it ' s been said often enough that hindus celebrate everything. so they do. the birth of gods, death of asuras, victory of the gods, marriage of the gods, the new year, new months, full moons, new moons, harvests, birthdays, initiations, marriages, deaths, anniversaries - you name the event, and it is reason for music, dance, processions, and what have you. and there is the religious bit lurking behind it all. the reasons for this lie deep, in the origin of hinduism as an organic religion. its followers have over time considered anything, animate or inanimate, to be sacred and aspects of divinity. that is also why even secular events like harvests take on religious overtones, with the patron deity presiding over the festivities. as soon as something happens, there is a kind of thanksgiving to the divine that follows it. apart from the universally celebrated festivals like dussehra, diwali and ganesh chaturthi, there are others that are observed in specific communities or geographical areas. hindu holidays are also confined to particular regions by the importance a certain god enjoys. worship of kartikeya ( as during the festival of skanda shashti ) is predominant in tamil nadu, where the god is considered a patron of the region. onam is a good example of a festival that is celebrated solely by keralites. another interesting aspect of onam is that it is perhaps the only major hindu festival that celebrates the reign of an asura king, although a benevolent one. the profusion of legends and the contradictions inherent in them is reflected in festivals too. travel around the country, and you will hear people tell you a variety of legends involving different gods behind a single festival. besides, you will also find versions of the same festival being celebrated under different names in different regions. all this adds that facet of unending novelty and constant change to the strikingly colorful kaleidoscope that is india. you might end up thinking the thought : " the more things change, the more they remain the same ", which is something often said about india and its magical agelessness. with so many holy days and more than 20 major hindu festivals, the calendar should be liberally sprinkled with them. but it isn ' t so. there is a distinct festival season, which runs from late august through december. this is when there is a fever of celebrations, with a string of important festivals following one another in a rush.


##rinkled with them. but it isn ' t so. there is a distinct festival season, which runs from late august through december. this is when there is a fever of celebrations, with a string of important festivals following one another in a rush. but the major festivals are not the only ones that the people celebrate. browse through the hindu almanac, and you will find a mention of holiness or sacredness against almost every day of the year. most of the lesser festivals are lesser because they have a private rather than public face. there are rituals for phases of the moon, solar and lunar eclipses, days of the week, a person ' s auspicious star or zodiac sign. | 11 | | thursday | | bikrami samvat ( hindu new year ) | | 13 | | monday | | akshaya tritiya / akha teej | | 21 | | wednesday | | rakhi / raksha bandhan | | 28 | | wednesday | | sri krishna janmashtami | | 11 | | friday | | durga puja begins | | 06 | | wednesday | | chhath puja begins ( nahai khai ) | | 08 | | friday | | chhath puja ends ( suryodaya argh ) |


every black person apprehended for robbing stores in a flash mob should have their court hearing not in front of a judge but facing the 30 - foot statute of dr. martin luther king, jr. at his washington memorial site. each thief should be asked, “ what do you think dr. king would say to you right now? ” i was not angry when i initially saw the news footage of young blacks robbing convenience stores across america ; i was brought to tears. in fact, as we approach the dedication of dr. king ’ s memorial we may all need to take a closer look at his chiseled stone face for the presence of tears. tears like the one shed by native american actor chief iron eyes cody in the 1970s public service announcement about pollution. the historic psa shows the native american shedding a tear after surveying the pollution in an america that previously had none. it ended with the tagline, " people start pollution. people can stop it. " if dr. king were alive today he might proclaim, perhaps with tears, that “ people start flash mobs. people can stop them. ” the martin luther king, jr. national memorial dr. king ’ s dream has been realized by many african americans who have been able to take full advantage of the opportunities made available through his martyr ’ s quest for justice. would dr. king ever have imagined that 40 years after his “ i have a dream ” speech that a black family would be in the white house, not as maintenance or kitchen staff, but as the first family? yet, years after the civil - rights struggle affirmed black dignity, we have young black people ransacking stores in groups. every time a flash mob loots, it is robbing dr. king of his dream. all over america, from philadelphia to chicago, from washington to detroit, young people who could be contributing to common good are trading in their dignity for the adrenaline rush of stealing from others. " we will not tolerate such reprehensible behavior here, " said district of columbia mayor vincent c. gray in a statement responding to recent mob thefts there. " some news coverage of this incident has reported residents questioning whether the robbery could have been morally justified, " he added. " actually, both morality and the law are quite clear : it is wrong to steal from others. and if people do not obey the law, they will be apprehended, arrested and prosecuted. " what gray highlights is a troubling regression of public virtue and civil rights.


are quite clear : it is wrong to steal from others. and if people do not obey the law, they will be apprehended, arrested and prosecuted. " what gray highlights is a troubling regression of public virtue and civil rights. dr. king ’ s dream was one that harmonized morality and law. however, king ’ s dream will never be realized in america as long as this country continues with the mythology that freedom does not require personal integrity and character. proponents of dubious sociological and psychological theories allege that these flash mobs loot stores because minority young people feel disenfranchised and marginalized from mainstream society. what king taught us is that political and social frustration does not justify breaking the law. perhaps if these disenfranchised youth where familiar at all with life under jim crow, or cared about the legacy of civil - rights heroes like thurgood marshall, rosa parks, rep. john lewis, andrew young, and others, they could tap into the imagination of an heroic generation, formed by the virtues of religion, who pursued public justice by pursuing public virtue. an ailing american culture is responsible for this spectacle. in a society that does not value forming young people in the way of prudence, justice, courage, self - control, and the like, why should we be surprised that convenience stores are being robbed by youthful mobs? in a society that does not value private property and fosters a spirit of envy and class warfare through wealth redistribution, why should we be surprised that young people don ’ t value someone else ’ s property? radical individualism and moral relativism define the ethics of our era and criminal flash mobs expose our progressive failure. as we celebrate king ’ s memorial, we must lament the fact that america ’ s abandonment of virtue is destroying the lives of young black people and undermining the legal and economic catalysts that could end our recession for good. in solidarity with mayor gray, i stand in front of the king statue, called “ the stone of hope, ” with a new dream : that a resurgence of virtue would give rise to a generation of moral and law - abiding citizens. in this way will young blacks truly experience the dreams of king and others who died for justice.


new lab mice cut search for genetic links to disease by more than a decade thursday, april 5, 2012 tau breeds population of lab mice with genetic diversity closer to humans with a 95 percent genomic similarity to humans, mice have long been used to learn about the genetic causes of human disease. once researchers can shine a light on the genetic factors that cause disease in mice, they can start to develop prevention and treatment options to protect the human population. but this process, called genetic mapping, is a long and difficult road, made more challenging by the 5 % difference between the humans and lab mice. now prof. fuad iraqi of tel aviv university ' s sackler faculty of medicine is closing the gap with an international project called collaborative cross. the project is developing lab mice with increased genetic diversity, making them more advantageous for genetic research related to human health. the new population will offer 1, 000 genetic strains within a fixed genotype — the composite of the entire genetic makeup of an organism. this is a marked improvement on the previously existing 450 genetic strains of lab mice with varying genotypes, making prof. iraqi ’ s new strain ideal for genetic mapping. and with these mice, researchers will be able to identify a gene associated with a particular disease within two to three years instead of the 10 to 15 years it takes now, says prof. iraqi. the research has been published in the journals nature, nature genetics, and genome research, and receives its primary funding from the wellcome trust in the uk. the project itself is a collaboration among tel aviv university, oxford university in the uk, north carolina state university in the us, and perth university in australia. expanding the family tree genetic determinants play an important role in a variety of conditions from diabetes and obesity to different types of cancers. for example, mutated forms of the genes brca1 and brca2, which can be genetically inherited, are associated with higher rates of breast and ovarian cancers. this kind of genetic diversity in humans influences diseases and helps researchers track their genetic causes. according to prof. iraqi, the fact that humans have many genetic variances for the same gene means that they are “ outbred ” among individuals from different families. to best identify the genes that cause a disease, scientists require a test population with these same variances. but standard strains of lab mice are inbred. their genetic similarities make it difficult to identify the connection between particular traits and the specific genes responsible. the collaborative cross project answers this deficiency in lab mice by increasing


test population with these same variances. but standard strains of lab mice are inbred. their genetic similarities make it difficult to identify the connection between particular traits and the specific genes responsible. the collaborative cross project answers this deficiency in lab mice by increasing genetic variation as much as possible — a powerful and unique resource for research. in order to develop a genetically enriched population of lab mice, the researchers took five classic inbred strains of mice and mixed them with three wild - derived strains, mating brothers and sisters for generations in order to reshuffle the genetic deck but keep the genotype consistent. with an increased range of traits, including differences in appearance such as fur color and tail length, this new mouse population more closely mimics the genetic diversity of humans, says prof. iraqi. building a better mouse the various genetic strains are housed within participating universities across the world, notes prof. iraqi, and are already available for order by researchers. within tel aviv university ' s laboratories, there are currently genetic mapping projects for a variety of diseases, including diabetes, various types of cancers, dental infections, bacterial infections, and fungal infections — all making use of these genetically enriched mice. prof. iraqi has already used the new mouse population to identify a group of genes that are crucial to susceptibility to infection when exposed to aspergillus fumigatus, a soil fungus that causes respiratory infections in humans. getting to this point took only a year — compared to the 15 years it might have taken using standard lab mice, he calculates. for more genetics research news from tel aviv university, click here.


