james ephraim lovelock was born on july 26, 1919 in letchworth garden city in the united kingdom. he graduated as a chemist from manchester university in 1941 and in 1948 received a ph. d. degree in medicine from the london school of hygiene and tropical medicine. in 1959 he received the d. sc. degree in biophysics from london university. after graduating from manchester he started employment with the medical research council at the national institute for medical research in london, but five years between 1946 and 1951 were spent at the common coid research unit at harvard hospital in salisbury, wiltshire. in 1954 he was awarded the rockefeller travelling fellowship in medicine and chose to spend it at harvard university medical school in boston. in 1958 he visited yale university for a similar period. he resigned from the national institute in london in 1961 to take up full time employment as professor of chemistry at baylor university college of medicine in houston, texas, where he remained until 1964. during his stay in texas he collaborated with colleagues at the jet propulsion laboratory, pasadena, california on lunar and planetary research. since 1964 he has conducted an independent practice in science, although continuing honorary academic associations as a visiting professor, first at the university of houston and then at the university of reading in the u. k. since 1982 he has been associated with the marine biological association at plymouth, first as a council member, and from 1986 to 1990 as its president. james lovelock is the author of approximately 200 scientific papers, distributed almost equally among topics in medicine, biology, instrument science and geophysiology. he has filed more than 50 patents, mostly for detectors for use in chemical analysis. one of these, the electron capture detector, was important in the development of environmental awareness. it revealed for the first time the ubiquitous distribution of pesticide residues and other halogen bearing chemicals. this information enabled rachel carson to write her book, silent spring, often said to have initiated the awareness of environmental disturbance. later it enabled the discovery of the presence of pcb ' s in the natural environment. more recently the electron capture detector was responsible for the discovery of the global distribution of nitrous oxide and of the chlorofluorocarbons, both of which are important in the stratospheric chemistry of ozone. some of his inventions were adopted by nasa in their programme of planetary exploration. he was awarded by nasa three certificates of recognition for these. he is the originator of the gaia hypothesis ( now gaia theory ) and has written four books on the subject : gaia


were adopted by nasa in their programme of planetary exploration. he was awarded by nasa three certificates of recognition for these. he is the originator of the gaia hypothesis ( now gaia theory ) and has written four books on the subject : gaia : a new look at life on earth, ( oxford university press, 1979 ) ; the ages of gaia, ( w. w. norton, 1988 ) ; gaia : the practical science of planetary medicine, ( gaia books, 1991 ), and homage to gaia ( 2000 ). he was elected a fellow of the royal society in 1974 and in 1975 received the tswett medal for chromatography. earlier he received a ciba foundation prize for research in ageing. in 1980 he received the american chemical society ' s award for chromatography and in 1986 the silver medal and prize of the plymouth marine laboratory. in 1988 he was a recipient of the norbert gerbier prize of the world meteorological organization, and in 1990 was awarded the first amsterdam prize for the environment by the royal netherlands academy of arts and sciences. in 1996 he received both the nonino prize and the volvo environment prize, and in 1997 japan ' s blue planet prize. he has received honorary doctorates in science from the university of east anglia 1982, exeter university 1988, plymouth polytechnic ( now plymouth university ) 1988, stockholm university 1991, university of edinburgh 1993, university of kent and the university of east london in 1996, and from the university of colorado in 1997. he was made a c. b. e. by her majesty the queen in 1990. james lovelock ' s first interest is the life sciences, originally as medical research but more recently in geophysiology, the systems science of the earth. his second interest, that of instrument design and development, has often interacted with the first to their mutual benefit. he is at present an honorary visiting fellow of green college, oxford university. when devising a series of ionisation detectors for gas chromatography in the mid 1950 ' s i had no notion that one of them, the electron capture detector, would significantly affect the development of environmental thinking. it was invented in 1957, and is still among the most sensitive of chemical analytical methods in existence ; moreover it is specifically sensitive to those chemicals that are a threat to the environment. its use led to the discovery of the ubiquitous distribution of pesticide residues in the natural environment, and to rachel carson ' s book, the silent spring, which can be said to have started


sensitive to those chemicals that are a threat to the environment. its use led to the discovery of the ubiquitous distribution of pesticide residues in the natural environment, and to rachel carson ' s book, the silent spring, which can be said to have started the environmental movement. it was later used to discover and measure the abundance of pcbs, chlorofluorcarbons and nitrous oxide in the atmosphere. most recently, the detector has made possible a system of atmospheric and oceanic tracer technology. perfluorocarbons, which are othervise inert and harmless, are easily detected tracers by electron capture. this system has enabled meteorologists to follow the movement of air masses across continents and is now finding use in ocean research. in 1961, having heard of these new detectors, nasa invited me to join with the team at jet propulsion laboratory who were developing lunar and planetary landers. initially the invitation concerned the development of methods for analysing lunar soil but soon i became involved with nasa ' s quest to discover whether there was life on mars. in a letter to nature in 1965, i proposed some physical tests for the presence of planetary life. one of these was a top down view of the whole planet instead of a local search at the site of landing. the test was simply to analyse the chemical composition of the planet ' s atmosphere. if the planet were lifeless then it would be expected to have an atmosphere determined by physics and chemistry alone and be close to the chemical equilibrium state. but if the planet bore life, organisms at the surface would be obliged to use the atmosphere as a source of raw materials and as a depository for wastes. such a use of the atmosphere would change its chemical composition. it would depart from equilibrium in a way that would show the presence of life. dian hitchcock joined me then and together we examined atmospheric evidence from the infra - red astronomy of mars ( hitchcock and lovelock 1967 ). we compared this evidence with that available about the sources and sinks of the gases in the atmosphere of the one planet we knew bore life, earth. we found an astonishing difference between the two atmospheres. mars was close to chemical equilibrium and dominated by carbon dioxide, but the earth was in a state of deep chemical disequilibrium. in our atmosphere carbon dioxide is a mere trace gas. the coexistence of abundant oxygen with methane and other reactive gases, are conditions that would be impossible on a lifeless planet. even the abundant nitrogen and water are difficult to explain by geo


. in our atmosphere carbon dioxide is a mere trace gas. the coexistence of abundant oxygen with methane and other reactive gases, are conditions that would be impossible on a lifeless planet. even the abundant nitrogen and water are difficult to explain by geochemistry. no such anomalies are present in the atmospheres of mars or venus, and their existence in the earth ' s atmosphere signals the presence of living organisms at the surface. sadly, we concluded that mars is lifeless now, although it may once have had life. thinking about the profound difference between the earth ' s atmosphere and those of the other planets led me to my other principal research during the past twenty years, a hypothesis that the earth is a self regulating system able to keep its climate and chemical composition comfortable for the organisms that inhabit it. this, the gaia hypothesis, now gaia theory, is still up for trial. a common criticism is of teleology. this accusation is unjust ; neither purpose or foresight were ever claimed. whether right or wrong, it is a testable theory and capable of making ' risky ' predictions. in the course of expeditions to gather evidence for tests of the gaia hypothesis i made several interesting discoveries. one, made in 1971, was that the chlorofluorocarbons were distributed throughout the atmosphere and at an average abundance of 50 parts per trillion, suggesting the absence of any sink for these gases. this was the evidence that allowed molina and rowland to develop their theory of ozone depletion. on this expedition i also found the ubiquitous distribution in the ocean of methyl iodide, dimethyl sulphide and carbon disulphide and carbon tetrachloride. the presence of methyl iodide and dimethyl sulphide was sought as confirmation of a prediction from gaia that there should be a large enough emission of these gases from the oceans to balance the natural sulphur and iodine budgets. preliminary confirmation came from these first measurements in 1971 - 72, complete confirmation was made independently by m. o. andreae. later, when considering the prediction from gaia of climate regulation, charlson, lovelock, andreae and warren, proposed that cloud density was modulated by the abundance of atmospheric dimethyl sulphide, and that this in turn changed the earth ' s albedo and mean surface temperature. this proposal was published as a nature paper 1987 and is still under test. gaia theory also offered an interpretation of the long term regulation of carbon dioxide and climate through


and that this in turn changed the earth ' s albedo and mean surface temperature. this proposal was published as a nature paper 1987 and is still under test. gaia theory also offered an interpretation of the long term regulation of carbon dioxide and climate through biologically assisted rock weathering. this proposal was confirmed by schwartzman and volk, in 1989. other environmental contributions were the discovery of methyl chloride as a natural atmospheric gas ( 1975 ). an estimate ( 1977 ) of the hydroxyl abundance of the atmosphere from measurements of the abundance of methyl chloroform, a man - made chemical whose principal sink is reaction with hydroxyl. the first atmospheric halocarbon monitoring station was established at adrigole in ireland in the 1970 ' s. it later became one of the five globally distributed stations that established the atmospheric lifetimes of the chlorofluorocarbons. in 1952 i developed a quantitative theory of the damage suffered by living cells when frozen and thawed. my experiments had shown that damage was due to the concentration of salt and other solutes when ice separated as a pure substance. i was also able to explain the protective action of glycerol and neutral solutes and predicted successfully that dimethyl sulphoxide would be an excellent protective agent. i participated in the team that successfully froze and thawed whole animals, hamsters. my other researches included an investigation of the pathways for the spread of respiratory infection, especially the common cold, and the design of means for its prevention. among my inventions are detectors and other devices for use in gas chromatography. the argon detector was the first practical sensitive detector. it realized the potential of the gas chromatography. the electron capture detector was invented in 1957, and is still among the most sensitive of chemical analytical methods in existence. its use led to the discovery of the ubiquitous distribution of pesticide residues in the natural environment and can be said to have started the environmental movement. the same detector was later used to discover and measure the abundance of chlorofluorocarbons and of nitrous oxide in the atmosphere. another invention was the palladium transmodulator, a device whose use was crucial for the gas chromatograph mass spectrometer experiment aboard the viking space craft that landed on mars. most recently i developed a tracer method for mass transport measurements in the atmosphere and oceans. it uses perfluorocarbons as tracers and detects them by electron capture. it has enabled meteor


