anomalies ' caused by the award. these negotiations portended that general raising of wage rates which the tribunal had tried to avoid, unaccompanied by the overhaul of the whole wage structure which it had declared to be necessary. moreover, the negotiations went ahead on the assumption that the cost of these new rates would be met by an increase in the price of coal, despite categoric refusals by the ministry of fuel and power to give any such assurance. the situation was made more difficult by the hesitancy of the ministry of fuel and power. under the 1942 scheme of control, the ministry was not intended to interfere with wages. however, as district settlement of wage increases proceeded apace, some more precise statement was needed from the government about price increases to cover the rise in wages. the lord president ' s committee approved an announcement that the price of coal would be raised only to meet the tribunal ' s various awards and the most obvious anomalies arising from them. this announcement, if left by itself, would merely have prolonged the trouble in the coalfields just as d - day preparations were growing feverish. there was only one thing to do — the ministry of fuel had to step boldly into the wages field and take the lead in the long - overdue radical overhaul of the structure of mine wages. the minister of fuel and power ' s proposals were approved by the war cabinet and six weeks later the final agreement between owners and miners was signed. the main object of the agreement was to simplify the composition of the total wage and restore some clear line of connection between earnings and output. the main trouble arose from the wartime flat - rate advances, now amounting to some 7s. 2d. a shift, payable to all workers in and around the pit. these flat - rate additions reduced that proportion of the piece - worker ' s wage which depended on his personal efforts and lessened the ratio of his wage to that of the day - wage men, although his work was the real key to coal output. the new agreement therefore abolished all flat - rates payable to piece - workers, except the wartime cost - of - living bonus, and merged them into the piece - work rates ; the output bonuses also disappeared. while the day - wage men continued to receive flat - rate additions, the piece - worker now depended for his earnings upon his efforts. the agreement, moreover, gave some security to the miners, for it was to last four years. this reform of mining wages was of great importance in the history


flat - rate additions, the piece - worker now depended for his earnings upon his efforts. the agreement, moreover, gave some security to the miners, for it was to last four years. this reform of mining wages was of great importance in the history of coalmining. it was not, however, a complete overhaul of wages ; it did not seek, for example, to alter classifications. it had, after all, been designed mainly for wartime ends — to check the prevalent unrest and to stop output from falling below essential wartime requirements. in these immediate aims it was successful. the war had brought great changes in the miners ' earnings — the average rose from £2 15s. 9d. in 1935 to £5 9s. 4d in 1944. by the autumn of 1944 the mineworkers ' earnings were inferior only to those in some highly paid munitions trades where earnings were increased by extensive overtime. coal was never subsidised and the wage increases were fully reflected in the rise in coal prices. a typical household cost 77s. 9d. a ton in april 1945 against 51s 6d. in 1938. increases in the price of coal, however, by no means solved all the financial problems of the industry. for within the coal industry there were the widest variations in cost from pit to pit and from district to district — variations which had been petrified by the pre - war system of minimum prices and maximum output quotas in the districts. in 1938, for example, the average cost per ton of coal in the lowest priced district, leicestershire, was 13s 8d. and in the highest priced district, cumberland, 20s. 3d., the average for all districts being 16s. at the beginning of the the government had hoped to maintain the financial status quo in the industry and, in view of the unfortunate experiences in and after the 1914 – 18 war, to keep its control of prices as remote as possible. before long, it seemed clear that such a hope rested on faith rather than on reason. the outbreak of war upset coal marketing arrangements and it was necessary to meet certain extra costs and assist collieries in danger of financial ruin by levies on each ton of coal. at first these were manged by the industry, but in jun 1942 the government took the levies over. they were paid into a coal charges account which was to be used with approval of the treasury for any purpose connected with the production of marketing of coal. 45 the government thus became openly and directly implicated in coal finances in spite of its original


who remembers that it was this industry which first confronted the government with the problems of wages policy and the threat of a vicious inflationary spiral. 47 there continued throughout the war, in consequences no less than in causes, a significant relationship between the relationship between the coal industry and the general financial trends of british war economy ; the rise in the price of coal was, indeed, one of the biggest changes that the war brought to british industrial costs. in a degree only less marked, the structure of wages, profits and prices in other particular industries — agriculture was a notable example — had throughout the war to be adjusted continually to the general design of the government ' s financial policy ; or vice versa. the same continuous adjustment was no less necessary in the social sphere ; that is why so much attention has been given in this section to questions of soldiers ' pay, the rationing problems which were entangled inextricably with price control, and even humdrum difficulties about the production and distribution of furniture or pots or pans. the financial policies of the government throughout the war were always ' impure ' in the sense they were interwoven with the manifold intricate threads of the nation ' s economic and social life. nevertheless, it is essential in summing up to emphasise the fact that the government ' s financial policy had a very clear design and that it achieved very great success. if in this section attention has been concentrated upon special problems, and these the more difficult ones, this is because the main principles were no longer a matter of debate ; they had long since been established and vindicated. that ' level economy ' which had been sought at the beginning of the war had been achieved — not statistically, but as a balance regulating and facilitating the unprecedented thrust and drive of the nation ' s economic energies. the government succeeded in its efforts to hold the economy steady under immense inflationary pressure. inevitably, the symptoms of inflation were visible in the months before pearl harbor48 grew more evident as the war effort grew. wage rates and prices outside the subsidised cost - of - living index continued to rise. personal expenditure still spilled over on to tobacco, drink and entertainments. stocks were depleted. there were queues, sales ' under - the - counter ' and black markets. but these symptoms never became really alarming. they never threatened serious obstruction to the war economy nor did they engender the social bitterness that had marked the first world war. there was general recognition that the cost of the war, in terms of reduced civilian standards, was


became really alarming. they never threatened serious obstruction to the war economy nor did they engender the social bitterness that had marked the first world war. there was general recognition that the cost of the war, in terms of reduced civilian standards, was being spread justly — or at least with that rough justice which was the most the nation expected. the achievement was great ; but it must be remembered how complicated was the system on which it rested. no simple formula had been found for keeping the economy steady. very high taxation, new forms of taxation, price control, many forms of production control over finished goods, labour and raw materials, many forms of rationing and distribution schemes were all essential parts of the system. yet the structure was not so rigid as to stifle the will to produce. in spite of the complexities of control, much was still left to the restraint and goodwill of the citizens. they saved, they practised the principle of ' fair shares ' which they preached and they worked very hard without examining too grudgingly their rewards. contents * previous chapter ( xvi ) * next chapter ( xviii ) 1 i. e. the total store of capital equipment : there were a few ' civilian ' industries which ended the war with improved equipment ; agriculture was the outstanding example, though the number of livestock — an important part of agricultural capital — fell. 2 chapter xiv has discussed food policy in the context of the shipping shortage. 3 except in the case of establishments with high overheads, where an extra ' house charge ' was permitted. 4 this rate was maintained until february 1941, when pressure of demand for clothing for demobilised men, combined with a lower textile labour force, reduced the ration still further. 5 see pp. 321 – 325 above for earlier board of trade policies in limiting consumer goods. 6 s. r. & o. 1941, no. 1345. 7 s. r. & o. 1942, no. 1000. 8 minor measures to secure economy in production were the austerity restrictions on clothing styles which, among other things, abolished turn - ups on men ' s trousers, limited the length of men ' s socks, the number of trimmings, pleats, pockets, etc. 9 s. r. & o. 1942, nos. 1038 and 1039. the definition of ' essential ' crockery was perhaps a little wide : it included, for example, sauceboats. 10 s. r. &. o. 1942, nos. 984, 985


nos. 1038 and 1039. the definition of ' essential ' crockery was perhaps a little wide : it included, for example, sauceboats. 10 s. r. &. o. 1942, nos. 984, 985, 1256. 11 s. r. &. o. 1942, nos. 1452 – 61m 1620. 12 s. r. & o. 1942, nos. 2214, 2580, 2581, 2589, 2641, 2650. 13 s. r. &. o. 1942, no. 1451. 14 this will be referred to in war and social policy by mr. r. m. titmuss, to be published later in this series. 15 the same was true even for countries which fought a shorter war and did not suffer great destruction of house property by bombing. 16 for the concept of a three years ' war as held in 1939 see p. 95 above. 17 see p. 472 above. 18 see p. 485 above. 19 see above, p. 486. 20 e. g. speech of the president of the board of trade, h. of c. deb., vol. 370, cols. 740 – 742. 21 the committee produced two interim reports. the first recommended the restriction of new entrants ; this principle was adopted in the location of retail businesses order, s. r. & o. 1941, nos. 1784, and 1933. the second surveyed — with undue gloom — the restrictions affecting retail trade. the third report was the one on concentration. all these were published by h. m. stationery office. 22 h. of c. deb., vol. 382, debate of 23rd july 1942. 23 the impact of the war on civilian consumption, pp. 15 – 20. 24 see above, pp. 370 – 73. 26 see chapter xii. 28 h. of c. deb., vol. 399, col. 663 ( 25th april 1944 ). 29 the reduction of advertising cots and the austerity and the austerity style restrictions also helped to reduce costs. 30 see above, p. 336. 31 the remission of purchase tax was in august 1942. this threatened actually to reduce the cost - of - living index. since a fall in the index would be almost as embarrassing as a rise, food prices were increased. 32 on price control generally, see e. l. hargreaves, '


