling techniques such as rhodamine - lysinated dextran and the vital dye dii have also been developed to transiently mark neural crest lineages. the quail - chick marking system, devised by nicole le douarin in 1969, was another instrumental technique used to track neural crest cells. chimeras, generated through transplantation, enabled researchers to distinguish neural crest cells of one species from the surrounding tissue of another species. with this technique, generations of scientists were able to reliably mark and study the ontogeny of neural crest cells. a molecular cascade of events is involved in establishing the migratory and multipotent characteristics of neural crest cells. this gene - regulatory network can be subdivided into the following four sub - networks described below. inductive signals first, extracellular signaling molecules, secreted from the adjacent epidermis and underlying mesoderm such wnts, bmps and fgfs separate the non - neural ectoderm ( epidermis ) from the neural plate during neural induction. wnt signaling has been demonstrated in neural crest induction in several species through gain - of - function and loss - of - function experiments. in coherence with this observation, the promoter region of slug ( a neural crest specific gene ) contains a binding site for transcription factors involved in the activation of wnt - dependent target genes, suggestive of a direct role of wnt signaling in neural crest specification. the current role of bmp in neural crest formation is associated with the induction of the neural plate. bmp antagonists diffusing from the ectoderm generates a gradient of bmp activity. in this manner, the neural crest lineage forms from intermediate levels of bmp signaling required for the development of the neural plate ( low bmp ) and epidermis ( high bmp ). fgf from the paraxial mesoderm has been suggested as a source of neural crest ind


intermediate levels of bmp signaling required for the development of the neural plate ( low bmp ) and epidermis ( high bmp ). fgf from the paraxial mesoderm has been suggested as a source of neural crest inductive signal. researchers have demonstrated that the expression of dominate - negative fgf receptor in ectoderm explants blocks neural crest induction when recombined with paraxial mesoderm. our current understanding of the role of bmp, wnt, and fgf pathways on neural crest specifier expression remains incomplete. neural plate border specifiers signaling events that establish the neural plate border lead to the expression of a set of transcription factors delineated here as neural plate border specifiers. these molecules include zic factors, pax3 / 7, dlx5, msx1 / 2 which may mediate the influence of wnts, bmps, and fgfs. these genes are expressed broadly at the neural plate border region and precede the expression of bona fide neural crest markers. experimental evidence places these transcription factors upstream of neural crest specifiers. for example, in xenopus msx1 is necessary and sufficient for the expression of slug, snail, and foxd3. furthermore, pax3 is essential for foxd3 expression in mouse embryos. neural crest specifiers following the expression of neural plate border specifiers is a collection of genes including slug / snail, foxd3, sox10, sox9, ap - 2 and c - myc. this suite of genes, designated here as neural crest specifiers, are activated in emergent neural crest cells. at least in xenopus, every neural crest specifier is necessary and / or sufficient for the expression of all other specifiers, demonstrating the existence of extensive cross - regulation. outside of the tightly regulated network of neural crest specifiers are two other transcription factors twist and id. twist, a bhlh transcription factor, is required for mesenchyme differentiation of the pharyngeal arch structures. id is a direct target of c - myc and is known to be important for the maintenance of neural crest stem cells. neural crest effector genes finally, neural crest specifiers turn on the expression of effector genes, which confer certain properties such as migration and multipotency. two neural crest effectors, rho gtpases and cadherins, function in delamination by regulating cell morphology and adhesive properties. sox9 and sox


" new head " theory, gans and northcut argue that the presence of neural crest was the basis for vertebrate specific features, such as sensory ganglia and cranial skeleton. furthermore, the appearance of these features was pivotal in vertebrate evolution because it enabled a predatory lifestyle. however, considering the neural crest a vertebrate innovation does not mean that it was created de novo. instead, new structures often arise through modification of existing developmental regulatory programs. for example, regulatory programs may be changed by the co - option of new upstream regulators or by the employment of new downstream gene targets, thus placing existing networks in a novel context. this idea is supported by in situ hybridization data that shows the conservation of the neural plate border specifiers in protochordates, which suggest that part of the neural crest precursor network was present in a common ancestor to the chordates. in some non - vertebrate chordates such as tunicates a lineage of cells ( melanocytes ) has been identified, which are similar to neural crest cells in vertebrates. this implies that a rudimentary neural crest existed in a common ancestor of vertebrates and tunicates. neural crest derivatives mesectoderm : odontoblasts, dental papillae, the chondrocranium ( nasal capsule, meckel ' s cartilage, scleral ossicles, quadrate, articular, hyoid and columella ), tracheal and laryngeal cartilage, the dermatocranium ( membranous bones ), dorsal fins and the turtle plastron ( lower vertebrates ), pericytes and smooth muscle of branchial arteries and veins, tendons of ocular and masticatory muscles, connective tissue of head and neck glands ( pituitary, salivary, lachrymal, thymus, thyroid ) dermis and adipose tissue of calvaria, ventral neck and face peripheral nervous system : sensory neurons and glia of the dorsal root ganglia, cephalic ganglia ( vii and in part, v, ix, and x ), rohon - beard cells, some merkel cells in the whisker, satellite glial cells of all autonomic and sensory ganglia, schwann cells of all peripheral nerves melanocytes and iris pigment cells see also - huang, x., and saint - jeannet, j. p. ( 2004 ). "


its use in experimental embryology ". dev biol. 30 217 - 22. doi : 10. 1016 / 0012 - 1606 ( 73 ) 90061 - 4 - vallin, j. et al. ( 2001 ). " cloning and characterization of the three xenopus slug promoters reveal direct regulation by lef / beta - catenin signaling ". j biol chem. 276, 30350 - 8. doi : 10. 1074 / jbc. m103167200 - mayor, r., guerrero, n., martinez, c. ( 1997 ). " role of fgf and noggin in neural crest induction ". dev biol. 189 1 - 12. doi : 10. 1006 / dbio. 1997. 8634 - tribulo, c. et al. ( 2003 ). " regulation of msx genes by bmp gradient is essential for neural crest specification ". development. 130, 6441 - 52. doi : 10. 1242 / dev. 00878 - dottori, m., gross, m. k., labosky, p., and goulding, m. ( 2001 ). " the winged - helix transcription factor foxd3 suppresses interneuron differentiation and promotes neural crest cell fate ". development 128, 4127 – 4138. - vincentz, j. w. et al. ( 2008 ). " an absence of twist1 results in aberrant cardiac neural crest morphogenesis ". dev biol. 320, 131 - 9. doi : 10. 1016 / j. ydbio. 2008. 04. 037 - light, w. et al. ( 2005 ). " xenopus id3 is required downstream of myc for the formation of multipotent neural crest progenitor cells ". development. 132, 1831 - 41. doi : 10. 1242 / dev. 01734 - taneyhill, l. a. ( 2008 ). " to adhere or not to adhere : the role of cadherins in neural crest development ". cell adh migr. 2, 223 - 30. - gans, c. and northcutt, r. g. ( 1983 ). " neural crest and the origin of vertebrates : a new head ". science 220, 268 – 274. doi : 10. 1126 / science. 220. 4594. 268 - sauka - spengler


( 1983 ). " neural crest and the origin of vertebrates : a new head ". science 220, 268 – 274. doi : 10. 1126 / science. 220. 4594. 268 - sauka - spengler, t. and bronner - fraser, m. ( 2006 ). " development and evolution of the migratory neural crest : a gene regulatory perspective ". curr opin genet dev. 13, 360 - 6. doi : 10. 1016 / j. gde. 2006. 06. 006 - donoghue, p. c., graham, a., kelsh, r. n. ( 2008 ). " the origin and evolution of the neural crest ". bioessays. 30, 530 - 41. doi : 10. 1002 / bies. 20767 - abitua, p. b. ; wagner, e. ; navarrete, i. a. ; levine, m. ( 2012 ). " identification of a rudimentary neural crest in a non - vertebrate chordate ". nature. doi : 10. 1038 / nature11589. - kalcheim, c. and le douarin, n. m. ( 1998 ). the neural crest ( 2nd ed. ). cambridge, u. k. : cambridge university press. - van keymeulen a, mascre g, youseff kk, harel i, michaux c, de geest n, szpalski c, achouri y, bloch w, hassan ba, blanpain c. epidermal progenitors give rise to merkel cells during embryonic development and adult homeostasis. j cell biol. 2009 oct 5 ; 187 ( 1 ) : 91 - 100. pubmed pmid 19786578. - szeder v, grim m, halata z, sieber - blum m. neural crest origin of mammalian merkel cells. dev biol. 2003 jan 15 ; 253 ( 2 ) : 258 - 63. pubmed pmid 12645929. - embryology at unsw notes / ncrest - neuronames ancil - 445 - diagram at university of michigan - hox domains in chicks