the viking space craft that landed on mars. most recently i developed a tracer method for mass transport measurements in the atmosphere and oceans. it uses perfluorocarbons as tracers and detects them by electron capture. it has enabled meteorologists to follow the movement of air masses across continents and is now finding use in ocean research. twenty years ago i postulated that the earth is a self - regulating system able to keep the climate and chemical composition comfortable for organisms. this, the gaia hypothesis, is now the gaia theory, with a mathematical basis, and is still up for trial. a common criticism is of teleology. this accusation is unjust ; neither purpose nor foresight were ever claimed. whether right or wrong, it is a testable theory and capable of making ' risky ' predictions. one of these was that there should be a large enough emission of dimethyl sulphide from the oceans to balance the natural sulphur budget. preliminary confirmation came from my own measurements in 1972 ; complete confirmation was made independently by m. o. andreae. later, when considering the prediction from gaia of climate regulation, charleson, lovelock, andreae and warren proposed that cloud density was modulated by the abundance of atmospheric dimethyl sulphide, and that this in turn changed the earth ' s albedo and mean surface temperature. this proposal was published as a nature paper in 1987 and is still under test. gaia theory also offered an interpretation of the long - term regulation of carbon dioxide and climate through biologically assisted rock weathering. this proposal was confirmed by schwartzman and volk in 1989. at present an honorary visiting fellow of green college, oxford university ( 1941 ) b. sc. in chemistry from manchester university ( 1948 ) ph. d. in medicine from london school of hygiene and tropical medicine ( 1959 ) d. sc. in biophysics from london university 1954 - 55 rockefeller travelling fellowship in medicine at harvard university 1958 - 59 visiting scientist, yale university medical school, usa prizes, honours and awards 1955 ciba foundation award for research in ageing 1974 made a fellow of the royal society 1975 tswett medal for chromatography 1980 american chemical society ' s award for chromatography 1986 the silver medal and prize of the plymouth marine laboratory 1988 norbert gerbier prize of the world meteorological associatio 1990 amsterdam prize for the environment awarded by the royal netherlands academy of arts & sciences 1990 made a c. b. e. by her majesty the


advancements in transportation have played a key role in the growth of our nation. u. s. government policies have also had a considerable impact on the development of transport as we know it today. in this series of three lessons, the students examine transportation and its impact on our nation ( and vice versa ) since the united states declared its independence in 1776. lesson 1 focuses on improvements in transportation during the 19th century, particularly the development of a national rail system, to show how invention, innovation and infrastructure encouraged western expansion and economic growth. lesson 2 moves on to the 20thcentury focusing on the development of auto transport and aviation. the impact on communities and world trade, for both good and bad, is examined. lesson 3 calls upon the students to create a class time line of transportation milestones ; the time line will help the students more clearly understand the factors, especially the economic incentives, that have played a key role in what has been called the ' transportation revolution. ' while these three lessons will ideally be used together as a set, teachers may choose to use one or two of them, selectively, to focus, for example, on the 19th or the 20th century. if you would like your students to study the economics of transportation in more depth, consider following up with the econedlink lesson, an economic mystery : what happened to railroads? costs, determinants of supply, economic growth, gains from trade, incentive, innovation, inventors, investment, markets, non - price determinants, price, role of government, specialization, standard of living, supply, technological changes, transaction costs - distinguish among invention, innovation and investments in infrastructure. - explain how economic incentives encouraged technological change and the capital investments that led to the transportation revolution. - identify ways in which advancements in transportation dramatically transformed trade and promoted economic growth in the united states. play the song america the beautiful. online versions of the music and the lyrics can be found at these two federal web pages : - america the beautiful ; a song sheet posted by the national institute of environmental health sciences ( part of the national institutes of health, u. s. department of health and human services ). - songs and oaths : america, the beautiful ; part of ben ' s guide to u. s. government kids pages ask the students to identify the song. tell them that the words to " america, the beautiful " were written by katharine lee bates, a massachusetts teacher and poet, while she was visiting colorado springs, colorado, in 1893. project this visual, which


ask the students to identify the song. tell them that the words to " america, the beautiful " were written by katharine lee bates, a massachusetts teacher and poet, while she was visiting colorado springs, colorado, in 1893. project this visual, which offers a photograph of pikes peak along with a quotation in which bates explains what inspired her words. one day some of the other teachers and i decided to go on a trip to 14, 000 - foot pikes peak. we hired a prairie wagon. near the top we had to leave the wagon and go the rest of the way on mules. i was very tired. but when i saw the view, i felt great joy. all the wonder of america seemed displayed there, with the sea - like expanse. bates wrote a poem about what she saw, and people liked the sentiments in the poem so much that they started singing the words as lyrics to popular tunes of the time. in 1910, the words were published with the music we know today - music from a song titled " materna " written by samuel a. ward in 1882, eleven years before bates wrote her poem. distribute print copies of the lyrics to " america the beautiful " or project the words on a screen so that all students can see them. point out the line " from sea to shining sea ". tell the students that bates wrote her poem at the end of a period of great expansion for the united states of america. at the beginning of the 19th century, the nation was comprised of only 16 states nestled between the atlantic ocean and the mississippi river. by 1893, the nation had grown to include 44 states, stretching across the continent to the pacific ocean. the land acquired during the era nearly quadrupled the land mass of the united states, encompassing what we now know as the continental 48 states plus alaska. alaska and hawaii became states in 1959. you have probably read about this geographic expansion in a history book. but did you know the 19th century was also a time when the nation ' s economy expanded from sea to shining sea? advancements in transportation dramatically changed how people and goods moved across the united states. [ note : as the students prepare to work at their computers, they may enjoy hearing the ray charles ' version of the song at www. brownielocks. com / americathebeautifulwave. html. charles places the third verse first, after which he sings the usual first verse. ] visuals and handouts - prepare this visual for projection via an overhead or lcd projector during your introduction to


. com / americathebeautifulwave. html. charles places the third verse first, after which he sings the usual first verse. ] visuals and handouts - prepare this visual for projection via an overhead or lcd projector during your introduction to this lesson. the visual includes a photograph of pikes peak along with a quotation from katherine bates explaining how she was inspired to write " america the beautiful ". - prepare a visual for projection or print copies of the lyrics to " america, the beautiful. " music and lyrics the following two federal government web pages provide both the music and lyrics to the song " america the beautiful " which is used in the lesson introduction. you may need a speaker hooked to your computer to enable your students to hear the music. america, the beautiful : a song sheet posted by the national institute of environmental health sciences ( part of the national institutes of health, u. s. department of health and human services ). songs and oaths : america, the beautiful : part of ben ' s guide to u. s. government kids pages. students take a virtual time trip back to the 19th century using these video clips provided by the smithsonian institution. to view these videos you either need windows media player or real one player. transportation infrastructure, 1800 - 1900 video and read - along - text : americanhistory. si. edu / onthemove / themes / story _ 47 _ 1. html transportation technology, 1800 - 1900 video and read - along text : americanhistory. si. edu / onthemove / themes / story _ 50 _ 1. html transportation history, 1800 - 1900 video and read - along - text : americanhistory. si. edu / onthemove / themes / story _ 48 _ 1. html america the beautiful. song lyrics to america the beautiful by ray charles. american experience : native americans. this site explains government policy towards the native americans during the construction of the transcontinental railroad. the buffalo harvest. this site explains government policies that lead to the near extermination of the buffalo. documents on the sand creek massacre. this site provides historical documentation of the sand creek massacre. the fort laramie treaty. this pbs page provides the articles of the fort laramie treaty. know details about the canal. this site explains in detail how the panama canal works. the transportation problem prior to 1800, people in the united states were relatively self - sufficient. trade that occurred was overwhelmingly local. the reason : transportation was very poor. there


details about the canal. this site explains in detail how the panama canal works. the transportation problem prior to 1800, people in the united states were relatively self - sufficient. trade that occurred was overwhelmingly local. the reason : transportation was very poor. there were no motorized means to move people or cargo. transport technology was limited to harnessing animals for land transport and using wind for water transport. waterways were often the only routes for getting goods to and from market. on land, walking was the primary means of transportation. a person could walk about 3 miles per hour. horses travel faster ( between 5 and 10 miles per hour ) than people on foot, but they were not as common as you might think. horses were expensive to feed and required special care. they were owned primarily by wealthy people and businesspersons. people used carts and wagons pulled by horses and oxen to get things from one place to another. oxen were much slower than horses, but they were stronger and could haul heavier loads. oxen were also easier to deal with than horses. roads in the new nation were few and far between. those that did exist were rough and dusty in good weather. when it rained, they were muddy. wooden planks or logs were sometimes used in an effort to make them passable but imagine how bumpy the ride would be on a road firmed up by logs! travel by water was the preferred method of getting people and goods from place to place. because of this, many settlers established their homes and farms along the atlantic ocean and next to rivers. sailing ships harnessing wind power were used to move goods along the coastline while smaller canoes, rafts and boats dependent on people - power traveled inland. not surprisingly, all 10 of the nation ' s largest cities in 1800 were harbor oriented. imagine that you are a farmer who lived near pittsburgh in 1810 and you wanted to get your crop to market in new york city. land routes were so poor that you would probably choose to ship your freight by flatboat or keelboat down the ohio and mississippi rivers to new orleans. a ship would then move your crop through the gulf of mexico, around florida, and finally up the atlantic coast to new york city. the trip was long and difficult. what about travel to the continent ' s pacific coast? in 1810, john jacob astor ( the world ' s richest man at the time ) decided to set up a fur trade business in what we know today as oregon. astor sent a supply ship around the cape of south america to the mouth of