this threatened actually to reduce the cost - of - living index. since a fall in the index would be almost as embarrassing as a rise, food prices were increased. 32 on price control generally, see e. l. hargreaves, ' price control of ( non - food ) consumer goods ', oxford economic papers, no. 8, november 1947. 33 for example, the annual output of sheet per person in 1943 was. 025. 34 h. of c. deb., vol. 374 ( 16th october 1941 ) ; vol. 376 ( 17th december 1941 ) ; vol. 383 ( 10th september 1942 ). 35 the government set forth these considerations in cmd. 6385 ( august 1942 ) : pay and allowances of the armed forces. 36 cmd. 6521 : increased financial provision for members of his majesty ' s forces and their families with certain changes in war pensions. 37 685, 000 working days were lost by dispute in the first half of 1942 against 336, 700 days in the whole of 1941. 38 in 1938 they were eighty - first. 39 h. of c. deb., vol. 380, col. 785 ( 4th june 1942 ). 40 report of the board of investigation into the immediate wages issue in the coalmining industry, june 1942. 41 fourth and final report of the board of investigation into wages and machinery for determining wages and conditions of employment in the coalmining industry. 42 third report of the board of investigation into wages and machinery for determining wages and conditions and employment in the coalmining industry. 43 the miners had slipped back to about fortieth on the list of industrial earnings. 44 national conciliation board for the coalmining industry, national reference tribunal fourth award ( 22nd january 1944 ). 45 coal charges account, cmd. 6617. april 1945 coal ( charges ) order, 1942. 46 they varied from 6d. to 2s. 9d. and averaged out at 1s. 9d. for the industry as a whole. 47 see chapter vi, section ( ii ), especially, pp. 163, 164. 48 see p. 343 above.


spewing hot rocks on old ideas by david f. coppedge * the most volcanically active body in the solar system is a little moon of jupiter named io. this moon is pumping out the hottest lavas known, from equator to pole, 24 / 7. that a small body could be this hyperactive is one of the major mysteries for adherents to the billions - of - years - old universe hypothesis. scientists at the jet propulsion laboratory stood astonished when voyager 1 transmitted the image of a volcanic plume rising above the limb of io in 1979. these volcanoes have not ceased in the 28 years since. io ' s pizza - like surface, devoid of impact craters, suggests this activity has continued much longer. every square inch of the moon has been resurfaced by volcanic ejecta. in comparison, the surface of io emits five times more energy than yellowstone ' s thermal basins : 13. 7 watts per square meter. when the new horizons spacecraft passed io on march 1, 2007, it photographed a plume shooting 200 miles high near io ' s north pole. this area sported a bright lava fountain when the galileo spacecraft photographed it in 1999. now, eight years later, the lava lake remained visible as a bright spot. galileo observed one plume 370 miles high. material from these eruptions forms a large donut - shaped ring, or torus, around jupiter. this little moon has mountain ranges rivaling the rockies and himalayas. spectra of the lavas show them to be much hotter ( 2000° k ) than earth lavas ( 1200° k ). these ultramafic lavas contain the heavy elements iron and magnesium. if io were as old as claimed, the heaviest elements should have sunk to the core, leaving a light crust 50km thick that heavy elements could not penetrate. yet if the interior were mushy, it could not support the high mountains. and what generates all that heat? the usual explanation is that io is squeezed by the gravity of jupiter and its neighboring moon europa. calculations show, however, that the tidal energy is an order of magnitude too low to produce the observed heat flow. a series of papers on " io after galileo " in the may 2004 issue of icarus could not solve these problems. one scientist calculated in 2003 that if io has been erupting over " geologic time " at 10 % its current rate, it would have erupted its entire mass 40 times over by now. meanwhile, io continues to sneeze at old - age beliefs. a record outburst on february 22


the impact of evolution on the humanities and science by john n. moore, m. s., ed. d. the novels of jack london, the plays of george bernard shaw, and even the poetry of alfred tennyson contain a seemingly convincing basis for belief in the " evolution " of humankind. 1 tennyson had expressed an evolutionary viewpoint actually some time before darwin ' s book appeared in 1859. but the writings of these " greats " of literature, and authors of other belles lettres as well, were strongly instrumental in adding to the impact of darwin ' s second book, the descent of man, in converting nineteenth century intellectuals to acceptance of the concept of the so - called evolution of human beings. actually both london and shaw were english socialists and followers of the thinking of the fabian society, which came into existence due to the work and effort of beatrice and sidney webb, who in turn were followers in england of karl marx. thus the " web " of selected indoctrination and inter - relationship of propagandists for an evolutionary viewpoint or world outlook can be extended. and both london and shaw used their literary works to present marxian socialistic views as most plausible and to illustrate the struggle for existence concept. london especially popularized the " red tooth and claw " phrase through the struggles he wrote about in white fang and the call of the wild. the latter book has been repopularized by way of television dramatization in the late 1970 ' s. continued use of evolutionary thinking by novelists can be shown in the works of veblen, norris, dreiser and michener, whose centennial is a par excellence example of misapplication of " historical " geology in early chapters. in philosophy the impact of evolutionary thought can be traced through the increasingly broad application of criticism of nineteenth century classification systems involving archetypes as possible created kinds of plants or animals. according to the evolutionist ' s position there has been a slow, gradual change between organisms as one kind supposedly had joint ancestry with another kind and all present kinds that are known today gradually came into existence over a great expanse of time. as if that position were grounded in proper, orderly science, philosophers have mistakenly accepted that viewpoint and used it as a basis for their attitude that categories cannot be clearly defined and that absolutes are not identifiable, that is, all things are relative. hence confusion has been introduced into logic as basic aristotelian principles of thinking have been challenged by systems of multivalued logic. further confusion has


be clearly defined and that absolutes are not identifiable, that is, all things are relative. hence confusion has been introduced into logic as basic aristotelian principles of thinking have been challenged by systems of multivalued logic. further confusion has been fostered in ethics and aesthetics also by acceptance of evolutionary thinking in philosophy. mention must be made especially of the importance of the writings of john dewey, who fully accepted evolutionary thinking, because his views2 were very influential in development of the " new " philosophy of the twentieth century that has strongly contributed to the despair of existentialism, the new consciousness, and " openness " to mysticisms of eastern religions. 3 by tracing acceptance of the concept of inheritance of acquired characteristics by sigmund freud, a good beginning is made toward showing the impact of evolutionary thinking in psychology and psychiatry. in the late edition of his book, the origin of species, darwin utilized the concept of inheritance of acquired characteristics fostered by lamarck, who believed that characteristics acquired during the lifetime of an individual were transmitted somehow to offspring. though this idea is now fully discredited and completely rejected by leading biologists and geneticists, when freud accepted the idea, he gave significant impetus to the environmentalist inclination so prominent in psychology. according to environmentalists, an individual ' s behavior is the consequence of the environment in which growth and development have occurred. today, b. f. skinner, and also robert ardrey, konrad lorenz, and desmond morris, reflect broad acceptance of the environmentalist approach which is based upon the unscientific idea of an evolutionary origin of humankind. 4 in the multiple sub - fields of the scientific discipline the impact of evolutionary thought has been almost complete. the influential writings of such leaders as the late julian huxley, theodosius dobzhansky, and pierre teilhard de chardin in support of the infusion of evolutionary thinking into all facets of biology and associated sciences still have great impact in the training programs of young scientists and in the mass communications media as well. in addition to their influence, g. g. simpson still serves as a strong guide to almost ubiquitous application of evolutionary thought. however, weaknesses and deficiencies in darwinism, neo - darwinism, and even the modern synthetic " theory " of evolution have been published by scientists5 in every decade since the origin of species was published in 1859. yet such criticisms have not been included to any significant extent in science textbooks. actually specific impetus inaugurated in the 1960 ' s to expand and


theory " of evolution have been published by scientists5 in every decade since the origin of species was published in 1859. yet such criticisms have not been included to any significant extent in science textbooks. actually specific impetus inaugurated in the 1960 ' s to expand and augment the teaching of evolutionary origins in the secondary schools in the united states has really been an important cause in the 1970 ' s for the development of creationism teaching, that is, explanation of the scientific basis or support of the creation account of origins. 6 the " prime mover " of modern education, john dewey, showed a broad acceptance of darwinism in his extensive writings. he viewed the human being as an " evolved " creature that was slowly improving physically and mentally. according to dewey, the environment in which schooling occurred was most important. because dewey stressed an evolutionary outlook in many if not all of his books, and since several generations of educators have followed dewey ' s thinking in one form or another, environmentalism has become a strong viewpoint in the development of educational principles and policies in the public schools in the united states. the human being has been treated as an intelligent animal developing as a consequence of interaction with the environment, as a " survivor " by use of its wits. 7 finally, even the modern - day study of theology has been largely controlled by evolutionary ideas. wherever acceptance of the graff - wellhausen " hypothesis " regarding criticism of biblical texts can be shown, then evidence is gained for broad impact of evolutionary thinking. according to that view the bible content has " evolved. " a most influential spokesman for the view of " evolution " of the bible was harry emerson fosdick. 8 he wrote extensively on the theme that man ' s worship of god " evolved " from the worship of a sun god and moon god, to a mountain god and river god, to a crop god, to a tribal god, to an omnipotent god. actually polytheistic worship has been a degenerate derivation of ancient, initial monotheism in all groups of peoples on the earth as can be shown by reference to outstanding present - day scholarships. 9 the whole position of higher criticism and form criticism of the twentieth century is rooted in an evolutionary viewpoint. 1 conner, frederick w., 1949, cosmic optimism ( a study of the interpretation of evolution by american poets from emerson to robinson ), gainesville, florida : university of florida press ; leo j. henkin 1940. darwinism in the english novel. n. y. : corporate press, inc. ; bert j


