the life of the law has not been logic, it has been experience ; " 2 ) was perceived to advocate judicial restraint when ( conservative ) judicial activism was denounced by progressives ; 3 ) advanced the idea of law as prediction, thus leading to the is / ought of legal realism ; 4 ) urged a view of law from the perspective of a bad man, which led to a form of authoritarian control ; and 5 ) argued for a thoroughgoing positivism ( and opposition to moral language in law ). in 1881, when the lectures given at the lowell institute were published as the common law, holmes ’ purpose was to attack the elegant formalism being taught at harvard by christopher columbus langdell. his wide readings in history and philosophy ( and his membership in the metaphysical club, a group of nascent pragmatists such as nicholas green, charles s. peirce and william james ), and his devotion to social darwinism ( herbert spencer ’ s social statics ( 1852 ) ) led to a complete skepticism about natural law and rights. the question then is, what takes the place of natural law and natural rights? for holmes, the initial answer was an objective custom. the moralizing and blameworthiness that went hand - in - hand with natural rights was shunted aside, and was replaced by community standards as exemplified by the judge. but by 1897, when his famous harvard law review essay the path of the law has been published, holmes ’ views had changed and had become even more stark. the disruptions in society, especially the labor - management conflicts of the early and mid - 1890s, indicate that community standards don ’ t always exist, and holmes must decide a number of labor injunction cases. his theory in the path of the law is to conclude that law is nothing more that what judges actually do. in having to choose between an individualism he despised ( he talked at 90 of the nonsense of " rights " ), and a statism he feared ( especially as an economic conservative ), he choose the latter. he so chose, in part, because he believed in the positivist ideals, and individualism requires some anti - positivist beliefs ( and possibly some religious belief, which holmes pointedly did not have ). his statism, of course, is compatible at this time with progressive beliefs, for progressives favor state regulation of economic matters and oppose an activist supreme court striking down such laws based on the due process clause of the 14th amendment. holmes ’ lochner dissent becomes an example of his progressivism. as


this time with progressive beliefs, for progressives favor state regulation of economic matters and oppose an activist supreme court striking down such laws based on the due process clause of the 14th amendment. holmes ’ lochner dissent becomes an example of his progressivism. as a result of lochner, holmes was miscast as a progressive, and many trees were killed between the 1920s and 1960s to show how progressive holmes was. this effort was both led and inspired by felix frankfurter. it wasn ' t until the 1960s that a revised assessment of holmes occurred. recently, professor albert alschuler has written a book ( noted below ) emphasizing the dark side of holmes ' jurisprudence. holmes was an exceptional writer of pithy statements ( " three generations of imbeciles are enough ; " " a word is but the skin of a living thought ; " and " the fourteenth amendment does not enact mr. herbert spencer ' s social statics, " among others ), and together with his physical appearance, extraordinarily long life, stoicism, devotion to duty, lionization among successive generations, and lack of apparent ethnic prejudice ( in an era of rampant anti - semitism ) made him an iconic judicial figure. further reading : sheldon m. novick, honorable justice : the life of oliver wendell holmes ( 1989 ) ; g. edward white, justice oliver wendell holmes : law and inner self ( 1993 ) ; albert w. alschuler, law without values : the life, work, and legacy of justice holmes ( 2000 ). there are many other works about holmes.


here is a map of caesar ' s travels from 48 - 44 b. c. caesar was busy the last three years of his life, yet there is mystery embedded in his activities. what was he trying to accomplish? did he have a plan? how did he intend to solve the problems of the republic? we don ’ t have the answers, but it ’ s interesting to look at the hints he gives us. caesar believed he could win the civil war by defeating his friend pompey. dyrrhachium had been a draw, but a month later when caesar prevailed at pharsalus, pompey fled to egypt. the latter was murdered upon his arrival based on the egyptian ’ s mistaken notion it would benefit them to demonstrate allegiance to caesar. when caesar arrived in alexandria four days later, following a month of tribute collecting in anatolia, he was shown pompey ’ s head and was not pleased. the egyptians had ruined his opportunity to humiliate a defeated enemy by taking him back to rome and, more importantly, crossed the line by murdering a senior roman leader. but caesar still needed money and assumed the role of arbiter over the dispute between cleopatra and her brother to gain position in the battle for control of the egyptian treasury. once cleopatra became his mistress, ptolemy and his minions rebelled, were defeated, and the king was killed. the end result was an alliance with egypt, rather than annexation, because caesar knew he could not trust any governor to manage an egyptian province. ignoring the unrest in rome, caesar decided to seek additional tribute in the east, so he headed north with the goal of reducing pontus as punishment for the murder of crassus. then, after its defeat on august 1, 47 b. c, he headed home via athens and tarentum, where he met with cicero. by early fall, caesar realized that a revolt of pompey loyalists in africa was underway so he began to plan an invasion of tunis. departing on december 25th from marsala, sicily, caesar ’ s army traveled to africa. a combination of food shortage and reluctance on the part of the pompeians to fight delayed the climactic battle until early april of 46 b. c. by july caesar had returned to rome and initiated forty days of triumphs to celebrate the end of the civil war. included in this extravaganza was the strangulation of vercingetorix, his old enemy from gaul, who had been kept in prison for six years waiting for the right moment


triumphs to celebrate the end of the civil war. included in this extravaganza was the strangulation of vercingetorix, his old enemy from gaul, who had been kept in prison for six years waiting for the right moment. but now pompey loyalists in spain began to revolt and something had to be done about them. on november 1, 46 b. c, caesar left for spain with his army, for what would become his final campaign. again, as in africa, the enemy was elusive and it took until march 17th of 45 b. c. before they were defeated. in the single year that remained of caesar ’ s life, we note three primary activities : attempts at colonization and resettlement of veterans, the making of his will, and the extension of his powers. with regard to the settlements, the roman army at the end of the civil war consisted of no less than 35 legions, far more than needed and a dangerous risk to the stability of the republic. the dictator initially proposed resettlement lands for the veterans but there was not enough free land available in italy so the settlements were moved to occupied lands. not east, because the hellenistic world refused to be romanized, but west to spain and other parts. in september caesar returned to his villa at lavicum to prepare his will. it left three quarters of the estate to octavius, grandson of one of his sisters. the boy would also become his adopted son. here caesar chose family over colleagues because he had a good candidate. octavian ’ s intellect and ruthlessness had impressed his uncle and overcome any concerns about his frail constitution. what did caesar intend to do about the republic? fix it later or let it be? we don ’ t know. perhaps the answer lies in the plans he made in early 44 b. c. to invade parthia. battle was certainly something he loved and going to war put off having to deal with political problems he had no answer for. in february of 44, caesar had his dictatorship converted into a lifelong office, only a year after he had extended it to ten years. this new definition of dictator was deeply offensive to roman traditionalists who saw it as an emergency office only. in a weak attempt to show modesty, caesar refused to be named king when the crown was offered to him by anthony on february 15, 44 b. c. somehow he believed that the title was more dangerous than the authority, a frighteningly delusional position. once his enemies found out about the parthian campaign, they


the crown was offered to him by anthony on february 15, 44 b. c. somehow he believed that the title was more dangerous than the authority, a frighteningly delusional position. once his enemies found out about the parthian campaign, they decided they couldn ’ t live with the idea of an absent dictator operating by remote control. the assassination plan came together quickly and caesar was killed. unfortunately, those republicans among the conspirators were as delusional as their victim and leaderless. brutus decided that anthony should be spared, so the public could see that the assassination was not a power grab. this foolish idealism would be their undoing. the conspirators had no plan for restoring the republic or even taking control of the situation. they allowed anthony to use caesar ’ s funeral oration to build hatred for the conspirators, driving them from rome while elevating himself. how many times has this story been told in history? idealists strike at the tyrant as an attempt to turn the clock back, but they fail because they aren ' t ruthless enough and don ’ t understand how to take power. the brilliant fallout of the death of caesar was the sham perpetrated on the roman people by octavian once he had defeated anthony at actium. he made the principate look like the republic and everyone fell for the ruse.


there is a growing mountain of scientific evidence that suggests negative ion therapy can provide a cheap and effective cure for the “ winter blues. ” there is no doubt that an overabundance of positive ions in the air in relation to negative ions produces very unpleasant reactions due to serotonin releases ( krueger, 1972 ). during the winter months, the lack of sun coupled with a constant bombardment from positive ion sources such as hvac systems, computer monitors, and electronic devices creates a potpourri of positive air ions that simply put makes us feel languished and depressed. so what ’ s the solution? mike montano, indoor air quality expert at ionic zone inc told us “ you can either hit the bottle for comfort or invest in a few of our $ 20 ionizers if you want to beat the winter blues. ” he added that negative ion generators are very commonplace and accepted in most other countries with small healthcare budgets. but in the united states, “ good luck finding a negative ion generator anywhere but the internet. ” what are the effects of positive ions? according to research, positive ions cause a number of problems such as sleeplessness, irritability, tension, migraines, nausea, breathing difficulties, digestive problems, depression, fatigue, and sometimes can even lead to suicide. positive ions slow down the delivery of oxygen, producing symptoms like anoxia or oxygen starvation. they alter the functional state of the central nervous system, peripheral organs and affect the secretion of the hormone serotonin. what are the effects of negative ions? according to research, negative ions enhance our mood, stimulate our senses, improve appetite and sexual drive, provide relief from hay fever, sinusitis, bronchial asthma, allergies, migraines, even post operative pain and burns. ( go to www. ioniczone. com / negative _ ions. htm to read the research studies ) negative ions also stimulate the reticuloendothelial system which are a group of defense cells in our bodies that watch over our resistance to disease. bottom line, we have better brain activity that results in greater awareness levels because our cells are better able to absorb oxygen and oxidize serotonin, and filter airborne contaminants. can a $ 20 ionizer really make a difference? “ our customers claim they can sleep better, feel more alert and refreshed, get ill less often, and take less allergy medications after using our products, ” says mike montano from ionic zone who sells their