coast? in 1810, john jacob astor ( the world ' s richest man at the time ) decided to set up a fur trade business in what we know today as oregon. astor sent a supply ship around the cape of south america to the mouth of the columbia river while another group traveled overland to the same location. traveling overland from missouri to oregon took nearly two years! the trip was so difficult that several of the men died, while others deserted and some went insane. the sea route was faster taking only six and a half months, but it still was a miserable choice. the ship captain was so nasty that eight sailors drowned trying to get off the ship when it reached land. it was often easier to send products to europe than to another part of the united states. as people moved farther west, they needed new ways to make travel easier, faster, and less costly. the solution to the transportation problem involved three elements : invention, innovation, and infrastructure. 1. invention is the creation of a new object or process. one of the technological inventions that most significantly contributed to the transportation revolution was the steam engine. 2. innovations change how people use preexisting ideas and products. for example, steam engines were adapted as a new power source for preexisting transport technologies - boats and railroads. 3. infrastructure is the set of interconnected elements that support the use of inventions and innovations. examples of transportation infrastructure are roads, bridges, tunnels, canals, rail lines, and ports. building new roads was one of the first solutions to the new nation ' s transportation problem. the financial success of turnpikes in pennsylvania and new york in the 1790s set off a wave of construction projects funded primarily by local communities and private investors. few states had the ability to raise the money needed for such efforts. a turnpike was a road that had been cleared of trees and brush. it might have wood planks or logs to make it an all - weather road. long pikes, or poles, were placed at the entrance and lifted when travelers paid a toll. the user fee helped pay for building and maintaining the road. hundreds of turnpike companies were established in the early 1800s but most of the roads never went beyond 20 miles in length. sometimes the federal government provided incentives to states to build roads. when ohio entered the union in 1803, a deal was struck providing that five percent of federal land sales would be used to build roads. similar deals were struck later with indiana, illinois, and missouri. in 1806, the federal government decided to build a road


ohio entered the union in 1803, a deal was struck providing that five percent of federal land sales would be used to build roads. similar deals were struck later with indiana, illinois, and missouri. in 1806, the federal government decided to build a road. congress authorized funding of the national road to provide portage between the potomac and ohio rivers. the road connected the eastern states with the western frontier. now part of the route travelers call u. s. highway 40, the national road was the first road in the nation to use a macadam road surface. stagecoaches carrying passengers and mail could travel 60 to 70 miles a day on the national road, while conestoga wagons ( designed to carry heavy loads ) could travel at a slower but still impressive rate of five miles a day. these maps show how road construction and improvements reduced travel time by 1830. use them to answer the questions that follow. roads and travel times 1800 roads and travel times 1830 what geographical feature was an obstacle to road building in 1775? [ the appalachian mountains ] have the students use information from the graphs above to complete this chart showing how many weeks it took to get from new york to pittsburgh, detoit, and st. louis : travel time from new york city ( in weeks ) looking at this chart, what can you conclude about the impact of road improvements between 1800 and 1830? [ the new roads cut travel time on the east coast in half. ] an equally significant transportation improvement was the building of canals. canals are man - made waterways. in the united states, canals were often little more than shallow ditches filled with water funded through private and public investments. canal barges were towed by horses walking along the side of the canal on a towpath. the water bore most of the weight of the load, which enabled each horse to pull far more than it could pull while traveling on land. one horse could pull less than a ton over roads but it could pull up to 30 tons of cargo loaded in a canal barge. the erie canal was one of the earliest and most successful canal projects in the united states. it stretched 363 miles across new york state from the hudson river in the east to lake erie in the west. it was 12 times longer than any previously built canal. the erie canal connected the old northwest to new york harbor and the atlantic ocean. started in 1817, it turned a profit long before its construction was completed in 1825. it sparked a canal boom as others tried to copy its success in linking eastern cities to the great lakes and western rivers. before


new york harbor and the atlantic ocean. started in 1817, it turned a profit long before its construction was completed in 1825. it sparked a canal boom as others tried to copy its success in linking eastern cities to the great lakes and western rivers. before the erie canal was built, three weeks were needed to haul one ton of goods from new york city to buffalo. the financial cost was $ 95 to $ 125 per ton. the canal reduced the time required for the journey to 8 days and the dollar cost to just $ 4, within 10 years of the canal ' s completion. the erie canal helped make new york city the largest and richest city in the nation. some say it is the reason new york, not baltimore, became the most important city on the east coast. in 1816 there were only about 100 miles of operative canals in the entire nation. the success of the erie canal caused a canal - building frenzy, with states borrowing millions of dollars ( primarily from europe ) to build more canals. by 1850 there were about 3, 800 miles of canals. the cost to ship one ton of freight for one mile via canal was as little as one penny per ton, 1 / 15 the lowest cost of transporting one ton for one mile via horse and wagon at the time. these maps show the boom in canal building that lasted until the civil war. did you notice that the waterways on the 1860 map include all of the great lakes? this was because another very important canal opened in 1855. the sault sainte marie canal ( popularly known as the soo canal or soo locks ) allowed ships to bypass the rapids of the st. marys river. the canal uses locks to lower boats and other vessels from lake superior to the other great lakes. find the soo canal on this map. canals became a vital means for transporting the heavy loads needed for the economic and geographic expansion of the era. notable freight being moved included : - stone and gravel used to make road improvements ; - grain from the western frontier shipped to populated eastern cities ; plus - iron, coal and timber required to build and operate new industries and homesteads. another significant contribution to transportation technology was the use of the steam engine to power boats. englishmen thomas newcomen and james watt are credited with developing and making many improvements on the steam engine during the 18th century. by 1807 robert fulton had used this new technology to build the north river steamboat ( often called the clermont ). traveling on the hudson river, fulton took his paddle wheeler from new york city to albany and back in five days. he


the 18th century. by 1807 robert fulton had used this new technology to build the north river steamboat ( often called the clermont ). traveling on the hudson river, fulton took his paddle wheeler from new york city to albany and back in five days. he is credited with providing the first safe, regular steamboat service in the united states. introduction of the steamboat to the mississippi river and other rivers soon followed. before steamboats came into use, flatboats and keelboats went down the mississippi river fairly easily, but only keelboats could make the return trip upstream. so many men were needed to haul the boat upriver that little room was left for freight or passengers. boats were often broken up and sold for lumber and firewood at the end of the journey. those taking a boat downstream would get home by land the best way they could. in contrast, steamboats easily moved against the current. river steamboats were also faster ; they reached their destinations in one - fourth the time required by barges powered by hand or animals. steamboats were common on the ohio and mississippi rivers by the 1820s. they were also starting to replace sailing ships on the great lakes and across the seas. one penny was enough to ship three tons of cargo for a mile on a river. the same penny would ship 10 tons for a mile on the great lakes. for most of the 19th century and the early 20th century, steamboats dominated water transport. at the peak of the steamboat era, there were 6, 000 steamers competing for business on the mississippi river alone. steam power also had a spectacular impact on land travel. in 1801, british engineer richard trevithick put a steam engine on wheels. three years later he built the world ' s first steam locomotive. but it took many more years before steam locomotives were actually used as a means of transport. in 1829, two locomotives were imported to the u. s. from england, but they were found to be too heavy for american tracks. more suitable locomotives would have to be produced domestically. one of the first engines to be built in the united states ( the best friend of charleston ) traveled 30 miles an hour without freight or up to 21 miles an hour with four loaded cars. as for railroad tracks, they were not new. primitive wood and iron tracks had been used before for mining operations. men or horses had pushed carts along these tracks. unlike steamboats, steam locomotives didn ' t depend on the location and condition of waterways. more direct routes from place to place were possible. they could carry people and freight anywhere


before for mining operations. men or horses had pushed carts along these tracks. unlike steamboats, steam locomotives didn ' t depend on the location and condition of waterways. more direct routes from place to place were possible. they could carry people and freight anywhere engineers could set rail. they also offered year - round service. many canals and rivers were useless in the winter when the water froze. the first railroads and tracks were financed by local governments and private investors in towns and cities along waterways. they were often built to provide links where a canal was impractical. these short - distance lines helped communities tap potential markets in the surrounding countryside. extension and connection of these lines soon provided uninterrupted transportation over longer distances. in 1840, the united states had almost 3, 000 miles of track. by 1860, mileage had been multiplied 10 - fold. a network of 30, 000 miles linked most of the nation ' s major cities and towns. railroad lines were east of what major geographic feature? [ the mississippi river ] where were most of these rail lines, in the north or the south? [ about two - thirds of the tracks were in the north, with the remaining third in the south. ] no true " rail system " existed until later. most lines were still relatively short and there was no standardized track width. the promise of gold and new lands for homesteading created a demand for easier access to the west. the u. s. government realized it needed to get involved and help fund a transcontinental rail line that would connect the east and west coasts. building the railroad was an expensive venture, and private banks, fearing it would take rail companies a long time to pay off their debts, were reluctant to lend money to the companies. in 1862, congress gave two companies ( the union pacific and the central pacific railroads ) the right to lay down tracks along with a 30 - year government loan for each mile of track constructed. the companies were also given millions of acres of public land along the line that they could sell to make the money required to lay rails. the first continental railroad stretched across two - thirds of the continent from omaha, nebraska to sacramento, california. when the transcontinental railroad was completed at promontory point, utah in 1869, the united states had a rail line linking the atlantic to the pacific ocean. instead of six weeks travel across the west in a stagecoach, the coast to coast journey could now be made in five or six days. four more transcontinental lines followed. - the


