office natural environment research council polaris house, north star avenue swindon, sn2 1eu tel : 01793 411561 mob : 07917 557215 esa press office tel : + 39 06 941 80 874 1. goce is scheduled to be launched at 14 : 21 gmt on monday 16 march 2009 from the plesetsk cosmodrome in russia. 2. the goce launch can be watched via an esa webcast. 3. the earth observation envelope programme is the science and research element of esa ' s living planet programme. the eoep focuses on the atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere and the earth ' s interior with the overall emphasis on learning more about the interactions between these components and the impact that human activity is having on natural earth processes. 4. the natural environment research council is a member of the british national space centre, which is at the heart of uk efforts to explore and exploit space. bnsc is a partnership of seven government departments, two research councils, the met office and the technology strategy board. it co - ordinates uk civil space activities and represents the uk at the european space agency. 5. the natural environment research council funds world - class science, in universities and its own research centres, that increases knowledge and understanding of the natural world. it is tackling major environmental issues such as climate change, biodiversity and natural hazards. nerc receives around £400m a year from the government ' s science budget, which is used to provide independent research and training in the environmental sciences. 6. the nceo is one of the natural environment research council ' s research centres. it has a budget of £33m over five years and involves more than 100 investigators from 26 uk universities and research centres. its mission is to unlock the full potential of earth observation to monitor, diagnose and predict climate and environmental changes. 7. nerc invests around £45m in esa each year. this investment provides the uk with mission opportunities, the associated infrastructure and science support activities, along with access to esa data for uk researchers. the nceo is a key user of esa data. press release : 06 / 09 recent press news - billion - year - old water could hold clues to life on earth and mars - new director of science for nerc - plants use underground networks to warn of enemy attack - biomass mission given go ahead to launch in 2020 - dr katharine giles - new director for the british antarctic survey - plans to strengthen uk - indian collaboration


the word certitude indicates both a state of mind and a quality of a proposition, according as we say, " i am certain ", or, " it is certain ". this distinction is expressed in the technical language of philosophy by saying that there is subjective certitude and objective certitude. it is worthy of notice, as regards the use of english terms, that newman reserves the term certitude for the state of mind, and employs the word certainty to describe the condition of the evidence of a proposition. certitude is correlative to truth, for truth is the object of the intellect. knowledge means knowledge of truth ; and hence we are in the habit of saying simply of a proposition that " it is certain ", to express that it is true, and that its truth is so evident as legitimately to produce certitude. certitude is contrasted with other states of mind in reference to a proposition : the state of ignorance, the state of doubt, and the state of opinion. the last - named signifies, in the strict use of the term, the holding of a proposition as probable, although in common parlance it is loosely used in a wider sense, as in speaking of a man ' s religious opinions, meaning not his speculations or theories about religious questions, but his dogmatic convictions. certitude is such assent to the truth of a proposition as excludes all real doubt. here it is proper to observe a distinction between merely undoubting assent, i. e. the mere absence of doubt, and an assent that positively excludes doubt, an assent with which doubt is incompatible. thus one may give to a statement in the morning newspaper an undoubting assent and credence, yet readily withdraw that assent if the statement be contradicted in the afternoon papers. such assent, though undoubting, is not certitude. but there is a kind of assent from which doubt is not only in fact absent but absent of necessity, because such assent and doubt are incompatible. such is the assent which one gives to the truth that he really exists, and that he feels well or ill, or to the truth of the proposition that it is impossible for a thing in the same respect both to be and not to be, or to the moral law, the existence of god, and the immortality of the soul. of these truths we are certain, and such assent is properly called certitude. certitude differs from