the interpretation of evolution by american poets from emerson to robinson ), gainesville, florida : university of florida press ; leo j. henkin 1940. darwinism in the english novel. n. y. : corporate press, inc. ; bert j. loewenberg 1964. darwinism : reaction or reform? n. y. : holt, rinehart and winston ; stow parsons ( editor ) 1956. evolutionary thought in america, n. y. : george braziller, inc. ; georg roppen 1956. evolution and poetic belief. oslo, norway : oslo university press ; lionel stevenson 1963. darwin among the poets. n. y. : russell and russell. see also zirkle, conway 1959. evolution, marxian biology and the social scene. philadelphia : university of pennsylvania press, especially chapter 10, " marxian biology in the communist world. " 2 see various dewey books such as reconstruction in philosophy ( 1920 ) and the quest for certainty ( 1929 ). 3 schaeffer, francis a. 1968. escape from reason. chicago : inter - varsity press ; and james w. sire 1976. the universe next door ( a basic world view catalog ). downers grove, illinois : inter - varsity press. 4 skinner, b. f. 1971. beyond freedom and dignity. toronto, n. y. bantam books, n. y. : vintage books ; robert ardrey 1970. the social contract. n. y. : atheneum and african genesis. 1962. n. y. : atheneum ; konrad lorenz 1966. on aggression. n. y. : harcourt, brace and world ; desmond morris 1967. the naked ape. london : cape. see francis a. schaeffer 1972. back to freedom and dignity. downers grove, illinois : intervarsity press in which he responds to the skinner book as well as to jacques monod ' s 1971 chance and necessity. n. y. : knopt and to francis crick ' s 1966 of molecules and men. seattle : university of washington press. 5 an accumulative computerized bibliographic compilation is available for one dollar upon request to dr. moore. these materials were gathered while using six research grants from michigan state university over twelve years under the title, " library search for representative statements by scientists on organic evolution, natural selection, and related topics since 1859. " 6 books published by creation - life publishers, such as origins : two models by richard bliss ; streams of civilization,


years under the title, " library search for representative statements by scientists on organic evolution, natural selection, and related topics since 1859. " 6 books published by creation - life publishers, such as origins : two models by richard bliss ; streams of civilization, vol. one. ancient history to 1572 a. d. by albert hymn and mary stanton ; scientific creationism by henry m. morris, editor ; or biology : a search for order in complexity edited by john n. moore and harold s. slusher. 1974. grand rapids, michigan : zondervan publishing house. 7 white morton. 1943. the origins of dewey ' s instrumentalism. n. y. : columbia university press. among many books by john dewey see his essays in experimental logic ( chicago : university of chicago press, 1916 ) and logic : the theory of inquiry ( n. y. : henry holt & co., 1938 ). see also zirkle, op. cit., reference 1. 8 mcdowell, josh. 1972. evidence that demands a verdict ( historical evidence for the christian faith ). san bernardino : campus crusade for christ, international. also excellent on the graff - wellhausen thesis is oswald t. allis, 1943. the five books of moses. philadelphia : presbyterian and reformed publishing company ; and clifford wilson, 1977. ebla tablets : secrets of a forbidden city. san diego : master books.


wartime violence against women : states must do more to end it millions of women and girls bear the brunt of today ' s wars. they are particularly exposed to sexual violence and other injury. on the occasion of the tenth anniversary of the un security council resolution on women, peace and security, christine beerli, vice - president of the icrc, calls for better protection of women in wartime. ten years ago, the hopes and aspirations surrounding the birth of a new millennium found voice in various global initiatives aimed ultimately at righting some of the world ' s most glaring wrongs. the un security council ' s resolution 1325 on women, peace and security was one of them. it put the international spotlight on the disproportionate and distinct impact of armed conflict on women, and called for women ' s full engagement in conflict resolution and peace building. it also signalled political recognition that women and gender are key to international peace and security. the tenth anniversary of the resolution this october is an opportune time not for unreserved celebration, but more for sober reflection on what more must – and can – be done to translate good intentions into reality, words into meaningful action. be it in the democratic republic of congo or colombia, afghanistan, or iraq - to name but a few – millions of women and girls bear the brunt of today ' s wars. this is often because they are deliberately targeted as a tactic of warfare. they are particularly exposed to sexual violence and other injury. war often results in them being displaced and separated from family members, and hampers their access to food, safe drinking water and healthcare. it may also leave them as the sole breadwinner and with the responsibility of supporting their families on their own. international humanitarian law provides a solid basis for the protection of women in wartime – primarily through the geneva conventions and their additional protocols. sexual violence, to take just one example, is unequivocally a war crime in both international and non - international armed conflicts. yet the continuing atrocities committed against women in eastern dr congo are but one grim reminder that the existing rules are violated flagrantly, and often with total impunity. ensuring respect for the rules is a perennial challenge. primary responsibility for this lies squarely on states, which have universally ratified the geneva conventions. not only must they ensure that the law is implemented, they must also ensure that it is properly enforced. true, some progress has been made in terms of states ' domestic legislation recognising the criminal responsibility of those who violate


the geneva conventions. not only must they ensure that the law is implemented, they must also ensure that it is properly enforced. true, some progress has been made in terms of states ' domestic legislation recognising the criminal responsibility of those who violate international humanitarian law, and actually holding them accountable for their crimes. various international tribunals and the international criminal court have further strengthened accountability for war crimes. but there is still a long way to go. armed forces and armed groups alike must understand that sexual violence is a war crime and that violators face punishment. here the international committee of the red cross ( icrc ) plays a role in training and dissemination of international humanitarian law. but states and their judicial apparatus must play their role too. what better deterrent to potential war criminals than seeing that the law is actually enforced? prevention is undoubtedly better than cure. the consequences of sexual violence as a weapon of war go further than the terrible hurt and trauma suffered by its direct victims : they can profoundly destabilise societies even longer after the conflict ends. stigmatisation and rejection of the victims, breakdown of societal and cultural norms, and economic instability may ultimately ensue. addressing these consequences requires a multidimensional response that – crucially – directly engages the victims of sexual violence themselves as well as other concerned women. women must be fully involved in the search for solutions to their problems if those solutions are to have any chance of success. aid organisations and donors, including states, must strive to ensure this in their programmes in all phases of an armed conflict – from prevention to protection and post - conflict recovery. consigning women to the category of passive victim is disempowering and counterproductive, excluding them yet further from humanitarian and peacekeeping efforts. as a woman, it is my wish that this tenth anniversary of the un resolution on women, peace and security be remembered for heralding even one measurable achievement : that states not only take concrete steps to criminalise sexual violence in armed conflict in their national legislation, but that violators face justice accordingly. then women everywhere would have real cause for celebration.


ihc history : part 1 the history of ihc starts in the wheat fields of virginia during the 1830s on the farm of robert mccormick. farming at that time was hard work using only the power and sweat of the farm workers aided by horses. one of the most backbreaking and important jobs was reaping the standing grain, a job done in the hottest part of the year. a mechanized reaper was the dream of many a farmer and many experiments were underway both in the us and europe. the farmer working as a reaper used a scythe with a cradle to cut the wheat and lay it in bundles. a binder followed the reaper and tied the bundles into shocks with twists of wheat. a good scythe - man could cut 2 - 3 acres per day. between 1810 and 1830 robert mccormick experimented with mechanical harvesting of wheat and demonstrated a working version in 1831. cyrus mccormick ( b. 1809 ) continued his father ' s experiments and eventually developed a working model of a practical reaper. the mechanical reaper had several important components. straight reciprocating knife to cut the standing wheat. fingers to guide the wheat stalk to the knife. reel to pull the wheat stalk against the knife. platform to catch the falling wheat. single main power wheel. cutting to one side of the draft. divider bar to separate cut and standing grain. in 1931 a reproduction of the first reaper was built by the international harvester company to celebrate the century of the reaper. one is on display at the ardenwood farms museum is occasionally loaned to other tractor shows. if you have a chance to see this remarkable machine, do so. it took a while for the mechanical reaper to be accepted by farmers of the day and the first machines were not sold until 1840 and full production started in 1846. meanwhile other inventors were working on the mechanical reaper and many public trials were held between competing designs. one inventor in particular was obed hussey whose machines faced off the mccormick machines in several field trials. both machines had strengths and weaknesses and both introduced refinements to the design of reapers. for many years the origins of the reaper were in dispute and countless hours of court testimony has done little to clear the air. in the late 1840s, cyrus moved his reaper company to chicago to be near the center of us farming then moving into the plains of illinois and iowa. chicago also provided ready access to ship transportation to support a growing export business. with cyrus running the business and his brother leander directing manufacturing operations, the company continued to grow. eventually in 1879 the mccormick