the materials on this site are organized by topic. use the menu on the left to browse for materials related to the listed topics. you ' ll find the most recent materials at the top of each list. the educational materials listed here have been through a thorough review process and are available in hard copy from the distribution center unless marked otherwise. most are free in pdf format. some are for sale only. click here for cost materials. latest ndsu extension publications the goal of this publication is to help adapt the teaching environment for those with low vision. biennial wormwood is an aggressive and prolific seed - producing plant that has become a problem mainly in soybean and dry edible bean production areas of minnesota, north dakota and south dakota. biennial wormwood, as its name infers, was primarily biennial when the species fi rst was classified, but weedy cropland biotypes of biennial wormwood are annual plants. many factors, such as season - long emergence, prevalence in moist environments, adaptation to all tillage systems, tolerance to commonly used soil - applied and postemergence herbicides, and misidentification of biennial wormwood as common ragweed, contribute to increased biennial wormwood infestations. some herbicides used to control common ragweed do not control biennial wormwood. using a story board format, " healthy skin : the movie " takes teens and preteens through some lessons about skin care, including good nutrition and sun protection. the buckwheat production publication provides background information on how to grow buckwheat in north dakota, from land selection, fertilizer management, variety selection, seeding, weed management to harvesting and marketing the crop. imagine shopping for foods without the ability to compare prices, visually check produce for freshness, or even safely travel to and from the grocery store. envision coming home with groceries but not being able to see inside the refrigerator or pantry clearly enough to store the foods. then think about the challenge of preparing a meal with low vision, from finding a food in the pantry to setting the oven timer. suddenly cooking seems like quite a daunting task!


this land - locked mountainous country is gaining a reputation as an ecotourist destination. its many rivers criss - crossing the country and unspoilt national parks are ideal for activities such as trekking, kayaking and caving. the capital, vientiane, and the other major towns have been spared major modern developments with traditional and colonial architecture still dominant. laos is one of the few communist countries left in the world. until 1988, tourists were not allowed access to laos, but now it is perfectly feasible to travel all over the country, preferably with a recognised tour company, although plenty of backpackers do it independently. the number of tourists is expected to continue increasing over the next few years as more and more people discover the delights of this laid - back country of mountains and rivers. unspoilt and undeveloped for now, laos remains relatively isolated and undeveloped. its capital, vientiane, is more like a big village than a crowded asian hub and life throughout the country is slow paced. most people come to laos and make a brief tour of vientiane and unesco world heritage - listed luang prabang with perhaps a brief detour to the mysterious plain of jars. but those who make the effort to explore further afield will be well rewarded with luscious landscapes, friendly people and unique glimpses of a country hardly changed for over a century. history of laos laos traces its history to the kingdom of lan xang, founded in the 15th century by fa ngum, himself descended from a long line of lao kings, tracking back to khoun boulom. lan - xang prospered until the 18th century, when the kingdom was divided into three principalities, which eventually came under siamese suzerainty. in the 19th century, luang prabang was incorporated into the ' protectorate ' of french indochina, and shortly thereafter, the kingdom of champasak and the territory of vientiane were also added to the protectorate. under the french, vientiane once again became the capital of a unified lao state. following a brief japanese occupation during world war ii, the country declared its independence in 1945, but the french under charles de gaul reasserted their control and only in 1950 was laos granted semiautonomy as an " associated state " within the french union. moreover, the french remained in de facto control until 1954, when laos gained full independence as a constitutional monarchy. under a special exemption to the geneva convention, a french military training mission continued to support


as an " associated state " within the french union. moreover, the french remained in de facto control until 1954, when laos gained full independence as a constitutional monarchy. under a special exemption to the geneva convention, a french military training mission continued to support the royal laos army. in 1955, the u. s. department of defense created a special programs evaluation office to replace french support of the royal lao army against the communist pathet lao as part of the u. s. containment policy. laos was dragged into the vietnam war and the eastern parts of the country were invaded and occupied by the north vietnamese army ( nva ), which used laotian territory as a staging ground and supply route for its war against the south. in response, the united states initiated a bombing campaign against the north vietnamese, supported regular and irregular anticommunist forces in laos and supported a south vietnamese invasion of laos. the result of these actions were a series of coups d ' etat and, ultimately, the laotian civil war between the royal laotian government and the communist pathet lao. in the civil war the nva, with its heavy artillery and tanks, was the real power behind the pathet lao insurgency. in 1968, the north vietnamese army launched a multi - division attack against the royal lao army. the attack resulted in the army largely demobilizing and leaving the conflict to irregular forces raised by the united states and thailand. the attack resulted in many people losing their lives. massive aerial bombardment was carried out by the united states ( the guardian reported, on wednesday 3rd december, 2008, that laos was hit by an average of one b - 52 bomb - load every eight minutes, 24 hours a day, between 1964 and 1973. us bombers dropped more ordnance on laos in this period than was dropped during the whole of the second world war. of the 260m " bombies " that rained down, particularly on xieng khouang province, 80m failed to explode, leaving a deadly legacy. pha that luang in vientiane, the national symbol of laosin 1975, the communist pathet lao, backed by the soviet union and the north vietnamese army, overthrew the royalist government, forcing king savang vatthana to abdicate on 2 december 1975. he later died in captivity. after taking control of the country, pathet lao ' s government renamed the country as the " lao people ' s democratic republic " and signed agreements giving vietnam the right to station armed forces and to appoint advisers to assist in overseeing the country


in captivity. after taking control of the country, pathet lao ' s government renamed the country as the " lao people ' s democratic republic " and signed agreements giving vietnam the right to station armed forces and to appoint advisers to assist in overseeing the country. laos was ordered in the late 1970s by vietnam to end relations with the people ' s republic of china which cut the country off from trade with any country but vietnam. control by vietnam and socialisation were slowly replaced by a relaxation of economic restrictions in the 1980s and admission into asean in 1997 there are hospitals in the major cities. however only vientiane has proper equipment. in spite of this, foreigners travelling in laos usually cross over to thailand to get treatment. it is advisable bring along a curative treatment against malaria which is present in certain regions. if you are going on a trek, it can be useful to get an anti - rabies shot before leaving. indeed, on the one hand the numerous dogs there often have contact with wild animals and, on the other, you can find regular treatment only in vientiane ( and in limited quantities ). * the time difference between france and laos is generally 5 hours. * electric power is at 220 volts. plugs are flat or round with two prongs ( possibility of finding adapters in the morning market at vientiane ). * some rules on laotian manners : - the head is a sacred part of the body. you should never touch someone else ’ s head, not even children ’ s. - it is rude to point something out with your foot. that is why laotians sit with their feet behind them, especially in temples. - monks are shown great respect. women are not allowed to touch them, or to hand them something directly ( you can put it in front of them ). - laotians are very sensitive as to how you dress. it is customary to wear decent and clean clothes. entry to temples in particular is subject to certain rules. for example, entry to temples can be denied to women that are not wearing a long skirt. - if you are going on a trek, it is customary to introduce yourself to the village head to explain the reason for your visit. on this occasion the custom requires that you make a small gift ( cigarettes, for example ). place to visit in 1563 king setthathirat made the riverside city of vientiane the capital of laos. in those days it was a small, fortified city on the banks of the mekong with a


( cigarettes, for example ). place to visit in 1563 king setthathirat made the riverside city of vientiane the capital of laos. in those days it was a small, fortified city on the banks of the mekong with a palace and two wats, that luang and wat phra kaeo. the city became prosperous from the surrounding fertile plains and taxes levied on trade going upriver. today, vientiane is a spacious and charming city. it is south - east asia ' s smallest capital and has only about 500, 000 citizens - which makes it the most tranquil and laid - back capital of asia. it lacks the usual hustle and bustle and amazes the traveler with its serene temples and gracious colonial villas. countless temples and pagodas with important thai and khmer shrines and relics are a mirror of the countries chequered past. there are numerous good restaurants and excellent shopping opportunities for lao handicrafts at the morning market and a variety of specialist shops. the ancient capital of laos, luang prabang, is a city of golden temple spires, faded french colonial architecture and diverse hill tribes. situated on the mekong river, the city is nestled in a stunning river valley surrounded by dramatic mountains. luang prabang was recognized as a unesco world heritage site in 1995 because of its well - preserved remnants of the ancient lane xang kingdom, many of which date from the 13th to the 15th centuries. however, it is the peaceful charm and relaxed atmosphere of the town, with its thriving hill tribe population, which never fails to enchant. luang prabang ' s surroundings have much to offer as well ; excursions include the pak ou caves, reached via a pleasant boat trip up the mekong river. these ancient caves contain thousands of buddha images. other interesting excursions include visits to ban phanom, a nearby weaving village, and the kuang si waterfalls. one of the last mysteries of asia lies here, in the form of over 300 giant stone jars, apparently carved out of solid rock and scattered around a nearby plateau, aptly named the " plain of jars. " the jars vary in size from 1 to 3. 25 meters high and weigh up to six tons each. there are several different theories as to the purpose of the jars, which are estimated to be 2, 500 to 3, 000 years old. local legend relates that king khoon chuong and his troops from south china had a huge party after their victory over the


different theories as to the purpose of the jars, which are estimated to be 2, 500 to 3, 000 years old. local legend relates that king khoon chuong and his troops from south china had a huge party after their victory over the wicked chao angka and had the jars made to brew enormous quantities of lao rice whisky ( lau - lao ). a trip to this area is still worthwhile and is enhanced by visits to the local ethnic minority villages of the hmong. a trip to the tham piew caves and the hot springs nearby are worth an extra day. pakse and the south pakse is synonymous with wat phou just as siem reap is with angkor in cambodia. the founder of the first khmer empire, jayavarman ii, who built angkor, also built wat phou. it is much smaller than angkor, but about 30 years older and at times was the khmer capital. after angkor, wat phou is one of the cultural highlights of laos and south - east asia. pakse is a busy commercial town built by the french early this century as an administrative center for the south. the many colonial buildings lend an air of old world charm. excursions from pakse include the bolaven plateau, with its many ethnic minorities and coffee plantations. in addition, four thousand islands on the cambodian border area can also be reached from pakse. the mekong river at this point is about 8. 5 miles wide and encompasses about 4, 000 islands during the dry season and about half of that during the rainy season. this unique landscape forms one of the most impressive sights of this region. one of the highlights is south - east asia ' s largest waterfall, khon phapheng.