| | this article needs additional citations for verification. ( may 2009 ) | background to philatelic literature consider a letter found pressed between the pages of an old book, sent from a relative working in a remote part of the world. how did the letter get from there to here? was there a company mail boat that carried it, or was there a remote town with its own post office? was the sender in an independent country, or a colony too small to issue its own stamps? why did the recipient ' s country accept the expense of carrying the letter the rest of the way, and if it didn ' t, how did it arrange to get paid for delivering the letter? come to think of it, how did the letter cross the border? philatelic and postal history research answer these sorts of questions, and the results are then published in a variety of books and journals. philatelic literature is held by stamp collectors and dealers, philatelic societies, and general and specialist libraries. the holdings of the british library, for instance, are estimated at 30 - 35, 000 works. main types of philatelic literature philatelic literature is generally divided into the following categories : - stamp catalogues - single country catalogues - worldwide catalogues - geographic area catalogues ( e. g. africa ) - time period catalogues ( e. g. reign of king george v ) - specialized catalogues ( e. g. postmarks, plate blocks, perfins, etc. ) - society newsletters - auction catalogues - bibliographies of philatelic literature - background material - non philatelic material useful to stamp collectors. for example, currency exchange rates, maps, newspapers etc. the stamp catalogue perhaps the most basic sort of literature is the stamp catalogue. this is basically a list of types of postage stamps along with their market values. the first catalogues in great britain were published in 1862 by frederick booty, mount brown, and dr. john edward gray. the first in the united states was the stamp collector ' s manual by a. c. kline ( a pseudonym for john william kline ), also 1862. some catalogues, like the michel catalogue and various one - country catalogues, offer a great deal of information going beyond the basic properties of each stamp type. the single country book another common sort of book is the comprehensive " stamps and postal history " of a single country. these go beyond the basic date, denomination, and market price seen in the catalogues,


beyond the basic properties of each stamp type. the single country book another common sort of book is the comprehensive " stamps and postal history " of a single country. these go beyond the basic date, denomination, and market price seen in the catalogues, explaining why particular stamps were issued, where and how they used, and more generally how the country ' s postal system worked in various periods. the specialised study the next level of specialization is remarkable both for the level of minutiae and the number of works that have been published. specialists write monographs summarizing everything that is known about a single type of stamp - the history of its design, the printing process, when and where the stamp was sold to the public, and all the ways it was used on mail. if the stamps is particularly rare ( the inverted jenny or the missionary stamps of hawaii ), the book may actually include a census of every single copy known to exist. as might be expected, the audience is small, and the print runs of these books are small too. classic works out of print may be much - sought - after, sometimes even more than the stamps they are describing! other kinds of specialized work include comprehensive studies of postal usage in limited areas and times, perhaps mail in montana territory before it became a state, or mail from missionaries in uganda before it became a british colony. the philatelic journal in addition to books, there are a great number of philatelic journals. the first stamp magazine was the monthly intelligencer from birmingham, england, followed shortly by many others. the journals and newsletters of clubs and societies also have an important role in philatelic literature. many journals only run for a few numbers and then cease but they often contain information found nowhere else and therefore are valuable sources for philatelists. some popular philatelic periodicals are : - the american philatelist - worldwide topics with a focus on usa - canadian stamp news - worldwide topics with a focus on canada - deutsche briefmarken zeitung ( germany ) - gibbons stamp monthly ( uk ) - worldwide topics with a focus on great britain and the british commonwealth - linn ' s stamp news ( usa ) - worldwide topics with a focus on usa philatelic bibliography the scale and complexity of philatelic literature is such that it has its own journal, the philatelic literature review, published quarterly by the american philatelic research library. there are also a number of libraries devoted solely to philatelic literature. ( see link below ) see also - [ catalogue of postage


has its own journal, the philatelic literature review, published quarterly by the american philatelic research library. there are also a number of libraries devoted solely to philatelic literature. ( see link below ) see also - [ catalogue of postage and telegraph stamps 4th ed 1895. jpg philatelic research at the british library ] by david beech, barnet & district philatelic society, 2013. retrieved 3 may 2013. - phillips, stanley. stamp collecting : a guide to modern philately, revised edition, stanley gibbons, london, 1983, p. 243. isbn 0 - 85259 - 047 - 4. - " early postage stamp catalogs " by george b. sloane in stamps, 13 july 1946. - herbert a. trenchard and george t. turner, " john william kline america ' s first philatelic author ", in philatelic literature review, vol. 42, no. 1, pp. 24 - 41, 1993 further reading | wikimedia commons has media related to : philatelic literature | - birch, brian. the philatelic bibliophile ' s companion, 3rd edition, standish, wigan, 2007. - negus, james. philatelic literature. compilation techniques and reference sources, james bendon, limassol, cyprus, 1991. isbn 9963 - 7624 - 3 - 3 - pearson, patrick. advanced philatelic research, arthur barker, london, 1971. isbn 0 - 213 - 00326 - 0


temporal range : early pleistocene – recent | the common brown rat ( rattus norvegicus ) | fischer de waldheim, 1803 stenomys thomas, 1910 rats are various medium - sized, long - tailed rodents of the superfamily muroidea. " true rats " are members of the genus rattus, the most important of which to humans are the black rat, rattus rattus, and the brown rat, rattus norvegicus. many members of other rodent genera and families are also referred to as rats, and share many characteristics with true rats. rats are typically distinguished from mice by their size ; rats are generally large muroid rodents, while mice are generally small muroid rodents. the muroid family is very large and complex, and the common terms rat and mouse are not taxonomically specific. generally, when someone discovers a large muroid, its common name includes the term rat, while if it is small, the name includes the term mouse. scientifically, the terms are not confined to members of the rattus and mus genera, for example, the pack rat and cotton mouse. species and description the best - known rat species are the black rat ( rattus rattus ) and the brown rat ( rattus norvegicus ). the group is generally known as the old world rats or true rats, and originated in asia. rats are bigger than most old world mice, which are their relatives, but seldom weigh over 500 grams ( 1. 1 lb ) in the wild. the term " rat " is also used in the names of other small mammals which are not true rats. examples include the north american pack rats, a number of species loosely called kangaroo rats, and others. rats such as the bandicoot rat ( bandicota bengalensis ) are murine rodents related to true rats, but are not members of the genus rattus. male rats are called bucks, unmated females are called does, pregnant or parent females are called dams, and infants are called kittens or pups. a group of rats is either referred to as a pack or a mischief. the common species are opportunistic survivors and often live with and near humans ; therefore, they are known as commensals. they may cause substantial food losses, especially in developing countries. however, the widely distributed and problematic commensal species of rats are a minority in this diverse genus. many species of rats are island endemics and some have become endangered due to habitat loss or competition with


substantial food losses, especially in developing countries. however, the widely distributed and problematic commensal species of rats are a minority in this diverse genus. many species of rats are island endemics and some have become endangered due to habitat loss or competition with the brown, black or polynesian rat. wild rodents, including rats, can carry many different zoonotic pathogens, such as leptospira, toxoplasma gondii, and campylobacter. the black death is traditionally believed to have been caused by the micro - organism yersinia pestis, carried by the tropical rat flea ( xenopsylla cheopis ) which preyed on black rats living in european cities during the epidemic outbreaks of the middle ages ; these rats were used as transport hosts. other zoonotic diseases linked to pest rodents include classical swine fever and foot - and - mouth disease. the average lifespan of any given rat depends on which species is being discussed, but many only live about a year due to predation. the black and brown rats diverged from other old world rats during the beginning of the pleistocene in the forests of asia. specially bred rats have been kept as pets at least since the late 19th century. pet rats are typically variants of the species brown rat, but black rats and giant pouched rats are also known to be kept. pet rats behave differently from their wild counterparts depending on how many generations they have been kept as pets. pet rats do not pose any more of a health risk than pets such as cats or dogs. tamed rats are generally friendly and can be taught to perform selected behaviors. subjects for scientific research in 1895, clark university in worcester, massachusetts ( united states ) established a population of domestic albino brown rats to study the effects of diet and for other physiological studies. over the years, rats have been used in many experimental studies, which have added to our understanding of genetics, diseases, the effects of drugs, and other topics that have provided a great benefit for the health and well - being of humankind. laboratory rats have also proved valuable in psychological studies of learning and other mental processes ( barnett, 2002 ), as well as to understand group behavior and overcrowding ( with the work of john b. calhoun on behavioral sink ). a 2007 study found rats to possess metacognition, a mental ability previously only documented in humans and some primates. domestic rats differ from wild rats in many ways. they are calmer and less likely to bite ; they can