##izer really make a difference? “ our customers claim they can sleep better, feel more alert and refreshed, get ill less often, and take less allergy medications after using our products, ” says mike montano from ionic zone who sells their ionizers wholesale to the general public. she adds “ a large telemarketing firm called me recently to buy 20 more ionizers after noticing that by the end of the day, salespeople on the ionized section of the room were mostly standing, waiving their hands, and energized while the sales people on the non - ionized side of the room were mostly slumped over in from of their computers, rocking back in their chairs, and drained. needless to say, the owner has become a believer. ” while the scientific and anecdotal evidence suggests negative ion therapy is worthy of our consideration, one can only wonder why such an inexpensive and natural remedy to the winter blues is not more popular in the u. s. are americans not aware of the benefits of negatively ionized air? or have we as a society become so conditioned to popping pills that we have rejected any natural therapies altogether? this is a real life “ david vs. goliath ” story ; large drug companies vs. small internet companies selling negative ion generators without the resources to get the word out on negative ions. good luck!


explosions are main cause of spine injuries in u. s. soldiers friday, sept. 21 ( healthday news ) - - explosions are the main cause of spine injuries among wounded u. s. military personnel, a new study finds. researchers analyzed more than eight years of data on back, spinal column and spinal cord injuries suffered by american military personnel serving in iraq or afghanistan. of nearly 11, 000 evacuated casualties, about 600 ( nearly 5. 5 percent ) had a total of more than 2, 100 spinal injuries. explosions accounted for 56 percent of spine injuries, motor vehicle collisions for 29 percent and gunshots for 15 percent, the study found. in 17 percent of spine injuries, the spinal cord also was injured. fifty - three percent of gunshot wounds to the spine led to a spinal cord injury. the study also found that 92 percent of all injuries were fractures, 84 percent of patients ' wounds were the result of combat and spinal injuries often were accompanied by abdomen, chest, head and face injuries. the findings, published sept. 19 in the journal of bone and joint surgery, are an important first step in helping orthopedic surgeons develop treatment plans for military personnel with spine injuries, as well as for civilians with similar injuries, according to the researchers. " in these current military conflicts, the latest technologies in body armor, helmets and other protective devices have helped save many soldiers ' lives, " dr. james blair, an orthopedic surgery chief resident at the brooke army medical center at fort sam houston, in texas, said in a journal news release. " we also have access to advanced life - saving techniques in the field and medical evacuation strategies that are keeping many more service members alive, " he added. " but when a person survives an explosion or vehicle collision, there has still been a great deal of force on the body, " blair noted. " many of those survivors are coming to us with severe injuries to their spine and back. we needed to describe and characterize these injuries so recommendations can be made on how to provide the most effective treatment and rehabilitation for our wounded warriors. " the north american spine society has more about spine and spinal cord injuries. source : journal of bone and joint surgery, news release, sept. 19, 2012


montefiore news releases news releaseseyes burning already? it ' s because spring allergy season is off to an early start montefiore expert provides tips on symptoms to watch, how to find relief the weather might still be cold, but it ’ s not too early to start preparing for spring allergy season, which has already just begun. an estimated 35 million americans suffer from allergies, according to the american academy of allergy, asthma & immunology. more commonly called hay fever, seasonal allergic irritation results in symptoms that include itchy eyes, nose and throat, sneezing, stuffy or runny nose, tearing or dark circles under the eyes. “ in the early spring, trees are the first to start producing pollen as soon as they start budding, and it creates major problems for people with allergies, ” said david rosenstreich, m. d., director of the allergy and immunology division at montefiore medical center. “ the symptoms people experience often resemble a common cold, but, if it happens every year at this time, it ’ s most likely allergies. ” an allergy symptom is the result of the immune system overreacting. it mistakes the pollen for a foreign invader and attacks it, which leads to the release of chemicals called histamines into the blood. the histamine travels through the blood and latches onto histamine receptors on other cells, causing them to swell. this inflammation causes many familiar allergy symptoms. people with asthma are especially affected by allergies and may have asthma attacks, which can be dangerous and even life - threatening. asthma is often triggered by allergies ; however most people with allergies do not develop asthma. over - the - counter medications often make people experiencing allergies feel better, but if they experience difficulty breathing or the symptoms become more severe, they should seek medical attention. antihistamine drugs work by blocking the histamine from affecting these cells. additionally, a physician can prescribe more potent medications. in addition to medications, lifestyle changes also can help relieve symptoms. several to consider include : • limiting outdoor activities during days with high pollen counts. there are generally three pollen seasons that vary in different parts of the country. early spring is typically when trees pollinate, with birch, cedar, cottonwood and pine trees causing the biggest allergic triggers. tree pollination in the northeast typically lasts from late february to early june, but can be almost year -


of the country. early spring is typically when trees pollinate, with birch, cedar, cottonwood and pine trees causing the biggest allergic triggers. tree pollination in the northeast typically lasts from late february to early june, but can be almost year - round in warmer climates. grass pollen allergies typically arise in late spring, and weeds cause hay fever from the summer through the fall. ragweed is often one of the biggest offenders in most regions, as it can grow in nearly every environment. “ there ’ s no reason for people with allergies to suffer, ” dr. rosenstreich said. “ as long as you take the proper precautions, you should be able to enjoy the outdoors and make the most of the warm weather. ” david l. rosenstreich, m. d., is board certified in allergy & immunology and internal medicine, and is a professor in both the department of medicine and the department of microbiology and immunology at the albert einstein college of medicine. he is the director of the division of allergy and immunology in the department of medicine at montefiore medical center. dr. rosenstreich has received many awards, including the danziger distinguished scholar award in microbiology and immunology and a public health service commendation for his work with the u. s. public health service. as a scientific investigator, he has focused on the pathophysiology and etiology of allergic diseases, including asthma. dr. rosenstreich has authored or co - authored over 130 original research publications in peer - reviewed journals, and is the editor of three books. he is also the co - director of the montefiore severe asthma center, and has served as a consultant to the new york city department of health citywide asthma initiative.


practical, protective foot health steps for people with diabetes healthy feet are essential for overall good health, no matter your age, fitness level or physical challenges. for people with diabetes, however, taking care of their feet is especially vital. more than 60 percent of all non - traumatic lower - limb amputations worldwide are related to complications from the disease, according to the american diabetes association. a recent study by the american podiatric medical association ( apma ) indicates hispanics with diabetes are particularly in danger since more than 90 percent of those with the disease or at risk for it have never seen a podiatrist as part of their health care. “ regardless of ethnicity, foot ulcers and infections are the leading cause of hospitalization among people with diabetes, but most of those problems are largely preventable, ” says dr. joseph caporusso, a podiatrist and president of the apma. it ’ s important for those with the disease to ‘ knock their socks off ’ and receive regular foot exams by today ’ s podiatrists. ” while ulcers – open sores on the foot – are the most common diabetes - related foot problem, several others are also serious and prevalent, including neuropathy, skin changes, calluses, poor circulation and infection. the nerve damage that diabetes causes may mean a person with an ulcer or injury may be unaware of it until it becomes infected. infection can lead to partial or full amputation of the foot or lower leg. the good news is, regular care from a podiatrist can help reduce amputation rates between 45 and 85 percent, the apma says. people with diabetes need to inspect their feet daily and be vigilant for warning signs of ulcers, including irritation, redness, cracked or dry skin ( especially around the heels ) or drainage on their socks. although ulcers can occur anywhere on the foot or ankle, they are typically found on pressure points on the foot, like the ball of the foot or bottom of the big toe. if you discover an ulcer or have any symptoms, see a podiatrist immediately. in many cases, the foot can be saved with early treatment. in addition to examining your feet every day, and keeping your blood glucose in your target range, make sure to follow these foot health tips : * discuss your diabetes and the risks with your family. diabetes can be hereditary, so talk to your family members about monitoring blood sugar and foot health. * never go barefoot. always protect


coconuts are a way of life for millions of people in tropical climates around the world today. known as the “ tree of life ”, the wonderful fruit of the coconut palm is rich in specific fats that have incredible health benefits. traditional tropical populations that consume a lot of coconut oil are seldom overweight, and traditionally have been free from the modern diseases that afflict most western cultures. the tropical fruit, the coconut, is well known for its nutritional benefits. its meat, juice and oil are popular all over the world due to its delicious taste and abundance of vitamins, minerals and nutrients. coconut was used by primitive people to treat a number of ailments, and is still recognized today for its nutritious and healing properties. on many islands coconut is a staple in the diet and provides the majority of the food eaten. nearly one third of the world ’ s population depends on coconut to some degree for their food and their economy. among these cultures the coconut has a long and respected history. coconut is highly nutritious and rich in protein, fiber, vitamins and minerals. it is classified as a “ functional food ” because it provides many health benefits beyond its nutritional content. the meat of the coconut is very good in destroying intestinal parasites that we get from eating infected food. it contains lauric acid, which helps fight bacteria from intestinal parasites and wards off countless infections ranging from hiv to the common cold. eating coconut helps fight gas, constipation, ulcers and other digestive and stomach ailments. coconut also supports thyroid function and can prevent goiter ( an enlarged thyroid ) because it naturally contains iodine. coconut has even been shown to protect the body from cancer and osteoporosis, dissolve kidney stones, reduce epileptic seizures, and reduce symptoms associated with pancreatic disorders. one of the main health benefits of coconut meat is dietary fiber. since fiber aids in the process of digestion, diets that incorporate some coconut can help with proper bowel movements as well as lower your risk of digestive issues, such as irritable bowel syndrome ( ibs ). dietary fiber doesn ’ t only benefit your digestive tract ; it may also help improve your cholesterol by lowering the level of low - density lipoprotein in your bloodstream. when ldl is kept with a healthy range, you lower your risk of high blood pressure, atherosclerosis ( narrowing of the arteries ) and cardiovascular disease as well as suffering a heart attack or stroke