both to be and not to be, or to the moral law, the existence of god, and the immortality of the soul. of these truths we are certain, and such assent is properly called certitude. certitude differs from opinion in kind, not in degree only ; for opinion, that is assent to the probability of a proposition, regards the opposite proposition as not more than improbable ; and therefore opinion is always accompanied by the consciousness that further evidence may cause a change of mind in favour of the opposite opinion. opinion, therefore, does not exclude doubt ; certitude does. it has been disputed among philosophers whether certitude is susceptible of degrees, whether we may rightly say that our certitude of one truth is greater than our certitude of another truth. in zigliara ' s judgment, this question may easily be solved if a distinction is made between the exclusion of doubt ( in which our various certitudes of different truths are all equal, and by which they are all equally marked off in kind from opinion ) and the positive firmness of assent, which may be more intense in one case than in another, though in both it be equally true that we are certain. and, in fact, if we examine experience on this point, it is clear that our certitude of a self - evident truth, e. g. of the axioms of geometry, is greater than our certitude of a proposition demonstrated by a long and complex series of proofs, and that our certitude of such a fact as our own existence or our own state of feeling ( gladness or health ) is greater than our certitude of the existence, for instance, of a republican form of government in this country, though we are certain in both cases. we are more certain when we assent to a truth as certain which falls in with our inclination than when we are forced to a conviction. it should be noted, too, that in the common opinion of theologians there is a greater certitude in divine faith than in any human science. there are several kinds of certitude. in the first place, it is divided into metaphysical, physical, and moral certitude. metaphysical certitude is that with which self - evidently necessary truth is known, or necessary truth demonstrated from self - evident truth. the demonstrative sciences, such as geometry, possess metaphysical certitude. the contingent fact


given not on purely intellectual grounds of evidence, but through the virtue of prudence and the influence of the will over the intellect, because we judge that doubt would not be wise. in such a case, we know that an opinion or a course of action would be right as a rule, let us say, in nine cases out of ten, though we cannot shut our eyes to the possibility that the particular case which we are considering may be the exceptional case in which such a judgment would be wrong. other philosophers say that in such a case we are not certain, but only judge it wise to act as if we were certain, and put doubts aside because useless. but it seems clear that in such a case we are certain of something, whether that something be described as the truth of a proposition or the wisdom of a course of action. this certitude might perhaps better be called practical certitude, since it mainly concerns action. hence, it is said that in cases in which it is necessary to act, in which great issues are involved, and yet the evidence, when logically set forth, would seem to amount to no more than a higher probability for one course than for another, the standard of judgment, or criterion, is the judicium prudentis viri, the judgment of a wise man, whose mind is unclouded by passion or prejudice, and who has some knowledge derived from experience of similar cases. such a judgment is totally different from the spirit of the gambler ' s throw, which is reckless not only of certainty but even of probability. certitude is likewise divided into natural certitude ( termed also direct, or spontaneous ) and philosophical. natural certitude is that which belongs to " common sense ", or the spontaneous working of the judgment, which is common to all men not idiots or insane. this certitude belongs chiefly to self - evident truth and to the truths necessary for the conduct of life, e. g. the existent of other beings besides ourselves, the duties existing between husband and wife, parents and children, the existence of a supreme being deserving of reverence. to these and similar truths the mind comes with certitude, without any special education, in the ordinary course of life in human society. philosophical ( or scientific ) certitude is that which results from a process of reflection, upon an analysis of the evidence for and against our convictions, a perception of the reasons which support them and of the objections which


of life in human society. philosophical ( or scientific ) certitude is that which results from a process of reflection, upon an analysis of the evidence for and against our convictions, a perception of the reasons which support them and of the objections which may be urged against them, together with an examination of the powers and the limits of the human intelligence. the term natural certitude is sometimes used in another sense, in contradistinction from the certitude of divine faith, which is supernatural certitude, and which, according to theologians generally, is greater than any degree of certitude to be had in science, because it rests not upon human reason, which is liable to be mistaken, but upon the authority of god, who cannot err. ( st. thomas, summa, i, q. i, a. 5. ) a great part of philosophy is taken up with the questions whether certitude is possible, what is the extent of the sphere of certain knowledge, and by what tests or criteria truth may be certainly distinguished from falsehood, so that we may know when we have a right to be certain. a few philosophers in ancient and modern times have, seriously or not, denied the possibility of attaining certitude on any subject whatsoever, and professed universal scepticism. such are nicholas of cusa, montaigne, charron, and bayle, the last of whom aimed at producing the impression that everything is disputable by showing that everything is disputed. literally universal scepticism is impossible, for it is a profession of knowledge to assert that nothing can be known, and to believe that there can be no belief. it is thus a contradiction in terms. a sceptic should in consistency be sceptical as to his own scepticism ; but no attention would be given to such a sceptic unless as one attends, for amusement, to a jester. nevertheless, universal scepticism may practically produce pernicious consequences, because its universality is overlooked, and its arguments are viewed as if they applied only to some particular sphere in which the reader ( if it so be ) is tempted to doubt. thus, sceptical objections against the principle of causation may be employed against the proofs for the existence of god, while the reader is not warned, and does not remember, that they would equally avail against taking food and sleep for the restoration of strength, or against the anticipation that the