had a rail line linking the atlantic to the pacific ocean. instead of six weeks travel across the west in a stagecoach, the coast to coast journey could now be made in five or six days. four more transcontinental lines followed. - the atchison, topeka and santa fe railway connected atchison, kansas with the southern pacific railroad at deming, new mexico, to offer a second link to los angeles, california, in 1882. - the southern pacific railroad linked new orleans, louisiana ( and the gulf of mexico ) to los angeles in 1883 - the northern pacific railway, also completed in 1883, linked chicago, illinois with seattle, washington - the great northern railroad stretched from st. paul, minnesota to seattle in 1893. four out of the five transcontinental railroads were built with help from the federal government. did you notice that the last railroad line was finished in 1893, the year in which katharine bates wrote " america the beautiful "? between 1865 and 1890, rail lines west of the mississippi increased from 3, 272 miles of track to 72, 463 miles. people could travel in relative comfort and safety in record times. goods were transportable anywhere. the cost of shipping a ton of freight for one mile was two cents, at least double the cost of shipping via water, but dependable access to new places and speed often made rail shipment worth the difference in cost. this map shows the land the federal government gave to the railways as an incentive to build these transcontinental lines. bridges and tunnels many people who write about advances in transportation forget to mention the contributions made by bridges and tunnels. these structures are an essential part of road, canal and rail construction projects, making more direct routes possible where there are mountains, valleys and water. people heading west often were forced to travel miles out of their way to find a safe place to cross a river. sometimes they waited for days or weeks for flooding water to recede. narrow wagon wheels sank into the muddy river bottoms, and the swift, unpredictable currents took a toll in lives and property. travel through the mountains ( particularly the rocky mountains ) was also challenging and dangerous. again, people had to travel miles out of their way to find passage. they had to move fallen boulders out of their way and be concerned about going up and down steep inclines with loaded wagons. another worry was that they might get stranded in a snowstorm without sufficient supplies for survival. early bridges in the united states designed to carry heavy loads were made of wood or stone. most bridges were


going up and down steep inclines with loaded wagons. another worry was that they might get stranded in a snowstorm without sufficient supplies for survival. early bridges in the united states designed to carry heavy loads were made of wood or stone. most bridges were built of wood because it was cheap and easily available. the problem with wood was that it was subject to decay. stone was the preferred building material because it was practically maintenance - free, it could last for centuries, and strength was rarely an issue. in the new nation, however, money and people with masonry skills were scarce which meant masonry bridges were extremely rare. in 1779, abraham darby ( iii ) built an iron bridge in england. darby ' s bridge marked the beginning of a revolution in how bridges are constructed. iron ( followed in the second half of the 19th century by steel and concrete ) made it possible to build longer and stronger bridges. the new bridges were more durable than wood yet not as expensive as stone. and they could be built relatively quickly. this was especially important when new rail lines were being built over long distances in a short period of time. inventions and innovations had a similar impact on tunnels. in 1818, englishman isambard kingdom brunel invented a cast - iron shield that made it possible for miners to dig tunnels under soft earth and water, which had previously been obstacles to tunneling. through the mid 1800s, state - of - the art technology for digging tunnels amounted only to hand drills, pickaxes, and black powder. swedish chemist and engineer, alfred nobel changed all of this in 1866 when he created dynamite, a safer and more manageable explosive that was stronger than black powder. about fifteen years later, thomas english ( another englishman ) patented the tunnel - boring machine that provided an alternative to digging and blasting. step back in time take a virtual time trip back to the 19th century and watch as these transportation changes occurred. see how many inventions, innovations and improvements in infrastructure you can identify. transportation infrastructure, 1800 - 1900 transportation technology, 1800 - 1900 the economic impact lower transaction costs this chart offers a glimpse at how the cost of moving goods changed between 1915 and 1960. costs to transport one ton mode of transportation 15¢ or more 2¢ or more 1 / 3¢ or more | 1 / 3¢ or more | 1¢ or more 1¢ or less 1 / 2¢ or less | source : george rogers taylor, the transportation revolution ( new york : holt, rinehart, 1962 ) appendix a, table 2 | how much did it cost to


more | 1¢ or more 1¢ or less 1 / 2¢ or less | source : george rogers taylor, the transportation revolution ( new york : holt, rinehart, 1962 ) appendix a, table 2 | how much did it cost to move the same amount of freight over the same distance by rail in 1860? [ $. 20 ( $. 02x10 miles ) ] how much did it cost to move the same amount of freight for the same distance over land in 1860? [ $ 1. 50 ( $. 15 x 10 miles ) ] calculate how many tons could be shipped for a mile in 1860 with one penny. horse and wagon : [ 1 / 15 mile ] railroad : [ 1 / 2 mile ] ocean vessel : [ 2 miles ] river steamboat : [ 3 miles ] what was the least expensive way to transport one ton of freight - by land or water? [ water ] what was the least expensive option for land transport? [ railroads ] the decline in the transaction costs created by the technical changes made it possible for producers to sell more goods at lower prices. economists refer to these technical changes as non - price determinants which cause the supply curve for goods to shift right. a national marketplace prior to the transportation revolution, people depended on goods from their regional market. transportation advancements increased the speed of moving goods and reduced what producers had to pay to get their goods to market. as a result, producers could sell goods at lower prices and still profit. they could also undersell competitors in other regions, expanding their markets. geographic regions of the united states began to specialize. specialization occurs when an economic unit ( in this case a region ) produces a narrower range of goods and services than it consumes. regions specialize in the production of the goods and services that they are best fitted to produce given their particular productive resources. while agriculture was important in all sections of the nation, the production of grains such as wheat, corn, and oats was most important in the midwest. the cornbelt is traditionally the center of hog production so it should not be a surprise that the midwestern states also led in the production of pigs. farther west, the land was best suited for cattle and other grazing livestock, as evidenced by the success of the buffalo in the region before the farmers arrived. the south stood out in the production of cotton. because cotton requires a tropical or subtropical climate, it was impossible to grow the fiber in the other regions of the nation. when it came to manufacturing, the east was dominant. water


the farmers arrived. the south stood out in the production of cotton. because cotton requires a tropical or subtropical climate, it was impossible to grow the fiber in the other regions of the nation. when it came to manufacturing, the east was dominant. water was a critical element in the generation of power required to operate factories. the region had a large number of rivers and waterfalls that could generate power. in contrast the west had very few water sources that could generate power. unlike today, power in the 19th century was not a product that could be traded across distances. another advantage for the east was its location where original settlement of the nation had occurred. it had a more developed infrastructure than other areas. the growth of manufacturing in the 19th century required minerals such as coal, iron ore, copper and oil. as deposits of these minerals were found, new places specialized in extracting them. for example, pennsylvania and ohio were the first sources of oil. minnesota and montana specialized in iron ore and copper, respectively. another important resource was timber. wood was needed to build homes, stores, factories, railways, and ships. it also provided a source of fuel. the location of the timber industry evolved as local sources were depleted and people moved west. logging moved from the forests of new york to the great lake states, and then to the south and the pacific northwest. some factories followed the resources. for example, detroit ' s proximity to lumber, iron ore, and coal in the midwest made it a manufacturing center for railroad cars, ships, and iron stoves. when george washington was president ( from 1789 to 1797 ), the united states extended west and only as far as the mississippi river. one hundred years later, the nation had spread across the continent from " sea to shining sea. " to develop the west and to expand the nation ' s economy as a whole, a good transportation system was needed, one that would allow people and goods to move easily and cheaply from one part of the nation to another. technological advancements such as steamboats and steam locomotives combined with improvements in transport infrastructure made the nation seem like a much smaller place. step back in time for a few more minutes for an overview of how transportation changed between 1800 and 1900. transportation history 1800 - 1900 the transportation revolution ( particularly the development of railroads ) was vital to economic expansion in the united states in the 19th century. the technological inventions and innovations combined with improved infrastructure made it possible to move people and goods relatively easily, quickly and cheaply. farmers and ranchers on the western frontier


of railroads ) was vital to economic expansion in the united states in the 19th century. the technological inventions and innovations combined with improved infrastructure made it possible to move people and goods relatively easily, quickly and cheaply. farmers and ranchers on the western frontier were able to transport grain and livestock to distant markets. in turn, western consumers were able to get an affordable supply of goods from eastern and foreign markets. the economic impact of the lower transportation costs is multi - layered. structurally, the u. s. economy was transformed from a collection of relatively local markets to a unified national market that spread across the continent. regional specialization occurred, yielding dramatic increases in productivity. the transportation revolution also increased access to the resources needed to build homes and expand businesses throughout the growing nation. the overall result was economic development and economic growth, providing new jobs and a higher level of living. have your students click here to complete an interactive activity. [ evaluation of student learning is based on the students ' responses to interactive questions included in this part of the lesson and the students ' preparation of posters for the timeline ( during the third part of the lesson ). ] - government policies can have both positive and negative effects. the u. s government encouraged transcontinental railroad construction in an effort to unify and strengthen the nation, to accelerate the populating of the west by homesteaders, and to increase taxable wealth. on the other hand, it contributed to the decline of the buffalo and native americans. analyze the negative impact of the westward expansion of the railroads. these web sites are a good place to start : - native americans - native americans and the transcontinental railroad - the buffalo harvest - documents on the sand creek massacre - fort laramie treaty, 1868 - read one of these classic books which provide insight into travel during the 19th century : - life on the mississippi by mark twain. twain has much to say about the operation of steam boats. - around the world in eighty days by jules verne. verne offers an imaginary travel log involving diverse modes of transport available during the period. - in the early 1800s, traveling from new york city to san francisco by boat required a trip of more than six months around cape horn at the tip of south america. in 1855, a railway was built across the isthmus of panama in central america. travel by this railway, cut the number of miles that had to be traveled by more than half, but the trip still had unpleasant elements. it was a hassle to transfer between the various modes of transport. add