| plot summary of little women | | " little women is the story of four young girls meg, jo, beth and amy who grow into being young women during the civil war. the girls are especially self sufficent for the times on their own with their mother. the novel focuses on their growing up and the loss of innocence at the death of beth. jo rejects the next door neighbor as a husband and he becomes amy ' s husband. " daniela lo presti, resident scholar | " the four march sisters, meg, jo, beth, and amy, struggle against poverty with their marmee while their father is away serving as a doctor during the civil war. the story charts the childhood games, whims, and lessons of four young girls becoming young women. jo faces many obstacles familiar to all of us - - saying goodbye to her sister meg when she gets married, saying goodbye to her sister beth, who dies young, and striving to become something great in the world - - a famous writer. " megan e. davis, resident scholar | " little men is the follow - up to louisa may alcott ' s book, little women. at the end of little women, jo march inherits her aunt march ' s estate, plumfield. with the help her husband, a german professor, she turns the building into a school. the school has both rich pupils whose parents pay tuition, and pupils taken in a charity cases. of course, all are treated with the same respect. some of the main characters include the sensitive nat, tough dan, saintly daisy, wise demi, and beautiful bess. fans of little women will enjoy learning about the children of some that books characters : daisy and demi are meg ' s children, and bess is amy and laurie ' s daughter. there is no overriding conflict besides trying to keep the boys in some kind of order and to educate them. katy pape, resident scholar | " little women is the story of four march sisters, jo, beth, meg and amy who struggle against poverty with their marmee and grow into reponsible young women, while their father is away working as a doctor during the civil war. the girls show their self sufficience during this period with their mother. this story charts the childhood games, whims and lessons of the four young girls into becoming young women. jo faces many challenges from bidding her sister meg bye when she gets married, saying a painfull bye to her sister beth who dies young and stri


charts the childhood games, whims and lessons of the four young girls into becoming young women. jo faces many challenges from bidding her sister meg bye when she gets married, saying a painfull bye to her sister beth who dies young and striving to become someone great who is a famous writer. " teddy mogaka, resident scholar | " four sisters - meg, jo, beth and amy - grow up living in poverty, but their family is far more tightly knit and loving than most. the book explores the sisters ' relationship with their mother ( marmee ), their home - from - the - war father, each other, and friends and acquaintances who are much wealthier than they. alcott explores the chasm between rich and poor of the era through the friendship of the alcott ' s next - door neighbor, laurie, a boy about jo ' s age who becomes her best friend and the means through which two of her sisters find love. " cindy dashnaw, resident scholar | review analysis of little women | our unique search engine provides a wealth of detail about books by breaking them down into many different literary elements, all of which are searchable ( click here ). ratings are on a 1 - 10 scale ( low to high ) tone of book? - very sensitive ( sigh ) time / era of story - 19th century family, loving relations special relationship with is this an adult or child ' s book? - adult or young adult book group of women story? - a teen is this an ordinary person caught up in events? - white ( american ) how sensitive is this character? - sensitive to others ' feelings sense of humor - strong but gentle sense of humor - average intelligence - average physique how much descriptions of surroundings? - 4 ( ) small town people : - nice, like andy / opie / aunt bee - mostly 3rd accounts of torture and death? - generic / vague references to death / punishment - no single main character? amount of dialog - roughly even amounts of descript and dialog - significantly more descript than dialog


- historic sites the paper trust april 1971 | volume 22, issue 3 to begin with, the presidential libraries do not look like what they are. each one is, in fact, a miniature office of public records. and scholars who frequent such offices know that they are found in capital cities, in buildings that are heavy, ornamented, slowly discoloring monuments to bureaucrats dead and gone. the national archives of the united states — america ’ s public records — are, to give one example, housed in an oversized greek temple near the intersection of constitution and pennsylvania avenues in washington, d. c. but the six libraries for presidential papers, which are administered by the national archives and records service ( nars ) of the general services administration, are something else. the herbert hoover library modestly hugs the flat ground of west branch, iowa, calculatedly as unpretentious as hoover ’ s nearby birthplace or the well - preserved blacksmith shop of his father, where he learned by observation the value of hard work and austerity. franklin d. roosevelt ’ s is in a building that blends neatly into the surroundings of a hudson river gentleman ’ s estate at hyde park, new york. harry s. truman ’ s spreads itself on a grassy knoll not far from an expressway in independence, missouri, once the gateway to the limitless west, now a suburb of kansas city. a tendency toward expansion becomes visible in abilene, kansas. there, in the eisenhower center, a library of kansas limestone and imported marble faces a museum across an open court, flanked by a place of meditation ( the word chapel being carefully avoided ) and a set of monumental pylons presented by the kansas daughters of the american revolution and the soroptomist clubs of kansas. on the campus of the university of texas at austin a rectangular, flat - capped tower of pinkish travertine rises from what landscaping will turn into a spacious plaza. to be opened in may, 1971, it will contain the lyndon b. johnson library ; an adjoining, lower structure will house the lyndon b. johnson school of public affairs. both are the architectural creation of skidmore, owings & merrill, the firm that has designed many of the steel - and - glass temples of industry on new york ’ s park avenue. fiscal and other uncertainties have delayed the construction of the john f. kennedy library, but eventually an oval - shaped cluster of buildings and malls in cambridge, massachusetts, will contain the library itself, the harvard - affiliated kennedy school of government


park avenue. fiscal and other uncertainties have delayed the construction of the john f. kennedy library, but eventually an oval - shaped cluster of buildings and malls in cambridge, massachusetts, will contain the library itself, the harvard - affiliated kennedy school of government, and possibly a third “ related facilities ” building. the new presidential libraries raise a question : can the documentary grain be separated from the documentary chaff? these are a long way from the attics in which presidents of a simpler day stored their papers ; the contents of these libraries, too, are of a magnitude and complexity that stretch the imagination. first of all, there are the actual papers of the executive office — row on row, shelf after shelf, of the memoranda, letters, reports, studies, schedules, briefs, minutes, tables, abstracts, lists, projections, drafts, forms, authorizations, and all the infinite variety of documents through which executive power somewhat soggily asserts itself. next, there are the truly personal papers — the records of the human beings who briefly occupied the white house and of many members of their administrations. these comprise an incredible miscellany of mail, including thousands of letters from ordinary citizens who reach out to touch the majesty of office in revealing notes that beg, cajole, flatter, and often obscenely condemn the president. in addition there are clippings, photographs, tape recordings, reprints, motion - picture films, sketches, and such minor social records as greetings, invitations, acknowledgments, and farewells. finally, there is a third category of material, housed in the museum that is part of each presidential library - the objects accumulated by a president in office : paintings of ( and sometimes by ) the chief executive, statuettes, stamps, ship models, miniature weapons and vehicles, fishing tackle, stuffed animals, dishes, silverware, mugs and goblets, clothing for the first lady, toys for the first children, souvenirs of historic occasions, books, cartoons, prints and musical scores autographed by their creators, rugs, tapestries, plaques — the gifts of ordinary citizens and heads of state alike to the representative of the american people. these unscholarly items have, in some cases, achieved a kind of immortality in their own right — the collar of roosevelt ’ s famous scottie, fala ; the sign on truman ’ s desk, t he b uck s tops h ere ; john kennedy ’ s rocking chair. they arc the