sink ). a 2007 study found rats to possess metacognition, a mental ability previously only documented in humans and some primates. domestic rats differ from wild rats in many ways. they are calmer and less likely to bite ; they can tolerate greater crowding ; they breed earlier and produce more offspring ; and their brains, livers, kidneys, adrenal glands, and hearts are smaller ( barnett 2002 ). brown rats are often used as model organisms for scientific research. since the publication of the rat genome sequence, and other advances, such as the creation of a rat snp chip, and the production of knockout rats, the laboratory rat has become a useful genetic tool, although not as popular as mice. when it comes to conducting tests related to intelligence, learning, and drug abuse, rats are a popular choice due to their high intelligence, ingenuity, aggressiveness, and adaptability. their psychology, in many ways, seems to be similar to humans. entirely new breeds or " lines " of brown rats, such as the wistar rat, have been bred for use in laboratories. much of the genome of rattus norvegicus has been sequenced. because of the ability to learn, rats were early on investigated to see whether they may exhibit general intelligence like larger or more complex animals. a 1929 study did not find a g factor, nor did a 1990 work ; a 1935 study did : robert thorndike, for example, provided strong evidence for g in rats by the use of a variety of tests such as mazes, problem - solving tasks, and simple avoidance conditioning ( thorndike 1935 ). performances tended to correlate across tasks, with stronger associations found between mazes and problem - solving than with simple avoidance tasks. thorndike ( 1935 ) also reviewed a dozen earlier studies which also suggested that the highest correlations are found between more complex problem - solving tasks. however, it should be noted that there were other contemporary studies that found split or near zero - order correlation matrices for other populations of rats across cognitive batteries ( see royce 1950 ). — in 1993, anderson measured rat performance and factor analysis produced a g, and also correlations with rat brain size ( like in humans and primates ). locurto & scanlon 1998, matzel et al. 2003, matzel et al. 2004, kolata et al. 2009 and matzel et al. 2011 replicated the factor ( but did not investigate brain size ) ; 2003 locurto


scanlon 1998, matzel et al. 2003, matzel et al. 2004, kolata et al. 2009 and matzel et al. 2011 replicated the factor ( but did not investigate brain size ) ; 2003 locurto et al., 2006 locurto et al. in contrast found their factor analysis giving 4 factors rather than 1. a 2011 controlled study found that rats are actively prosocial. they demonstrate altruistic behaviour to other rats in experiments, including freeing them from cages. when presented with readily available chocolate chips, test subjects would first free the caged rat, and then share the food. all female rats in the study displayed this behaviour, while 30 % of the males did not. rat meat is a food that, while taboo in some cultures, is a dietary staple in others. taboos include fears of disease or religious prohibition, but in many places, the high number of rats has led to their incorporation into the local diets. in some cultures, rats are or have been limited as an acceptable form of food to a particular social or economic class. in the mishmi culture of india, rats are essential to the traditional diet, as mishmi women may eat no meat except fish, pork, wild birds and rats. conversely, the musahar community in north india has commercialised rat farming as an exotic delicacy. in the traditional cultures of the hawaiians and the polynesians, rat was an everyday food for commoners. when feasting, the polynesian people of rapa nui could eat rat meat, but the king was not allowed to, due to the islanders ' belief in his " state of sacredness " called tapu. in studying precontact archaeological sites in hawaii, archaeologists have found the concentration of the remains of rats associated with commoner households accounted for three times the animal remains associated with elite households. the rat bones found in all sites are fragmented, burned and covered in carbonized material, indicating the rats were eaten as food. the greater occurrence of rat remains associated with commoner households may indicate the elites of precontact hawaii did not consume them as a matter of status or taste. bandicoot rats are an important food source among some peoples in southeast asia, and the united nations food and agriculture organization estimated rat meat makes up half the locally produced meat consumed in ghana, where cane rats are farmed and hunted for their meat. african slaves in the american south were known to hunt wood rats ( among other animals ) to supplement


nations food and agriculture organization estimated rat meat makes up half the locally produced meat consumed in ghana, where cane rats are farmed and hunted for their meat. african slaves in the american south were known to hunt wood rats ( among other animals ) to supplement their food rations, and aborigines along the coast in southern queensland, australia, regularly included rats in their diet. ricefield rats ( rattus argentiventer ) have traditionally been used as food in rice - producing regions such as valencia, as immortalized by vicente blasco ibanez in his novel canas y barro. along with eel and local beans known as garrafons, rata de marjal is one of the main ingredients in traditional paella ( later replaced by rabbit, chicken and seafood ). ricefield rats are also consumed in the philippines, the isaan region of thailand, and cambodia. in late 2008, reuters reported the price of rat meat had quadrupled in cambodia, creating a hardship for the poor who could no longer afford it. elsewhere in the world, rat meat is considered diseased and unclean, socially unacceptable, or there are strong religious proscriptions against it. islam and kashrut traditions prohibit it, while both the shipibo people of peru and siriono people of bolivia have cultural taboos against the eating of rats. rats are a common food item for snakes, both in the wild, and as pets. captive - bred ball pythons, in particular, are fed a diet of mostly rats. rats, as food items, are available from many suppliers individual snake owners, as well as to large reptile zoos. in britain, the government in 2007 ruled out the feeding of any live mammal to another animal. the rule says the animal must be dead ( frozen ) then given to the animal to eat. the rule was put into place mainly because of the pressure of the rspca and people who found it cruel. rats have a keen sense of smell and are easy to train. these characteristics have been employed, for example, by the belgian non - governmental organization apopo, which trains rats ( specifically african giant pouched rats ) to detect landmines and diagnose tuberculosis through smell. rats as pests rats have long been considered deadly pests. once considered an modern myth, the rat plague in india has now been verified. indeed every fifty years, armies of bamboo rats descend upon rural areas and devour everything in their path. rats have long been held up as the


considered deadly pests. once considered an modern myth, the rat plague in india has now been verified. indeed every fifty years, armies of bamboo rats descend upon rural areas and devour everything in their path. rats have long been held up as the chief villain in the spread of the bubonic plague, however recent studies show that they alone could not account for the rapid spread of the disease through europe in the middle ages. still, the center for disease control does list nearly a dozen diseases directly linked to rats. most urban areas battle rat infestations. rats in new york city are famous for their size and prevalence. some statistics claim there are more rats than people in the big apple and that they are pretty wily characters. new york has specific regulations for getting rid of rats — multi - family residences and commercial businesses must use a specially trained and licensed exterminator. places to look for rat infestations are around pipes, behind walls and near garbage cans. effective rat control requires municipal workers and individuals to work together. rats as invasive species when introduced into locations where rats previously did not exist they cause a huge amount of environmental degradation. rattus rattus, the black rat, is considered to be one of the world ' s worst invasive species. as part of island restoration some islands have had their rat populations eradicated to protect or restore the ecology. hawadax island, alaska was declared rat free after 229 years and campbell island, new zealand after almost 200 years. breaksea island in new zealand was declared rat free in 1988 after an eradication campaign based on a successful trial on the smaller hawea island nearby. ancient romans did not generally differentiate between rats and mice, instead referring to the former as mus maximus ( big mouse ) and the latter as mus minimus ( little mouse ). the rat ( sometimes referred to as a mouse ) is the first of the twelve animals of the chinese zodiac. people born in this year are expected to possess qualities associated with rats, including creativity, intelligence, honesty, generosity, ambition, a quick temper and wastefulness. people born in a year of the rat are said to get along well with " monkeys " and " dragons ", and to get along poorly with " horses ". in indian tradition, rats are seen as the vehicle of ganesha, and a rat ' s statue is always found in a temple of ganesh. in the northwestern indian city of deshnoke, the rats at the karni mata temple are held to be destined for rein