##oprotein in your bloodstream. when ldl is kept with a healthy range, you lower your risk of high blood pressure, atherosclerosis ( narrowing of the arteries ) and cardiovascular disease as well as suffering a heart attack or stroke. coconut meat also contains folate. more commonly known as folic acid, this b vitamin is considered to have antioxidant qualities that can aid in the prevention of heart disease. diets that are deficient in this vitamin increase the risk of heart disease, heart failure and stroke. coconut is also rich in protein. because of its high calorie and fat content, coconut is a healthy food to consume for those who are trying to gain weight due to emaciation and for body builders who need high - protein foods to help build muscles. coconut provides quick and lasting boosts of energy. it also benefits the outward appearance of the body in a number of ways, including softening the skin, reducing the appearances of wrinkles and fine lines, controlling dandruff and keeping the scalp and hair healthy. a one cup serving of shredded coconut contains : coconut is an excellent source of manganese and contains 60 percent of the recommended daily intake of that mineral. it also contains 11 percent of the recommended intake for iron, 9 percent of phosphorus and 8percent of potassium. there are trace amounts of other nutrients in coconut, including zinc, calcium, and magnesium and omega 3.


in a year when tremendous variability was observed within fields as well as among areas of the state, information from replicated trials like the university of minnesota trials is particularly valuable. since we can ' t predict next year ' s growing conditions, it ' s important to select hybrids that perform well over multiple locations within a region. hybrids that consistently perform well over multiple environment, including different soil and weather conditions, have greater potential to perform well the next year, compared to hybrids with less consistence performance. below are university of minnesota extension grain and silage hybrid selection recommendations based on the results from the 2012 university of minnesota corn grain and silage trials. considerations for grain hybrid selection : hybrid selection begins with maturity. early growing degree day ( gdd ) accumulation, combined with an early planting season overall, caused corn to mature early in 2012. in planning for next year, identify an acceptable maturity range based on the number gdds required for a hybrid to reach physiological maturity ( black layer ). detailed information about the number of gdds available for corn production for multiple locations along with information on the relationship between gdds and corn relative maturity ( rm ) is available at : http : / / z. umn. edu / ak0 plant multiple hybrids of varying maturity to spread risk, and widen the harvest interval. there is more variability in yield among hybrids within a given rm rating than there is between maturity groups. detailed information on corn grain yields and harvest moisture for various rms across minnesota is available at : http : / / z. umn. edu / ak1 hybrids should also be selected according to agronomic traits such as standability, disease tolerance, emergence, and the need for transgenic resistance to insects and herbicides within a given production system. considerations for silage hybrid selection : one of the first things to consider when selecting silage hybrids is maturity. longer - season hybrids tend to have higher silage yields. a general guideline is that hybrids planted for silage should be five to 10 days longer in rm than the hybrids planted for grain. select hybrids that have a range in rm, as this widens the harvest window. harvesting at the correct moisture level is critical for producing high quality silage, and if missed, can negate the benefits of good hybrid selection. other important agronomic considerations when selecting silage hybrids include herbicide and insect resistance for the given cropping system, and tolerance to drought and disease. since corn silage is an energy source for animal performance, producers should consider both silage


medicinal mushrooms and cancer mushrooms are not just a tasty addition to a salad or casserole. they are much, much more. most, of an estimated 38, 000 species of mushrooms, provide a wealth of protein, fiber, b vitamins, and vitamin c, as well as calcium and other minerals. at least three of these species have demonstrated phenomenal healing potential : maitake, shiitake, and reishi. these medicinal mushrooms have been shown to lower the risk of cancer ; promote immune function ; ward off viruses, bacteria, and fungi ; boost heart health ; reduce inflammation ; combat allergies ; help balance blood sugar levels ; and support the body ’ s detoxification mechanisms. medicinal mushrooms have several overlapping properties : all support cardiovascular health, all boost immune function, and all show promise in lowering the risk of, or treating, cancer. maitake is specifically recommended for stomach and intestines, as well as blood sugar levels ; shiitake helps with nutritional deficiencies and liver ailments, while reishi promotes respiratory health and spirituality. many of the medicinal mushrooms, including chaga mushroom, maitake mushroom, ganoderma ( also known as gano ) mushroom, and cordyceps mushroom, contain cancer - preventive and cancer - fighting actions. along with research on polysaccharides with beta 1, 3 glucan linkages, other mushroom extracts have been shown to have clinical effectiveness against human cancers, these being d - fraction extracted from the maitake mushroom, and extracts from the split gill, turkey tail and reishi mushrooms. medicinal mushrooms are sources of antitumor and immunity - modulating polysaccharides ( a type of carbohydrate ) that have been extensively researched. cancer patients may also wish to investigate medicinal mushrooms ( such types as reishi, shiitake, cordyceps, maitake, agaracus, and coriolus ) as immune - boosting companions to chemotherapy. shiitake, as with many of the medicinal mushrooms, has been shown to be of benefit as an adjuvant cancer therapy. it has been shown to improve specific immune markers ( including natural killer cells, tumor necrosis factor, t - helper cells, and a variety of interleukins ), and patient outcomes. reishi can be used to treat cancer patients due to its ability to activate nk cells, macrophages, t - lymphocytes, and cytokines, all important immune system components. kee chang huang reports that


ibn hazm : gleanings from his thoughts on philosophy and science by the editorial board table of contents 3. his works and their historical assessment 4. virtues of science 5. territoriality of science 6. fundamental duties of the scholar 7. the perfect sciences 8. conduct of scholars in disputations 9. classification of sciences 10. various considerations in science 10. 1 sciences of number and geometry 10. 2 on astronomy 10. 3 on physics note of the editor this article was previously published on www. muslimheritage. com in september 2003. the present version was revised and edited by fstc research team in april 2013. fig. 1 statue of ibn hazm in cordoba. ( source ). ibn hazm grew up in the period of final collapse of umayyad rule in spain as the nation disintegrated into often conflicting local states. that period of turbulence and his early education by women, in whose midst he grew up, far from the company of other children, were to have profound effects on ibn hazm ' s thoughts and character. as a scholar, ibn hazm had a great reputation, and was one of the most original theologians and literati of muslim spain. he was a master of many disciplines, including history, grammar, poetry, genealogy, and logic, and wrote works of enduring importance in islamic theology and law. he is the author of over 400 works, and enjoyed a great reputation for his vast capacity to memorize both lines and random facts. carra de veaux seems to give little recognition to ibn hazm, though, stating amongst others that his production, although vast, was hardly devoid of errors. ibn hazm, however, in his kitab al - taqrib ( book of introduction ), which is now extant, states that " science consist in knowing with certainty something according to what it really is, or by an evident proof which hence helps reach certitude. " this theme frequently occurs in his works. we seek in this article to look into this aspect as well as his philosophy and thoughts on science, its merits and its relationship to morals. nothing more appropriate to open this paper on ibn hazm ' s thoughts on science and philosophy than some of his sayings. according to him, " what fixes and preserves a nation ' s language, as well as its sciences and its history, is simply the strength of its political power, accompanied by the happy welfare and leisure of its inhabitants. " in


sayings. according to him, " what fixes and preserves a nation ' s language, as well as its sciences and its history, is simply the strength of its political power, accompanied by the happy welfare and leisure of its inhabitants. " in kitab al - akhlaq wa ' l siyar, he says : " compare yourself, for wealth, status and health to those lower to you. for faith, science and virtue compare yourself to those who are higher than you. " he adds in the same book : " complex sciences are like powerful drugs, which suit the strong and exhaust the weak. likewise, complex sciences enrich a vigorous mind, and keep it off evil, but exhaust the mediocre mind. " fig. 2 front cover of the ring of the dove : a treatise on the art and practice of arab love, english translation of tawq al - hamama, by a. j. arberry, london : luzac, 1995. online here. abu muhammad ' ali ibn ahmad ibn sa ' id, known as ibn hazm, was born in november 994 and died in august 1064. his family came from the city of cordoba itself. their earlier origins are much less clear, although evidence shows that they were of indigenous iberian stock from labla, west of seville, a few miles from the atlantic shores. one of the ancestors of ibn hazm was converted to islam from christianity. ibn hazm ' s father, abu ' umar ahmad ibn sa ' id ibn hazm ( d. 1012 ), held the function of vizier ( minister ) at the court of al - mansur ibn abi ‘ amir and his successor al - muzaffar, a father and son who ruled in the name of the third umayyad caliph hisham ii ( r. 976 - 1013 ). this period of late 10th century and early 11th had been one of the greatest moments of islamic spanish history. the andalus was enriched economically and financially, and muslim armies were led into victories of unprecedented scale in muslim spain. at al - mansur ' s death, though, ridden with intrigues, divisions, and conflict between numerous factions, the once most powerful state collapsed into chaos, and was never to recover. living in the circles of the ruling hierarchy provided ibn hazm, an eager and observant student, with excellent educational opportunities. experiences in the surroundings of the harem made an indelible impression upon him. circumstances for ibn haz