kind of immortality in their own right — the collar of roosevelt ’ s famous scottie, fala ; the sign on truman ’ s desk, t he b uck s tops h ere ; john kennedy ’ s rocking chair. they arc the items that, when displayed, bring in the tourists by thousands. while the historians, sitting shirt - sleeved in the research rooms and peering quizzically at the documents, may take little interest in the public thronging through the museum displays, the directors of the libraries do not scorn the sightseers. they reason that among the crowds of children in snoopy t - shirts, sears jeans, and keds sneakers, smelling of howard johnson ’ s peppermint gum and good and plenty licorice, peering at the cases through rexall sunglasses, there may be future morisons and schlesingers. ( the tourists and the researchers do not see each other, but in the johnson library the sightseers will be able to see what the archivists are working on. the architect has made the stacks visible from the museum through a glass wall and has decreed that the papers be kept in eye - catching scarlet boxes. ) the libraries are the creations of an unusual collaboration. each has been built by private subscription among the friends of a president ( except for the johnson library, which texas will pay for and own as part of its state university campus ). the president so honored, on his retirement, deposits his papers in the library, and both building and contents become a gift to the people of the united states. the federal government then puts archivists to work in the role of whitecollar monks, guarding the precious manuscripts against the ravages of time, weather, chance, and desperate men. with each succeeding presidency the sheer volume of material has increased. it is estimated that george washington wrote perhaps twenty - five thousand letters all told. by franklin roosevelt ’ s time the president ’ s own letters, plus the other documents he had collected during his public life, were measured in the linear feet of space they occupied when boxed and shelved. the total was nearly 2, 500 feet — almost half a mile of such records. the roosevelt library did not confine itself simply to preserving the papers taken from the white house after roosevelt ’ s death. like the presidential libraries that followed, it sought and accepted the manuscripts of the president ’ s coworkers and associates throughout his career in government. as a result the roosevelt library now has over twentyone million pages of manuscript on


roosevelt ’ s death. like the presidential libraries that followed, it sought and accepted the manuscripts of the president ’ s coworkers and associates throughout his career in government. as a result the roosevelt library now has over twentyone million pages of manuscript on paper, after a quarter - century of growth. but the kennedy library, not yet open in its permanent quarters, already has more than seventeen million pages on paper, plus two and a half million on microfilm, representing an administration that lasted less than three years — in addition to a million and a half feet of motion - picture film and more than fifteen hundred sound recordings ( both discs and tapes ). the johnson library has thirty million pages on paper, 5, 500, 000 on microfilm, half a million photographs ( compared to 93, 052 in the roosevelt library, the nearest competitor in this field ), 2, 010, 420 feet of motion - picture film, and 3, 025 sound recordings for the ears of the future. it is estimated that president nixon ’ s records, even if he were to serve but one term, will exceed johnson ’ s in volume. what the cost of a nixon library ( already in the planning stages ) will be is uncertain, but since the roosevelt library cost $ 367, 000 to build, as against the several millions that the john f. kennedy library will require, it may be guessed that the amount will not be small. the expense of maintaining the six institutions — including the two not yet complete — in fiscal 1970 was approximately 1. 8 million dollars in appropriated funds, which allowed for a personnel of 146. certainly it seems a modest sum, nowadays, to care for donated buildings and lands worth many millions, and for papers whose value to history is presumed to be incalculable. but are the treasures of the presidential libraries actually priceless? there are some who doubt it, who fear that, if only because of their stupefying massiveness, the presidential papers will not yield up the shape of the past to future historians in the way that fossil bones deliver the outlines of prehistoric giant lizards to knowledgeable paleontologists. scattered widely over the country, some argue, the libraries will be visited only by pilgrims who are seeking the relics in the museums and by a handful of scholars who appear seasonally like wildfowl ( at every academic vacation ) to scrabble for the materials of dissertations. will the presidential libraries, in fact, become — in columbia historian henry graff ’ s speculative phrase — the pyramids of


who appear seasonally like wildfowl ( at every academic vacation ) to scrabble for the materials of dissertations. will the presidential libraries, in fact, become — in columbia historian henry graff ’ s speculative phrase — the pyramids of our time? or will they, as their staffs hope, help in the critical task of preserving the nation ’ s records so that it may learn wisdom by a searching look at all its yesterdays? to answer that question demands a review of the nature and history of presidential papers and a survey of the current limitations on their use. the picture is sometimes discouraging. to begin with, a skeptical american may be pardoned if he believes that gratitude is uncalledfor when a president makes a “ gift ” of his papers to the public. why should the people be thankful, he reasons, for being given what is theirs in the first place? for is it not true that the president ’ s correspondence is a part of the official record of the government? and does it not therefore belong to the taxpayers fully as much as anything else created or purchased with government monies? astonishingly, the answer is no. ordinary civil servants — even cabinet members — are obliged by law to keep account of their doings, and in so doing to create the fallout of official documents that keeps archivists in prosperity. they may not destroy or remove whatever may be needful for a competent authority later to review their public performance. but the president of the united states is himself an independent government agency. in a sense he is accountable only to god, the constitution, and the electorate. what comes into his office during his tenure is his alone. george washington, who set so many presidential precedents, simply took his papers — including all the written matter he had exchanged with members of his official family — back to mount vernon with him, presumably to nestle alongside his old plantation account books, and no one was disposed to challenge him. john adams followed suit because, according to one scholar, he did not want his thenhated successor, thomas jefferson, nosing among his letters. when jefferson himself did the same in 1809, the precedent had hardened. it was not challenged until 1886, when the senate made bold to ask for certain papers belonging to grover cleveland, which were then not even in the white house but on file in the office of the attorney general. cleveland characteristically rapped the senate ’ s knuckles. “ i regard the papers and documents … intended for my use and action, ” he wrote


, which were then not even in the white house but on file in the office of the attorney general. cleveland characteristically rapped the senate ’ s knuckles. “ i regard the papers and documents … intended for my use and action, ” he wrote, “ purely unofficial and private, not infrequently confidential, and having reference to the performance of a duty exclusively mine. … i suppose if i desired to take them into my custody i might do so with entire propriety, and if i saw fit to destroy them no one could complain. … ” the senators did not press the matter further. presidents came and went. they took their papers with them and did things to make archivists shudder. the precious documents were dumped in attics ; rummaged by heirs for autographs and souvenirs to bestow on friends ; winnowed of “ improper ” material by worshipful widows, executors, and official biographers ; and scrawled on by playful children. some were burnt by accident — many of andrew jackson ’ s, for example — and some perished in flames by design, like those of millard fillmore ( by the deathbed command of his son ) and, reputedly, those of martin van buren and ulysses grant, who were either indifferent to, or wary of, the curiosity of posterity. some, of course, were sold to libraries ( often by heirs in need of cash ) whose directors sensed the vital importance of the neglected records to historical research. the library of congress worked hard at getting a complete presidential collection and up to 1940 had spent $ 170, 000 in purchases of ex - presidents ’ papers. universities and state and local historical societies acquired fragments of individual presidents ’ papers. there were shining exceptions. the family of rutherford b. hayes presented his carefully kept papers, as well as the family estate, to the state of ohio, which built a memorial library on the site. opened in 1916, it has since become an important center for the study of the reconstruction era. the bulk of the papers of the presidents from james a. garfield through calvin coolidge — with the exception of warren harding, whose papers are at the ohio historical society, in columbus — were given to the library of congress. herbert hoover deposited his in a special library, now known as the hoover institution on war, revolution and peace, on the campus of stanford university ; there they joined the materials he had accumulated in a world - ranging career as engineer and famine relief administrator ( but as it turned out later,


library, now known as the hoover institution on war, revolution and peace, on the campus of stanford university ; there they joined the materials he had accumulated in a world - ranging career as engineer and famine relief administrator ( but as it turned out later, they did not stay there ). when franklin roosevelt began to think about leaving the white house, he might have followed what has been called the library of congress model. but he regarded himself as having a special problem, and, characteristically, he looked for a precedentbreaking way to solve it. in february, 1938, roosevelt wrote to his fellow sailing enthusiast and harvard alumnus samuel eliot morison, asking for advice on the “ somewhat ambitious thought ” of creating a repository for materials “ relating to this period of our national history. ” without a special effort they would be scattered throughout libraries and collections across the entire country. “ for example, ” roosevelt noted, “ my own papers should, under the old method, be divided among the navy department, the library of congress, the new york state historical division in albany, the new york city historical society, harvard university, and various members of my family. ” morison quickly replied. he thought that a separate new deal archive would not be a good idea. but the president ’ s own papers might well be kept together somewhere — it did not matter where, “ as long as the repository is fireproof and the guardians faithful. ” in conclusion morison urged : “ but, whatever you do mr. president, don ’ t break up the collection, giving some to your children, others to harvard, etc! although alma mater would profit, such dispersion offends all my professorial principles. ” yet even the modest goal of preserving the roosevelt records, instead of a complete new deal archive, posed a problem. for one thing, the volume of white house business had mushroomed enormously. as a single instance, f. d. r. ’ s ability to communicate directly with the public — “ my friends ” — had stimulated floods of letters to him : where hoover had received about four hundred a day, the roosevelt daily average in 1940 came to over four thousand. moreover, roosevelt was a pack rat. “ i have destroyed practically nothing, ” he told guests at a dinner. “ as a result, we have a mine for which future historians will curse me as well as praise me. it is a mine which will need to have the dross sifted from the gold. ” roosevelt ’ s decision on how and where to locate