causation may be employed against the proofs for the existence of god, while the reader is not warned, and does not remember, that they would equally avail against taking food and sleep for the restoration of strength, or against the anticipation that the sun will rise to - morrow. it should be added that some christian apologists, in endeavouring to prove the necessity of divine revelation, have used language differing but little from that of scepticism, to the disparagement of human reason. a noted example is huet, " traite de la faiblesse de l ' esprit humain " ( paris, 1723 ). what is more common than a profession of universal scepticism is a scepticism as to the possibility of philosophic certitude. many who have no doubt as to natural certitude, or the certitude acquirable by " common sense ", the natural, spontaneous action of the unsophisticated mind, regard philosophy as more apt to open questions than to settle them, and to raise objections than to solve them. this seems to have been the position of pascal, who says : " reason confounds dogmatists, and nature confounds sceptics " ; and, " the heart has reasons of its own which the understanding does not know ". this seems to have been the position also of a very different man, david hume, who says : " fortunately since reason is incapable of dispelling these clouds, nature herself suffices for that purpose and cures me of this philosophical delirium " ( treatise of human nature, i, 297 ). he said to a friend who spoke to him concerning the future life and the existence of god : " though i throw out my speculations to entertain the learned and metaphysical world, yet in other things i do not think so differently from the rest of the world, as you imagine. " and he gives his idea of scepticism in a remark upon berkeley ' s arguments against the real externality of the sensible world : " that these arguments are in reality merely sceptical appears from this, that they admit of no answer, and produce no conviction ; their only effect is to cause that momentary amazement and irresolution and confusion, which is the result of skepticism. " ( inquiry concerning human understanding, ch. xii, note 4. ) kant ' s system, which denies that the speculative reason can attain to real knowledge, and admits only


and irresolution and confusion, which is the result of skepticism. " ( inquiry concerning human understanding, ch. xii, note 4. ) kant ' s system, which denies that the speculative reason can attain to real knowledge, and admits only practical certitude, and consequently denies the possibility of any system of metaphysical philosophy, is virtually the same view. it is needless to say that, in a philosopher, such a view is self - contradictory. kant ' s " critique of pure reason ", as well as his other works, was an exercise of the speculative reason. if certitude of knowledge is not obtainable on any subject by the speculative reason, how could he indulge in such positive and dogmatic propositions? if we consider this view of philosophy, as it is held by some men of sense and virtue, who point to the disputations and wranglings of philosophers, the variety of opinions, the number of infidel philosophers, and the general suspicion felt by earnestly religious people, the answer to it is, that this view has some measure of truth, but is a great exaggeration. it is quite true that philosophical inquiries concerning morals and religion, if not conducted with proper moral dispositions, are likely to terminate in doubt. if there be any bias, whether conscious or unconscious, against the obligations of morality and religion, there can of course be only one issue. if the understanding seeks to know everything ; if it rejects facts, however well attested, because it does not see how they can be so ; if it will accept no truth, however firmly demonstrated, unless the harmony with every other part of a system can be made clear ; if the mind makes itself the measure of possibility ; if it claims to see through and through the universe, and its origin, and its end ; if it refuses to submit to mystery, or to acknowledge that it is limited ; and if, because it cannot know everything, it will proudly not consent to know anything, of course with such a disposition philosophizing cannot issue in philosophic certitude. but that is not the fault of philosophy, nor of reason ; and the abuse cannot take away the use, but only be a warning against the misuse of philosophy. " methodic doubt ", that is, provisional doubt of every truth, was put forward by descartes as the proper course for the discovery of truth. this philosopher teaches that in order to be certain of the truth of our convictions we should