as the vehicle of ganesha, and a rat ' s statue is always found in a temple of ganesh. in the northwestern indian city of deshnoke, the rats at the karni mata temple are held to be destined for reincarnation as sadhus ( hindu holy men ). the attending priests feed milk and grain to the rats, of which the pilgrims also partake. european associations with the rat are generally negative. for instance, " rats! " is used as a substitute for various vulgar interjections in the english language. these associations do not draw, per se, from any biological or behavioral trait of the rat, but possibly from the association of rats ( and fleas ) with the 14th - century medieval plague called the black death. rats are seen as vicious, unclean, parasitic animals that steal food and spread disease. however, some people in european cultures keep rats as pets and conversely find them to be tame, clean, intelligent, and playful. rats are often used in scientific experiments ; animal rights activists allege the treatment of rats in this context is cruel. the term " lab rat " is used, typically in a self - effacing manner, to describe a person whose job function requires them to spend a majority of their work time engaged in bench - level research ( such as postgraduate students in the sciences ). rats are frequently blamed for damaging food supplies and other goods, or spreading disease. their reputation has carried into common parlance : in the english language, " rat " is often an insult or is generally used to signify an unscrupulous character ; it is also used, as the term nark, to mean an individual who works as a police informant or who has turned state ' s evidence. writer / director preston sturges created the humorous alias " ratskywatsky " for a soldier who seduced, impregnated, and abandoned the heroine of his 1944 film, the miracle of morgan ' s creek. it is a term ( noun and verb ) in criminal slang for an informant - " to rat on someone " is to betray them by informing the authorities of a crime or misdeed they committed. describing a person as " rat - like " usually implies he or she is unattractive and suspicious. depictions of rats in fiction are historically inaccurate and negative. the most common falsehood is the squeaking almost always heard in otherwise realistic portrayals ( i. e. nonanthropomorphic ). while the recordings may be of actual squeaking rats


depictions of rats in fiction are historically inaccurate and negative. the most common falsehood is the squeaking almost always heard in otherwise realistic portrayals ( i. e. nonanthropomorphic ). while the recordings may be of actual squeaking rats, the noise is uncommon - they may do so only if distressed, hurt, or annoyed. normal vocalizations are very high - pitched, well outside the range of human hearing. rats are also often cast in vicious and aggressive roles when in fact, their shyness helps keep them undiscovered for so long in an infested home. the actual portrayals of rats vary from negative to positive with a majority in the negative and ambiguous. the rat plays a villain in several mouse societies ; from brian jacques ' s redwall and robin jarvis ' s the deptford mice, to the roles of disney ' s professor ratigan and kate dicamillo ' s roscuro and botticelli. they have often been used as a mechanism in horror ; being the titular evil in stories like the rats or h. p. lovecraft ' s the rats in the walls and in films like willard and ben. another terrifying use of rats is as a method of torture, for instance in room 101 in george orwell ' s nineteen eighty - four or the pit and the pendulum by edgar allan poe. selfish helpfulness — those willing to help for a price — has also been attributed to fictional rats. templeton, from e. b. white ' s charlotte ' s web, repeatedly reminds the other characters that he is only involved because it means more food for him, and the cellar - rat of john masefield ' s the midnight folk requires bribery to be of any assistance. by contrast, the rats appearing in the doctor dolittle books tend to be highly positive and likeable characters, many of whom tell their remarkable life stories in the mouse and rat club established by the animal - loving doctor. some fictional works use rats as the main characters. notable examples include the society created by o ' brien ' s mrs. frisby and the rats of nimh, doctor rat, rizzo the rat from the muppets, and animated films such as pixar ' s ratatouille. mon oncle d ' amerique ( " my american uncle " ), a 1980 french film, illustrates henri laborit ' s theories on evolutionary psychology and human behaviors by using short sequences in the storyline showing lab rat experiments. in harry turtledove ' s science fiction


amerique ( " my american uncle " ), a 1980 french film, illustrates henri laborit ' s theories on evolutionary psychology and human behaviors by using short sequences in the storyline showing lab rat experiments. in harry turtledove ' s science fiction novel homeward bound, humans unintentionally introduce rats to the ecology at the home world of an alien race which previously invaded earth and introduced some of its own fauna into its environment. and a. bertram chandler pitted his space - bound protagonist, commodore grimes, against giant, intelligent rats who took over several stellar systems and enslaved their human inhabitants. " the stainless steel rat " is nickname of the ( human ) protagonist of a series of humorous science fiction novels written by harry harrison. the pied piper one of the oldest and most historic stories about rats is the pied piper of hamelin, in which a rat - catcher leads away an infestation with enchanted music — the piper is later refused payment, so he in turn leads away the town ' s children. this tale, placed in germany around the late 13th century, has inspired the realms of film, theatre, literature, and even opera. the subject of much research, some theories have intertwined the tale with events related to the black plague, in which black rats may have played an important role. fictional works based on the tale that focus heavily on the rat aspect include pratchett ' s the amazing maurice and his educated rodents, and belgian graphic novel le bal du rat mort ( the ball of the dead rat ). taxonomy of rattus the genus rattus is a member of the giant subfamily murinae. several other murine genera are sometimes considered part of rattus : lenothrix, anonymomys, sundamys, kadarsanomys, diplothrix, margaretamys, lenomys, komodomys, palawanomys, bunomys, nesoromys, stenomys, taeromys, paruromys, abditomys, tryphomys, limnomys, tarsomys, bullimus, apomys, millardia, srilankamys, niviventer, maxomys, leopoldamys, berylmys, mastomys, myomys, praomys, hylomyscus, heimyscus, stochomys, dephomys, and aethomys. the genus rattus proper contains 64 extant species.


mastomys, myomys, praomys, hylomyscus, heimyscus, stochomys, dephomys, and aethomys. the genus rattus proper contains 64 extant species. a subgeneric breakdown of the species has been proposed, but does not include all species. genus rattus - typical rats - incertae sedis - annandale ' s rat ( rattus annandalei ) – indonesia, malaysia, and singapore - enggano rat ( rattus enganus ) – indonesia - philippine forest rat ( rattus everetti ) – the philippines - polynesian rat ( rattus exulans ) – fiji and most polynesian islands, new zealand, easter island, and hawaii - hainald ' s rat ( rattus hainaldi ) – indonesia - hoogerwerf ' s rat ( rattus hoogerwerfi ) – indonesia - korinch ' s rat ( rattus korinchi ) – indonesia - † maclear ' s rat ( rattus macleari ) – christmas island - nillu rat ( rattus montanus ) – sri lanka - molaccan prehensile - tailed rat ( rattus morotaiensis ) – indonesia - † bulldog rat ( rattus nativitatis ) – christmas island - kerala rat ( rattus ranjiniae ) – india - new ireland forest rat ( rattus sanila ) - andaman rat ( rattus stoicus ) – andaman islands - timor rat ( rattus timorensis ) – timor - r. norvegicus group - himalayan field rat ( rattus nitidus ) – bangladesh, bhutan, china, india, indonesia, laos, myanmar, nepal, palau, the philippines, thailand, and vietnam - brown rat or norway rat ( rattus norvegicus ) – worldwide except antarctica - turkestan rat ( rattus pyctoris ; obs. rattus turkestanicus ) – afghanistan, china, india, iran, kyrgyzstan, nepal, and pakistan - r. rattus group - sunburned rat ( rattus adustus ) – enggano island, indonesia - sikkim rat ( rattus andamanensis ) – bhutan, cambodia, china, india, laos, myanmar, nepal, thailand, and vietnam - rice - field rat ( rattus argentiventer ) – southeast asia - summit rat ( rattus baluensis ) – malaysia - aceh rat


bhutan, cambodia, china, india, laos, myanmar, nepal, thailand, and vietnam - rice - field rat ( rattus argentiventer ) – southeast asia - summit rat ( rattus baluensis ) – malaysia - aceh rat ( rattus blangorum ) - nonsense rat ( rattus burrus ) – india - hoffmann ' s rat ( rattus hoffmanni ) – indonesia - koopman ' s rat ( rattus koopmani ) – indonesia - lesser rice - field rat ( rattus losea ) – china, laos, taiwan, thailand, and vietnam - mentawai rat ( rattus lugens ) – indonesia - mindoro black rat ( rattus mindorensis ) – the philippines - little soft - furred rat ( rattus mollicomulus ) – indonesia - osgood ' s rat ( rattus osgoodi ) – vietnam - palm rat ( rattus palmarum ) – india - black rat ( rattus rattus ) – worldwide except antarctica - sahyadris forest rat ( rattus satarae ) - simalur rat ( rattus simalurensis ) – indonesia - tanezumi rat ( rattus tanezumi ) – afghanistan, bangladesh, cambodia, china, cocos ( keeling ) islands, fiji, india, indonesia, japan, north korea, south korea, laos, malaysia, myanmar, nepal, pakistan, the philippines, taiwan, thailand, and vietnam - tawi - tawi forest rat ( rattus tawitawiensis ) – the philippines - malayan field rat ( rattus tiomanicus ) – indonesia, malaysia, the philippines, and thailand - r. xanthurus group - r. leucopus group ( new guinean group ) - arfak rat ( vogelkop mountain rat ) ( rattus arfakiensis ) - western new guinea mountain mat ( rattus arrogans ) - sula rat ( rattus elaphinus ) – indonesia - spiny ceram rat ( rattus feliceus ) – indonesia - giluwe rat ( rattus giluwensis ) – papua new guinea - japen rat ( rattus jobiensis ) – indonesia - cape york rat ( rattus leucopus ) – australia, indonesia, and papua new guinea - eastern rat ( rattus mordax ) – papua new guinea - moss - forest rat ( rattus niobe ) – papua new guinea, indonesia - new guinean rat ( rattus novaeguinea