vol. 13 no. 133 summary of the fifth session of the united nations forum on forests : the fifth session of the united nations forum on forests ( unff - 5 ) was held from 16 - 27 may 2005, at un headquarters in new york. the main task before unff - 5 was to review the effectiveness of the international arrangement on forests ( iaf ) and redesign the arrangement, if necessary. during the two - week session, delegates : reviewed progress and considered future actions ; reviewed the effectiveness of the iaf ; considered the parameters of a mandate for developing a legal framework on all types of forests ; and considered enhanced cooperation and policy and programme coordination. during the course of the meeting, there was a panel discussion on forest issues in the asia and pacific region. unff - 5 also convened a high - level segment and policy dialogue with heads of the collaborative partnership on forests ( cpf ) organizations, during which delegates considered three main issues : forest law enforcement and governance and sustainability ; restoring the world ’ s forests ; and actions for the future. a multi - stakeholder dialogue was also held immediately following the high - level segment. in the end, unff - 5 was unable to reach agreement on strengthening the iaf and could not produce either a ministerial statement or a negotiated outcome. by thursday, 26 may, delegates had agreed ad referendum to four global goals on : significantly increasing the area of protected forests and sustainably managed forests worldwide ; reversing the decline in official development assistance ( oda ) for sustainable forest management ( sfm ) ; reversing the loss of forest cover ; and enhancing forest - based economic, social and environmental benefits. they also agreed in principle to negotiate, at some future date, the terms of reference for a voluntary code or international understanding as well as means of implementation. on friday afternoon, delegates decided to forward the draft negotiating text to unff - 6, to be held from 13 - 24 february 2006, at un headquarters in new york. a brief history of the unff the unff followed a five - year period ( 1995 - 2000 ) of forest policy dialogue facilitated by the intergovernmental panel on forests ( ipf ) and the intergovernmental forum on forests ( iff ). in october 2000, the united nations economic and social council ( ecosoc ), in resolution e / 2000 / 35, established unff as a subsidiary body with the main objective to promote the management, conservation and sustainable development of all types of forests. to achieve its main objective, principal functions


social council ( ecosoc ), in resolution e / 2000 / 35, established unff as a subsidiary body with the main objective to promote the management, conservation and sustainable development of all types of forests. to achieve its main objective, principal functions were identified for unff, namely to : the ipf / iff processes produced more than 270 proposals for action towards sfm, known collectively as the ipf / iff proposals for action. these proposals served as the basis for the unff multi - year programme of work ( mypow ) and plan of action and have been discussed at annual unff sessions. country - and organization - led initiatives also contributed to the work of the unff. organizational session : the unff organizational session and informal consultations on the mypow took place from 12 - 16 february 2001, at un headquarters in new york. delegates agreed that the unff secretariat would be located in new york and addressed progress towards the establishment of the cpf, a partnership of 14 major forest - related international organizations, institutions and convention secretariats. unff - 1 : the first session of unff took place from 11 - 23 june 2001, at un headquarters in new york. delegates discussed and adopted decisions on unff ’ s mypow, a plan of action for the implementation of the ipf / iff proposals for action, and unff ’ s work with the cpf. they also recommended establishing three ad hoc expert groups to provide technical advice to unff on : approaches and mechanisms for monitoring, assessment and reporting ; finance and transfer of environmentally sound technologies ; and consideration with a view to recommending the parameters of a mandate for developing a legal framework on all types of forests. unff - 2 : the second session of unff took place from 4 - 15 march 2002, at un headquarters in new york. delegates adopted a ministerial declaration and message to the world summit on sustainable development and eight decisions on : unff - 3 : unff - 3 met in geneva, switzerland, from 26 may – 6 june 2003. unff - 3 adopted six resolutions on : unff - 3 also finalized the terms of reference for the three ad hoc expert groups, a task that had been carried forward from unff - 2. also adopted was a decision on the voluntary reporting format. unff - 4 : unff - 4 convened in geneva, switzerland, from 3 - 14 may 2004. unff - 4 adopted five resolutions on : unff - 4 attempted but could not agree on resolutions on traditional forest -


voluntary reporting format. unff - 4 : unff - 4 convened in geneva, switzerland, from 3 - 14 may 2004. unff - 4 adopted five resolutions on : unff - 4 attempted but could not agree on resolutions on traditional forest - related knowledge and enhanced cooperation and policy and programme coordination. chair manuel rodriguez becerra opened the session on monday, 16 may 2005, by reporting progress in institution building and policymaking at the global level, but identified significant gaps between goals and achievements. he highlighted continued deforestation, urged delegates to decide on future actions, and expressed hope that the unff - 5 high - level ministerial segment would produce strong recommendations to ecosoc and the un general assembly. noting a positive climate for decision making, he called on unff - 5 to produce a strong body of regulations on sustainable forest management. pekka patosaari, coordinator and head of the unff secretariat, highlighted the important role of unff processes such as the multi - stakeholder dialogue. he called for outcomes that would reinvigorate commitment and provide guidance for the future iaf, and stressed the need for additional funding. he indicated the importance of continued cpf support for the unff, and suggested that the work of the new iaf could contribute to achieving the millennium development goals ( mdgs ). on tuesday, 17 may, nobel laureate wangari maathai addressed unff - 5. she recounted the replacement of a natural forest ecosystem in kenya by monoculture plantations, which has caused land degradation and water shortages, and underscored that the foundations of a secure state are a sustainably managed environment, democracy and a culture of peace. she appealed for support for a congo river basin forest ecosystem convergence plan for forest protection that has been formulated by central african heads of state, noting that, while many consultations have taken place concerning the congo basin, little action has occurred on the ground. maathai called for the creation of an efficient, accountable and transparent trust fund managed by international bodies, and suggested that the food and agriculture organization play a central role in the convergence plan. organizational matters : on monday, delegates elected to the bureau manuel rodriguez becerra ( colombia ) as chair, vasile lupu ( romania ), francis k. butagira ( uganda ), denys gauer ( france ) as vice - chairs and rezlan ishar jenie ( indonesia ) as vice - chair - cum - rapporteur. delegates adopted the agenda ( e / cn. 18 / 2005 / 1 )


), denys gauer ( france ) as vice - chairs and rezlan ishar jenie ( indonesia ) as vice - chair - cum - rapporteur. delegates adopted the agenda ( e / cn. 18 / 2005 / 1 ). patosaari reported that an itemization of trust fund contributions would be made available but that there is no written report on the status of the secretariat. on tuesday, 17 may, delegates elected simeon a. adekanye ( nigeria ) as vice - chair to replace butagira who had to return home. the following report is organized by agenda item. the section entitled “ future of the international arrangement on forests ” contains a detailed account of the negotiations on the future international arrangement. enhanced cooperation and policy and programme coordination on monday, 16 may, hosny el - lakany, food and agriculture organization ( fao ), presented the cpf framework 2005 ( e / cn. 18 / 2005 / inf / 1 ). he noted that the document recounts the cpf ’ s progress since its inception, including work on streamlining national reporting, harmonization of requests for information and definitions, creation of a database on sfm funding sources, information - sharing, technical and financial assistance, capacity building and awareness raising. he noted the need for strengthening external funding for implementation of the ipf / iff proposals for action, work at the regional and national levels, and interaction with the millennium development goals ( mdgs ). a large number of countries responded to this with a renewed call for greater political will and implementation of internationally - agreed sfm commitments taking a cross - sectoral approach, and to back this with predictable funding, transfer of environmentally - sound technologies, capacity building, and utilization of traditional forest knowledge. many suggested the development of a smaller number of high - priority goals, particularly those linked to reducing deforestation, forest degradation, and linking these to poverty reduction and the mdgs. countries also expressed the need for a cpf seed fund that would facilitate enhanced coordination, and focus on avoiding duplication and excessive bureaucracy. some stressed the need for regional approach supported by the private sector and civil society, and discussed the possible role of the unff secretariat beyond unff - 5. several expressed their preference for or against the development of an lbi. asia and pacific day on wednesday, 18 may, delegates convened in a morning panel discussion that focused on forests in the asia and pacific regions. the panel and ensuing discussion focused on issues relating to china ’ s high demand for forest products


an lbi. asia and pacific day on wednesday, 18 may, delegates convened in a morning panel discussion that focused on forests in the asia and pacific regions. the panel and ensuing discussion focused on issues relating to china ’ s high demand for forest products, timber certification, empowerment of women in rural nepal, japan ’ s contribution to sfm in the region, sfm in india, and the millennium development goals. a chair ’ s summary of the asia and pacific day panel discussion was appended to the draft decision that was forwarded to ecosoc for adoption. a summary of the presentations and the discussion can be found at : http : / / www. iisd. ca / vol13 / enb13126e. html on wednesday morning, 25 may, delegates met in a high - level segment ( hls ). the hls focused on the linkages between forests and the international development goals, including those in the millennium declaration. it was also an opportunity for ministers and other high - level delegates to express their views on the future of the iaf. a summary of this portion of the hls can be found at http : / / www. iisd. ca / vol13 / enb13131e. html on wednesday afternoon, the hls broke into two roundtables. roundtable i discussed themes relating to restoring the world ’ s forests. roundtable ii discussed forest law enforcement and governance. summaries of both discussions can be found at : http : / / www. iisd. ca / vol13 / enb13131e. html on thursday, 26 may, delegates resumed the hls to discuss actions for the future. this discussion represented a final opportunity for ministers and other high - level delegates to restate their positions on the future arrangement on forests. a summary of this portion of the hls can be found at http : / / www. iisd. ca / vol13 / enb13132e. html immediately following the hls on wednesday, 25 may, the multi - stakeholder dialogue ( msd ) was held. representatives of the major groups read a series of prepared statements. there was no discussion of these statements. brief summaries of the statements can be found at http : / / www. iisd. ca / vol13 / enb13131e. html future international arrangement on forests on monday, 16 may, patosaari proposed and delegates agreed to consider jointly the following agenda items : review of the effectiveness of the ia