as a result, we have a mine for which future historians will curse me as well as praise me. it is a mine which will need to have the dross sifted from the gold. ” roosevelt ’ s decision on how and where to locate his mine was announced after a luncheon on december 10, 1938, to which he had invited the archivist of the united states, robert d. w. connor ; the historian of new york state ; two university presidents ; the president of the league of women voters ; such assorted literary and journalistic figures as stuart chase, ernest lindley, and archibald macleish ; and such past and present university professors as william e. dodd, frederic l. paxson, charles a. beard, helen taft manning, felix frankfurter, and morison. the president emerged from the dining room to tell waiting reporters that after “ consultation ” with these luminaries, he had decided to place all of his collected papers, books, and other materials in a building to be erected, at private cost, on a portion of his hyde park estate that he would donate to the united states. ( eventually, he added, the entire estate would go to the federal government “ to be maintained for the benefit of the public ” — as in fact it has. ) within a short period of time a fund - raising corporation was established, and with a speed that later builders of presidential libraries may well envy, the money was raised ( some twenty - eight thousand individuals contributed ), the building was constructed, and title was granted to the united states in mid - 1940. roosevelt ’ s dream of retiring to putter among his collections was never fulfilled, of course. ( in typical fashion, he had jauntily refused at the december, 1938, press conference to say when he proposed to settle down in hyde park, leaving his possible third - term intentions as unclear as ever. ) but the roosevelt pattern was destined to endure. this was probably due to truman ’ s decision to follow his predecessor ’ s model ; it is the second man in a sequence who turns idiosyncrasy into tradition. one of truman ’ s administrative assistants worked with tom l. evans, a kansas city businessman, to raise contributions for the building ; the city of independence gave thirteen acres for a site near truman ’ s home ; and on july 6, 1957, the truman library was dedicated. the man from independence immediately took a hand in making it a working institution. he had an office for himself, which he occupied faithful


thirteen acres for a site near truman ’ s home ; and on july 6, 1957, the truman library was dedicated. the man from independence immediately took a hand in making it a working institution. he had an office for himself, which he occupied faithfully from nine to five, six days a week, while working on his memoirs. ( to the distress of historians he sequestered large bodies of his papers for this purpose, and they have not yet been released for general use. ) from time to time, according to the present assistant director of the library, he would bounce out to chat with the librarians, secretaries, and researchers at work amid the file cabinets and would often address visiting classes of schoolchildren in the library ’ s auditorium for film displays. the staff also got accustomed to the sight of truman leading distinguished old friends, visitors from all over the world, through his library with proprietary gusto. by that time president dwight eisenhower had agreed to deposit his papers in a library - and - museum complex at abilene. herbert hoover ’ s friends, after an eightieth birthday party for him in west branch, had launched a drive to build the hoover library, to which the papers of his cabinet and presidential years would be transferred from stanford. and in 1955 congress — which had allowed the government to accept the roosevelt library by special joint resolution — passed a general presidential libraries act. under it, the administrator of general services ( the business arm of the federal government ) could accept the papers of any president or former president, as well as “ any land, buildings, and equipment offered as a gift to the united states for the purposes of creating a presidential archival depository, ” and could likewise, if need be, agree to operate such a depository even if title to the property remained with some state, political subdivision, foundation, or institution. even before the tragically abrupt end of the kennedy administration, plans were afoot for the kennedy library, and the subject of where to locate the johnson library was also on the white house staff agenda long before 1968. both presidents had initiated record - keeping and record - compiling programs within executive agencies, the first rough sketches for the historical portraits of their periods of tenure. a foundation was set up in 1969 to select a site for a library for president nixon in southern california. the exact location ( which the president will have to approve ) is a matter not only of local pride but of dollars and cents. for like all the other libraries this one will bring tourists, motels and restaurants to shelter


president nixon in southern california. the exact location ( which the president will have to approve ) is a matter not only of local pride but of dollars and cents. for like all the other libraries this one will bring tourists, motels and restaurants to shelter and nourish them, and bulldozers leaving ribbons of concrete highway trailing behind them — all developments of much interest to real - estate promoters. and on some date in 1973 or 1977 the nixon papers, like those of every president before him since franklin roosevelt, will be truckloaded ( at government expense ) to the waiting library or to a federal warehouse if the library is not yet completed. the haul will include not only the tiny percentage of papers actually originated by the president and signed by him, but all others in his files. carbon copies of most of them will be available in the agencies that sent the originals — but it is conceivable that the president might, wittingly or not, take with him the lone copy of some document vitally needed by his successor. [ see “ how harding saved the versailles treaty ” in the december, 1968, issue of american heritage. ] for several years thereafter, government - paid archivists will sort, label, catalogue, index, and otherwise tame the paper wilderness and provide it with signposts and pathways for historical explorers. meanwhile, the nixon library — and other presidential libraries which may have been set up by then — will continue to grow by accession. its director will, like his colleagues in charge of the existing libraries, want to make his library a center for study of the entire era of “ his ” president. he will try to collect papers — and at least tape - recorded oral history interviews — from members of the cabinet, heads of executive agencies ( like the fcc or oeo ), unofficial but major advisers and close friends, party committeemen, deputy and assistant - deputy officials, key legislators, journalists, associates of pre - presidential years, and so on down the line to minor types, the water - bucket carriers and rubdown specialists of the presidential team. finally the nixon library will be a mature, fully functioning archive, like the six that precede it in time — and, perhaps, like those to come after it, if post - nixon presidents do not return to the casual records - disposal practices of an earlier day. at that point, it would appear, the historians should have cause to rejoice. the key american records — manuscripts, films, and tapes — of the central decades of the twentieth century will


the casual records - disposal practices of an earlier day. at that point, it would appear, the historians should have cause to rejoice. the key american records — manuscripts, films, and tapes — of the central decades of the twentieth century will be neatly on file in protected surroundings, instead of laid up in attics “ where moth and rust doth corrupt, and where thieves break through. ” this year, presumably, the roosevelt and truman libraries ( respectively in their third and second decades of use ) are already helping to unravel such mysteries as what happened at yalta and potsdam, how much influence brain trusters and cronies had in domestic policies, and who planted the seeds of “ containment. ” by 1981, therefore, the eisenhower, kennedy, and johnson libraries may be expected to make an open book of equally gnarled questions : the u - 2 flights, the bay of pigs affair, and vietnam. and so the presidential - library system will stand vindicated and blessed by scholarship. alas, as even the directors of the libraries themselves are aware, the scenario does not read so smoothly. for there are severe limitations on the use of the presidential papers now, and unless they are overcome, they may leave tomorrow ’ s historians, despite the archival machinery at their disposal, even more frustrated than yesterday ’ s, who had to grope their uncertain way to long - lost trunks full of mildewing papers. first of all, since the outbreak of world war ii, a vast proportion of the white house files originating in the state department and the war and navy ( and later defense ) departments have been classified to protect national security. ten, twenty, and even thirty years after the events with which they deal, their secret and top secret stamps remain as binding as ever. until they are officially reviewed and declassified — a process compared to which glaciers sprint — they are either entirely closed to scholars or can be studied only under severe reservations. the user must be fingerprinted and his security checked ; he must swear that he does not belong to any of a list of subversive organizations ; his notes and manuscript must be reviewed by state and / or defense officials, a process that may take months. nor is there any court of appeal. although the entire classification system ( except for atomic energy commission materials, which are classified by statute ) rests on executive order, a retired president may not disclose the contents of secret papers — even those that he himself wrote. lyndon johnson, it is known, had a special team of defense


except for atomic energy commission materials, which are classified by statute ) rests on executive order, a retired president may not disclose the contents of secret papers — even those that he himself wrote. lyndon johnson, it is known, had a special team of defense department specialists examine his files after he left office, in the hope that they might authorize the speedy release of information that he believes is necessary to understand his actions. their almost predictable answer was no. in addition to the papers closed for security reasons, there is another substantial body of material kept from researchers in the libraries. this comprises the communications that, in the language of an official nars handout for researchers, contain statements “ which may be used to injure, embarrass or harass any living person, ” or which were “ obviously made in confidence, ” or which “ relate strictly to a person ’ s private, family or business affairs. ” the reason for the policy is clear. many of the papers received by the president and his associates unsparingly discuss — often on the basis of rumor and gossip — the private fragilities of public men. nars believes that the neuroses, divorces, diseases, and private financial pressures of key legislators or potential appointees to office are not public matters unless there is clear proof that they affect public performance. moreover, thousands of letters to the president come from ordinary citizens who pour out their personal agonies in detail to an unknown man whom they see as a superfather. a blackmailer could function briskly simply by frequenting the libraries and using these files. it is thus a custom for the library staffs to review incoming collections and “ close ” materials that fall within these categories. periodically they go over them anew, with a list of recent obituaries at hand, and “ open ” those items dealing with individuals whom death has put beyond the sting of scandal. ( donors may, however, require that their papers be closed for long periods of time after their death or that of people mentioned in them. ) at best, this practice is a compromise between the public ’ s right to know and the individual ’ s right to privacy. and like any compromise it yields incomplete satisfaction to both parties. yet no scholar can reasonably complain about protecting the human rights of those who serve the nation in government posts and those who correspond with them. nor are scholars unwilling to help protect the nation from harm through premature revelations : private agreements with heads of foreign powers, reports on the military preparedness of allies, intelligence estimates that name