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: their impact on us, and our impact on them, allen & unwin, crows nest, nsw, 202 pages, isbn 1 - 86508 - 519 - 7. - hendrickson, r. ( 1983 ) more cunning than man : a complete history of the rat and its role in civilization, kensington books. isbn 1 - 57566 - 393 - 7. - jahn, g. c., p. cox, s. mak, and n. chhorn ( 1999 ) " farmer participatory research on rat management in cambodia ", in g. singleton, l. hinds, h. leirs and zhibin zhang [ eds. ] ecologically - based rodent management aciar, canberra. ch. 17, pp. 358 – 371. isbn 1 - 86320 - 262 - 5. - leung, lkp ; cox, peter g. ; jahn, g. c. ; nugent, robert ( 2002 ). " evaluating rodent management with cambodian rice farmers ". cambodian journal of agriculture 5 : 21 – 26. - matthews, i. ( 1898 ). full revelations of a professional rat - catcher, after 25 years ’ experience. 1st ed. manchester : friendly societies printing co. isbn 1 - 905124 - 64 - 3. - musser, g. g. and m. d. carleton. 1993. " family muridae " in d. e. wilson and d. m. reeder eds. " mammal species of the world a taxonomic and geographic reference ", smithsonian institution press, washington, d. c. pp. 501 – 755. - nowak, r. m. ( 1999 ) walker ' s mammals of the world vol. 2. johns hopkins university press, london. - sullivan, robert ( 2004 ). rats : a year with new york ' s most unwanted inhabitants. granta books, london. - sullivan, robert ( 2005 ). rats : observations on the history and habitat of the city ' s most unwanted inhabitants. bloomsbury usa. isbn 1 - 58234 - 477 - 9. | wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to : rats | | wikimedia commons has media related to : rats | - high - resolution images of the rat brain - national bio resource project for the rat in japan - rat behaviour and biology - rat genome database - texts on wikisource :


sent representatives to the eastern roman emperor zeno, whom it asked to formally reunite the two halves of the empire : " the west … no longer required an emperor of its own : one monarch sufficed for the world ". he was also asked to make odoacer a patrician, and administrator of italy in zeno ' s name. zeno pointed out that the senate should rightfully have first requested that julius nepos take the throne once more, but he nonetheless agreed to their requests. odoacer then ruled italy in zeno ' s name. later life the ultimate fate of romulus is a mystery. the anonymus valesianus wrote that odoacer, " taking pity on his youth ", spared romulus ' life and granted him an annual pension of 6, 000 solidi before sending him to live with relatives in campania. jordanes and marcellinus comes say odoacer exiled romulus to campania but do not mention any reward from the germanic king. the sources do agree that romulus took up residence in the lucullan villa, an ancient castle originally built by lucullus in campania. from here, contemporary histories fall silent. in the history of the decline and fall of the roman empire, edward gibbon notes that the disciples of saint severinus of noricum were invited by a " neapolitan lady " to bring his body to the villa in 488 " in the place of augustulus, who was probably no more. " the villa was converted into a monastery before 500 to hold the saint ' s remains. cassiodorus, then a secretary to theodoric the great, wrote a letter to a " romulus " in 507 confirming a pension. thomas hodgkin, a translator of cassiodorus ' works, wrote in 1886 that it was " surely possible " the romulus in the letter was the same person as the last western emperor. the letter would match the description of odoacer ' s coup in the anonymus valesianus, and romulus could have been alive in the early sixth century. but cassiodorus does not supply any details about his correspondent or the size and nature of his pension, and jordanes, whose history of the period abridges an earlier work by cassiodorus, makes no mention of a pension. last emperor as romulus was a usurper, julius nepos claimed to legally hold the title of emperor when odoace


history of the period abridges an earlier work by cassiodorus, makes no mention of a pension. last emperor as romulus was a usurper, julius nepos claimed to legally hold the title of emperor when odoacer took power. however, few of nepos ' s contemporaries were willing to support his cause after he ran away to italy. some historians regard julius nepos, who ruled in dalmatia until being murdered in 480, as the last lawful western roman emperor. following odoacer ' s coup, the roman senate sent a letter to zeno stating that " the majesty of a sole monarch is sufficient to pervade and protect, at the same time, both the east and the west ". while zeno told the senate that nepos was their lawful sovereign, he did not press the point, and he accepted the imperial insignia brought to him by the senate. in popular culture - the 2007 film the last legion, and the novel on which it is based, includes a heavily fictionalized account of the reign and subsequent life of romulus augustus ; escaping captivity with the aid of a small band of loyal romans, he reaches britain, where he takes a place in what will become arthurian legend as uther pendragon, the father of king arthur, and a previous wielder of excalibur ( here the sword of julius caesar ). - the marvel comics character known as tyrannus has the " real name " of " romulus augustus ", and originates in ancient rome. - the play romulus the great ( 1950 ), by friedrich durrenmatt, an " ungeschichtliche historische komodie " ( unhistorical historical comedy ) about the reign of " romulus augustus " and the end of the roman empire in the west. - the movie " 476 a. d. ", about romulus augustus ' s deposition by odoacer, the chieftain of the ostrogoths, and the end of the roman empire, will be released in 2013, by ivan pavletic. - older literature ( appr. up to 1850 ) also refers to him as romulus momyllus, momyllus augustulus, etc., momyllus being a corruption of romulus. cf. gibbon, decline and fall, 4. 36. - de imperatoribus romanis - gibbon, edward, the history of the decline and fall of the roman empire


., momyllus being a corruption of romulus. cf. gibbon, decline and fall, 4. 36. - de imperatoribus romanis - gibbon, edward, the history of the decline and fall of the roman empire, david womersley, ed. london ; penguin books, 1994. vol. 3, p. 312. - for a famous example, cf. gibbon, p. 405. - gibbon, pp. 391, 400. - gibbon, p. 402. - hollister, c. warren, medieval europe : a short history. new york ; mcgraw hill, 1995, 32. - norwich, 54. - bryce 1961, p. 25 - bryce, james, the holy roman empire - gibbon, p. 406 - gibbon, p. 407 - cassiodorus, variae, iii, 35. - duckett, eleanor shipley, " i ", the gateway to the middle ages, p. 1, isbn 978 - 0 - 472 - 06051 - 1 - gibbon, p. 404. - bryce, james bryce. the holy roman empire, schocken books, 1961. - gibbon, edward. the history of the decline and fall of the roman empire, vol. 3, david womersley, ed. london ; penguin books, 1994. - heather, peter. the fall of the roman empire, 2005 - hollister, c. warren, medieval europe : a short history. new york ; mcgraw hill, 1995. - murdoch, adrian, the last roman : romulus augustulus and the decline of the west, stroud ; sutton, 2006. - norwich, john julius. byzantium : a short history. new york, vintage, 1997 - sandberg, kaj. the so - called division of the roman empire. notes on a persistent theme in western historiography, arctos 42 ( 2008 ), 199 - 213. - ralph, and geoffrey nathan, " romulus augustulus ( 475 – 476 a. d. ) - - two views ", de imperatoribus romanis media related to romulus augustus at wikimedia commons | western roman emperor with julius nepos in dalmatia ( 475 – 476 ) as western roman emperor as roman governor roman emperor in dalmatia