. iisd. ca / vol13 / enb13131e. html future international arrangement on forests on monday, 16 may, patosaari proposed and delegates agreed to consider jointly the following agenda items : review of the effectiveness of the iaf ( e / cn. 18 / 2005 / 6 ) ; review of progress and consideration of future actions ( e / cn. 18 / 2005 / 8 ) ; and consideration with a view to recommending the parameters of a mandate for developing a legal framework on all types of forests ( e / cn. 18 / 2005 / 9 ). these agenda items were discussed in plenary sessions, working groups, and thereafter in a contact group and an informal group. on wednesday, 18 may, delegates were presented for the first time with the chair ’ s draft decision and a draft ministerial statement. the bureau prepared the chair ’ s draft decision, which was based on country statements made during the plenary discussions on monday, 16 may and tuesday, 17 may. on thursday, 19 may, working group i ( wgi ) discussed the chair ’ s draft decision on the iaf, while working group ii ( wgii ) considered the ministerial declaration and the global goals and financial matters in the chair ’ s draft decision. on wednesday, 25 may a contact group was formed to discuss all aspects of the chair ’ s draft decision together. delegates delivered their opening statements in plenary on monday and tuesday, 16 - 17 may. jamaica, on behalf of the group of 77 and china ( g - 77 / china ), supported by indonesia, nigeria, cuba, ghana, gabon, kenya, india, south africa, senegal, namibia, guyana, and argentina, reiterated the need to implement internationally - agreed commitments to sfm, and stressed the importance of identifying appropriate financial mechanisms and predictable funds for sfm. she urged developed countries to assist in the transfer of environmentally - sound technologies and capacity building in support of best practices and utilization of traditional forest knowledge. finally, she called for a comprehensive approach to address the links between sfm and socioeconomic development. luxembourg, on behalf of the eu, supported by canada, the us, and switzerland, stated that the present iaf has not achieved its full potential, and, supported by australia, said that civil society and the private sector have not been adequately engaged. supported by canada, switzerland, and iran, he stated that clear, quantitative targets and goals were essential for securing political commitment and accountability. he suggested the following targets, each to be achieved by 2015 : doubling


the private sector have not been adequately engaged. supported by canada, switzerland, and iran, he stated that clear, quantitative targets and goals were essential for securing political commitment and accountability. he suggested the following targets, each to be achieved by 2015 : doubling the area of forests under sustainable management ; reducing by half the number of people in extreme poverty of those whose livelihoods are dependent on forests ; and reducing by half the global deforestation rate. supported by the republic of korea, he advocated the creation of an lbi. australia, supported by iran, recommended creating regional forest fora that would focus on region - specific action plans and targets, but would share a limited number of overarching global goals. iran emphasized the importance of capacity building to enhance reporting and monitoring. indigenous peoples called for the consideration of indigenous and tribal rights to land and resource tenure in any future iaf. report of the ad hoc expert group on parameters : andrea alban duran ( colombia ) and tim rollinson ( uk ) presented the report of the ad hoc expert group on consideration with a view to recommending the parameters of a mandate to develop a legal framework on all types of forests ( aheg - param ) ( e / cn. 18 / 2005 / 2 ), including an analysis of existing institutions and the identification of options for the future iaf. they noted that both non - lbi and lbi options would require common “ building blocks, ” but that an lbi would add the legal obligation to report on forests and send a stronger signal that forests are a global priority. rosalia arteaga serrano, amazon cooperation treaty organization, supported by guyana called for strengthening unff to promote implementation. she opposed an lbi and quantifiable targets, and said a future iaf should seek to increase sfm areas, integrate forest management and development, and promote long - term political commitment and implementation of regional agendas. canada stressed that forests ’ potential to serve development goals remains unfulfilled. he favored an lbi and stated that a future iaf should, inter alia : be performance - based ; incorporate a strengthened unff and cpf ; integrate forest policy and development ; include a voluntary review mechanism based on national commitments ; utilize regional processes ; and include a voluntary code of conduct. norway said the iaf has not met expectations, noting unabated rates of deforestation. he said an lbi would strengthen political commitment and attract financial resources, and called for an iaf based on a limited number of objectives, regional processes to facilitate country


the iaf has not met expectations, noting unabated rates of deforestation. he said an lbi would strengthen political commitment and attract financial resources, and called for an iaf based on a limited number of objectives, regional processes to facilitate country implementation, linkage between sfm and development goals, and a strengthened cpf. the us noted that the iaf had failed to place forests high on the political agenda, and called for a more focused and structured, but non - legally binding, arrangement. she proposed strengthening the cpf, involving major groups in an advisory capacity, and holding regional subsidiary body meetings on implementation. cuba stated its willingness to consider all options, including an lbi. he stressed defining goals as well as the means for obtaining sfm in terms of financial resources and technology transfer. switzerland queried why country reporting and use of the questionnaire format developed at unff - 4 were so limited. he identified obstacles to the current iaf, including a lack of focus, a coherent framework, and political will. he advocated a voluntary code and, supported by new zealand, global goals and targets, regional processes, and provision of financial resources for implementation. new zealand expressed frustration with the limited progress of the current iaf, and expressed concern over the cpf ’ s effectiveness. he noted the unwieldiness of implementing the ipf / iff proposals for action, and called for helping countries determine their priorities. he noted insufficient support for an lbi, and called for high - level political engagement in order to mobilize international support and resources, with emphasis placed on regional - and national - level implementation. youth and children, on behalf of six other major groups, noted gains made in increasing major group participation in the forest policy dialogue but called for, inter alia, formalized roles for major group focal points, financial support for major group participation, and an assignment of staff to work with major groups. china expressed support for an lbi that would balance the principle of national sovereignty with the fulfillment of international obligations and enhance cooperation and participation. the russian federation noted the achievements of unff, and called for strengthening the iaf. he suggested that unff provide clear guidance to the cpf and regional processes, integrate sfm goals with the mdgs and formulate specific targets and timetables. nigeria noted that unff has yet to fulfill its commitments with regard to capacity building, transfer of technology, and provision of financial assistance. he opposed an lbi and supported strengthening unff. guatemala noted that some experts at the


targets and timetables. nigeria noted that unff has yet to fulfill its commitments with regard to capacity building, transfer of technology, and provision of financial assistance. he opposed an lbi and supported strengthening unff. guatemala noted that some experts at the zapopan - guadalajara country - led initiative in january 2005 had expressed interest in an lbi containing clear goals capable of contributing to broader social agendas and regional initiatives. mexico recommended a high - level political framework with a new mandate, specific tasks, and capacity to provide funding and define a future legal framework. ghana, on behalf of the africa group, supported by namibia, gabon, senegal, kenya and south africa, stressed the importance of linking forests with the mdgs and balancing social, economic and environmental interests, and noted that lack of funding has hindered national reporting. south africa emphasized that implementation must replace dialogue and, supported by indonesia and argentina, take into account developing countries needs. she recommended accessing existing structures such as the african union and the economic community of west african states, and existing strategies such as the new partnership for africa ’ ’ s development. she advocated engagement with civil society, strengthening the cpf and global environment facility ( gef ) funding, and a global forest fund ( gff ). mozambique urged delegates to design a future arrangement that will improve implementation and address institutional weaknesses, the inadequate international legal framework, and lack of human and financial resources. noting his country ' s implementation efforts, he urged unff to assist countries in improving domestic legal frameworks and in implementing programmes with immediate impact. indonesia noted its work on decentralization, protected areas and national parks and called for institutional capacity, financial resources, and human capital to meet the challenges of sfm. he called for a high - level iaf to play a central role in catalyzing regional cooperation on implementing the ipf / iff proposals for action, such as through partnership and governance initiatives. he supported financially strengthening the cpf, increasing oda in the context of forest development and the mdgs, and innovative financing such as a global environment facility ( gef ) operational programme on forests. he said regional processes should utilize existing un regional economic commissions and development institutions. argentina favored an international legal instrument, preferably binding, for forest protection, noting that such a system should respect national sovereignty, reflect common but differentiated responsibilities, and ensure developing countries ’ capacity for forest protection and sustainable management. he recommended leaving open the option of establishing an lbi in the future. brazil rejected proposals for an lbi, quanti