. living in the circles of the ruling hierarchy provided ibn hazm, an eager and observant student, with excellent educational opportunities. experiences in the surroundings of the harem made an indelible impression upon him. circumstances for ibn hazm changed drastically upon the death of al - muzaffar in 1008, when the stability that the umayyads had provided for more than two and one - half centuries collapsed. a civil war ensued and continued until 1031, when the caliphate was abolished and a large number of petty states replaced any semblance of a centralized political structure. ibn hazm ' s family was uprooted, and his father ahmad died in 1012 ; ibn hazm continued to boldly and persistently support umayyad claimants to the office of caliph, for which he was frequently imprisoned. the life and thoughts of ibn hazm are both good illustration and product of the chaos and collapse of the muslim state. such collapse had direct impact on ibn hazm who was at the centre stage of events. he held positions of power and prestige, followed by decline and disgrace following the political fortunes or misfortunes of his patrons. hence, in 1016, for instance, caliph sulayman was overthrown, and ibn hazm, suspect for his umayyad sympathies, was first imprisoned and then banished. three years later, he returned to cordoba, and four years after became the vizier of ' abd al - rahman v, whose rule, though, only lasted for seven weeks, and ibn hazm was again imprisoned. ibn hazm, who had already been terribly affected by the earlier demise of his own father, following earlier upheavals, now suffered even more and directly the effects of political chaos. that may account for his acerbic and harsh temperament, which made him both famous and feared for his sharp tongue, and it became well known that " the tongue of ibn hazm and the sword of al - hajjaj ibn yusuf [ the severe umayyad governor of iraq ] are brothers. " the upheavals of his political career may also account for ibn hazm ' s withdrawal from public life to devote himself to study, teaching, and writing. by 1031 ibn hazm began to express his convictions and activist inclinations through literary activity, becoming a very controversial figure. with the exception of a short stay on the island of majorca, he apparently spent most of his time on


writing. by 1031 ibn hazm began to express his convictions and activist inclinations through literary activity, becoming a very controversial figure. with the exception of a short stay on the island of majorca, he apparently spent most of his time on the family estate in manta lisham. ibn hazm received a wide - ranging education, which, more than likely in his later life, impacted on his various and diverse learning. his thinking extends to all areas of islamic sciences, including grammar, lexicology, the science of the qur ' an, tradition and commentaries, canon law or fiqh and theology, etc. thus to study his oeuvre, according to arnaldez, " one has to be first well aware of matters which muslim thinkers have addressed. " he was also seen as : " one of the most original theologians and literati of muslim spain …, a master of many disciplines, including history, grammar, poetry, genealogy, and logic, and wrote works of enduring importance in islamic theology and law '. ibn hazm ' s intellectual force is also recognized by castro, who states, that whilst the muslims felt a " lively curiosity about everything religious, " ibn hazm was the first religious historian ever. his work al - fasl fi al - milal wa - ‘ l - ahwa ' wa - ‘ l - nihal ( translated as critical history of religions, literally the decisive word on sects, heterodoxies and denominations ) is regarded as : " the first of its genre and it is surprising that it was written in the 11th century when nothing like it existed in christian europe. ibn hazm proceeds like a scholar and a theologian who is acquainted through his own study and experience with the religions of his time and he analyses them in detail, quoting their texts. " according to yaqut and al - qifti, two important biographers, ibn hazm has written nearly four hundred works, amounting to nearly 80, 000 pages. amongst his surviving works, we mention : - kitab al - ihkam fi usul al - ahkam ( the perfect knowledge of the foundations of jurisprudence ). the manuscript can be found in the national library of cairo. it was recently edited in two volumes. in al - ihkam, ibn hazm develops his method for classifying human acts within the five established juridical categories ( ahkam ) of obligatory, recommended, disapproved, forbidden, and lawful. for an action to


in al - ihkam, ibn hazm develops his method for classifying human acts within the five established juridical categories ( ahkam ) of obligatory, recommended, disapproved, forbidden, and lawful. for an action to fall into one of the first four categories, there must be a text ( qur ' an or authentic hadith ) that establishes its particular status ; otherwise, the act is lawful. this method is further applied in his voluminous treatise on fiqh ( islamic law ), kitab al - muhalla ( the book of ornaments ). - kitab jamharat ansab al - ‘ arab ( on the arab genealogy ), known through the cairo critical edition made by levi provencal in 1948. - risala fi fadhl al - andalus wa - dhikr rijaliha ( a letter on the merits of al - andalus and the memory of its men ), which was kept by al - maqqari in his nafh al - tib. - kitab al - akhlaq wa - ' l - siyar ( the book of morals and behaviour ) : its manuscript was discovered by helmut ritter alongside other works ; and it was edited for the first time in 1908. - another great book of ibn hazm is kitab al - fasl fi al - milal wa - ‘ l - ahwa ' wa - ‘ l - nihal. in the fasl ( detailed critical examination ), the author offers a critical survey of different systems of philosophical thought in relation to religious beliefs among the skeptics, peripatetics, brahmans, zoroastrians and other dualists, jews, and christians. using the examination of these religions to establish the pre - eminence of islam, he also attacks all the muslim theologians, the mu ' tazila and the ash ' ariya in particular, along with the philosophers and mystics. his main objection is that each of them raises questions about the revealed text only to resolve them by purely human means. ibn hazm does not deny recourse to reason, since the qur ' an itself invites reflection, but this reflection must be limited to two givens, revelation and sense data, since the so - called principles of reason are in fact derived entirely from immediate sense experience. thus reason is not a faculty for independent research, much less for discovery. - tawq al - hamama ( the ring of the dove, the dove


since the so - called principles of reason are in fact derived entirely from immediate sense experience. thus reason is not a faculty for independent research, much less for discovery. - tawq al - hamama ( the ring of the dove, the dove ' s neck - ring or the dove ' s necklace, online here ), a youthful work that was clearly revised later, is interesting in several respects. as a collection of prose passages and poetic illustrations on the subject of love and lovers, it offers a fairly standard treatment of a popular theme in arabic literature. what sets it apart, however, is ibn hazm ' s penetrating observation of human psychology, a trait found in his kitab al - akhlaq wa - al - siyar, a later study of characters and conduct. underlying the delicate charm of the prose and poetry in the dove ' s neck - ring is an uneasy sensibility. questioning, for example, the sincerity of exchanges between women and their lovers, ibn hazm finds a gap between what is said and what is thought and concludes that language often serves to mask thought. this otherwise commonplace discovery of dishonesty provides him in turn with a basis for profound reflection on language and its wider uses, and it is here that he introduces the notion of zahir, the " apparent " or literal meaning of words, which he will expand in his other works of islamic law. fig. 3 the title - page of the unique manuscript of tawq al - hamama by ibn hazm held at leiden university library : ms or. 927, folio 1a. lecture by jan just witkam, beyond the codex : codicology in scholarship, tima ' s workshop on codicology ( cambridge, september 11, 2009 ). ibn hazm is better known as one of the leading exponents of the zahiri ( literalist ) school of jurisprudence and theology, for which the basic qualification was a thorough knowledge of the qurʾan and hadith ( tradition. the zahiri principle of legal theory relies exclusively on the literal meaning of the qurʾan and hadith. though his legal theories never won him many followers, ibn hazm creatively extended the zahiri principle to the field of theology. he made a comparative study on the religious pluralism of his day, which is among the earliest of such studies and is highly regarded for its careful historical detail. today, the literature on ibn hazm in english is rather scant. there is a good entry on


study on the religious pluralism of his day, which is among the earliest of such studies and is highly regarded for its careful historical detail. today, the literature on ibn hazm in english is rather scant. there is a good entry on ibn hazm in the encyclopedia of islam by arnaldez. the main work of ibn hazm that has retained the attention of english speaking scholarship is tawq al - hamama translated by a. j. arberry as the ring of the dove. otherwise, most information on ibn hazm is gleaned from french and spanish sources. miguel asin palacios, more than any other, has written considerably, most particularly his well - known, and lengthy abenhazam de cordoba. fig. 4 the opening pages of ibn hazm ' s tawq al - hamama. coloured paper, expert calligraphy, elegant lay - out. source : ms leiden, or. 927, ff. 1b - 2a. ( source ). ibn hazm ' s writing has been looked at from many perspectives, and from many directions. roger arnaldez, as an authority on spanish history, had devoted his doctoral thesis to ibn hazm and published on several of his theories and contributions. on the influence ibn hazm had on post islamic spanish literature and thought, there is no better source than americo castro ' s structure of spanish history. ibn hazm ' s views on science have, however, been generally set aside. possibly, as in the view of baron carra de vaux, despite ibn hazm ' s prolific output, and his prodigious ability to memorize texts and facts, it is because his writing is not devoid of errors. de vaux also finds his work bearing an anti - intellectual trait, suppressing speculation, narrowing considerably the frontiers of jurisprudence, depriving jurists of freedom of conscience etc. arnaldez, however, observes that ibn hazm in kitab al - taqrib ( the book of introduction ), which is no longer extant, states that " science consists in knowing with certainty something according to what it really is, or by an evident proof which hence helps reach certitude. " maybe de vaux ' s criticism stems from the fact that ibn hazm does not accept the notion of knowledge for its own sake ; that satisfaction with independent knowledge just out of curiosity ; traits that have distinguished the greeks and their science. in islam


maybe de vaux ' s criticism stems from the fact that ibn hazm does not accept the notion of knowledge for its own sake ; that satisfaction with independent knowledge just out of curiosity ; traits that have distinguished the greeks and their science. in islam, science and knowledge have practical aims, and are according to ibn hazm shaped, or affected, by revelation. the object of science, for him, is to understand divine orders. ibn hazm further adds : " our faculties of discerning and comprehending are helped by divine grace, but on condition to use them as god wishes us to, and where he wants us to. " regarding the role of experiment and observation, crucial to scientific advance, ibn hazm considers that : " we know with certainty that never could man have acquired the sciences and arts by himself guided only by his natural abilities and without the benefit of instruction. ( this applies, e. g., to ) medicine, the knowledge of the physiological temperaments, the diseases and their causes, in all their numerous varieties, and the invention of adequate treatment and cure of each of them by drugs or preparations, which could never have been actually tried out. for how could anyone test every prescription on every disease since this would take tens of thousands of years and necessitate the examination of every sick person in the world? " arnaldez further compares ibn hazm with the french rationalist philosopher descartes, with whom he shares a love for certainty ; and like him seeks it in proof. like him, also, he suspects that all that edges away from proof becomes close to error. perhaps more appropriately, comparisons should have been drawn between ibn hazm and the other french philosopher - scientist, pascal ( 1623 - 62 ). indeed, like ibn hazm, pascal is also highly imbued with faith, at all steps, seeking to reconcile them ; the moral aspect of each issue always imposing itself in the end. moreover, pascal, in his work les pensees ( thoughts ) also seeks to order his thoughts, a sort of listing found in ibn hazm, whereby each thought carries a function, and conveys a specific injunction or idea. all thoughts are related, coherently assembled in batches, and all aiming at one and single end : the cohabitation, or the working together, of science and god - inspired morality. ibn hazm ' s most extensive thoughts on philosophy and science are to be garnered from his kitab al - akhlaq wa -