##us of panama in central america. travel by this railway, cut the number of miles that had to be traveled by more than half, but the trip still had unpleasant elements. it was a hassle to transfer between the various modes of transport. add to this the fact that ships providing transport to california were rare. people and freight were often stranded for weeks ( even months ) in overcrowded towns where life - threatening diseases were common. a canal seemed like a better solution. inspired by the successful 1869 completion of the suez canal, the french started to build a canal across the isthmus of panama in 1893. after much effort, the project failed. the u. s. government bought the french equipment and tried again in 1904. it took 10 years, but the panama canal was finally completed and travel by ship between the two important u. s. cities was cut to less than two weeks. construction of the panama canal is considered one of the largest and most difficult engineering projects ever undertaken. it is considered a marvel in terms of both technology and infrastructure. look at this map which shows how dramatically the route was shortened. now take a look at how the canals ' locks operate. select " transit " and " operations " after clicking on this link www. pancanal. com / eng / general / howitworks / index. html. be the first to review this lesson! add a review


hiv rates rise in youth the number of new hiv infections in the united states remains relatively stable, standing at about 50, 000 people annually. but hiv, the virus that causes aids, is on the rise among younger americans under the age of 25. in fact, too many youth in the united states continue to become infected with hiv, federal officials said. and few are tested. those are two key take away points from a new report out by the atlanta - based centers for disease control and prevention, which was released to coincide with world aids day. specifically, young people between the ages of 13 and 24 in the u. s. account for more than a quarter of new hiv infections each year ( 26 percent ) while 60 percent of these youth living with hiv are unaware they are infected, according to the cdc ’ s vital signs report, released november 27. the most - affected youth are gay and bisexual men and african americans. the analysis looked at the latest data on hiv infections, testing, and risk behaviors among young people. the report offers insights into what kinds of behavior are driving the high rates of infection. for example, young men who have sex with men - or msm - were more likely to report having had sex with four or more partners or injecting illegal drugs. in addition, among students who were currently sexually active, young msm were also more likely to have used alcohol or drugs before their last sexual experience and were less likely to have used a condom. and young msm were also less likely to report having been taught about hiv or aids in school. a silent epidemic medical professionals expressed concern over the report. " the aids epidemic is silent, " said dr. kenneth h. mayer, medical research director of the fenway institute in boston, in a phone interview. " it may have been horrible for older people, but youth don ’ t know people who are very sick. they think of aids as a disease of old people, and it ’ s a manageable disease. at least that is the youthful perspective. " mayer is also the director of hiv prevention at boston ’ s beth israel deaconess hospital. for african americans, he said, discrimination, stigma, and homophobia are contributing factors to increased rates of hiv infection. " these youth are very disenfranchised from society, " mayer explained. " if you are a young black man, you may have been ostracized by your family of birth, experienced racism - so there is a lot going on in your life. " other independent factors,


us to reduce new infections, and that includes educating those vulnerable to infection on ways to keep themselves safer, " haag added. overall, an estimated 12, 200 new hiv infections in the u. s. occurred in 2010 among young people aged 13 - 24, with young gay and bisexual men and african - americans hit harder by hiv than their peers. in 2010, for example, 72 percent of estimated new hiv infections in young people occurred in young men who have sex with men. by race and ethnicity, 57 percent of estimated new infections in this age group were in african americans. two data sources were used for hiv testing and risk behavior analysis, including surveys from public school students in grades 9 - 12 in 11 states ( connecticut, delaware, florida, hawaii, illinois, massachusetts, michigan, new hampshire, rhode island, vermont, and washington ) and nine large urban school districts ( boston, chicago, detroit, district of columbia, los angeles, milwaukee, new york city, san diego, and seattle ). " that so many young people become infected with hiv each year is a preventable tragedy, " cdc director dr. thomas r. frieden told reporters during a conference call last week to discuss the findings. " all young people can protect their health, avoid contracting and transmitting the virus, and learn their hiv status, " he said. " this is our future generation and the bottom line is that every month 1, 000 youth are becoming infected with hiv. " he added, " hiv, despite the great treatments that we have, remains an incurable infection. and the cost of care of a single patient is approximately $ 400, 000 over their lifetime. that means we are incurring about $ 400 million in health care costs, and every year $ 5 billion from preventable infections in youth. " despite recommendations from cdc and the american academy of pediatrics that call for routine hiv testing of youth in medical settings, the vital signs analysis showed that 35 percent of 18 - 24 year olds have been tested for hiv, while only 13 percent of high school students - and 22 percent of sexually experienced students - have ever been tested. " the key here for clinicians is to make it routine, " said frieden. " it is routine screening just as we screen adults for high cholesterol, we screen people for hiv infection. " test then treat of course, testing is only the first step to treatment, which can lead to improved patients ’ health if they are found to be hiv - positive, as well as prevent them from spreading infection


, we screen people for hiv infection. " test then treat of course, testing is only the first step to treatment, which can lead to improved patients ’ health if they are found to be hiv - positive, as well as prevent them from spreading infection. the phenomenon is known as " treatment cascade, " which frieden addressed during the conference call. by " improving what we call the treatment cascade, increasing the number and proportion of people whose infection is controlled whose viral load is suppressed, we will reduce the risk for everyone in society, " he said. " that ’ s a critical goal for us to work with communities, health care providers, and most importantly with people infected with hiv so they can get the care and services they need to live long and productive lives, be healthy, stay out of the hospital, and not to infect other people. " furthermore, studies have shown that people who know they are hiv - positive are less likely to engage in risky behaviors, such as unprotected sex and sharing needles. " we can and must achieve a generation that is free from hiv and aids, " said dr. kevin fenton, director of the national center for hiv / aids, viral hepatitis, std, and tb prevention at the cdc. " it will take a concerted effort at all levels across our nation to empower all young people, especially young gay and bisexual youth, with the tools and resources they need to protect themselves from hiv infection, " he said. an openly gay man, fenton, who participated in the conference call, is stepping down from his position at the end of the year to return to his native england. he has served as head of the cdc ’ s hiv / aids division for seven years. currently, an estimated 1. 2 million people in the u. s. are living with hiv.


lech walesa shocks poland with anti - gay comments warsaw, poland - - lech walesa, the polish democracy icon and nobel peace prize winner, has sparked outrage in poland by saying that gays have no right to a prominent role in politics and that as a minority they need to " adjust to smaller things. " some commentators are now suggesting that walesa, the leading figure in poland ’ s successful democracy struggle against communism, has irreparably harmed his legacy. walesa said in a television interview on friday that he believes gays have no right to sit on the front benches in parliament and, if represented at all, should sit in the back, " and even behind a wall. " " they have to know that they are a minority and must adjust to smaller things. and not rise to the greatest heights, the greatest hours, the greatest provocations, spoiling things for the others and taking ( what they want ) from the majority, " he told the private broadcaster tvn during a discussion of gay rights. " i don ’ t agree to this and i will never agree to it. " " a minority should not impose itself on the majority, " walesa said. the words have enraged many. " from a human point of view his language was appalling. it was the statement of a troglodyte, " said jerzy wenderlich, a deputy speaker of parliament with the democratic left alliance. in some ways the uproar says as much about poland today as it does about walesa. walesa, poland ’ s first democratic - era president, is a deeply conservative roman catholic and a father of eight. but, the democracy he helped create in 1989 from the turmoil of strikes and other protests has had a profound social transformation in recent years. poland is a traditionally conservative and catholic society that long suppressed discussions of gay rights. the topic was essentially taboo under communism, and in the early years of democracy. the polish church, which has a strong role in political life, still holds that homosexuality is deviant, while gays and lesbians say they face discrimination and even violence. however, much has changed. a watershed moment came in 2011 when a new progressive and anti - clerical party - palikot ’ s movement - entered parliament for the first time. taking seats for the party were anna grodzka, a transsexual, and robert biedron, who is openly gay. these were all historic firsts. the two have been in the public eye while law


the first time. taking seats for the party were anna grodzka, a transsexual, and robert biedron, who is openly gay. these were all historic firsts. the two have been in the public eye while lawmakers have debated a civil partnership law. though lawmakers have recently struck down proposals, the discussions continue. a new campaign was just launched to fight taboos. some predicted the consequences for walesa could be serious. a national committee devoted to fighting hate speech and other crimes filed a complaint with prosecutors on sunday in gdansk, walesa ’ s home city, accusing him of promoting " propaganda of hate against a sexual minority. " walesa is no longer active in polish political life, though he is often interviewed and asked his opinion on current affairs. much of his time is spent giving lectures internationally on his role in fighting communism and on issues of peace and democracy. " now nobody in their right mind will invite lech walesa as a moral authority, knowing what he said, " wenderlich said. monika olejnik, a leading television journalist, said walesa " disgraced the nobel prize. " some, however, said they were not surprised by walesa ’ s words. " i am surprised that only now we are noticing that walesa is not in control of what he says and that he has views that are far from being politically correct, " said adam bielan, a conservative polish member of the european parliament.