system should respect national sovereignty, reflect common but differentiated responsibilities, and ensure developing countries ’ capacity for forest protection and sustainable management. he recommended leaving open the option of establishing an lbi in the future. brazil rejected proposals for an lbi, quantifiable targets, and a voluntary code of conduct, and stressed the importance of the non - binding 1992 forest principles and chapter 11 of agenda 21. he said a future iaf should center on a strengthened unff and pursue, inter alia : financial resources channeled through a global forest fund ; national policies to promote sfm ; international cooperation, including south - south cooperation ; capacity building ; transfer of environmentally sound technology ; stakeholder participation ; criteria and indicators ( c & i ) ; and market transparency. he said an ideal outcome of unff - 5 would strengthen existing instruments and ensure long - term political commitment. the ministerial conference on the protection of forests in europe ( mcpfe ) said that global efforts should be translated to regional, national and local levels. he stressed the value of regional cooperation, the role of national forest programmes ( nfps ), the importance of linking sfm and the cbd ecosystem approach, and the compatibility of ecological and economic priorities. colombia rejected quantifiable goals, and said a strengthened iaf should eliminate the gap between dialogue and action. she stressed the need to, inter alia : pursue goals previously agreed to at other fora ; implement actions that benefit indigenous peoples and local communities ; hold regional meetings to facilitate national - level implementation ; and ensure adequate means of implementation. costa rica said that the central american forest strategy has been influential in improving nfps, and emphasized that payments for ecological services should be viewed as an investment. kenya called for a strengthened iaf and predictable funding to address obstacles to sfm. india recommended further work to facilitate forest - related institutions, and stated that food security and health will take precedence over nfp funding. he stated that developing an lbi is premature and that the focus should be on capacity building. malaysia said the iaf should play a more significant role, assess the means of implementation for the proposals for action, and increase major group involvement. victoria tauli - corpuz, chair of the un permanent forum on indigenous issues ( unpfii ), advocated strengthening the relationship between unpfii and unff and ensuring full participation of indigenous peoples in decision making. japan stated that promotion of regional initiatives, such as the asia forest partnership ( afp ), is essential for achieving sfm. he said the


strengthening the relationship between unpfii and unff and ensuring full participation of indigenous peoples in decision making. japan stated that promotion of regional initiatives, such as the asia forest partnership ( afp ), is essential for achieving sfm. he said the afp agreed to : harmonize existing initiatives to combat illegal logging ; review measures for the rehabilitation of degraded lands ; develop minimum standards of legality, timber tracking and chain of custody systems ; and create a cooperative customs framework. he encouraged countries to establish a code as a means of strengthening political commitment to sfm. the uk encouraged the development of clear objectives, building upon elements such as the cpf and country - led initiatives, such as the global workshop on forest landscape restoration implementation. namibia reported its progress in adopting c & i for sfm and developing its nfp, and noted that adoption of obligatory responsibilities needs to be matched by a financial mechanism. guyana noted major implementation shortcomings, and stated that any future iaf must address social issues and acknowledge regional initiatives. gabon highlighted the importance of debt relief for poor countries, and called for strengthening the iaf through precise objectives, clear deadlines, and permanent funding. workers and trade unions stated that combating illegal logging must take precedence over free trade. she also pointed out that as long as social justice issues are ignored forests will remain at risk, and that any future arrangement must incorporate international labor organization core labor standards. scientific and technological communities noted that constraints in stopping forest degradation include : lack of awareness of the ipf / iff processes ; insufficient research capacity in poor countries, including lack of access to data and research funding ; and erosion of human resources due to hiv / aids. he recommended an international research management fund, funded by developing countries through external debt repayments and by developed countries according to their contributions to global warming, and low - interest loans from bretton woods institutions for research on implementation of the ipf / iff proposals for action. farmers and small forest landowners called for, inter alia, establishing clear ownership structures favoring family and community forest owners. youth and children called for transfer of knowledge to the younger generation. he advocated forests as a theme for unesco ’ s decade of education for sustainable development and strengthening the participation of youth partners for implementation of the ipf / iff proposals for action through fund - sharing. non - governmental organizations favored addressing forests under the cbd. she criticized unff ' s promotion of monoculture forest plantations, including genetically modified species. women said that, despite commitments made in 1992 and 2002, mainstream


for action through fund - sharing. non - governmental organizations favored addressing forests under the cbd. she criticized unff ' s promotion of monoculture forest plantations, including genetically modified species. women said that, despite commitments made in 1992 and 2002, mainstreaming gender equity in the environmental sector has been fragmented, superficial and inconsistent. she called on a future iaf to ensure women are viewed as central to achieving sfm. working group i : the first meeting of wgi convened on thursday, 19 may, during which a number of delegations said the chair ’ s draft text was a good basis for discussion. the g - 77 / china requested additional time to examine the text, and the eu, australia and the us said it was important to give them the time requested. the democratic republic of congo and cuba requested translations of the chair ’ s text. vice - chair ishar jenie suspended the meeting. wgi reconvened on friday, 20 may, and continued its discussion of the chair ’ s draft text on monday, 23 may. the eu asked for stronger language on objectives, goals, institutional arrangements, the cpf and regional processes. switzerland said language on a voluntary code should appear earlier in the text. the russian federation urged the promotion of forests within the un system. on the preamble, the g - 77 / china requested language on, inter alia : sovereign use of natural resources ; common but differentiated responsibilities ; and means of implementation. the eu proposed text on long - term political commitment and a strengthened cpf. switzerland, supported by indonesia, iran, and peru, suggested that the chair ’ s draft decision refer to ecosoc resolution 2000 / 35, which established the unff. the russian federation requested language stressing the cpf ’ s role in coordinating sfm implementation at all levels. the eu, supported by switzerland and japan, proposed eliminating a section on complementing iaf priorities but retaining a paragraph on multi - stakeholder partnerships, with japan adding “ regional ” partnerships. australia opposed deleting text on clustering the ipf / iff proposals for action. switzerland added a paragraph on strengthening the regional approach. the us proposed a paragraph reaffirming the relevance of the johannesburg declaration from the world summit on sustainable development and the forest principles, as well as references to the importance of forests to “ social and economic well - being ” rather than “ livelihoods, ” the role of the cpf “ at the center of the iaf, ” and the importance of a high - level body


as well as references to the importance of forests to “ social and economic well - being ” rather than “ livelihoods, ” the role of the cpf “ at the center of the iaf, ” and the importance of a high - level body on forests, subsidiary to ecosoc. the us also proposed language on strengthening the iaf through existing resources and voluntary contributions, and establishing a regional approach to improve the linkage between high - level dialogue and implementation. japan preferred a reference to “ illegal logging and associated trade ” instead of “ trade from illegal logging. ” cambodia added a reference to forest land encroachment as a cause of deforestation. morocco, supported by syria, iran, indonesia and cuba, added text emphasizing the importance of economic growth and achievement of the mdgs for the conservation, management and sustainable development of all types of forests. syria, supported by saudi arabia, iran and indonesia, suggested text referring to the special requirements of low - forest - cover - countries. on enhanced cooperation, the g - 77 / china stressed that sfm policies should remain within national discretion. the eu and the us suggested different language on enhancing the contribution of forests to the achievement of internationally agreed development goals. the eu, with switzerland, suggested including policy and programme coordination. the russian federation, with the eu, proposed text on coordination within the un system. the us proposed that the cpf be the central focus of coordination on forest - related matters, while the eu, supported by mexico and switzerland, suggested deleting reference to a central focus. the g - 77 / china, supported by indonesia and iran, suggested referring to multilateral environmental agreements ( meas ) rather than specific conventions. the eu, the g - 77 / china, the us and new zealand expressed concern with complementarity, while new zealand suggested alternative language on collaboration. brazil advanced text on promoting research through a network of established institutes of excellence, establishing a clearinghouse mechanism for information sharing on national experiences, and facilitating developing country access to sfm technology. china preferred to “ help ” instead of “ urge ” countries to promote collaboration in implementing nfps. on working modalities, the eu, opposed by switzerland, suggested separate sections on a high - level forum and regional processes. the russian federation suggested that unff meet annually and maintain a flexible work cycle. switzerland supported a two - year work cycle, but suggested meeting regionally in year one and globally in year two. he suggested that regional meetings be hosted by the un regional economic commissions and the fa


unff meet annually and maintain a flexible work cycle. switzerland supported a two - year work cycle, but suggested meeting regionally in year one and globally in year two. he suggested that regional meetings be hosted by the un regional economic commissions and the fao regional forestry commissions, and should, inter alia : address issues identified in the multi - year programme of work ( mypow ) ; be open to cpf members and other groups ; report to global unff meetings ; and be financed through the regular un budget. the us proposed week - long biennial meetings at the global level and biennial regional meetings, sponsored by either the fao ’ s regional forestry commissions, or the un economic commissions, or both. on regional meetings, indonesia, with china, said the forum should ensure the full and effective participation of developing countries. on the mypow, switzerland said unff should first meet globally in 2007 to adopt, inter alia, a 2008 - 2015 mypow. the us suggested the mypow should be organized by the seven thematic elements for sfm. he preferred a “ revised ” instead of “ focused ” mandate for the secretariat, while indonesia preferred a “ function ” instead of a mandate. on monitoring, assessment and reporting ( mar ), the us, supported by the g - 77 / china, the russian federation, brazil and india proposed deleting text on third party assessments, peer reviews and independent evaluations. the eu, with switzerland, proposed developing mar processes, while australia stressed harmonizing existing processes. china proposed inviting the cpf to coordinate existing processes. on reviewing effectiveness, the us proposed a 2015 review. the eu and switzerland said the review date would depend on the unff mandate and, opposed by the russian federation, objected to strengthening the secretariat and enhancing its mandate. on voluntary contributions to trust funds, the us and the russian federation specified “ the unff ” trust fund. on the cpf, the eu and switzerland suggested emphasizing the importance of the cpf by strengthening its role in facilitating and reporting on implementation of the forum ’ s recommendations. switzerland recommended adding language on ensuring funding for the work of the cpf, for example through the world bank ’ s programme on forests ( profor ) or nfp facility trust fund arrangements. the us, supported by the eu, requested the addition of text calling for the proactive involvement of major groups to advise on implementation, with the latter opposing reference to an advisory group. norway, supported by australia, requested the addition of text calling for the cpf to