and single end : the cohabitation, or the working together, of science and god - inspired morality. ibn hazm ' s most extensive thoughts on philosophy and science are to be garnered from his kitab al - akhlaq wa - ' l - siyar which was translated into french under unesco sponsorship by n. tomiche. we use this book as a source of reference, and we translate into english the excerpts we need. fig. 5a - b scenes from the tale of bayad and riyad, an andalusian manuscript of the 13th century, biblioteca apostolica vaticana in rome, ms vat. ar. ris. 368. ( source b – source c ). science in ibn hazm ' s thought is by no means a single entity devoid of any moral dimension, nor the most important moral outlet in life. he constantly asserts the real meaning of life, how all worldly things are of lesser value in comparison to the spiritual and moral. he says : " i have come across most people ‒ with the exception of those that god most high has protected ‒ they rush into misery, worry, the exhaustion of this world, and amassing terrible sins, that will earn them hell - fire, gaining nothing in pursuing their evil deeds … and they know that their evil intentions will neither fulfil their wishes, nor bring any gains ; and that with purer intentions they will obtain great rest for their souls. " " whoever harms his kinship and his neighbours is worse than them. whomsoever returns ill that he receives from them is like them. whomsoever does not return ill done to him is the master, the best and most virtuous amongst all. " in another meaningful sentence, he asserts : " whomsoever rises above things of this world, in front of which you kneel, is much stronger than you. " and also : " blame from a man with a corrupt soul in opposing him, and refraining from evil deeds is better for you than his esteem if you did evil. " having, thus, declared his moral stands, ibn hazm finds adequate room for science, and looks at it in different contexts and situations. first, he gives it its real due, stating : " should the merit of science being fear of the ignorant, and love and honour for the scholars, that alone should encourage striving for it. what then about its other virtues in this world and the other. " science, in the mind of ibn


should the merit of science being fear of the ignorant, and love and honour for the scholars, that alone should encourage striving for it. what then about its other virtues in this world and the other. " science, in the mind of ibn hazm, has some territoriality, which itself has a number of dimensions. hence,, ibn hazm, has a word of warning against those who intrude in the realm of science whilst not being worthy of it, saying : " there is no worse calamity for science and for scholarship than those intruders who are foreign to them. they are ignorant and yet think they know ; they ruin everything whilst convinced they are fixing all. " fig. 6a - b : front covers of two arabic editions of ibn hazm ' s works : tawq al - hamama and rasa ' il ibn hazm. in the same vein, ibn hazm warns those who stretch themselves beyond what they are capable of, stating : " whomsoever has a natural leaning towards a science, even if it was less noble than another, should not abandon it for the other because if he did he would be like someone who would be growing coconuts in al - andalus and olive trees in india, crops that would never fructify. " ibn hazm is not satisfied with scholars who are only contented with their own self - fulfilment. the duty of the scholar is to enlighten others. he observes : " whomsoever is miserly with the gift of his knowledge deserves more blame than whomsoever is miserly with his money, because the man miserly with his money fears exhausting what he has, but the one miserly with his science is with an object which does not become exhausted with use, and that he would lose nothing in sharing it. " and humility amongst men of science is what he praises most : " if you pride yourself with your science, then you must realize that you have no merit ; science is a gift that god has granted you. thus do not acknowledge it in a way that angers the highest, because he could erase it from your head through an illness of some sort. " ibn hazm reinforces this statement with the following : " also be aware that many men eager for science, read, study, and research with application, but derive no fruit. the man of science must realize that if application alone was enough, many other men would be superior to him.


the following : " also be aware that many men eager for science, read, study, and research with application, but derive no fruit. the man of science must realize that if application alone was enough, many other men would be superior to him. science, thus, is certainly a gift from the highest. what place is left for pride, thus? we can only accept in humility, and give thanks to god, asking him to increase his bounty, and beg him not to deprive us of it. " crucial for ibn hazm is that not all knowledge and science are acceptable. he states that clearly : " the most noble sciences, are those which bring us closer to the creator ; those which help us be pleasing to him. " he specifies : " whomsoever wishes for happiness in the other life, wisdom in this world, equity in their deeds, having all moral qualities, the practice of all virtues, ought to follow in his deeds the example of mohammed ( pbuh ) the messenger of god. " fig. 7 manuscript showing poems of ibn hazm. ( source ). ibn hazm takes great care to make parallels between knowledge and science on one hand, and the practice of good and evil : " the use of science in the practice of virtue is considerable : the man who knows the beauty of virtue will follow it, however possible. knowing the evil of wrong, he will avoid it, however possible. he listens to worthy praise, and keeps his distance from unworthy praise. from this is derived that science has a part in every virtue, and that ignorance has one in every vice. man who is illiterate and who still practices virtue must be extremely pure, a virtuous being. this is the state of prophets ( pbuh ) because god had conveyed goodness to them without they acquiring it from men. " he points out also : " i have seen men who had studied the sciences, who knew the messages of the prophets, the recommendations of the wise, and yet who surpassed the most evil men in their worse deeds, and their depravation. this is very frequent, and so i have understood that these two moral attitudes were favours granted or denied by the most high. " fig. 8 spanish stamp of ibn hazm. then, as now, discussions and disputations, used to take place between scholars. ibn hazm, in the last chapter of his book kitab al - akhlaq wa - ' l - siyar


ibn hazm. then, as now, discussions and disputations, used to take place between scholars. ibn hazm, in the last chapter of his book kitab al - akhlaq wa - ' l - siyar delves into this matter, and " on the manner to attend study sessions. " he begins by saying : " if you attend a study session, only behave like a man wishing to expand his knowledge and seeking a higher reward from god. do not act like a man content with what he holds, who is waiting for a weakness ( from someone ) to criticize ( it or him ), or an oddity to raise. this will be acting like vile people who have never mastered science. " if you attend with good intentions you will obtain the best results. otherwise just stay at home, awarding yourself rest, a good morality, and a salutary outcome in front of god. " he adds : " if you attended ( a study session ), strictly adopt three attitudes, there is no fourth. first : you can lock yourself in the silence of ignorance. second : if you do not behave as such, ask for the questions a man seeking to learn asks … this man will ask only about what he does not know, not about what he knows. asking about matters one knows is making proof of ineptitude ; this is only ranting, waste of time for everyone …. if the person you are questioning does not give satisfactory answers, stop questioning … third : you can answer like a scientist, refuting clearly the other ' s arguments. if you are not capable of that, do not insist. " ibn hazm also warns against those who " ask questions stubbornly, very proud men who seeing themselves right without knowing anything about the matter. this shows lack of piety, a tendency to ranting, a weak mind, and excessive vanity. " he advices also : " if you hear, or read writing ( you object to ), do not react with violence until you have proof that what is expressed is wrong. do not accept that with the enthusiasm of the credulous man either until being wholly convinced of that. in both situations you blind yourself and drift away from truth … act like a person who has no preconceived views, one ready to know and accept what is right and reject what is wrong. " ibn hazm ' s thoughts and philosophy on science have also another dimension. it is common with islamic scholars, such as al - g


##conceived views, one ready to know and accept what is right and reject what is wrong. " ibn hazm ' s thoughts and philosophy on science have also another dimension. it is common with islamic scholars, such as al - ghazali, to classify sciences, to provide some sort of division that helps in their understanding, study and promotion. this division, has gradually led to our modern learning system in departments, faculties, and courses. ibn hazm did not make the classification of sciences as such. instead, he provided the boundaries, and the rules within science as a whole. he brings in all dimensions looked at above. he does, moreover, which is quite important, provide the seeker of science indications of how to go on about it, integrating the highly complex, abstract, moral and also the most down to earth, such as the prudent conduct in scientific gatherings. in his book al - taqrib li - had al - mantiq, ibn hazm divides knowledge into two parts : innate sense - oriented knowledge and rational deductive knowledge. innate sense - oriented knowledge is knowledge that allah has created in everyone, nobody being favored by it ; as he says : " it is allah ' s work in the soul. " knowledge, then, is divided into two kinds : the first is intuitive knowledge, which is, by necessity, of the mind, such as " knowing that the whole is bigger than the part, and a person that was not born before you cannot be older than you. " the second, sense - oriented knowledge, is knowledge that depends on the senses to reach the truth such as : knowing that " a fire is hot and ice is cold, aloe is bitter, and dates are sweet. " included in this kind of knowledge is the knowledge that comes through successive transference and that provides its authenticity by this transference, such that as the " knowledge we have that elephants exist even though we may not have seen them, or that egypt and mekka are in the world, and that humans have brains in their heads and intestines in their abdomens. " these two kinds of knowledge, ibn hazm believes, do not need evidence to prove their authenticity, because they are human intuitive and innate knowledge, and as such they are the basis upon which all other knowledge is built. rational, deductive knowledge is knowledge that is based on premises somehow related to the mind and the senses. part of it is contained in the knowledge of islamic jurisprudence, theological regulations


and as such they are the basis upon which all other knowledge is built. rational, deductive knowledge is knowledge that is based on premises somehow related to the mind and the senses. part of it is contained in the knowledge of islamic jurisprudence, theological regulations, worship, physics, medicine, arithmetic, and geometry. in his other book related to we can call methodology and philosophy of science, maratib al - ‘ ulum, ibn hazm proposed a general scheme dividing the sciences and knowledge into seven parts : " at all times and in all nations everywhere the sciences have been divided into seven parts. the first three are ( 1 ) the science of the religious law as possessed by every nation, since every nation has some belief, which can be positive or negative, ( 2 ) the history of the nation concerned, and ( 3 ) the science of the language it speaks. the various nations all differ from one another in respect of these three sciences. the remaining four sciences, however, are the same everywhere, namely ( 4 ) astronomy, ( 5 ) arithmetic, ( 6 ) medicine, that is concern with the human body, and ( 7 ) philosophy. " he divided religion into four branches : the sciences of the qur ' an, the prophet ' s traditions, jurisprudence, and scholastic theology. medicine also was divided by ibn hazm into two parts : physiology and psychology. then he adds to these main seven divisions of sciences the vocational sciences such as agriculture, commerce, navigation and sewing. ibn hazm believed that these sciences, even though they are useful and important, are inferior to the seven sciences mentioned earlier, because their object is to serve people in this life only, but the other sciences guide people to the path of salvation in the afterlife, therefore they should take priority over the others. what is significant in ibn hazm ' s formulation is the specific reference to the fact that non - religious sciences are outside the faith, language or history of a people. in other words, science is science whether it is practiced by asians, africans, or europeans, by jews, christians, or muslims. water boils and freezes at a certain degree, the human body responds with fever to a virus, and the earth rotates around the sun whether the observer speaks latin or arabic. in addition to his vast contribution in the fields of philosophy, religious dialogue, jurisprudence, literature, theory of knowledge and social sciences, ibn hazm commented on natural sciences. his views are scattered throughout his books and it would require a special task