. " methodic doubt ", that is, provisional doubt of every truth, was put forward by descartes as the proper course for the discovery of truth. this philosopher teaches that in order to be certain of the truth of our convictions we should begin by doubting everything, except one thing : " i think, and therefore i am. " he professes to hold that every other truth may be doubted and needs proof. he suggests that we may doubt whether we can discover the truth on any other point whatsoever, for it may appear possibly that we have been created by a malign or mischievous beings who so constituted our mind that we must invariably be mistaken. the cartesian method is self - contradictory. to make the supposition that possibly the human intellect cannot know the truth, on any point whatsoever, is to assume that this supposition may be true, and that there is such a thing as truth, and that it can be known. to attempt to disprove the supposition, to undertake to show the veracity of the cognitive faculties, presupposes their veracity or power of knowing the truth on some points at least. in fact, descartes proved the veracity of the cognitive faculties from the veracity of god. the veracity of god, however, is known as the result of a demonstration of some length and complexity ; and the undertaking of such demonstration shows a previous belief in the power of the mind to discover the truth. in fact, the very doubt on such a subject is a self - contradiction ; for doubt as well as certitude is correlated to truth. to doubt whether a particular view may not be false is to suspect that the opposite may be true. to doubt that the intellect can know any truth is to question whether it may not be true that we are ignorant. but this implies that there is such a thing as truth, and that the truth at least about our own power of knowing, can be discovered. without such a presupposition, thought cannot be carried on at all. nor is it a blind presupposition or animal instinct. for in the perception of first principles, or truths evident by their own light, there is implicit the perception that there is such a thing as truth and knowledge. the error in descartes ' method is its exaggeration. it is wise to be on our guard against the prejudices, or opinions, peculiar to a particular time and place, the place of birth or education, the class or party to which


error in descartes ' method is its exaggeration. it is wise to be on our guard against the prejudices, or opinions, peculiar to a particular time and place, the place of birth or education, the class or party to which our early associations have attached us ; but the principles which are self - evident, or which are accepted by the human race, should be exempted from doubt. it must be remembered, too, that the church teaches that a catholic cannot without sin entertain doubts against the faith ; though, of course, he may lawfully doubt whether it is true that a particular doctrine is taught by the church, or whether he has correctly apprehended what the church intends to teach, and whether a particular teacher expounds it correctly ; or, again, he may investigate the evidences of christianity and of catholicism, and may doubt whether a particular argument is valid proof. but the method of doubt, taken as a whole, has been condemned by the church. since, then, some things can be known with certitude, some things can be seen to be probable, and some things must remain forever a matter of doubt ; and since the human reason is liable to error, the need has been felt for some criterion or criteria by which we may know that we really know, and by which genuine certitude concerning the truth may be distinguished from the spurious certitude of delusion. the proper test of truth is evidence, whether the evidence of a truth in itself or by participation in the evidence of some other truth from which it is proved. many truths, indeed, have to be accepted on authority ; but then it has to be made evident that such authority is legitimate, is capable of knowing the truth, and is qualified to teach in the particular department in which it is accepted. many truths which are at first accepted on authority may afterwards be made evident to the reason of the disciple. such in fact is the ordinary way in which learning and science are acquired. the error of bonald ' s system of traditionalism ( which was condemned by the church ) consists in its exaggeration, in its maintaining that the truths of natural religion are known solely on authority, that each generation simply inherits them from the preceding, and that unless they had been revealed to the first parents of the race human reason never could have discovered them. if we take the cognitive faculties, one by one, the senses are not in themselves deceived concerning their proportionate object, but owing to circumstances they