by the eu, requested the addition of text calling for the proactive involvement of major groups to advise on implementation, with the latter opposing reference to an advisory group. norway, supported by australia, requested the addition of text calling for the cpf to support regional processes. the us added a paragraph urging countries to give the cpf a mandate to develop joint action plans, and inviting the world bank and fao to establish, and countries to contribute to, a seed fund to support collaborative projects among cpf member organizations. he listed a number of criteria for awarding seed funding, including that : cpf organizations provide matching funds ; projects focus on capacity building and implementation, “ with a smaller proportion on policy issues ; ” and projects benefit three or more countries. iran, supported by saudi arabia, stressed rehabilitation and conservation in lfccs, and proposed inviting the cpf to strengthen the tehran process. the us requested deleting a paragraph on an lbi. the eu, supported by the republic of korea, proposed text identifying an lbi as the best option, recommending that unga establish an intergovernmental negotiating committee to develop a legal framework on all types of forests, and calling upon donor governments and institutions to make voluntary contributions to a trust fund. the g - 77 / china, supported by the us, argentina, costa rica, cuba and guatemala, proposed that unff reconsider the parameters issue in 2015, noting not all g - 77 / china members support the proposal. on a voluntary code, the eu suggested deleting text establishing a code. the us proposed text on a voluntary code on sfm as a statement of commitment to the iaf and to country actions to achieve the iaf ’ s strategic objectives. switzerland proposed a 2007 deadline for developing a code. argentina, supported by cuba and guatemala, suggested additional text recognizing that the lbi option could be considered among other possibilities in a future review of the iaf, with costa rica adding that both the lbi and non - lbi options are still valid. the us said the code should consist of the decision taken at unff - 5, and offered text recognizing that certain paragraphs of the draft unff - 5 decision comprise the substantive elements of a voluntary sfm code. brazil, supported by indonesia and peru, added text expressing concerns about lack of financial resources and technological capacities necessary for implementation, and recognizing the need to highlight the contributions of forests and their economic value to national, regional and international economies. switzerland, supported by guatemala, suggested text promoting the active


, added text expressing concerns about lack of financial resources and technological capacities necessary for implementation, and recognizing the need to highlight the contributions of forests and their economic value to national, regional and international economies. switzerland, supported by guatemala, suggested text promoting the active participation of indigenous people, women and other forest - dependent groups in policy making and implementation. regarding civil society, the eu suggested using standard language from the millennium declaration. on means of implementation, brazil and guatemala proposed language on enhancing country capacity to increase products from sustainably managed forests. brazil preferred “ provide ” instead of “ mobilize ” financial and technical resources. on the declaration and message, canada proposed drawing upon the unff - 5 ministerial declaration in preparing ecosoc ’ s input to unga. on deforestation and forest degradation, the us, chile and china offered a reference to illegal logging while brazil favored “ illegal trade. ” on lack of resources, canada, with iran, australia, and malaysia, proposed reference to lack of “ adequate ” resources. the eu and the us, opposed by the africa group, nigeria, argentina, indonesia and costa rica, suggested removing the paragraph. switzerland added a paragraph on strengthening national forest governance. formal discussions in wgi ended on tuesday, 24 may. on wednesday, 25 may, the wgi discussion was combined with the work of wgii in a contact group. working group ii : on thursday, 19 may, and friday, 20 may, wgii had a general exchange of views on the draft ministerial declaration, global goals and financial aspects. thereafter, they convened in a contact group to negotiate two thematic elements, means of implementation and goals, in the chair ’ s draft decision. general statements : on the ministerial declaration, the eu suggested : conveying the importance of forests in pursuit of the mdgs ; delivering a clear message to the un general assembly millennium summit review ; and including key messages emerging from the ministerial roundtables. the us supported the eu but noted the need to focus on strengthening the future iaf and provide compelling language on why the ministers are taking this action. she also cautioned that the real objective of the declaration is not to tie the contributions of forests only to the mdgs but to social, economic, and environmental goals in general, for greater longevity within the broader international dialogue. switzerland also noted that linking the declaration directly to the mdgs could be misleading, suggested that more weight be given to innovative approaches to providing means of implementation, and advocated explicit mention of strengthening governance at all levels. on global goals,


broader international dialogue. switzerland also noted that linking the declaration directly to the mdgs could be misleading, suggested that more weight be given to innovative approaches to providing means of implementation, and advocated explicit mention of strengthening governance at all levels. on global goals, the us called for a clear statement of purpose that would be understood by others. she favored identifying flexible policies and actions at the national level that would contribute to achieving agreed - upon objectives, rather than setting quantified international targets. the eu called for establishing quantifiable global goals in order to send a clear message on forests, as well as national targets, which should be related to the global goals. he reminded participants that other processes have succeeded in establishing quantified objectives. switzerland preferred that the text include a small number of quantifiable global goals. mexico favored quantifiable global goals associated with clear time frames, with self - defined national targets. new zealand suggested the inclusion of realistic and measurable global goals capable of demonstrating the potential of forests to contribute to the social agenda. canada supported the inclusion of global goals, but called for addressing deforestation separately from the issue of forest degradation. vice - chair gauer adjourned the meeting in order to allow the g - 77 / china more time to consider the chair ’ s draft declaration. canada called for text on measuring degradation and doubling restored forests. switzerland proposed that any goal relating to improving the livelihoods of forest - dependent people should include forest tenure, use and access rights. norway called for goals on means and monitoring, favoring a goal on “ forests under sustainable management ” over “ forest degradation ” and on doubling sfm area by 2015. the us, supported by brazil and the g - 77 / china, favored “ strategic objectives ” over quantitative targets, and the us also called for identifying national policies and targets to achieve global goals. new zealand stated that, while he was not opposed to targets, measuring progress is the primary challenge. the eu proposed text on voluntary national targets. mexico stated that political commitment must be galvanized through measurable commitments linked to mdg attainment, and that discussion should continue on quantitative goals. switzerland, supported by canada, clarified that national commitments would be self - defined and non - binding, while global goals would measure the success of the iaf. the us suggested agreeing on the content of global goals before discussing quantifiability. the eu recommended that the global goals use language from the mdgs. guatemala noted that targets have assisted the development of a central american regional forest strategy


the iaf. the us suggested agreeing on the content of global goals before discussing quantifiability. the eu recommended that the global goals use language from the mdgs. guatemala noted that targets have assisted the development of a central american regional forest strategy. switzerland said funding must be linked to concrete implementation activities, including adoption of a voluntary code. on finance, the us, the eu and switzerland opposed a gff. noting declining international forest assistance, the us called for innovative leveraging of funds, including through a seed fund for cpf collaborative activities, and subsidiary regional meetings on financing specific projects. she noted successes in leveraging funds for environmental services. switzerland noted that oda that indirectly affects forests is increasing. the g - 77 / china stressed strengthening the means of implementation and identifying relevant modalities, with more emphasis on non - south - south oda. the eu, with switzerland, emphasized more effective use of existing resources and funds already allocated for development. switzerland stated that an lbi would facilitate accessing gef funds, and stressed including forests in national development priorities to access more oda and creating effective enabling environments for “ responsible ” private investment. supported by the us, he proposed a unff trust fund within profor or the fao ’ s nfp facility for collaborative activities among cpf members. canada announced an annual 8 % increase in its oda, but noted that increased forest - related oda is limited without an lbi. means of implementation : the eu stated that although the eu contributes 53 % of total oda, little of this is directed towards forests. the g - 77 / china called for increasing means of implementation and oda. mexico proposed a rapprochement, including both a gff for capacity building and implementation and a cpf seed fund. the us noted the catalytic potential of a seed fund for financing regional projects through the cpf. switzerland, supported by canada, supported a seed fund for collaborative activities among cpf members rather than projects, and, supported by the eu and the russian federation but opposed by mexico and the us, opposed using seed funds for projects, noting that project funding would require complex governance and transaction costs. the eu supported using existing structures for financing cpf members ’ activities, and recommended that cpf members join the discussion. switzerland suggested that the seed fund respond to the cpf ’ s needs, while the us countered that member governments also have the ability to direct cpf actions. mexico, supported by norway and the russian federation, expressed concern over using the seed fund for