. in addition to his vast contribution in the fields of philosophy, religious dialogue, jurisprudence, literature, theory of knowledge and social sciences, ibn hazm commented on natural sciences. his views are scattered throughout his books and it would require a special task to collect them in a cohesive manner. however, much of his comments on siences can be found in his texts al - taqrib li had al - mantiq, al - fasl fi al - milal wa - ‘ l - nihal, and the response to al - razi in which he objected to his views on the origin of the universe. below we give excerpts on various sciences. like the pythagoreans, ibn hazm credited a special status and significance to the numeral one. he maintains that " one is not a number, because there is no other number like it. if you split it, it becomes a fraction ( hence looses its oneness ) … and therefore, it becomes necessary that the true one is allah, the starter of all creation and he is not several but all creations are. " on geometry, again like the followers of pythagoras, he defines the line, " as the ultimate edge of any surface " and defines a point " as the crossing between two lines. " he also commented on the concept of infinity or limitlessness and the limited. he refers to the universe as limited and bounded, because it was created. because the universe is made of limited parts, it will follow that it will also be limited. he also refers to the present objects and living creatures and plants, as limited, yet the ones which have not yet been created ( such as humans who are not yet born ) are unlimited. ibn hazm refutes astrologers who believed that stars and planets had souls and minds and influence people. he maintains that " the stars are celestial bodies with no mind or soul. they neither know the future nor affect people. their effect on people however can be through their physical characteristics, such as the effect of the sun ' s heat and rays on the planets and the effect of the moon on the tides of seas. " he explains that saturn ' s orbit takes 33 years. he actually meant the orbit around the earth, which is wrong. today ' s astronomy recognises saturn ' s orbit around the sun ( not the earth ) taking 29 years. he argued further against those who believe that the sun sets in one of the seas on earth. he questions how is


, which is wrong. today ' s astronomy recognises saturn ' s orbit around the sun ( not the earth ) taking 29 years. he argued further against those who believe that the sun sets in one of the seas on earth. he questions how is it the larger sun, sets in the smaller earth? on the form of the earth, he clearly affirms its sphericity. he says : " the earth is spherical despite what is popularly believed … the proof is that the sun is always vertical to a particular spot on earth. " he also challenged all theories on the age of the earth. he says, ‘ we muslims do not have definite knowledge yet of the age of the earth. it could be many multiples of the ages suggested by others. " ibn hazm made an interesting assertion concerning the nature of motion of bodies when he affirmed in al - fasl bayna al - milal that " there are mobile objects and stationary objects, but there is no motion nor staticness. " in physics too, ibn hazm did not seem to know about the discoveries of ibn al - haytham. ibn hazm was nearly 40 years when ibn al - haytham died around 1040, yet he still believed in the old greek understanding of vision according to which the eye produces rays which illuminate the object which make it visible. communications of learning at the time being slower, most particularly in times of turbulence in muslim spain, may explain this. ibn al - haytham, of course was the first to prove that light is reflected from the object and passes through the eyes that detects the light ( image ). he proved that the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection. he constructed a dark box with one pin hole on its side ( he called qamara, translated later as camera ) to prove his theory. ibn hazm ' s view on sound is that it travels at specific speeds. he gave examples to prove this. such examples include reference to the interval between lightening and the thunder that follows it. in this, he implicitly believes that lightening causes thunder. much of ibn hazm ' s work is still in arabic, untranslated into other languages. although there are numerous spanish and french translations of some of his books, there are very few in english. this paper attempted to review, using material from various languages, his thoughts on philosophy and science, and the methods he recommended for the acquisition of knowledge. the paper also alluded to some of his ideas on


books, there are very few in english. this paper attempted to review, using material from various languages, his thoughts on philosophy and science, and the methods he recommended for the acquisition of knowledge. the paper also alluded to some of his ideas on natural and physical sciences. as we explained, roger analdez linked ibn hazm to descartes. perhaps more appropriately, comparisons should have been drawn between ibn hazm and pascal :, on the basis of their common reference to the cohabitation, or the working together, of science and high, god inspired morality. ibn hazm ' s thoughts and philosophy on science also have another dimension. it is common in later islamic scholars, such as al - ghazali, to classify sciences, to assist in their understanding and promotion. he drew the boundaries, and the rules within science as a whole. he moreover, which is quite important, provided the learner with indications of how to go about it, integrating the highly complex, abstract, and moral knowledge, and also the most down to earth, such as the correct behaviour at a scientific gathering. this classification, gradually perfected, has led to our modern system of learning. any scholar, imbued with science, often at odds with themselves, and the hows, and above all the whys of their science, has to return to ibn hazm. he has cleared massive ground unnecessary, and very much impossible for someone to do now. - miguel asin palacios, abenhazam de cordoba y su historia critica de las ideas religiosas, madrid : real academia de la historia, 1927 - 1932, 5 vols. - m. asin palacios, " el origen del lenguaje y problemas conexos, en algazel, ibn sida e ibn hazm, " al - andalus, vol. 4 ( 1939 ) : pp. 253 - 281 - roger arnaldez, grammaire et theologie chez ibn hazm de cordoue. paris : librairie philosophique j. vrin, 1956. - r. arnaldez, " la guerre sainte selon ibn hazm de cordoue, " in etudes d ' orientalisme dediees a la memoire de levi provencal, paris, 1962, vol. 2, pp 445 - 459. - r. arnaldez, " ibn hazm, " encylopaedia


orientalisme dediees a la memoire de levi provencal, paris, 1962, vol. 2, pp 445 - 459. - r. arnaldez, " ibn hazm, " encylopaedia of islam, new edition, leiden : brill, vol. 3, 1971, pp. 790 - 799. - americo castro, the structure of spanish history, translated by e. king. princeton : princeton university press, 1954. - baron carra de vaux, les penseurs de l ' islam, paris : guethner, 1923, vol. 3. - ibn hazm, kitab al - akhlaq wa - ' l - siyar, translated into french by n. tomiche. beyrouth, 1961. - ibn hazm, kitab al - fassl fi ' l - milal wa - l - ahwa ' wa - l - nihal. cairo, 1899 - 1903, 2 vols. ibn hazm, kitab al - taqrib li - hadd al - mantiq, in : rasa ' il ibn hazm al - andalusi, vol. 4, edited by ihsan abbas, arab foundation for research and publishing, 1983. baron carra de veaux, les penseurs de l ' islam, paris : geuthner, 1922, vol. 3, p. 333. r. arnaldez, grammaire et theologie chez ibn hazm de cordoue, paris : vrin, 1956, p. 105. ibn hazm, usul al - ahkam, vol. 1, p. 182 ; quoted also in miguel asin palacios, " el origen del lenguaje y problemas conexos, en algazel, ibn sida e ibn hazm, " al - andalus, vol. 4 ( 1939 ) : pp. 253 - 281 ; p. 278. translated by nada tomiche under the title : epitre morale, beyrouth : commission internationale pour la traduction des chefs - d ' oeuvre, 1961, ( collection unesco d ' oeuvres representatives, serie arabe ), p. 21. " ibn hazm ", in dictionary of the middle ages, edited by j. r. strayer, new york : charles scribner ' s sons, 1980, vol. 6.,


serie arabe ), p. 21. " ibn hazm ", in dictionary of the middle ages, edited by j. r. strayer, new york : charles scribner ' s sons, 1980, vol. 6., pp 117 - 118. a general work for the study of ibn hazm is w. montgomery watt and pierre cachia ' s a history of islamic spain ( edinburgh, 1965 ), which provides a useful summary of cultural and political history as well as a detailed bibliography. j. w. fiegenbaum, ibn hazm, encyclopedia britannica ( accessed april 2013 ). roger arnaldez, grammaire et theologie chez ibn hazm de cordoue, op. cit. " ibn hazm, " dictionary of the middle ages, op cit., p. 117. r. arnaldez, grammaire et theologie chez ibn hazm de cordoue, op. cit., p. 1. " ibn hazm, " dictionary of the middle ages, op cit., p. 117. a. castro, the structure of spanish history, translated by e. king, princeton university press, 1954, p. 140. translated into spanish by miguel asin palacios in his book : abenhazam de cordoba y su historia critica de las ideas religiosas, madrid : real academia de la historia, 1927 - 1932, 5 vols. ibn hazm, al - ihkam fi usul al - ahkam, cairo : dar al - hadith, 1992, 2 vols. roger arnaldez, ibn hazm, translated from french by miriam rosen, page last modified on 4 december 2007 ; accessed april 2013. re - edited cairo : sharikat nawabigh al - fikr, 2009. another edition is that of abdusalam harun, cairo : dar al - ma ' arfi, 1982. in : rasa ' il ibn hazm, edited by ihsan ‘ abbas, beirut, 4 vols., vol. 2 ( 1983 ), pp. 171 - 188. see the recent edition by ahmad makki, cairo : dar al - ma ' arif, 1981. d. b. macdonald ' s development of muslim theology, jurisprudence and constitutional theory ( 1903 ; reprint, new york, 1965 ) and ignacz goldziher ' s classic work the zahiris : their doctrine and their history