they had been revealed to the first parents of the race human reason never could have discovered them. if we take the cognitive faculties, one by one, the senses are not in themselves deceived concerning their proportionate object, but owing to circumstances they are so liable to deception that they need the vigilant supervision of the reason. the nature of sensible phenomena is not their object, but that of the reason. it should be remembered, however, that the scientific theories concerning the nature of sound, of colour and light, and of heat, have been thought out by the aid of data furnished by the senses, and therefore confirm the trustworthiness of the senses within certain limits. that men of science have no doubt as to the reality of extension, figure, movement, and space, any more than of force, is shown by their discussions concerning atoms, electrons, and ions. consciousness is infallible as to the fact of its present states, e. g. that i am feeling warm, or well, or that i am thinking. the memory often errs, but often is trusted with certitude. reason within a narrow sphere, is infallible, viz. in the perception of self - evident truth, e. g. that whatever is is, that every movement or change must have a cause, that things equal to the same are equal to each other. truths which are clearly and easily deducible from self - evident truth share in their certitude. next to such certitude, we may place the certainty of truths affirmed by the whole human race, especially as regards practical principles. " that which seems to all men, this we say is ; and he who rejects this ground of belief will not easily assign a more solid one " ( aristotle, ethics, x, ii ). universal consent is not, however, the sole criterion. to make it such was the error of lamennais. besides the truths resting on self - evidence ( or easy deduction from it ) and those resting on the authority of the human race, there is a considerable body of truth which each man of average intelligence comes to know with certitude in the course of his life. most of these truths are first learned upon authority and afterwards verified by one ' s own reflection or experience. it may even be said that a practical christian in the course of his life has by experiential verification an additional moral certitude of the truth of revelation, since he has experience of the power of


' s own reflection or experience. it may even be said that a practical christian in the course of his life has by experiential verification an additional moral certitude of the truth of revelation, since he has experience of the power of the christian religion to sustain the soul against temptation and to strengthen every virtuous and noble aspiration. the church pronounces judgment concerning the sphere of certitude, not so much for the sake of speculative knowledge, as in the interest of religion and morality. the mind of the church upon this subject is manifested ( 2 ) by " condemning " a proposition extracted from some work, in the sense in which it is found in that work ; ( 3 ) dogmatically, by a solemn affirmation of some truth or the anathematization of a falsehood. when a proposition is " condemned " or anathematized, the contradictory ( not the contrary ) proposition is asserted as true. concerning the sphere of certitude in religion, " holy mother church holds and teaches that god, the first cause ( principium ) and last end of all things, may be known with certainty, by the natural light of the human reason, through the medium of things created " ( vatican council, constitut. de fide cath., cap. ii ) ; and this affirmation is supported by an anathema of the contradictory proposition ( ibid., can. i ). the condemnation of the agnostic position concerning god may be studied in the encyclical " pascendi gregis dominici ", in which the subject is admirably treated. that " the freedom of the human will and the spirituality of the soul may be known with certainty, by the natural light of the reason ", is a truth which the pope, approving of a decree of the sacred congregation of the index, obliged bonnetty, editor of the " annales de philosophie chretienne ", in 1855, to subscribe ( denzinger, " enchiridion ", n. 1506 ). it would seem that these truths concerning the human soul are also in some measure implied in the definition and anathema cited above, concerning our knowledge of god ; for the attributes of god are known by the natural reason only, through the things that are made ; and therefore freedom and morality must be known to be attributes of some creature before they can be attributed to god. the limitation of natural knowledge and