sag harbor, new york | sag harbor, new york | | — village — | | • total | | 2. 3 sq mi ( 6. 0 km2 ) | | • land | | 1. 8 sq mi ( 4. 7 km2 ) | | • water | | 0. 5 sq mi ( 1. 4 km2 ) | | elevation | | 26 ft ( 8 m ) | | • density | | 940 / sq mi ( 360 / km2 ) | | time zone | | eastern ( est ) ( utc - 5 ) | | • summer ( dst ) | | edt ( utc - 4 ) | | gnis feature id | | 0963216 | sag harbor is about three fifths in southampton and two fifths in east hampton. the dividing line is division street which becomes town line road just south of the village. most of the defining landmarks of the village — including its main street, the whalers church, jermain library, whaling museum, the old burying ground, oakland cemetery, mashashimuet park, and otter pond are in southampton. however, almost all the bay street marina complex, including sag harbor yacht club and breakwater yacht club, at the foot of main street, is in east hampton, as are the village ' s high school, the sag harbor state golf course, and the freed slave community of eastville. sag harbor was settled sometime between 1707 and 1730. the first bill of lading using the name sag harbor was recorded in 1730. while some accounts say it was named for neighboring sagaponack, which at the time was called " sagg ", sagaponack and sag harbor both got their name from a tuber the metoac algonquins raised. one of the first crops that was sent back to england, the tuber - producing vine is now called the apios americana. the metoac called it sagabon. that is how the harbor and neighboring village got its name. such namings were not unusual. tuckahoe in westchester county, about 80 miles ( 130 km ) from sag harbor, got its name from the aboriginal term for the peltandra virginica, the arrow arum. the port supplanted the east hampton community of northwest which is about 5 miles ( 8 km ) east of sag harbor. international ships and the whaling industry had started in northwest, but its port was too shallow. the most valuable whale product was whale oil which


pyrrhus concer, a former slave who was the first black man the japanese had seen. cooper ' s adventures were to continue on another voyage out of sag harbor when on january 26, 1853, sailing the levant, he became the first person to set foot on east antarctica. during world war i the e. w. bliss company tested torpedoes in the harbor a half mile north of the village. as part of the process, long wharf in sag harbor was reinforced with concrete, and rail spurs were built along the wharf as the torpedoes were loaded onto ships for testing. the torpedoes were shipped via the long island rail road along sag harbor to the wharf which was owned by the railroad at the time. among those observing the tests was thomas alva edison. most of today ' s buildings on the wharf, including the bay street theatre, were built during this time. the torpedoes which did not have live warheads are occasionally found by divers on the bay floor. various industries have operated locally, the last of which was the bulova watchcase factory, which closed in 1981. sag harbor was author john steinbeck ' s residence from 1955 until his death in 1968. the sag harbor - north haven bridge, renamed the lcpl jordan haerter veterans ' memorial bridge in november 2008, is notable as the site of pop artist ray johnson ' s presumed suicide in 1995 as well as two abortive suicide attempts by monologist spalding gray, in september 2002 and october 2003. sag harbor is located at ( 40. 996603, - 72. 292190 ). according to the united states census bureau, the village has a total area of 2. 3 square miles ( 6. 0 km2 ), of which 1. 8 square miles ( 4. 7 km2 ) is land and 0. 54 square miles ( 1. 4 km2 ), or 22. 44 %, is water. as of the census of 2010, there were 2, 313 people, 1, 120 households, and 583 families residing in the village. the population density was 1, 345. 1 people per square mile ( 519. 2 / km² ). there were 1, 942 housing units at an average density of 1, 129. 4 per square mile ( 435. 9 / km² ). the racial makeup of the village was 85. 78 % white, 7. 44 % african american, 0. 52 % native american, 0. 95 % asian, 2. 72 % from other races,


mile ( 435. 9 / km² ). the racial makeup of the village was 85. 78 % white, 7. 44 % african american, 0. 52 % native american, 0. 95 % asian, 2. 72 % from other races, and 2. 59 % from two or more races. hispanic or latino of any race were 7. 31 % of the population. as of the most recent census in 2010 there are now 2, 423 village residents. there were 1, 120 households out of which 18. 8 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 39. 6 % were married couples living together, 9. 4 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 47. 9 % were non - families. 40. 7 % of all households were made up of individuals and 18. 4 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. the average household size was 2. 06 and the average family size was 2. 81. in the village the population was spread out with 16. 5 % under the age of 18, 5. 4 % from 18 to 24, 25. 4 % from 25 to 44, 28. 6 % from 45 to 64, and 24. 2 % who were 65 years of age or older. the median age was 46 years. for every 100 females there were 91. 6 males. for every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89. 8 males. the median income for a household in the village was $ 52, 275, and the median income for a family was $ 70, 536. males had a median income of $ 41, 181 versus $ 34, 750 for females. the per capita income for the village was $ 40, 566. about 1. 8 % of families and 4. 2 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 1. 9 % of those under age 18 and 3. 8 % of those age 65 or over. " sag harbor ' s earliest newspapers published little in the way of local news. concentrating instead on a story, sermon, and both national and international events. it is likely that folks learned all the local gossip and goings on at the general store barber shop, or on the street corner, " wrote noted local historian dorothy zaykowski, in her book sag harbor – the story of an american beauty. it wasn ’ t until the corrector was first published in 1822 that sag harbor had a well - established community paper. according to zaykowski, henry


zaykowski, in her book sag harbor – the story of an american beauty. it wasn ’ t until the corrector was first published in 1822 that sag harbor had a well - established community paper. according to zaykowski, henry wentworth hunt arrived in the village from boston with his three sons, two of whom went on to helm sag harbor papers. the corrector was published on a weekly basis until 1837, when it became a semi - weekly until hunt died in 1859. after hunt ' s death, his son alexander and brinley sleight took over, publishing the newspaper daily, though this business model proved unsuccessful and the paper reverted back to a weekly publication. the corrector went on to become the sag harbor corrector. the sag harbor corrector was eventually purchased by burton corwin, owner of the sag harbor news, in 1919 and became the sag harbor news and corrector. this amalgamated newspaper was subsequently purchased by the gardner family, owners of the the sag harbor express, in the late 1920s to become the only sag harbor newspaper. the majority of sag harbor lies on a flat coastal plain which makes up much of long island and extends down to the coast. small hills rise up from the shore at about 0. 3 miles ( 0. 48 km ) inland. knolls and hills are dominated mostly by red and scarlet oak trees which are interspersed with pitch and white pines. on many of the protected bay shores, wetlands and dune ecosystems dominate the land. sag harbor union free school district includes both the sag harbor elementary school and pierson middle - high school. stella maris regional school was located in sag harbor but closed in 2011. nature and protected areas thanks to its surrounding nature preserves, sag harbor has very rich fauna for its region. many endangered species call sag harbor home such as the eastern tiger salamander which inhabits wetlands surrounding the village. the " long pond greenbelt ", which straddles sag harbor ' s southern boundary, is a well known chain of ponds formed by a retreating glacier. other natural sites around the village include barcelona neck preserve, millers ground preserve, sag harbor woods preserve and the recently acquired cilli farm which lies in the center of the village. mammals which call these places home include the red fox, eastern coyote, long - tailed weasel, mink, muskrat, woodchuck, several bat species, bottlenose dolphins, harbour porpoises and possibly river otters which are


mammals which call these places home include the red fox, eastern coyote, long - tailed weasel, mink, muskrat, woodchuck, several bat species, bottlenose dolphins, harbour porpoises and possibly river otters which are close to local extinction in long island with only an estimated 8 individuals thought to have recently migrated from connecticut. a large array of amphibian and reptilian species also live in the area, including the marbled salamander, tiger salamander, spotted salamander, box turtle, spotted turtle, gray tree frog, eastern newt, black racer snake, hognose snake and rough green snake, to name a few. the cilli farm this preserve is a refuge for wildlife in the area. it serves as an ecological island giving large animals like white - tailed deer a home base. although protected, dumping and littering are major threats to this invaluable preserve. various habitats, including marshes, grasslands, birch forests, cedar groves, sand flats, and coastal watersheds provide key habitat for wildlife and support great botanic diversity. - " geographic identifiers : 2010 demographic profile data ( g001 ) : sag harbor village, new york ". u. s. census bureau, american factfinder. retrieved 2012 - 12 - 21. - keene, robert ( 2008 - 02 - 07 ). " history of sag harbor ". corner bar 1 main street sag harbor new york 11963. retrieved 2008 - 07 - 04. - " long island history room ". john jermain memorial library, sag harbor, ny. 2007 - 03 - 27. retrieved 2008 - 07 - 04. " please see image labeled sagg harbor 1840. " [ dead link ] - wick, steve ( 2008 - 02 - 23 ). " sag harbor ' s heyday - - newsday. com ". newsday. retrieved 2008 - 07 - 04. - " result for query " harbor " ". the princeton text archive. the educational technologies center, princeton university. retrieved 2008 - 07 - 04. - melville, herman ( 1851 ). " chapter xii — biographical ". moby dick. retrieved 2008 - 07 - 04. - reitwiesner, william addams ( 2007 - 07 - 01 ). " ancestry of howard dean ". retrieved 2008 - 07 - 04. " born 6 oct. 1808, killed 4 jan. 1838 by a whale and buried at sea, m. sag harbor, long island,