, 1981. d. b. macdonald ' s development of muslim theology, jurisprudence and constitutional theory ( 1903 ; reprint, new york, 1965 ) and ignacz goldziher ' s classic work the zahiris : their doctrine and their history, translated and edited by wolfgang behn ( leiden, 1971 ), shed light on the legal and theological currents of which ibn hazm was a part. see ignaz goldziher, die zahiriten, ihr lehrsystem und ihre geschichte ( 1884 ), english translation by wolfgang behn : the zahiris : their doctrine and their history, leiden : brill, 1971. this is a basic work on the zahiri school of law and its application by ibn hazm to theology. ibn hazm, the ring of the dove. a treatise on the art and practice of arab love, translated by a. j. arberry, london : luzac & co, 1953. m. asin de palacios, abenhazam de cordoba, op. cit. it contains an analytical edition and partial translation of ibn hazm ' s most famous work, kitab al - fals fi al - milal wa - al - ahwa ' wa - al - nihal. americo castro, the structure of spanish history, translated by edmund l. king, princeton : princeton university press, 1954. baron carra de vaux : les penseurs de l ' islam. vol. 3. paris, geuthner, 1922, p. 333. r. arnaldez, grammaire et theologie chez ibn hazm de cordoue, op. cit., p. 105. ibn hazm, kitab al - fasl fi ' l - milal wa - ‘ l - ahwa ' wa - ‘ l - nihal, cairo, 1899 - 1903, 2 vols. ; vol. 1, p. 72. ibn hazm, kitab al - akhlaq wa - ' l - siyar, french translation : epitre morale, op. cit., p. 17. ibn hazm, al - taqrib lihad al - mantiq, beirut : maktabat al - hayat, 1959, p. 156. ibn hazm, maratib al - ‘ ulum, edited by ihsan ‘ abbas, cairo : maktabat al - khanji, n


relationships by their nature promote natural health - it is considered that every positive relationship enhances a happy and healthy lifestyle. welcome to relationships at natural earth we all relate. we cannot be " out " of a relationship - even with a person we ' hate '. the act or thought of hating is a process of relating. of a relationship. a ) uncertainty reduction - through eye contact, identification, opening disclosure, etc. b ) perceptual - notice how a person looks at the other and their c ) interactional cues - nodding, maintaining eye contact, etc. d ) invitational - encouraging the relationship ( e. g. asking if they want to meet up later for coffee ) e ) avoidance strategies - if one person discloses and the other does not, minimal response, lack of eye contact, etc. a ) feelers - hints or questions ( ex. asking about family ) b ) intensifying strategies - further the relationship ( ex. meeting old friend, bringing the other to meet family, becoming more affectionate, c ) public - seen in public together often ( ex. if in a romantic relationship, may be holding hands ) 3 ) intimacy - very close, may have exchanged some sort of personal belonging or something that represents further commitment. ( ex. may be a promise ring in a romantic relationship or a friendship necklace symbolizing two people are best friends ) 4 ) deterioration - things start to fall apart. in a romantic relationship, after six months, people are out of what is sometimes referred to as the " honeymoon stage " and start to notice flaws. the way this is dealt with determines the fate of the relationship. love can be returned or unrequited. in the former case, the mutual expressions of love can lead to marriage or to the establishment of a permanent relationship, which in most cases will include passionate sexual love. where the love is one - sided ( unrequited ), the result can be damaging to the esteem and / or the psychological welfare of the spurned lover. one aspect of romantic love is the randomness of the encounters which lead to love. it may be for this reason that some in western society have historically emphasized romantic love far more than other cultures in which arranged marriages are the tradition. however, the globalization of western culture has spread western ideas about love and romance. romantic love became a recognized passion in the middle ages, when in some cases insurmountable barriers of morality or convention separated the lovers. the effect of physical attraction and impossibility of intimacy resulted in an excessive


western ideas about love and romance. romantic love became a recognized passion in the middle ages, when in some cases insurmountable barriers of morality or convention separated the lovers. the effect of physical attraction and impossibility of intimacy resulted in an excessive regard of the beloved as extremely precious. winning the love, or at least the attention, of the beloved, motivated great efforts of many kinds, such as poetry, song or feats properties of romantic love purported by western culture include : * it must take you by surprise ( the result of a random encounter ). * it cannot be easily controlled. * it is not overtly ( initially at least ) predicated on a desire for sex as a physical act. * if requited it may be the basis for a lifelong commitment. while romantic love as discussed above is a dream of many, some claim that such love as is depicted in books and movies rarely, if ever, occurs. they point to the modern practice of dating, where often the goal is to have sexual intercourse as soon as possible instead of building a lasting relationship. often, the rigorous demands of careers in the modern world rob people of the time to find such ideal companions, and mental disorders such as social anxiety disorder prevent people from approaching others. in addition, the high prevalence of divorce in western society may be an additional deterrent for individuals seeking long - term, romantic relationships with the possibility of marriage. here to read more about relationships please note : natural - earth. com does not necessarily endorse any of the treatments and therapies in the natural health, natural medicine and lifestyles directory. the material on this web site has been provided for your information and we urge you to be discriminating in making your choice of complementary or alternative therapy. we wish you good luck... and good health.


from natural wellbeing ( created page with " category : health category : conditions = = sea sickness = = < div class = " gwo _ image " style = " float : right ; margin - left : 5px ; " > [ [ # relatedproducts | < div style = " width : 170px ; heig... " ) m ( protected " sea sickness " : excessive vandalism ( [ edit = sysop ] ( indefinite ) [ move = sysop ] ( indefinite ) ) [ cascading ] ) latest revision as of 06 : 24, 21 june 2012 some people experience discomfort while travelling on a ship. initially they experience nausea frequently followed by vomiting and dehydration. though this is not a chronic illness and goes off once the passenger is off boat but it may cause other problems like low blood pressure. the person may also experience sweating, cold feet, tiredness and discoloration. for some people the mere stepping of foot on boat though it may be a dry dock without any water may also cause sea sickness accompanied by a feeling of nausea and vomiting. basically the sea sickness is caused when the central nervous system receives confusing messages from other parts of the body mainly those which controlmovement, balance and coordination. the eyes visualize where the body is with respect to time and space while the inner ear is the main organ that maintains balance while walking. the other muscles and joint sensory organs sense where the body parts are in relation to each other. sea sickness is form of motion sickness. this occurs when the inner ear especially the semicircular canals are stimulated too much due to excessive motion. for people who suffer from sea sickness, only little motion can trigger this over - stimulation. also when the brain gets illogical or confusing signals from eyes, ears, muscles, limbs and other sensory organs, it can result in sea sickness. signs and symptoms the prominent symptom of sea sickness is basic discomfort on being in a moving boat or ship. the person initially starts feeling nausea, which can be extreme too. this may result in vomiting which again can be too frequent to stop. as a result the person feels dizzy and too tired. there is also cold sweating of limbs. the color of the skin starts to fade and become pallor. the allopathic medications do not treat sea sickness but some over the counter medications can help to minimize the symptoms. dramamine is usually used to overcome mildsymptoms. for extreme discomfort from sea sickness, the doctor may


and become pallor. the allopathic medications do not treat sea sickness but some over the counter medications can help to minimize the symptoms. dramamine is usually used to overcome mildsymptoms. for extreme discomfort from sea sickness, the doctor may advice scopolamine patches and tablets. though this medication can control the symptoms but has many side effects like dizziness, drowsiness and may also affect the ability to see clearly temporarily. also a person may experience short term memory loss and increased confusion. some herbal, homeopathic, natural and home remedies and provide effective and safe treatment for sea sickness. herbs like zingiberofficinalis ( ginger ) and menthapiperita ( mint ) not only help in digestion but also give relief from feelings of nausea and vomiting. they freshen up the mind, digestive tract and breathe. kalium phosphate, cocculus and pulsatilla vulgaris are some homeopathic medicines that are known to calm down and relax nervous system and soothe digestive system especially while the body is in continuous motion or is travelling. these help to prevent the symptoms of seas sickness too. moreover such remedies also do not have any kinds of side effects. apart from taking these preventive and curative measures and ensuring to keep them with you while on travel, there are some additional measures that can be taken to get relief. the person should try to be in open spaces on the deck rather than in a cabin. also when nauseating feelings tend to occur, sit, close your eyes and practice deep breathing. this will help to overcome the symptoms.


berlin — heavily populated asian cities avoided a dangerous collision with space junk last weekend as a defunct german satellite crashed into the sea somewhere between india and myanmar. the rosat satellite re - entered the atmosphere at 0150 gmt sunday ( 9 : 50 p. m. saturday edt ) above south asia ' s bay of bengal, but it remains unclear how much, if any, of its debris actually reached the sea ' s surface, the german aerospace center said tuesday. most of the 21 - year - old satellite was expected to burn up as it hit the atmosphere, but up to 30 fragments weighing a total of 1. 87 tons ( 1. 7 metric tons ) may have splashed into the sea. scientists could no longer communicate with the defunct satellite, let alone control it. two chinese cities with millions of residents each, chongqing and chengdu, were only minutes further northeast along the satellite ' s projected path, according to jonathan mcdowell of the harvard - smithsonian center for astrophysics in cambridge, massachusetts. the 2. 69 - ton ( 2. 4 metric ton ) scientific rosat satellite was launched in cape canaveral, florida, in 1990 and retired in 1999 after being used for research on black holes and neutron stars. a dead nasa satellite fell into the southern pacific ocean last month, causing no damage but spreading debris over a 500 - mile ( 800 - kilometer ) area. since 1991, space agencies have adopted new procedures to lessen space junk. nasa says it has no more large satellites that will fall back to earth uncontrolled in the next 25 years. copyright 2011 the associated press. all rights reserved. this material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed.