obsessive - compulsive disorder ( ocd ) ( cont. ) in this article after you are diagnosed with obsessive - compulsive disorder ( ocd ), your doctor will likely prescribe antidepressants known as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors ( ssris ), such as fluoxetine ( for example, prozac ). antidepressants are thought to help balance neurotransmitters ( such as serotonin ) in your brain. in some cases it takes time to adjust the dosage or find the right medicine that will work for you. you may start to feel better within 1 to 3 weeks of taking an ssri. but it can take as many as 12 weeks to see more improvement. if you have questions or concerns about your medicines, or if you do not notice any improvement by 3 weeks, talk to your doctor. your doctor may increase the dosage of your medicine, change to another ssri, or use another medicine known as clomipramine if the medicine first prescribed does not help. clomipramine, a tricyclic antidepressant, has been used for years to treat ocd, but it may have more side effects than ssris. your doctor may prescribe other medicines if you have other conditions along with ocd. antidepressants ( ssris ) such as fluoxetine ( for example, prozac ), fluvoxamine ( luvox ), and sertraline ( zoloft ) are commonly prescribed to treat ocd. these medicines are taken as tablets or capsules. the medicine venlafaxine can also help symptoms of ocd. the tricyclic antidepressant clomipramine ( anafranil ) is sometimes used as well. antidepressants are used to relieve the obsessive thoughts and subsequent compulsive behaviors in those who have ocd. by increasing the level of serotonin in the brain, antidepressants help to regulate the communication between different parts of the brain. other medicines ( such as antipsychotics ) are sometimes used to treat ocd. what to think about a person with ocd may also have other anxiety disorders that complicate treatment and require using other medicines. for children and adolescents with ocd, treatment combining cognitive - behavioral therapy with antidepressants ( ssris ), such as sertraline, works better than only taking medicine. cognitive


an internist is a medical doctor who specializes in the care of adults. people might choose an internist as their primary doctor for regular checkups and for treating illness. internists can further specialize in : - adolescent medicine ( conditions and diseases common to teenagers ). - allergy, or immunology ( immune system diseases ). - cardiac electrophysiology ( problems with the heart ' s electrical system ). - cardiology ( diseases and conditions of the heart and blood vessels ). - critical care medicine ( the care of people who are in an intensive care unit, or icu ). - endocrinology ( diseases of the endocrine glands, which regulate hormones ). - gastroenterology ( diseases of the digestive system ). - geriatric medicine ( conditions and diseases in older adults ). - hematology ( diseases of the blood and blood system ). - infectious disease ( complex infections ). - interventional cardiology ( procedures to diagnose and treat heart disease ). - nephrology ( diseases of the kidney and urinary system ). - oncology ( cancer ). - pulmonology ( lung diseases such as asthma, emphysema, and pneumonia ). - rheumatology ( immune system diseases and diseases of the joints ). - sports medicine ( the treatment of injuries to the bones, muscles, joints, tendons, or ligaments that result from physical activity ). internists can be board - certified by the board of internal medicine, which is recognized by the american board of medical specialties. | primary medical reviewer | | kathleen romito, md - family medicine | | specialist medical reviewer | | e. gregory thompson, md - internal medicine | | last revised | | august 20, 2010 |


the one rule for a formal table is for everything to be geometrically spaced : the centerpiece at the exact center ; the place settings at equal distances ; and the utensils balanced. beyond these placemats, you can vary flower arrangements and decorations as you like. the placement of utensils is guided by the menu, the idea being that you use utensils in an " outside in " order. for the illustrated place setting here, the order of the menu is : - appetizer : shellfish - first course : soup or fruit - fish course ( a ) service plate : this large plate, also called a charger, serves as an underplate for the plate holding the first course, which will be brought to the table. when the first course is cleared, the service plate remains until the plate holding the entree is served, at which point the two plates are exhcnaged. the charger may serve as the underplate for several courses which precede the entree. ( b ) butter plate : the small butter plate is placed above the forks at the left of the place setting. ( c ) dinner fork : the largest of the forks, also called the place fork, is placed on the left of the plate. other smaller forks for other courses are arranged to the left or right of the dinner fork, according to when they will be used. ( d ) fish fork : if there is a fish course, this small fork is placed farthest to the left of the dinner fork because it is the first fork used. ( e ) salad fork : if the salad is served after the entree, the small salad fork is placed to the right of the dinner fork, next to the plate. if the salad is to be served first, and fish second, then the forks would be arranged ( left to right ) : salad fork, fish fork, dinner fork. ( f ) dinner knife : the large dinner knife is placed to the right of the dinner plate. ( g ) fish knife : the specially shaped fish knife goes to the right of the dinner knife. ( h ) salad knife ( note : there is no salad knife in the illustration ) : if used, according to the above menu, it would be placed to the left of the dinner knife, next to the dinner plate. if the salad is to be served first, and fish second, then the knives would be arranged ( left to right ) : dinner knife, fish knife, salad knife. ( i ) soup spoon or fruit spoon :


, next to the dinner plate. if the salad is to be served first, and fish second, then the knives would be arranged ( left to right ) : dinner knife, fish knife, salad knife. ( i ) soup spoon or fruit spoon : if soup or fruit is served as a first course, then the accompanying spoon goes to the right of the knives. ( j ) oyster fork : if shellfish are to be served, the oyster fork goes to the right of the spoons. note : it is the only fork ever placed on the right of the plate. ( k ) butter knife : the small spreader is paced diagonally on top of the butter plate, handle on the right and blade down. ( l ) glasses : these can number up to five and are placed so that the smaller ones are up front. the water goblet ( la ) is placed directly above the knives. just to the right goes a champagne flute ( lb ) ; in front of these are placed a red ( lc ) or white ( ld ) wine glass and a sherry glass ( le ). ( m ) napkin : the napkin is placed on top of the charger ( if one is used ) or in the space for the plate. - knife blades are always placed with the cutting edge toward the plate. - no more than three of any implement is ever placed on the table, except when an oyster fork is used in addition to three other forks. if more than three courses are served before dessert, then the utensil for the fourth course is broght in with the food ; likewise the salad fork and knife may be brought in when the salad course is served. - dessert spoons and forks are brought in on the dessert plate just before dessert is served.


these are poly - aromatic compounds, insoluble in n - heptane, with a number of carbon atoms greater than 50. the asphalthene content of a crude may be the cause of deposits in inter - changers and / or lines. in fact, the mix of a crude having a high asphalthene content with a paraffinic crude can displace the balance of the asphalthenes, precipitating them. a high asphalthene content ensures that the vacuum pitch will be suitable for producing asphalt. astm d86 distillation is a test that measures the volatility of gasoline, kerosene and diesel. basic sediment and water ( bsw ) the bsw relates to the content of free water ( not dissolved ) and sediments ( mud, sand ) in the crude. it is important that its reading is low in order to avoid dirtiness and difficulties during the crude processing, in which the steam produced by the free water can damage the oven. it is reported as a percentage in volume over the crude. this is the weight of the residue remaining after the combustion of a fuel sample. it represents the facility of a heavy fuel to produce particles during combustion. this is the measurement of the mass of a volume. it is expressed in kilograms per liter, or grams per cubic centimeter. density depends on the temperature as this affects the volume of the substances. temperature at which a liquid stops flowing when cooled, through the precipitation of crystals of solid paraffin. the draining temperature is very important as, in the unloading of paraffinic crudes using sea terminals with underwater pipelines of a certain length, the temperature of the crude can fall below the draining point, creating deposits of wax or solid paraffin in the pipelines, thus obstructing the flow. this is the minimum temperature at which the vapors of a product flash or detonate momentarily when a flame is applied in controlled conditions. it represents the maximum temperature at which a product can be stored or transported in safe conditions. this is the temperature at which the crystals formed during the cooling of a product sample disappear completely when the temperature rises in a controlled way the metals content of a crude, vanadium and nickel, gives us an indication of their content in the heaviest products obtained in the refining. this is important because, for example, the metals in gas oil in vacuum are poison for the catalytic and hydro - cracking catalysts. a high vanadium content or metals in the combustible oil may cause oven and