who serve the nation in government posts and those who correspond with them. nor are scholars unwilling to help protect the nation from harm through premature revelations : private agreements with heads of foreign powers, reports on the military preparedness of allies, intelligence estimates that name the source of their information. but many responsible historians do resent what james macgregor burns, a distinguished biographer of franklin d. roosevelt, calls “ the absurd overkill of the present restrictions. ” burns knows whereof he speaks. he has had to run the gauntlet of security clearance in order to see documents that are now twenty - five years old at a minimum. furthermore, the restrictive tendency of the classifying authorities appears to be increasing with time. the state department used to publish its volumes of diplomatic documents, entitled foreign relations of the united states, some fifteen years after the events they recorded. the time lag is now nearing thirty years. perhaps the reason lies not only in secrecy but in the volume of the materials and in staff and budget limitations. but whatever the reason, a middle - aged historian of recent foreign affairs cannot entertain much hope of getting a wholly accurate story in his lifetime. critics of the security policy also say that it reflects bureaucratic caution as much as it does prudence. the “ secrets ” themselves are rarely very potent. many have been revealed in memoirs. most date rather quickly. the total classified record, burns notes, “ consists of millions of items, none very crucial in itself. ” the need for secrecy “ after a span of a few years, ” he concludes, “ is largely a myth. ” other historians who deal in primary sources are disturbed at excessive respect for the confidentiality of personal interchanges among the mighty. first, they argue, there is always the possibility that a personal matter — the actual illness of woodrow wilson in 1919 ; the possible illness of franklin d. roosevelt in early 1945 ; the approaching madness of james forrestal, first secretary of defense, in 1949 — may be the urgently needed key to comprehending a historical development. furthermore, the current policy places a tremendous burden on the discretion of the library officials. they must comb the materials and, when a letter contains both public and private materials, make the tricky judgment of which element predominates. they may become overcautious. or one of them may, through long association with a given president ’ s history, tend toward becoming a keeper of the flame, unwilling to jeopardize “ his ” man ’ s reputation by putting materials in the hands of a known critic


. or one of them may, through long association with a given president ’ s history, tend toward becoming a keeper of the flame, unwilling to jeopardize “ his ” man ’ s reputation by putting materials in the hands of a known critic. moreover, historians do not get an equal shot at the record. it does not remain totally veiled during the years when it is officially closed. presidents, generals, cabinet members, white house aides, and staff members often rush to their typewriters to write reminiscences that will make themselves presentable in the history books. they send assistants and clerks ruffling through their papers, often still in official files. they give inside accounts to favored book - writing reporters. in addition, the state and defense departments ( as well as other federal agencies ) have official historians who have the insider ’ s clear track, not only to files but, more importantly, to frequent, familiar, and confidential interviews with the historical actors themselves. the viewpoints that dominate these official histories become in essence those of the commissioning agencies. piecemeal, therefore, a version of the recent past, tailored to official and individual vanity, emerges. but the independent historian or journalist, who is most likely to have the training and the perspective to create a useful chronicle and to interpret it objectively, remains shut out from this favored group until a generation has passed. the long - run cost, argue burns and herbert feis, the diplomatic historian, is great. if knowledge of history is to be helpful to people and their leaders, it must be timely. against the need for security and privacy there stand the claims of the nation, which cannot afford to make its archives, feis says, like those of totalitarian states — “ mortuaries which only licensed embalmers … are allowed to enter. ” and, too, he adds, the world has a claim on the keepers of the record. in this era of tragic national behavior, “ greater openness, by all governments, might improve the health of the international community by nurturing it on the whole truth, even if it tastes bitter. ” burns and feis do not argue that restrictions should be abandoned, but only that the record should be opened much more quickly - burns suggests about eight years after it is made. the presidential libraries are not specifically blamed for “ privileged history ” but for involuntarily sharing in the system that creates it. to such remonstrances the various directors of the presidential libraries, past and present,


it is made. the presidential libraries are not specifically blamed for “ privileged history ” but for involuntarily sharing in the system that creates it. to such remonstrances the various directors of the presidential libraries, past and present, have a variety of answers. the first is that they must work within the “ givens ” of the system. one of these is that, while presidents may willingly deposit their records in special libraries built to house them, in the foreseeable future there is no likelihood of compelling former chief executives to relinquish the papers to public scrutiny on any terms but their own. even if a law should be passed making the white house files public documents, a president would be within his rights in sifting out exclusively private papers for removal. if nars officials challenged his judgment on what was purely personal matter, the resulting contests could, in the words of one of them, keep “ a whole battery of lawyers busy ” for a long time. moreover, to insist that anything in the white house ’ s incoming mailbag ought to be given to the populace for early inspection would chill frankness. as former truman administrative assistant david lloyd once wrote, few men would write to a president in confidence and few presidents would put their private thoughts on paper if the end of the term was a signal for disclosure. “ and as a consequence, the ability of the president to function as an independent officer of the government would be curtailed, if not crippled. … ” it is unquestionably true that a good public servant must be allowed to suggest outrageously unpopular courses of action — if only for discussion — without being pilloried for it soon thereafter. ( contemporary public men already worry considerably in crisis conferences about indiscreet colleagues who may already have contracts for their memoirs in hand. ) if the president exerts his right to put his papers in a marble monument built by hometown friends in a location far from traditional seats of learning, the conscientious archivist has no choice but to follow them there, care for them, and display them under whatever conditions are allowed. if he is a truly hard - working archivist — as all the presidential library directors are — he will urge the president ’ s co - workers also to deposit their papers there. he is not likely to get such deposits without being able to give assurances that the public will not soon be let into the donor ’ s inner life ; as the mediator between the future historian and the gun - shy subjects of history, his


. he is not likely to get such deposits without being able to give assurances that the public will not soon be let into the donor ’ s inner life ; as the mediator between the future historian and the gun - shy subjects of history, his first rule of operation is to get the material preserved. the presidential libraries have actually hastened a policy of accumulation that would ordinarily have taken generations. the papers of the first ladies, too, are an important source of history hitherto ignored, before they became part of presidential - library collections. in the case of eleanor roosevelt, her own independent career generated so large a collection that it is being moved into a new wing of the roosevelt library, to be opened in 1971 and to become in itself an important center for the study of the politics, social problems, and philanthropic work of her time. galling as the policy of restriction is, the library spokesmen note that a larger amount of presidential material is open than ever before, and open to all comers, critical or not. ( the only entrance test for access to unclassified material is a statement of some reasonable purpose. ) one former director of the roosevelt library enjoyed pointing out that roosevelt ’ s papers were processed and opened for use in 1950, five years after the president ’ s death. eighty - five per cent of the material, he declared, was open to inspection. yet only three years before, in 1947, the library of congress had proudly opened a large collection of abraham lincoln papers that had been closed until then by the desire of the donor, lincoln ’ s son. the papers of both presidents adams were not available for public use until the middle 1960 ’ s. other presidential papers lay hidden for decades. the fact is that the historians are succumbing, like others in modern times, to a revolution of rising expectations. more is available to them than ever before, and their appetite grows by what it feeds on. the archivists claim that they encourage rather than deplore this hunger. each library proudly points to the number of “ researcher visits ” it experiences each year ( around a thousand each for the roosevelt and truman libraries from july 1, 1969, to june 30, 1970 ) and to the growing list of books, articles, and dissertations founded primarily on its materials. the truman library happily cooperates with a privately created and financed nonprofit organization, the harry s. truman library institute for national and international affairs, which aims to provide grants - in - aid to scholars using the library, to foster


primarily on its materials. the truman library happily cooperates with a privately created and financed nonprofit organization, the harry s. truman library institute for national and international affairs, which aims to provide grants - in - aid to scholars using the library, to foster publications based on its materials, and to sponsor conferences on topics stemming from developments of the truman period. this institute may be a model for other libraries. former president johnson is known to hope that his library will also sponsor seminars on social, environmental, and economic problems, which will draw together the experts and the documents. the museum directors, too, attempt to keep their materials on display in a manner that educates as well as attracts the public. such activities are a long way from the caginess and record - hugging attributed to the libraries by some critics. but, strangely, the collecting energies of the directors raise some other disturbing reflections. it is possible that the sheer glut of material may defeat historians to come. the information explosion threatens to bury them in documentation. clicking xerox machines, microfilm cameras, and whirling tape reels all proliferate information. in point of fact, even if all future presidents were compelled to leave their official records in washington, it would be necessary to build completely new repositories to hold them, simply because of the multiplying size of the executive department and because its officials, like those of all washington, are pouring out a rising flood of paper. the national archives building itself long ago became inadequate as the sole reservoir. in 1950 a program of decentralization was put in motion, designed to set up new federal records centers throughout the country. there are now fifteen of them, housing 10. 8 million cubic feet of records. and the torrent is not abating. but the wrenching irony is that not all of this is gold for history. the duplicating machines immeasurably encourage the preservation of routine papers. and two other inventions — the telephone and the jet airplane — nibble away at the materials of major significance. when abraham lincoln wished to say something to general grant in virginia, he had to send a telegram or write a note. but when lyndon johnson felt the need to speak to general westmoreland, he had only to pick up the telephone to saigon — or to fly there himself, or have the general fly to washington, in a matter of hours. and such face - to - face or over - the - wire conferences may never be recorded. a certain amount of the crucial