national overview - may 2003 maps and graphics : | current month | | most recent 3 months | | most recent 6 months | | most recent 12 months | | us percent area very | | monthly drought indices | | conditions were generally wetter than average in the east and drier than average across much of the south and high plains states for may 2003. rainfall was heavy across the southeast and eastern midwest as a series of storms impacted the regions early in the month. parts of the south and southwest were warmer than average for the month, while states in the mid atlantic region and northeast were generally cooler than average for may. several outbreaks of severe weather occurred across parts of the midwest stretching into the tennessee valley in the first 10 days of may. an incredible 84 tornadoes were reported on may 4 and 5 and at least 38 people in kansas, missouri and tennessee were killed as a result of the storms. further storms during may 6 - 10 led to a federal disaster declaration covering the entire state of oklahoma and a total of 42 people died in the first 10 days of may from the severe weather. from may 1 - may 10, 412 tornadoes occurred, breaking the record for the most tornadoes ever to have occurred during a ten - day period. more details and graphics on this unusual outbreak can be found on ncdc ' s global hazards page. snow cover generally retreated northward across canada during may. some further heavy snow fell in parts of colorado, but overall across the u. s., very little snowfall activity occurred. for monthly totals and a seasonal summary see ncdc ' s snow summary page. hurricane season in the eastern north pacific officially begins on may 1st, and the first tropical storm of 2003 ( andres ) formed on may 20th. maximum windspeeds reached 40 knots ( 46 mph ) and andres never threatened land. it weakened back to a tropical depression on the 25th. the atlantic season does not officially begin until june 1st, though some pre - season activity was recorded in april leading to the first named storm of the season for the atlantic. see the east pacific hurricane page and the atlantic hurricane page for further details. la nina conditions continued to develop across the tropical pacific indicating that associated climate impacts will likely be felt in many areas of the world, including the united states, by the fall. it is not yet clear how strong the la nina event will be, but to see the latest noaa advisory and typical impacts of a la nina episode for the u. s., go to noaa ' s climate prediction center. monthly and seasonal highlights :


view trusted insights from kidshealth. org, the # 1 most viewed health site for children, created by the experts at nemours. we ' ve also provided information from the most - respected from nemours ' kidshealth - my child is stealing - could adhd be hereditary? - separation anxiety - the rise of psychiatric diagnoses in younger kids - disciplining your toddler - helping teens who cut - taming tempers - connecting with your preteen - taking your child to a therapist - posttraumatic stress disorder - teaching your child self - control - temper tantrums - what is adhd? - your child ' s habits - understanding depression - childhood stress - developing your child ' s self - esteem - about teen suicide - anxiety, fears, and phobias - obsessive - compulsive disorder - eating disorders - disciplining your child trusted external resources teaching your child self - control when kids melt down in the middle of a crowded store, at a holiday dinner with extended family, or at home, it can be extremely frustrating. but parents can help kids learn self - control and teach them how to respond to situations without just acting on impulse. teaching self - control skills is one of the most important things that parents can do for their kids because these are some of the most important skills for success later in life. helping kids learn self - control by learning self - control, kids can make appropriate decisions and respond to stressful situations in ways that can yield positive outcomes. for example, if you say that you ' re not serving ice cream until after dinner, your child may cry, plead, or even scream in the hopes that you will give in. but with self - control, your child can understand that a temper tantrum means you ' ll take away the ice cream for good and that it ' s wiser to wait patiently. here are a few suggestions on how to help kids learn to control their behavior : up to age 2 infants and toddlers get frustrated by the large gap between the things they want to do and what they ' re able to do. they often respond with temper tantrums. try to prevent outbursts by distracting your little one with toys or other activities. for kids reaching the 2 - year - old mark, try a brief timeout in a designated area — like a kitchen chair or bottom stair — to show the consequences for outbursts and teach that it ' s better to take some time alone instead of throwing a tantrum. ages 3 to


old mark, try a brief timeout in a designated area — like a kitchen chair or bottom stair — to show the consequences for outbursts and teach that it ' s better to take some time alone instead of throwing a tantrum. ages 3 to 5 you can continue to use timeouts, but rather than enforcing a specific time limit, end timeouts once your child has calmed down. this helps kids improve their sense of self - control. and praise your child for not losing control in frustrating or difficult situations. ages 6 to 9 as kids enter school, they ' re better able to understand the idea of consequences and that they can choose good or bad behavior. it may help your child to imagine a stop sign that must be obeyed and think about a situation before responding. encourage your child to walk away from a frustrating situation for a few minutes to cool off instead of having an outburst. ages 10 to 12 older kids usually better understand their feelings. encourage them to think about what ' s causing them to lose control and then analyze it. explain that sometimes the situations that are upsetting at first don ' t end up being so awful. urge kids to take time to think before responding to a situation. ages 13 to 17 by now kids should be able to control most of their actions. but remind teens to think about long - term consequences. urge them to pause to evaluate upsetting situations before responding and talk through problems rather than losing control, slamming doors, or yelling. if necessary, discipline your teen by taking away certain privileges to reinforce the message that self - control is an important skill. when kids are out of control as difficult as it may be, resist the urge to yell when you ' re disciplining your kids. instead, be firm and matter of fact. during a child ' s meltdown, stay calm and explain that yelling, throwing a tantrum, and slamming doors are unacceptable behaviors that have consequences — and say what those consequences are. your actions will show that tantrums won ' t get kids the upper hand. for example, if your child gets upset in the grocery store after you ' ve explained why you won ' t buy candy, don ' t give in — thus demonstrating that the tantrum was both unacceptable and ineffective. also, consider speaking to your child ' s teachers about classroom settings and appropriate behavioral expectations. ask if problem solving is taught or demonstrated in school. and model good self - control yourself. if you ' re in an irritating situation and your kids are present, tell them why you ' re frustrated and


sleek probe to map earth ' s gravity 16 march 2009 at 14 : 21 gmt, monday 16 march 2009, the european space agency ( esa ) will launch a new satellite to map variations in the earth ' s gravity field with unprecedented accuracy. the satellite will give uk scientists vital information about ocean circulation and sea level change needed to improve climate forecast models. the gravity field and steady - state ocean circulation explorer ( goce ) will be the first of esa ' s earth explorer missions to be launched. data from goce will allow scientists to create a detailed model of the earth ' s gravity field. artist ' s impression of the goce satellite ( copyright esa ) " goce will yield details of the earth ' s gravity field to an accuracy and resolution that is simply unobtainable by existing terrestrial and space techniques, " says professor philip moore of newcastle university, who specialises in gravity research. by comparing a model of the earth ' s gravity field with ocean surface height from other satellite data, oceanographers can track the speed and direction of ocean currents around the globe. at school, most of us learn that acceleration due to gravity is 9 · 8 metres per second squared wherever you are on the planet. it turns out it ' s not quite as simple as this. the shape of the earth, mountains, trenches deep beneath the ocean and the ground beneath our feet all affect the gravity field, meaning it ' s not identical everywhere. " ocean circulation is important in climate forecast models. currents carry large quantities of heat from the equator to the poles, such as the system in the north atlantic, which helps to keep europe ' s climate relatively mild. combined with more than 15 years of existing data on sea - surface height, the data that goce delivers will help scientists more accurately measure the role of ocean currents in transporting heat and water around the globe, " says esa ' s goce mission scientist, mark drinkwater. " researchers at the national centre for earth observation are keen to start using the data that goce delivers. we ' ve been working with esa to make sure we can use the data in the uk ' s world - leading ocean and climate prediction models. the met office and the european centre for medium - range weather forecasts have been working with us on this as well. one of the things i ' m excited about is finding out about ocean currents in remote regions such as the southern hemisphere for the first time, " says professor keith haines, an expert in ocean circulation at the nceo. goce has other uses


one of the things i ' m excited about is finding out about ocean currents in remote regions such as the southern hemisphere for the first time, " says professor keith haines, an expert in ocean circulation at the nceo. goce has other uses. an accurate model of the earth ' s gravity field is crucial for defining exactly what height above sea - level actually means. different countries have their own definitions of sea level, meaning that height is defined differently country to country. with goce, scientists will be able to say if two points are at the same height, however far apart they are. this will be important for large - scale surveying and engineering projects such as bridge, tunnel or pipeline building between islands or across seas. the instrument that goce will use to measure gravity is called a gradiometer. it is made up of three pairs of accelerometers that measure tiny differences in gravity at many points as goce orbits the earth. because the strength of gravity decreases with altitude, the satellite will be in a much lower orbit than other orbiting spacecraft. this makes goce one of esa ' s most challenging missions to date. the torpedo - shaped satellite is designed to cut through the edge of the earth ' s atmosphere at just 150 miles above the surface of the planet. goce will be launched from the plesetsk cosmodrome in russia into a polar sun - synchronous orbit - its solar panels will always face the sun. it will use the sun ' s energy to charge and accelerate 40g of xenon particles, which the satellite ' s ion thrusters will use to combat the effects of air drag. the mission will last around 20 months. earth observation is crucial for monitoring changes in the environment. the natural environment research council makes a large investment in the scientific aspect of the uk ' s earth observation programme, investing around £45m in esa annually. most of this is used to support earth explorer missions under esa ' s earth observation envelope programme. the earth explorer missions are designed to answer important scientific questions as well as demonstrate breakthrough technology in earth observation. the goce mission - costing €350m - involves a large collaboration of european organisations, including uk scientists and engineers working for qinetiq, logica and scisys. nerc press office natural environment research council polaris house, north star avenue swindon, sn2 1eu tel : 01793 411561 mob : 07917 557215 esa press office tel : + 39 06 941 80 874