2007 - 07 - 01 ). " ancestry of howard dean ". retrieved 2008 - 07 - 04. " born 6 oct. 1808, killed 4 jan. 1838 by a whale and buried at sea, m. sag harbor, long island, n. y., 12 may 1833 " - " push is on to rebuild church steeple " — east hampton press by oliver peterson — june 13, 2007 - bleyer, bill ( 2008 - 02 - 23 ). " sag harbor — a port bigger than new york ". retrieved 22008 - 07 - 04. " the business then declined rapidly as ships and crews were lured by the 1849 california gold rush and oil was discovered in pennsylvania. the last sag harbor whaler was the myra, which sailed in 1871 and wrecked three years later. " - " us gazetteer files : 2010, 2000, and 1990 ". united states census bureau. 2011 - 02 - 12. retrieved 2011 - 04 - 23. - maier, marissa ( 9 july 2009 ). " history of sag harbor ’ s newspapers ". the sag harbor express ( sag harbor, suffolk county, long island, n. y. : bryan boyhan ). retrieved 2010 - 07 - 16. " as the sag harbor express celebrates its 150th anniversary this week,... " | wikimedia commons has media related to : sag harbor, new york | - village of sag harbor official website - zaykowski, dorothy ingersoll ( 1991 ). sag harbor : the story of an american beauty. sag harbor, n. y. : sag harbor historical society. isbn 0 - 8488 - 0899 - 1. - suffolk historic newspapers — online archives, the corrector ( 1822 – 1911 ) and the sag harbor express ( 1885 – 1898 ) - the sag harbor express


strauss – howe generational theory the strauss – howe generational theory, created by authors william strauss and neil howe, identifies a recurring generational cycle in american history. strauss and howe lay the groundwork for the theory in their 1991 book generations, which retells the history of america as a series of generational biographies going back to 1584. in their 1997 book the fourth turning, the authors expand the theory to focus on a fourfold cycle of generational types and recurring mood eras in american history. their consultancy, lifecourse associates, has expanded on the concept in a variety of publications since then. the theory was developed to describe the history of the united states, including the 13 colonies and their anglo antecedents, and this is where the most detailed research has been done. however, the authors have also examined generational trends elsewhere in the world and identified similar cycles in several developed countries. the books are best - sellers and the theory has been widely influential and acclaimed. eric hoover has called the authors pioneers in a burgeoning industry of consultants, speakers and researchers focused on generations. academic response to the theory has been mixed — some applauding strauss and howe for their " bold and imaginative thesis, " and others criticizing the theory. criticism has focused on the lack of rigorous empirical evidence for their claims, and a perception that aspects of the argument gloss over real differences within the population, william strauss and neil howe ’ s partnership began in the late 1980s when they began writing the book generations, which tells the history of america as a succession of generational biographies. each had written on generational topics : strauss on baby boomers and the vietnam war draft, and howe on the g. i. generation and federal entitlement programs. strauss co - wrote books about how the vietnam war affected the baby boomers called chance and circumstance : the draft the war and the vietnam generation ( 1978 ) and reconciliation after vietnam ( 1977 ) with lawrence baskir. neil howe studied what he believed to be america ' s entitlement attitude of the 1980s and co - authored on borrowed time : how america ' s entitlement ego puts america ' s future at risk of bankruptcy in 1988 with peter george peterson. the authors ’ interest in generations as a broader topic emerged after they met in washington, d. c., and began discussing the connections between each of their previous work. they wondered why boomers and g. i. s had developed such different ways of looking at the world, and what it was about these generations ’ growing up experiences


d. c., and began discussing the connections between each of their previous work. they wondered why boomers and g. i. s had developed such different ways of looking at the world, and what it was about these generations ’ growing up experiences that prompted their different outlooks. they also wondered whether any previous generations had acted along similar lines, and their research showed that there were indeed historical analogues to the current generations. the two ultimately identified a recurring pattern in anglo - american history of four generational types, each with a distinct collective persona, and a corresponding cycle of four different types of era, each with a distinct mood. the groundwork for this theory was laid out in generations in 1991. strauss and howe expanded on the theory and updated the terminology in the fourth turning in 1997. generations helped popularize the idea that people in a particular age group tend to share a distinct set of beliefs, attitudes, values and behaviors because they all grow up and come of age during a particular period in history. in the mid - 1990s, the authors began receiving inquiries about how their generational insights could help solve strategic problems in organizations. strauss and howe were quickly established as pioneers in a growing field, and started speaking frequently about their work at events and conferences. in 1999, strauss and howe founded lifecourse associates, a publishing, speaking, and consulting company built on their generational theory. as lifecourse partners, they have offered keynote speeches, consulting services, and customized communications to corporate, nonprofit, government, and education clients. they have also written six books on how the millennial generation is transforming various sectors, including schools, colleges, entertainment, and the workplace. on december 18, 2007, william strauss died at the age of 60 from pancreatic cancer. neil howe has continued to expand lifecourse associates and to write books and articles on a variety of generational topics. each year mr. howe gives about 60 speeches, often followed by customized workshops, at colleges, elementary schools, and corporations. strauss and howe ' s first book, generations ( 1991 ), tells the history of america as a succession of anglo - american generational biographies from 1584 to the present, and identifies a recurring generational cycle in american history. the authors posit a pattern of four repeating phases, generational types and a recurring cycle of spiritual awakenings and secular crises, from the founding colonials through the present day. strauss and howe followed in 1993 with their second book, 13th gen : abort, retry, ignore, fail?


, generational types and a recurring cycle of spiritual awakenings and secular crises, from the founding colonials through the present day. strauss and howe followed in 1993 with their second book, 13th gen : abort, retry, ignore, fail?, which examines the generation born between 1961 and 1981, " gen - xers " ( alias " 13ers ", since they are literally the thirteenth generation since america became a nation ). the book shows how 13ers ' location in history — they were children during the consciousness revolution — explains their pragmatic attitude. in 1997, the authors published the fourth turning : an american prophecy, which expanded on the ideas presented in generations and extended their cycles back into the early 15th century. the authors began the use of more colorful names for generational archetypes - e. g. " civics " became " heroes, " " adaptives " became " artists " - and of the terms " turning " and " saeculum " for the generational cycles. the title is a reference to what their first book called a crisis period, which they expected to recur soon after the turn of the millennium. in 2000, the two authors published millennials rising : the next great generation. this work investigated the personality of the generation currently coming of age, whose first cohorts were the high school graduating class of 2000. strauss and howe show how today ' s teens and young adults are recasting the image of youth from downbeat and alienated to upbeat and engaged. they write that millennials are held to higher standards than adults apply to themselves ; they ' re a lot less violent, vulgar, and sexually charged than the teen culture older people are producing for them. over the next decade, they will transform what it means to be young. according to the authors, millennials could emerge as the next great generation. defining a generation strauss and howe define a social generation as the aggregate of all people born over a span of roughly twenty years or about the length of one phase of life : childhood, young adulthood, midlife, and old age. generations are identified ( from first birthyear to last ) by looking for cohort groups of this length that share three criteria. first, members of a generation share what the authors call an age location in history : they encounter key historical events and social trends while occupying the same phase of life. in this view, members of a generation are shaped in lasting ways by the eras they encounter as children and young adults and they share certain common beliefs and behaviors


in history : they encounter key historical events and social trends while occupying the same phase of life. in this view, members of a generation are shaped in lasting ways by the eras they encounter as children and young adults and they share certain common beliefs and behaviors. aware of the experiences and traits that they share with their peers, members of a generation would also share a sense of common perceived membership in that generation. strauss and howe say they based their definition of a generation on the work of various writers and social thinkers, from ancient writers such as polybius and ibn khaldun to modern social theorists like jose ortega y gasset, karl mannheim, john stuart mill, emile littre, auguste comte, and francois mentre. generational archetypes and turnings while writing generations, strauss and howe discovered a pattern in the historical generations they examined which revolved around generational events which they call turnings. in generations, and in greater detail in the fourth turning, they identify the four - stage cycle of social or mood eras ( i. e. turnings ). according to strauss and howe, the first turning is a high. this is a post - crisis era when institutions are strong and individualism is weak. society is confident about where it wants to go collectively, though those outside the majoritarian center often feel stifled by the conformity. according to the authors, america ’ s most recent first turning was the post - world war ii american high, beginning in 1946 and ending with the assassination of president john f. kennedy on november 22, 1963. the silent generation ( artist archetype, born 1925 to 1942 ) came of age during this era. known for their caution, conformity, and institutional trust, silent young adults epitomized the mood of the high. most married early, sought stable corporate jobs, and moved into new suburbs. according to the theory, the second turning is an awakening. this is an era when institutions are attacked in the name of personal and spiritual autonomy. just when society is reaching its high tide of public progress, people suddenly tire of social discipline and want to recapture a sense of personal authenticity. young activists look back at the previous high as an era of cultural and spiritual poverty. america ’ s most recent awakening was the “ consciousness revolution, ” which spanned from the campus and inner - city revolts of the mid - 1960s to the reelection of ronald reagan. the boom generation ( prophet archetype, born 1943 to 1960 ) came of age during this era. their idealism and search for authentic self