the telephone to saigon — or to fly there himself, or have the general fly to washington, in a matter of hours. and such face - to - face or over - the - wire conferences may never be recorded. a certain amount of the crucial business of history has always been preserved only in the memory of those who transacted it. the size and importance of that “ unrecorded record ” is now growing. this is why contemporary presidential libraries are undertaking extensive interview programs. the kennedy library, for example, already has taped and transcribed about five hundred interviews with such key kennedy men as dean rusk, robert mcnamara, mcgeorge bundy, and pierre salinger and with a host of others who knew the president — a cast of great variety, including men like u thant, richard cardinal gushing, and john glenn. ( such transcripts are held under the same rules of confidentiality that apply to written materials. ) oral history fills gaps in the written records. but is it possible to interpret them, with the gaps filled, or does their overpowering massiveness make them impenetrable? true, dazzling technical means of storage and retrieval of information are available. given the investment of enough money and time, it is perfectly feasible that all presidential or other documents can be “ read ” and “ memorized ” by computers before being microfilmed and filed. then a historian may be able to give an electronic command to some robot clio, such as : “ bring me all the materials on assistance programs to rural areas in southeast asia from 1958 to 1970. ” but what will he do when she faithfully beeps, rumbles, and neatly prints out fifty thousand references on the topic. will useful synthesis then be possible? such a question gets to the root of what history is all about. modern “ scientific ” history was born less than a century ago. it aimed to be more than — or at least different from — philosophy and literature. it rested on the happy nineteenth - century assumption that there was a discernible pattern, coherence, and direction in the affairs of humanity - discernible, that is, when the whole record was collected and scanned. the historians were like roman soothsayers reading the entrails of a sacred beast. the beast was the past. and he who knew the past, in a sense, knew the future as well. but what will happen when the record is so gigantic as to become an abstraction like infinity itself? then the presidential libraries, like all


october / november 1981 | volume 32, issue 6 he never got hawaii out of his system on sunday morning, march 18, 1866, the steamer a jay. sailed into honolulu harbor while the bells of six different mission churches called the freshly converted faithful to worship. among the passengers most eager to go ashore was a thirty - one - year - old knockabout journalist named samuel clemens, on assignment for the sacramento union. mark twain would later make the mississippi immortal, but first hawaii would make him famous. he spent four months and a day exploring the islands and sent back twenty - five dispatches ( at twenty dollars each ), recounting all that he had seen and heard. fresh from the grime and clamor of the california mining camps, he was enraptured by the lush, silent hawaiian landscape and was alternately amused and fascinated by the ^ l native hawaiians and the missionaries, planters, whalers, and hangers - on already seeking to displace them. compared with his later works, the letters from the sandwich islands are crude, repetitive, and overwritten, but they are also filled with his inexhaustible love of the absurd and his sharp eye for detail, and — polished up and tightly edited — they form a major part of his first book, roughing it, published six years after his return to the mainland. by that time he had delivered a humorous lecture on hawaii — sometimes billed as “ our fellow savages of the sandwich islands ” — before packed houses from san francisco to keokuk to manhattan. most of the selections on the following pages are from roughing it. the pictures that accompany them were made by two of the first cameramen to photograph the islands. both, like clemens, had done their first important work in california. hugo stangenwald came to hawaii in 1853 and became the island ’ s most prestigious daguerreotypist : he was the first to learn precisely how to cope with the startling clarity of hawaiian light, and he roamed the islands making portraits and landscapes, eventually winning the eager patronage of th royal family. in 1858, at the height of his popularity, stangenwald abandoned the camera to study medicine. charles leander weed arrived with his brother james in 1865 : six years earlier he had become the first man to photograph the wonders of the yosemite valley. his large, crisp hawaiian views were an instant success, and when the weed brothers moved on to set up a hong kong gallery a few months later, a local newspaper hailed


had become the first man to photograph the wonders of the yosemite valley. his large, crisp hawaiian views were an instant success, and when the weed brothers moved on to set up a hong kong gallery a few months later, a local newspaper hailed them as “ the most worthy and skillful artists in the pacific, if not the world. ” together, mark twain ’ s prose and the pictures of stangenwald and weed offer a portrait in miniature of our fiftieth state when it was still an exotic kingdom and, as twain wrote, “ paradise for an indolent man. ” the chief pride of maui is her dead volcano of haleakala — which means, translated, “ the house of the sun. ” we climbed a thousand feet up the side of this isolated colossus one afternoon ; then camped, and next day climbed the remaining nine thousand feet, and anchored on the summit, where we built a fire and froze and roasted by turns all night. with the first pallor of dawn we got up and saw things that were new to us. mounted on a commanding pinnacle, we watched nature work her silent wonders. the sea was spread abroad on every hand, its tumbled surface seeming only wrinkled and dimpled in the distance. a broad valley below appeared like an ample checkerboard, its velvety - green sugar plantations alternating with dun squares of barrenness and groves of trees diminished to mossy tufts. beyond the valley were mountains picturesquely grouped together ; but bear in mind, we fancied that we were looking up at these things — not down. we seemed to sit in the bottom of a symmetrical bowl ten thousand feet deep, with the valley and the skirting sea lifted away into the sky above us! it was curious ; and not only curious, but aggravating ; for it was having our trouble all for nothing, to climb ten thousand feet toward heaven and then have to look up at our scenery. however, we had to be content with it and make the best of it ; for all we could do we could not coax our landscape down out of the clouds. … “ i have spoken of the outside view — but we had an inside one, too. that was the yawning dead crater, into which we now and then tumbled rocks, half as large as a barrel, from our perch, and saw them go careering down the almost perpendicular sides, bounding three hundred feet at a jump ; kicking up dust clouds wherever they struck ; diminishing to our view as they sped


, half as large as a barrel, from our perch, and saw them go careering down the almost perpendicular sides, bounding three hundred feet at a jump ; kicking up dust clouds wherever they struck ; diminishing to our view as they sped farther into distance ; growing invisible, finally, and only betraying their course by faint little puffs of dust ; and coming to a halt at least in the bottom of the abyss, two thousand five hundred feet down from where they started! it was magnificent sport. we wore ourselves out at it. … presently vagrant white clouds came drifting along, high over the sea and the valley ; then they came in couples and groups, then in imposing squadrons ; gradually joining their forces, they banked themselves solidly together, a thousand feet under us, and totally shut out land and ocean — not a vestige of anything was left in view but just a little of the rim of the crater, circling away from the pinnacle whereon we sat ( for a ghostly procession of wanderers from the filmy hosts without had drifted through a chasm in the crater wall and filed round and round, and gathered and sunk and blended together till the abyss was stored to the brim with a fleecy fog ). thus banked, motion ceased, and silence reigned. clear to the horizon, league on league, the snowy floor stretched without a break — not level, but in rounded folds, with shallow creases between, and with here and there stately piles of vapory architecture lifting themselves aloft out of the common plain — some near at hand, some in the middle distances, and others relieving the monotony of the remote solitudes. … i felt like the last man, neglected of the judgment, and left pinnacled in mid - heaven, a forgotten relic of a vanished world. … ” while i was in honolulu i witnessed the ceremonious funeral of the king ’ s sister, her royal highness the princess victoria. according to the royal custom, the remains had lain in state at the palace thirty days, watched day and night by a guard of honor. and during all that time a great multitude of natives from the several islands had kept the palace grounds well crowded and had made the place a pandemonium every night with their howlings and wailings, beating of tom - toms, and dancing of the ( at other times ) forbidden hula - hula by half - clad maidens to the music of songs of questionable decency chanted in honor of the


their howlings and wailings, beating of tom - toms, and dancing of the ( at other times ) forbidden hula - hula by half - clad maidens to the music of songs of questionable decency chanted in honor of the deceased. … “ as the procession filed through the gate, the military deployed handsomely to the right and left and formed an avenue through which the long column of mourners passed to the tomb. the coffin was borne through the door of the mausoleum, followed by the king and his chiefs, the great officers of the kingdom, foreign consuls, ambassadors, and distinguished guests. … at this point of the proceedings the multitude set up such a heartbroken wailing as i hope never to hear again. the soldiers fired three volleys of musketry — the wailing being previously silenced to permit of the guns being heard. his highness prince william, in a showy military uniform ( the “ true prince, ” this — scion of the house overthrown by the present dynasty — he was formerly betrothed to the princess but was not allowed to marry her ), stood guard and paced back and forth within the door. the privileged few who followed the coffin into the mausoleum remained some time, but the king soon came out and stood in the door and near one side of it. ^ a stranger could have guessed his rank ( although he was so simply and unpretentiously dressed ) by the profound deference paid him by all persons in his vicinity ; by seeing his high officers receive his quiet orders and suggestions with bowed and uncovered heads ; and by observing how careful those persons who came out of the mausoleum were to avoid “ crowding ” him ( although there was room enough in the doorway for a wagon to pass, for that matter ) ; how respectfully they edged out sideways, scraping their back against the wall and always presenting a front view of their persons to his majesty, and never putting their hats on until they were well out of the royal presence. “ he was dressed entirely in black — dress coat and silk hat — and looked rather democratic in the midst of the showy uniforms about him. on his breast he wore a large gold star, which was half hidden by the lapel of his coat. he remained at the door a half hour. finally he entered his carriage and drove away, and the populace shortly began to drop into his wake. while he was in view there was but one man who attracted more attention than himself, and that was harris ( the yankee prime minister