obtained in the refining. this is important because, for example, the metals in gas oil in vacuum are poison for the catalytic and hydro - cracking catalysts. a high vanadium content or metals in the combustible oil may cause oven and boiler tube breakage problems because they form corrosive products during combustion. number of cetane this measures the ease with which the spontaneous ignition occurs of diesel oil using a standardized engine and a reference fuel. the cetane rating is determined by making a comparison of the ignition time of a mix of cetane ( c16 ) ) and hepta - methyl - nonane ( c 15 ), which has the same delay time in ignition as the fuel being examined. the cetane rating measured is the percentage of the cetane compound in the cetane / hepta - methyl - nonane mix. the c16 has a cetane rating equal to 100 ( it is an easily - ignited paraffin ) and c15 has a cetane rating equal to 0 ( as being a slow - combustion aromatic ). a high cetane rating represents a high ignition quality or a short delay time between the fuel injection and the start of combustion. the diesel engine uses a high compression ratio to produce the spontaneous ignition of the diesel, instead of a spark as in the case of the internal combustion engine. the compressed air temperature in the diesel engine is sufficiently high to fire the diesel. the lineal paraffins have a high cetane rating and therefore burn well ; on the other hand, the aromatics are of a low cetane rating and burn badly, producing deposits of carbon and the production of black smoke. for that reason, high - quality diesel should have an aromatic content compatible with the specified cetane rating. the cetane rating can be calculated based on the volatility ( corresponding to the temperature of 50 % distilled ) and the density of the diesel and is called calculated cetane rating. the reason for using the formula is the high cost of the cetane engine. octane number ( nor ) the rvp and nor are the most important parameters of gasoline quality. the nor measures the resistance of the gasoline to self - ignition or premature detonation in an engine ' s functioning conditions. self - ignition is noted for the hammering or noise produced when the gasoline self - ignites, detonating before the cylinder compresses all the gasoline and air mixture, losing power. the detonation produces sound waves


' s functioning conditions. self - ignition is noted for the hammering or noise produced when the gasoline self - ignites, detonating before the cylinder compresses all the gasoline and air mixture, losing power. the detonation produces sound waves that are detected using special microphones. the octane rating is measured by comparing the noise of the detonation made by a reference fuel mixture in a standardized engine with that for which the fuel examined is made. the reference fuels are iso - octane ( 2, 2, 4 trimethyl pentane ), with an octane rating equal to 100 ( high resistance to hammering ) and the n - heptane which has an octane rating of zero ( very low resistance ). the octane rating determined is the percentage in volume of iso - octane in the iso - octane / heptane mixture. fuels with a high octane rating have greater resistance to premature detonation than those of a lower octane rating. in addition, fuels with a high octane rating can be used in engines with a high compression ratio, which are more efficient. there are two types of engine for the determination of the octane rating of gasoline. one uses the research method and the other the motor method. the research method represents the behavior of an engine in cities at low and moderate speeds. the motor method represents situations with fast acceleration, like climbing gradients or overtaking. there is another way of expressing the octane rating of a gasoline which is called highway octane. the highway octane rating is expressed as the sum of the research octane and the motor octane ratings divided by 2. the highway octane rating is used in the united states while the research method is used in chile. reid vapor pressure ( rvp ) the reid vapor pressure is an empirical test that measures the pressure in pounds per square inch ( psi ) exercised by the vapors or light components of the crude or of an oil product, in a closed container at a temperature of 100 °f ( 38 °c ). a high vapor pressure of the crude tells us that light products are present in it and that they will burn in the torch in the processing if there is no suitable recovery system. in the case of an internal combustion engine, excessive vapor pressure will cause a blockage which will impede the flow of gasoline. crude oil contains salt ( naci ) which comes from the oil fields or the sea water used as ballast by oil tankers. it is necessary to extract the salt with desalination


cause a blockage which will impede the flow of gasoline. crude oil contains salt ( naci ) which comes from the oil fields or the sea water used as ballast by oil tankers. it is necessary to extract the salt with desalination equipment before the crude oil can enter the atmospheric distillation oven in order to avoid corrosion that is produced in the upper part of the atmospheric tower. the salt decomposes and produces chlorhydric acid. it is expressed in grams of salt per cubic meter of crude. the temperature at which some products inflame spontaneously in contact with the air ( without flame ), probably due to the heat the show oxidation produces, which accumulates, raising the temperature to the inflammation point. fortunately, the oil distillers have very high self - ignition temperatures and are therefore difficult to achieve ; this is 450ºc in gasoline. oily rags, on the other hand, self - ignite easily and cause fires and so should be suitably destroyed. the ratio of the weight of a substance and the weight of an equal volume of water at the same temperature. in oil, the api specific gravity is used which is measured with hydrometers that float in the liquid. the api grades are read directly on the scale that stands above the liquid at the flotation line point. the api scale arose from the facility of graduating the hydrometer rod uniformly. °api = 141. 5 / ( specific gravity ) - 131. 5 the °api determines whether the crude or product is light or heavy and enables us to calculate the tons of this unloaded. a light crude has an api of 40 - 50 while a heavy one has 10 - 24. sulfur and the api are the properties with the greatest influence on the price of crude. this is the resistance to degradation through heat or oxidation of an oil product. products containing olefinic material are unstable and susceptible to degradation. the sulfur content permits the foreseeing of difficulties in meeting product and atmospheric emission specifications, as treatment units are needed to meet these ; it is also poison for some catalysts. it also enables us to see whether the plant metallurgy is the most suitable for processing it. it is expressed as a percentage in weight of sulfur. sulfuric acid ( h2s ) a prior knowledge of the sulfuric acid content of the crude permits preventive actions and avoids accidents to people. the sulfhydric acid is very dangerous because it anesthetizes the olfactory nerve which prevents people from


h2s ) a prior knowledge of the sulfuric acid content of the crude permits preventive actions and avoids accidents to people. the sulfhydric acid is very dangerous because it anesthetizes the olfactory nerve which prevents people from being aware of the situation and is mortal in small quantities. personnel working in contact with the crude have therefore to wear protection equipment and personal sulfhydric acid sensors. this is the degree of resistance of a liquid to flow. the greater the viscosity, the greater the resistance to flow. viscosity is affected by the temperature, reducing it when the latter rises. it is measured by using special viscosimeters and is expressed in uss ( universal saybolt seconds ), fss ( furol saybolt seconds ) and in centi - stokes. viscosity is important for fuel injection in engines and burners. it is also critical in the pumping of crude oil and products by pipeline. a higher viscosity than that designed for will reduce the desired flow and make a greater pump motor capacity necessary. the viscosity also affects measuring instrument factors, altering the readings. the measurement of the facility with which a product vaporizes. volatile products have high steam pressure and a low boiling point. it is measured through the astm d86 test and is expressed as the temperature at which certain volumes are distilled.


great marine protection areas the pacific island nation of kiribati has established the world ' s largest marine protected area of coral reefs and fish populations, but both of which are threatened by overfishing and climate change. the phoenix islands protected area conserves one of the world ' s last intact coral reef archipelago ecosystems with eight coral reefs, two submerged reef systems and underwater mountains, over 415, 000 square kilometers of nearly uninhabited islands with abundant marine and bird life. a marine protected area ( mpa ) is a protected area whose boundaries include some area of ocean. " mpa " is often used as an umbrella term that describes a wide range of marine areas that restrict human activity to protect living, non - living, cultural, and / or historic resources. protections in various areas range from limits on development, fishing gear types, fishing seasons, catch limits, moorings, to complete bans on removing marine life of any kind. mpas are established to protect a certain species, to benefit fisheries, rare habitat, or nursing grounds for fish or to protect entire ecosystems. mpas are also established to protect historical sites such as shipwrecks and cultural sites such as aboriginal fishing grounds. mpas can be very large ( such as the great barrier reef ) or very small ( such as the area marina protetta capo rizzuto ). typical restrictions in mpas include ones on fishing, oil and gas mining and tourism. other restrictions may limit the use of ultrasonic devices like sonar ( which may confuse cetaceans ), development, construction and the like. the degree to which environmental regulations affect shipping varies according to whether mpas are located in territorial waters, exclusive economic zones, or high seas. the law of the sea regulates these limits. the phoenix islands are a group of eight atolls and two submerged coral reefs, lying in the central pacific ocean east of the gilbert islands and west of the line islands. they are a part of the republic of kiribati. this nation is small and relatively poor. kiribati is expected to be the first country in which all land territory disappears due to global climate change. using new boundaries, kiribati has almost doubled the size of the phoenix island protected area since 2008 : " kiribati has taken an inspirational step in increasing the size of pipa well beyond the original eight atolls and globally important seabird, fish and coral reef communities, " said greg stone, the new england aquarium ( neaq ) vice - president of global marine programs.


an inspirational step in increasing the size of pipa well beyond the original eight atolls and globally important seabird, fish and coral reef communities, " said greg stone, the new england aquarium ( neaq ) vice - president of global marine programs. " the new boundary includes extensive sea mount and deep sea habitat, tuna spawning grounds, and as yet unsurveyed submerged reef systems. " the phoenix islands area is pristine and an important migration route for marine and bird life. three neaq research expeditions since 2000 have found 120 species of coral and 520 species of fish, some new to science. it also has some of the most important sea bird nesting sites in the pacific ocean. in the case of kiribati, and most nations that set aside marine areas for conservation, they are restricting commercial fishing while allowing subsistence fishing ( kanton island is the only inhabited island in the chain, with ~ 30 people ) and sustainable development. as they are giving up the revenue that could be accrued if they did not give protected status, an endowment system has been set up by conservation international and the new england aquarium ( neaq ) to both manage the area and compensate the people and government for any losses. there are many other mpa ' s and plans for such around the world. some include : american samoa - 20 % of reefs to be protected by 2010. south australia - 19 marine protected areas by 2010. bahamas - 20 % of the marine ecosystem protected for fishery replenishment by 2010. chile - 10 % of marine areas by 2010. micronesia - 30 % of shoreline ecosystems by 2020. fiji - 30 % of reefs by 2015. germany - 38 % of water managed by the marine protected network. ( no set date ) grenada - 25 % of nearby marine resources by 2020. guam - 30 % of nearby marine ecosystem by 2020. jamaica - 20 % of marine habitats by 2020. marshal islands - 30 % of nearby marine ecosystem by 2020. new zealand - 20 % of marine environment by 2010. palau - 30 % of nearby marine ecosystem by 2020. senegal - creation of mpa network. ( no set date ) tanzania - 10 % of marine area by 2010. usa — california 29 with mpas covering 18 % of state marine area.