switzerland suggested that the seed fund respond to the cpf ’ s needs, while the us countered that member governments also have the ability to direct cpf actions. mexico, supported by norway and the russian federation, expressed concern over using the seed fund for cpf administration. canada stressed the need to identify the unique functions the proposed fund would fulfill, and suggested this may include cross - sectoral work. the us called for further work on how to fund broader regional projects without high transaction costs, and supported mexico ’ s call for ex post evaluation. finland stated that nfp facility entry points are established by host countries and that profor reinforces forest - specific work through lending that targets specific thematic areas. the us requested gef funding “ for sfm. ” the russian federation warned that establishing a new gef operational programme on forests is premature, and asked for figures on present gef forest funding. mexico, with norway, reiterated that gef funding is only for binding treaties and, with the eu, warned against diverting resources from other issues to forests. the eu called for “ inviting the gef council within its mandate to consider how to further increase resources on forests. ” the us stated that the capacity for new and additional funding is limited, but that directing more of fao ’ s budget toward forests would be desirable. canada concurred, but suggested that recent agreements, such as the monterrey consensus and the mdgs, may signal greater availability of funds. the us suggested that regional meetings could be effective in advancing south - south cooperation, and called for forests to be part of cross - sectoral strategies and poverty reduction strategy papers ( prsps ). the eu proposed text on, inter alia, integrating financing of nfps into prsps. mexico, supported by norway and the us, stressed the importance of maintaining private sector investment. on means of implementation, the us proposed securing high - level political support and proposed deleting reference to including a holistic approach to local and traditional technologies. she also supported the eu ’ s proposal on insisting that capacity building be directed at sfm and not forests in general. the us reiterated her desire to delete text that would limit the call for political commitment to developed countries, suggesting that this excludes many activities and undermines solidarity. the africa group and indonesia favored changing the text to “ in particular developed countries. ” the eu suggested that the emphasis on developed countries could appear as a sub - point. argentina proposed urging countries to improve means of implementation “ in particular to support developing countries


the africa group and indonesia favored changing the text to “ in particular developed countries. ” the eu suggested that the emphasis on developed countries could appear as a sub - point. argentina proposed urging countries to improve means of implementation “ in particular to support developing countries, ” while the africa group and indonesia preferred urging “ all countries, in particular developed countries. ” on integrating nfps into national sustainable development strategies, the us proposed incorporating them into “ economic development strategies, ” while canada preferred “ national planning strategies, ” including poverty reduction strategies, “ where appropriate. ” on voluntary contributions to achieve iaf objectives, the us proposed “ urging, ” and the eu suggested “ inviting ” countries to contribute. switzerland proposed deleting a paragraph on creating a gff, while the g - 77 / china suggested basing it on new and additional financial “ resources on a voluntary basis ” rather than “ commitments. ” the eu proposed language on, inter alia, fostering partnerships between rural communities and the private sector and removing tenure restrictions that limit community access to assets and markets. mexico, norway and canada questioned the need for a reference to tenure reform. on partnerships, the us requested the addition of “ ngos. ” on a proposed new gef operational programme on forests, the g - 77 / china stated that such a fund should not prejudice other gef operational programmes. the us proposed alternative wording to “ respect the gef ’ s mandate. ” the eu proposed paragraphs emphasizing the importance of nfp activities. on promoting international cooperation, the g - 77 / china proposed moving language on “ reversing the decline in oda ” for forest - related activities to the top of a list of actions for integrating nfps into national strategies, and adding “ triangular cooperation ” to language on south - south cooperation. on creating an enabling environment for the private sector, the us added “ for sfm. ” the eu specified “ for responsible national and international private sector investment ” and, opposed by the us, mexico and australia, proposed “ fully respecting the rights to land and resources by indigenous people and other forest - dependent people. ” norway proposed text on creating an enabling environment for involving communities and forest users in sfm. the g - 77 / china proposed inviting international and regional financial and development institutions to channel additional resources to developing countries to finance sfm, and enhancing the capacity of countries to significantly increase the production of forest products from sustainably managed resources. on generating revenue through payments for forest environmental services, canada added that this should apply to forests that


channel additional resources to developing countries to finance sfm, and enhancing the capacity of countries to significantly increase the production of forest products from sustainably managed resources. on generating revenue through payments for forest environmental services, canada added that this should apply to forests that are “ sustainably managed. ” the us proposed deleting language on protection and use of traditional knowledge and inserting text on promoting improved forest practices through strengthening sfm standards and utilizing the unff regional processes as a venue for : presenting country experiences in nfp implementation ; inviting the cpf and bilateral donors to examine opportunities for funding projects and programmes ; and examining patterns in implementation experiences, including gaps, opportunities, and needs. switzerland proposed funding cpf work, for example, through creation of profor or nfp facility windows. indonesia suggested a reference to increasing the iaf ’ s effectiveness. venezuela suggested text on taking into account national and regional differences. the us proposed emphasizing a strengthened iaf, and the eu suggested adding reference to nfps. after the africa group questioned the need to include developed countries ’ involvement in prsps, the us suggested that donors are an important component of prsps. argentina stressed the need to address social as well as economic development. canada proposed the inclusion of prsps “ where appropriate. ” indonesia, opposed by the eu, expressed concern about linking oda to nfps. argentina proposed the addition of “ providing new and additional financial resources for sfm needs in developing countries. ” on reversing forest - related oda decline, cambodia specified this could be done “ through local government and other means. ” the us noted some oda is not declining and advocated increasing oda specifically for forests. with the eu and canada, she favored preambular over operational language on oda. on increasing voluntary contributions, the us, opposed by mexico and the eu, specified “ to the unff - bis trust fund. ” indonesia, supported by the africa group and the us, suggested inviting “ donor ” countries and “ other countries in a position to do so. ” on making effective use of existing resources, cuba called for urging “ developed countries to fulfill their commitments already agreed on oda, ” and for a separate paragraph on a gff. australia supported reference to more effective use of existing resources. mexico preferred “ existing and new ” resources and, with the africa group, favored reference to “ public ” resources only. regarding land tenure, the eu proposed “ reviewing ” instead of “ removing ” tenure restrictions, and canada proposed “ securing long


resources. mexico preferred “ existing and new ” resources and, with the africa group, favored reference to “ public ” resources only. regarding land tenure, the eu proposed “ reviewing ” instead of “ removing ” tenure restrictions, and canada proposed “ securing long - term tenure rights and removing regulatory restrictions. ” the us suggested moving the language on long - term tenure rights to a later paragraph on enabling environments. switzerland proposed moving this language to later paragraphs on securing sustainable financing. on creating a trust fund for forests, switzerland, the us and norway favored combining ideas for finance using new structures at the global level, specifically through the fao ’ s nfp facility, to support national actions to implement sfm, and profor, to fund collaborative work among cpf members at the global and regional levels. on the gef, the africa group opposed a proposal by the us, switzerland and australia to “ invite the gef council to explore ways to give greater consideration to sfm within the relevant gef operational programmes, including by utilizing the full range of forest - related international organizations. ” canada proposed inserting text on “ involvement of and investment by local ” communities and forest users in sfm to create an enabling environment. india and venezuela opposed a sub - paragraph on developing innovative mechanisms for generating revenue through payments for forest environmental services. the eu suggested taking into account national conditions. mexico and switzerland opposed a suggestion by canada to include reference to poor communities. the africa group opposed switzerland ’ s suggestion for “ further ” developing rather than developing “ innovative ” mechanisms. the us noted that revenue should be generated from users of forest environmental services, with payment to those who maintain them. mexico and the us opposed a suggestion by the africa group and canada on developing mechanisms “ on the national, regional, inter - regional and international levels. ” the discussion was halted pending consultation within the africa group. the us, opposed by cuba, suggested increasing the “ request for ” oda for forest - related activities. the eu pointed out that oda is allocated based on national priorities, not the forest sector, and, opposed by the africa group and indonesia, proposed “ maximizing the share of increasing oda flows going to forest - related activities. ” delegates agreed on text referring to the global decline in oda for forest - related activities, but continued to deliberate on developed countries fulfilling their oda commitments to developing countries. canada, supported by the us and opposed by the africa group, stated that the two ideas should be considered separately. cuba stressed the importance of fulfilling current commitments,


activities, but continued to deliberate on developed countries fulfilling their oda commitments to developing countries. canada, supported by the us and opposed by the africa group, stated that the two ideas should be considered separately. cuba stressed the importance of fulfilling current commitments, while brazil, the africa group and cuba suggested considering the reversal of oda decline as a strategic objective. the eu, opposed by the africa group, proposed deleting reference to new and additional resources for sfm. the us proposed “ providing, ” and brazil added “ significant, ” resources. both were added, and the us specified “ from all sources. ” on making sfm a higher priority, delegates agreed to an earlier proposal by the us and canada, as modified by the africa group, switzerland, and australia, respectively, to do this through “ inter alia, ” integrating forests into national planning strategies “ or other forest strategies, ” including poverty reduction strategies where “ they exist. ” on proposed alternative paragraphs regarding sources of funds, mexico noted that funding is needed for global goals besides sfm. the eu and us proposed deleting mexico ’ s proposal to create a gff within the unff trust fund, and favored establishing : a seed fund within the unff trust fund ; an sfm implementation fund through fao ’ s nfp facility ; and a profor - based fund to facilitate collaboration among cpf members. goals : on the chapeau to the goals, brazil, supported by colombia, india, argentina and nigeria, proposed that “ demonstrable progress ” be made by 2015. switzerland, opposed by brazil, preferred “ no later than 2020. ” the us offered a compromise to specify “ preferably by 2015, but no later than 2020. ” the eu asked whether demonstrable progress on “ efforts ” or “ achieving ” the goals should be shown by the deadline. switzerland proposed that “ all possible efforts should be made to achieve the shared global goals by 2015, with demonstrable progress to be made by 2011. ” switzerland, with mexico, norway, and costa rica, argued that linking the forest goals review with the 2012 commission on sustainable development ( csd ) review would help decrease reporting burdens. the us, supported by colombia and argentina, opposed linking a forest review to that of the csd, preferring a separate review on forests in the same year. cuba concurred with a separate review, but suggested it take place in 2015. ” cuba supported a review in 2015 that is separate from the csd review. nigeria stressed that