a half hour. finally he entered his carriage and drove away, and the populace shortly began to drop into his wake. while he was in view there was but one man who attracted more attention than himself, and that was harris ( the yankee prime minister ). this feeble personage had crape enough around his hat to express the grief of an entire nation, and as usual he neglected no opportunity of making himself conspicuous and exciting the admiration of the simple kanakas. ” the further i traveled through the town the better i liked it. every step revealed a new contrast — disclosed something i was unaccustomed to. in place of the grand mud - colored brown fronts of san francisco, i saw dwellings built of straw, adobes, and cream - colored pebbleand - shell - conglomerated coral, cut into oblong blocks and laid in cement ; also a great number of neat white cottages, with green window shutters ; in place of front yards like billiard tables with iron fences around them, i saw these homes surrounded by ample yards, thickly clad with green grass, and shaded by tall trees, through whose dense foliage the sun could scarcely penetrate. … “ i looked on a multitude of people, some white, in white coats, vests, pantaloons, even white cloth shoes, made snowy with chalk duly laid on every morning ; but the majority of the people were almost as dark as negroes — women with comely features, fine black eyes, rounded forms, inclining to the voluptuous, clad in a single bright red or white garment that fell free and unconf ined from shoulder to heel, long black hair falling loose, gypsy hats, encircled with wreaths of natural flowers of a brilliant carmine tint ; plenty of dark men in various costumes, and some with nothing on but a battered stovepipe hat tilted on the nose, and a very scant breechclout ; certain smoke - dried children were clothed in nothing but sunshine — a very neat - fitting and picturesque apparel indeed. … “ the missionaries have christianized and educated all the natives. they all belong to the church, and there is not one of them, above the age of eight years, but can read and write with facility in the native tongue. it is the most universally educated race of people outside of china. they have any quantity of books, printed in the kanaka language, and all the natives are fond of reading. they are inveterate churchgoers — nothing can keep them away. all this


most universally educated race of people outside of china. they have any quantity of books, printed in the kanaka language, and all the natives are fond of reading. they are inveterate churchgoers — nothing can keep them away. all this ameliorating cultivation has at last built up in the native women a profound respect for chastity — in other people. perhaps that is enough to say on that head. the national sin will die out when the race does, but perhaps not earlier. but doubtless this purifying is not far off, when we reflect that contact with civilization and the whites has reduced the native population from four hundred thousand ( captain cook ’ s estimate ) to fifty - five thousand in something over eight years! “ society is a queer medley in this notable missionary, whaling, and governmental center. if you get into conversation with a stranger and experience that natural desire to know what sort of ground you are treading on by finding out what manner of man your stranger is, strike out boldly and address him as “ captain. ” watch him narrowly and if you see by his countenance that you are on the wrong tack, ask him where he preaches. it is a safe bet that he is either a missionary or captain of a whaler. i am now personally acquainted with seventy - two captains and ninety - six missionaries. the captains and ministers form one - half of the population ; the third fourth is composed of common kanakas and mercantile foreigners and their families, and the final fourth is made up of high officers of the hawaiian government. and there are just about cats enough for three apiece all around. ” in the rural districts of any of the islands, the traveler hourly comes upon parties of dusky maidens bathing in the streams or in the sea without any clothing on and exhibiting no very imtemperate zeal in the matter of hiding their nakedness. when the missionaries first took up their residence in honolulu, the native women would pay their families frequent friendly visits, day by day, not even clothed with a blush. it was found a hard matter to convince them that this was rather indelicate. finally the missionaries provided them with long, loose calico robes, and that ended the difficulty — for the women would troop through the town, stark naked, with their robes folded under their arms, march to the missionary houses, and then proceed to dress! the natives soon manifested a strong proclivity for clothing, but it was shortly apparent that they only wanted it for grande


the town, stark naked, with their robes folded under their arms, march to the missionary houses, and then proceed to dress! the natives soon manifested a strong proclivity for clothing, but it was shortly apparent that they only wanted it for grandeur. the missionaries imported a quantity of hats, bonnets, and other male and female wearing apparel, instituted a general distribution, and begged the people not to come to church naked, next sunday, as usual. and they did not ; but the national spirit of unselfishness led them to divide up with neighbors who were not at the distribution, and next sabbath the poor preachers could hardly keep countenance before their vast congregations. in the midst of the reading of a hymn a brown, stately dame would sweep up the aisle with a world of airs, with nothing in the world on but a stovepipe hat and a pair of cheap gloves ; another dame would follow, tricked out in a man ’ s shirt, and nothing else ; another one would enter with a flourish, with simply the sleeves of a bright calico dress tied around her waist and the rest of the garment dragging behind like a peacock ’ s tail off duty ; a stately … kanaka would stalk in with a woman ’ s bonnet on, wrong side before — only this, and nothing more ; after him would stride his fellow, with the legs of a pair of pantaloons tied around his neck, the rest of his person untrammeled ; in his rear would come another gentleman simply gotten up in a fiery necktie and a striped vest. the poor creatures were beaming with complacency and wholly unconscious of any absurdity in their appearance. they gazed at each other with happy admiration, and it was plain to see that the young girls were taking note of what each other had on, as naturally as if they had always lived in a land of bibles and knew what churches were made for ; here was the evidence of a dawning civilization. the spectacle which the congregation presented was so extraordinary and withal so moving that the missionaries found it difficult to keep to the text and go on with the services ; and by and by when the simple children of the sun began a general swapping of garments in open meeting and produced some irresistibly grotesque effects in the course of redressing, there was nothing for it but to cut the thing short with the benediction and dismiss the fantastic assemblage. ” though mark twain never managed to revisit his beloved islands, he came


grotesque effects in the course of redressing, there was nothing for it but to cut the thing short with the benediction and dismiss the fantastic assemblage. ” though mark twain never managed to revisit his beloved islands, he came close. he returned to honolulu harbor in 1895, but cholera was raging in the city, and none of the passengers aboard his ship was allowed to disembark. “ if i might i would go ashore, ” he wrote in his journal, “ and never leave. ” but he could not arrange it. his “ dream of twenty - nine years ” was shattered. nonetheless, he was consulted as a hawaiian expert for the rest of his life. in 1873, as the united states debated annexation, he wrote : “ we must annex those people. we can afflict them with our wise and beneficent governments. we can introduce the novelty of thieves, all the way up from street - car pickpockets to municipal robbers and government defaulters, and show them how amusing it is to arrest them and try them and then turn them loose — some for cash and some for ‘ political influence. ’ we can make them ashamed of their simple and primitive justice. … we can give them juries composed entirely of the most simple and charming leatherheads. we can give them railway corporations who will buy their legislature like old clothes, and run over their best citizens and complain of the corpses for smearing their unpleasant juices on the track … we can furnish them some jay goulds who will do away with their old - time notion that stealing is not respectable. … we can give them lectures! i will go myself. “ we can make that little bunch of sleepy islands the hottest corner on earth, and array it in the moral splendor of our high and holy civilization. annexation is what the poor islanders need. ‘ shall we to men benighted, the lamp of life deny? ’ ” he expressed his devotion to the islands in a very different way in 1889. at a dinner held in honor of a baseball team about to embark for hawaii on a world tour, he recalled the place as he ’ d first seen it. “ no alien land in all the world has any deep strong charm for me but that one, no other land could so longingly and so beseechingly haunt me, sleeping and waking, through half a lifetime, as that one has done. other things leave me, but it abides ; other things change, but it remains the same.


the organic standards describe the specific requirements that must be verified by a usda - accredited certifying agent before products can be labeled usda organic. overall, organic operations must demonstrate that they are protecting natural resources, conserving biodiversity, and using only approved substances. a brief summary is provided below. view regulations. organic crops. the usda organic seal verifies that irradiation, sewage sludge, synthetic fertilizers, prohibited pesticides, and genetically modified organisms were not used. organic livestock. the usda organic seal verifies that producers met animal health and welfare standards, did not use antibiotics or growth hormones, used 100 % organic feed, and provided animals with access to the outdoors. organic multi - ingredient foods. the usda organic seal verifies that the product has 95 % or more certified organic content. if the label claims that it was made with specified organic ingredients, you can be sure that those specific ingredients are certified organic. the nop develops the laws that regulate the creation, production, handling, labeling, trade, and enforcement of all usda organic products. this process, commonly referred to as rulemaking, involves input from the national organic standards board ( a federal advisory committee made up of fifteen members of the public ) and the public. learn more usda organic regulations. 7 cfr section 205 includes all usda organic standards, including prohibited practices, requirements, and the national list of allowed and prohibited materials this compilation of guidance documents, policy memos, and instructions is intended to clarify policies and assist those who own, manage, or certify organic operations with complying with nop regulations.. to increase their quality and transparency, the nop first publishes guidance documents in draft form with request for public comments.. specific guidelines and requirements that organic producers and handlers must address in their organic system plan. this page provides information on practice standards that have been recently published or are currently in development. periodic residue testing. beginning january 1, 2013 organic certifying agents must test samples from at least 5 percent of the operations they certify on an annual basis. the following resources help certifying agents comply with these additional residue testing requirements : | proposed rule, outlines requirements memo to certifying agents, summarizes requirements pilot pesticide report, provides validated testing model, describes how samples should be collected, describes laboratory requirements, provides target list of prohibited pesticides ( pdfs ), clarifies how to respond to positive residues use of the usda organic seal.