is clean coal finally a reality? combustion is the main mechanism used to harness energy from coal. all existing coal burning processes consume oxygen to produce heat. the downside, however, is that it also produces a large amount of pollutants, such as nitrogen and sulfur oxides, which are difficult to contain and are harmful to the environment. osu researchers found a way to harness the energy from coal through what they call coal - direct chemical looping ( cdcl ). cdcl mixes tiny iron oxide beads to carry oxygen to spur the chemical reaction with coal, which is grounded into a fine powder. this mixture is then heated to high temperatures, where the materials react with each other. carbon from the coal binds with the oxygen from the iron oxide to produce heat and almost pure carbon dioxide that rises to the top of the chamber where it is then captured. the excess heat harvested in this process produces water vapor to power steam - turbines to generate electricity. researchers reported that each unit can produce about 25 thermal kilowatts. pure carbon dioxide is separated and recycled, the iron beads are exposed to air inside the reactor becoming re - oxidized, allowing the beads to be re - generated almost indefinitely and the coal ash is removed and disposed of safely. coal - direct chemical looping exceeds all the goals that the department of energy ( doe ) has set in place for the development of clean energy from coal. based on current tests the team at ohio state university is confident that they will continue to exceed the requirements set by the doe. osu is preparing for their larger - scale pilot plant which is under construction at the u. s department of energy ' s national carbon capture center in wilsonville, al. set to begin operations in late 2013, the plant will produce up to 250 kilowatts using cdcl. the department of energy funded this research with private sector collaborating companies. heap of coal image via shutterstock


2012 award winner dr. elizabeth murchison research fellow in cancer genetics and genomics at wellcome trust sanger institute, cambridge, united kingdom elizabeth murchison received the eppendorf award 2012 for her discoveries concerning a deadly cancer that is spreading among the endemic population of tasmanian devils in tasmania and threatening the survival of the species. | | | listen here dr. elizabeth murchison ' s podcast with nature and learn more about her work and the impact the award has had on her career. | origins and evolution of transmissible cancers each individual cancer is a clonal cell lineage that emerges through an evolutionary process when a single cell of the body acquires somatic mutations that drive proliferation and survival. as it develops, cancer can spread through the body to invade distant tissues. however, it does not normally spread or survive outside of the body. clonally transmissible cancers are clonal cell lineages that survive beyond the deaths of their hosts by acquiring adaptations for transmission between hosts. rare examples of cancer transmission between humans have been reported due to transfer of cancer cells in utero, by surgical injury, by experimental inoculation and by inadvertent transplantation of cancer cells with donated organs. however, there are only two known naturally occurring clonally transmissible cancers that have spread between multiple hosts and these are the transmissible venereal tumour of dogs and the facial tumour of tasmanian devils. these two cancers are specialised parasitic clonal cell lineages that spread between individuals through physical contact and have survived long after the deaths of the animals from which they originally emerged. the goal of my research is to understand how cancers can become transmissible and survive in multiple hosts. by studying the genetics and evolution of the canine and tasmanian devil transmissible cancers i hope to understand the changes that allow cancers to survive long - term and to evade the immune systems of their hosts. laudatio for dr. elizabeth murchison by prof. dr. reinhard jahn poster about elizabeth murchison and her work


eu aims to clean up european seas by 2021 european scientists and policy makers met at the baltic sea and european marine strategy conference in helsinki, finland, this week to discuss how to achieve good environmental status for european seas in the next 15 years. esa took part by demonstrating the potential of earth observation for monitoring and implementing marine policies. the conference, held 13 to 15 november under the auspices of finland ' s european union ( eu ) presidency, addressed the eu ’ s newly proposed marine strategy, which stresses the need to apply an ‘ ecosystem approach ’ to improving the state of the baltic sea and europe ' s other troubled seas. in his opening speech, finnish environment minister jan - erik enestam said : " this ‘ ecosystem approach ’ will require us to have a holistic view and a good understanding of the linkages between marine ecosystems and human activities that have an impact on those ecosystems. " this kind of management of human activities [ … ] will require swift information exchange and dialogue between policymakers, administrators and scientists. this work has to be based on the best possible knowledge of marine environments. " when asked if new technologies like satellite observations were important, enestam said they were " crucial for marine safety ". peter gammeltoft, head of the protection of water and the marine environment unit at the european commission ’ s directorate general for environment, said : " for the first time, the eu is putting in place a policy framework – including legislation – which specifically addresses the vital issue of protecting europe ' s seas and oceans in an integrated manner, looking at all pressures and impacts. " participants of the conference drafted and approved a declaration, which among other directives includes : - encouraging relevant actors to develop well designed operational networks and an open data policy relevant to the environment - asking the national, regional and european authorities to set up and implement more efficient environmental policies and legislation using innovative and economic instruments to provide incentives and technical solutions to protect the basin and catchments of the baltic sea. gammeltoft said the current state of knowledge about europe ’ s marine environment needs to be improved and that future management would take into account data collected from improved monitoring systems. gmes ( global monitoring for environment and security ) is the response to europe ’ s need for geo - spatial information services. esa is the main partner to the eu in gmes, which provides autonomous and independent access to information for policy - makers, particularly in relation to environment and security. esa presented the gmes services at a stand showing how current available earth observation ( eo ) services can


research paper writing guide many students turn to research paper writing guides in order to ensure that they are writing their documents correctly. most professors supply they own article writing guides to their students at the beginning of every semester, especially professors in english classes that require learners to write multiple research papers. the purpose of a report writing guide is to help students understand the basic format for a research paper as well as to provide some tips about how to go about writing the document. one of the first things that will be included in the report writing guide is information about the style of the document. some professors require that students submit articles that are in mla format. other professors prefer apa format. the format for the document should be exactly what the professor requires. if a student wants a research paper writing guide that specifically discusses the proper formatting of a particular style, the student should look online or access a writing center at the student ' s university. a research paper writing guide that a professor gives students will usually contain tips from the instructor for how to create an effective project. students should follow these tips, as they are likely to reflect a professor ' s personal preferences. the professor may look to see if students have followed the tips when they review the reports. in terms of the approach that students need to take when writing their documents, many research paper writing guides will offer the same advice to pupils. this advice usually begins with the research process. a research paper writing guide should tell students to spend a good deal of time researching the topic before the student begins writing the document. keeping detailed notes about the data in a notebook may help learners to stay organized. good research paper writing guides may also tell students to outline their documents before they begin writing the reports. however, not all reference report writing guides offer this advice. even if a student does not outline the report, the student should still expect to create several drafts of the report before he or she reaches the final draft. a research paper writing guide will contain different information than writing guides for other types of projects. for example, the guidelines that a learner will use to write an essay are different than the guidelines a student will use to write a reference project. therefore, students need to be mindful of the exact information included in the report writing guide. premium papers involving " research paper writing guide " helpful videos on university writing


in the pharaonic times, the temples, royal cemeteries, and royal palaces included workshops where specialized craftsmen worked making furniture, jewelry, glass, metals, and other products. egyptian tombs show vivid scenes and figures portraying various groups of craftsmen performing their handicrafts, such as carpenters and weavers in workshops. museums around the world are full of various products made by those ingenious craftsmen. for 4, 000 years, egyptian crafts have generated various types of small arts with different styles and artistic tastes, which were known worldwide. egyptians were skillful in engraving all kinds of metals with ornamented shapes and adorning them with semiprecious stones and colored glass. they were also proficient in woodworking, creating different kinds of furniture, which were often gold - plated and adorned with precious stones for the royal palaces. glass vessels of the pharaonic period were made around a pre - made template. the glass - blowing technique was not used until the roman era. in the islamic age, the glass industry and the making of oriels and arabesque, which is the engraving in wood by making complex geometric and artistic shapes, were also popular. different kinds of transparent and colored glass vessels are still kept, even very small ones were made in great detail with various monuments drawn on them. weaving was a popular art that flourished notably in the coptic culture and continued in the islamic age as high - class islamic carpets became widespread. the multitude of craftsmen with their innovative techniques allowed for their artistic experience to be passed from one generation to another. they were divided into groups ; each group had an elected head, who managed its affairs and settled any disputes among its members. egypt ' s districts had specified areas for craftsmen, goldsmiths, and coppersmiths. it is probable that the egyptian artist was educated and trained by his father at an early age. the young child helped the workgroup in which his father worked to learn the rules of the craft. that was the case in egypt until the islamic age. however, in the ottoman age, egypt lost most of its craftsmen and artisans, as the skillful artisans were forced to move to istanbul, capital of the ottoman empire. subsequently, egypt witnessed a period of stagnation in art that lasted until the beginning of the modern times.