from the campus and inner - city revolts of the mid - 1960s to the reelection of ronald reagan. the boom generation ( prophet archetype, born 1943 to 1960 ) came of age during this era. their idealism and search for authentic self - expression epitomized the mood of the awakening. according to strauss and howe, the third turning is an unraveling. the mood of this era is in many ways the opposite of a high : institutions are weak and distrusted, while individualism is strong and flourishing. highs come after crises, when society wants to coalesce and build. unravelings come after awakenings, when society wants to atomize and enjoy. america ’ s most recent unraveling was the long boom and culture war, beginning in the mid - 1980s and ending in the late 2000s. the era began during the second term of ( reagan ’ s “ morning in america ” ), which eventually developed into a " debased " popular culture, a pervasive distrust of institutions and leaders, and the splitting of national consensus into competing “ values ” camps. generation x ( nomad archetype, born 1961 – 1981 ) came of age during this era. according to the authors, the fourth turning is a crisis. this is an era in which america ’ s institutional life is destroyed and rebuilt in response to a perceived threat to the nation ’ s survival. civic authority revives, cultural expression redirects towards community purpose, and people begin to locate themselves as members of a larger group. fourth turnings have all been new “ founding moments ” in america ’ s history, moments that redefined the national identity. america ’ s most recent fourth turning began with the stock market crash of 1929 and climaxed with the end of world war ii. the g. i. generation ( a hero archetype, born 1901 to 1924 ) came of age during this era. their confidence, optimism, and collective outlook epitomized the mood of the era. today ’ s youth, the millennial generation ( hero archetype, born 1982 to 2004 ), show many traits similar to those of the g. i. youth, including rising civic engagement, improving behavior, and collective confidence. each turning lasts about 20 – 22 years. four turnings comprise a full cycle of approximately 80 to 90 years, which the authors term a saeculum, after the latin word meaning both “ a long human life ” and “ a natural century. ” generational change drives the cycle of turnings


turnings comprise a full cycle of approximately 80 to 90 years, which the authors term a saeculum, after the latin word meaning both “ a long human life ” and “ a natural century. ” generational change drives the cycle of turnings and determines its periodicity. as each generation ages into the next life phase ( and a new social role ) society ’ s mood and behavior fundamentally changes, giving rise to a new turning. therefore, a symbiotic relationship exists between historical events and generational personas. historical events shape generations in childhood and young adulthood ; then, as parents and leaders in midlife and old age, generations in turn shape history. each of the four turnings has a distinct mood that recurs every saeculum. strauss and howe describe these turnings as the “ seasons of history. ” at one extreme is the awakening, which is analogous to summer, and at the other extreme is the crisis, which is analogous to winter. the turnings in between are transitional seasons, similar to fall and spring. strauss and howe have identified 26 turnings over 7 saecula in anglo - american history, from the year 1435 through today. at the heart of the strauss - howe theory is a basic alternation between two different types of eras, crises and awakenings. both of these are defining eras in which people observe that historic events are radically altering their social environment. crises are periods marked by major secular upheaval, when society focuses on reorganizing the outer world of institutions and public behavior ( the last american crisis was the period spanning the great depression and world war ii ). awakenings are periods marked by cultural or religious renewal, when society focuses on changing the inner world of values and private behavior ( the last american awakening was the “ consciousness revolution ” of the 1960s and 1970s ). during crises, great peril provokes a societal consensus, an ethic of personal sacrifice, and strong institutional order. during awakenings, an ethic of individualism emerges, and the institutional order is attacked by new social ideals and spiritual agendas. according to the authors, about every eighty to ninety years — the length of a long human life — a national crisis occurs in american society. roughly halfway to the next crisis, a cultural awakening occurs ( historically, these have often been called great awakenings ). in describing this cycle of crises and awakenings, strauss and howe draw from the work of other historians and social scientists who have identified long cycles in american and european history. the strauss – howe


historically, these have often been called great awakenings ). in describing this cycle of crises and awakenings, strauss and howe draw from the work of other historians and social scientists who have identified long cycles in american and european history. the strauss – howe cycle of crises corresponds with long cycles of war identified by such scholars as arnold j. toynbee, quincy wright, and l. l. ferrar jr., and with geopolitical cycles identified by william r. thompson and george modelski. strauss and howe say their cycle of awakenings corresponds with anthony wallace ’ s definitive work on revitalization movements, strauss and howe also say recurring crises and awakenings correspond with two - stroke cycles in politics ( walter dean burnham, arthur schlesinger sr. and jr. ), foreign affairs ( frank l. klingberg ), and the economy ( nikolai kondratieff ) as well as with long - term oscillations in crime and substance abuse. the two different types of eras and two formative age locations associated with them ( childhood and young adulthood ) produce four generational archetypes that repeat sequentially, in rhythm with the cycle of crises and awakenings. in generations, strauss and howe refer to these four archetypes as idealist, reactive, civic, and adaptive. in the fourth turning ( 1997 ) they update this terminology to prophet, nomad, hero, and artist. the generations in each archetype not only share a similar age - location in history, they also share some basic attitudes towards family, risk, culture and values, and civic engagement. in essence, generations shaped by similar early - life experiences develop similar collective personas and follow similar life - trajectories. to date, strauss and howe have identified 25 generations in anglo - american history, each with a corresponding archetype. the authors describe the archetypes as follows : prophet generations are born near the end of a crisis, during a time of rejuvenated community life and consensus around a new societal order. prophets grow up as the increasingly indulged children of this post - crisis era, come of age as self - absorbed young crusaders of an awakening, focus on morals and principles in midlife, and emerge as elders guiding another crisis. due to their location in history, such generations tend to be remembered for their coming - of - age fervor and their values - oriented elder leadership. their main societal contributions are in the area of vision, values, and religion. their best - known


to their location in history, such generations tend to be remembered for their coming - of - age fervor and their values - oriented elder leadership. their main societal contributions are in the area of vision, values, and religion. their best - known historical leaders include john winthrop, william berkeley, samuel adams, benjamin franklin, james polk, abraham lincoln, herbert hoover, and franklin roosevelt. these people were principled moralists who waged idealistic wars and incited others to sacrifice. few of them fought themselves in decisive wars, and they are remembered more for their inspiring words than for great actions. ( example among today ’ s living generations : baby boomers. ) nomad generations are born during an awakening, a time of social ideals and spiritual agendas, when young adults are passionately attacking the established institutional order. nomads grow up as under - protected children during this awakening, come of age as alienated, post - awakening adults, become pragmatic midlife leaders during a crisis, and age into resilient post - crisis elders. due to their location in history, such generations tend to be remembered for their adrift, alienated rising - adult years and their midlife years of pragmatic leadership. their main societal contributions are in the area of liberty, survival and honor. their best - known historical leaders include nathaniel bacon, william stoughton, george washington, john adams, ulysses grant, grover cleveland, harry truman, and dwight eisenhower. these were shrewd realists who preferred individualistic, pragmatic solutions to problems. ( example among today ’ s living generations : generation x. ) hero generations are born after an awakening, during a time of individual pragmatism, self - reliance, and laissez faire. heroes grow up as increasingly protected post - awakening children, come of age as team - oriented young optimists during a crisis, emerge as energetic, overly - confident midlifers, and age into politically powerful elders attacked by another awakening. due to their location in history, such generations tend to be remembered for their collective military triumphs in young adulthood and their political achievements as elders. their main societal contributions are in the area of community, affluence, and technology. their best - known historical leaders include cotton mather, thomas jefferson, james madison, john f. kennedy and ronald reagan. these have been vigorous and rational institution builders. in midlife, all have been aggressive advocates of economic prosperity and public optimism, and all have maintained a reputation for