god ; for the attributes of god are known by the natural reason only, through the things that are made ; and therefore freedom and morality must be known to be attributes of some creature before they can be attributed to god. the limitation of natural knowledge and certitude has been repeatedly asserted by the process of placing books upon the index, by the " condemnation " of propositions, by papal briefs, and finally by a dogmatic decree, which alone is sufficient, viz : that of the vatican council ( de fide, cap. iv ) which declares that there are two orders of knowledge, distinct both in their source and their object ; distinct in their source, for the truths of one order are known by natural reason, and those of the other by faith in divine revelation ; and distinct in their object, because, over and above the truths naturally attainable, there are proposed to our belief mysteries hidden in god, which can be known through divine revelation alone. this solemn affirmation is supported by an anathema against any one who shall deny that there is an order of knowledge higher than the natural, or who shall say that man can naturally by progress attain at length to the knowledge of all truth ( de revelat., can. iii ). moreover, even as regards the natural knowledge of god, the vatican council teaches that truths not unattainable by the natural light of the human reason have, by divine mercy, been revealed in order that they may be known by all easily, and with certainty and without any admixture of error ( de fide, cap. ii ). as regards certitude concerning the fact of divine revelation, the vatican council teaches that the proofs are not, indeed, such as to make assent intellectually necessary ( de fide, cap. iii and can. v ), but that they are sufficient to make the belief " agreeable to reason " ( rationi consentaneum ), being " most certain and accommodated to the intelligence of all " ( de fide, cap. iii ). anathema is pronounced against any one who shall say that divine revelation cannot be made credible by " external signs " but only by " inner experience or personal inspiration " ( de fide, can. iii ), and against any one who shall say that " miracles are not possible ", or that " miracles can never in any case be certainly known " to be such, or that " by miracles the divine origin of the christian religion cannot be properly proved " ( rite probari ; de


shall say that " miracles are not possible ", or that " miracles can never in any case be certainly known " to be such, or that " by miracles the divine origin of the christian religion cannot be properly proved " ( rite probari ; de fide, can. iv ). it is, then, moral certitude that is attainable by the reason as to the fact of divine revelation. the certitude of faith is supernatural, being due to divine grace, and is superior not merely to moral certitude, but to the certitude of physical science, and to that of the demonstrative sciences. when it is a question whether any particular truth is contained within the deposit of revelation, the certainty of faith can be obtained only from the authority of the " teaching church ", but a human certitude may be obtained by arguments drawn from the inferior and subordinate authorities such as the fathers and the " schola theologica ". apa citation. ( 1908 ). certitude. in the catholic encyclopedia. new york : robert appleton company. http : / / www. newadvent. org / cathen / 03539b. htm mla citation. " certitude. " the catholic encyclopedia. vol. 3. new york : robert appleton company, 1908. < http : / / www. newadvent. org / cathen / 03539b. htm >. transcription. this article was transcribed for new advent by rick mccarty. ecclesiastical approbation. nihil obstat. november 1, 1908. remy lafort, s. t. d., censor. imprimatur. + john cardinal farley, archbishop of new york. contact information. the editor of new advent is kevin knight. my email address is feedback732 at newadvent. org. ( to help fight spam, this address might change occasionally. ) regrettably, i can ' t reply to every letter, but i greatly appreciate your feedback — especially notifications about typographical errors and inappropriate ads.


the cassini probe may have already collected data that could reveal the presence of life on saturn ' s moon enceladus, a new study argues. but mission scientists say teasing out the subtle signature of life may prove difficult. researchers have been fascinated with enceladus since july 2005, when cassini revealed a dramatic plume of ice particles and water vapour shooting out from the moon ' s south pole. the plume ' s origin is still being debated, but some models suggest the moon holds an ocean of liquid water beneath its surface. this ocean could be a potential habitat for extraterrestrial life. now, a team led by christopher mckay of nasa ' s ames research center in moffett field, california, says cassini could offer up the first evidence that life exists or once existed on the 500 km - wide moon. though the probe was never designed to look for life, it could do so by studying organic chemicals such as methane in the plume, the team says. " if you think about what you need for life, you need water, energy, organic material, and you need nitrogen, and they ' re all coming out of the plume, " mckay told new scientist. " here is a little world that seems to have it all. " life could take the form of methane - producing microbes, or methanogens, similar to those that have been seen buried under kilometres of ice in greenland. cassini could potentially find evidence for such life by studying the relative abundances of methane and heavier organic chemicals, such as propane and acetylene. organic, carbon - containing molecules, including methane, are produced in various ways. abiological processes include the breakup of large, complex molecules called tholins, and the chemical buildup of carbon monoxide and hydrogen into organic molecules of varying weights. none of these abiological methods should strongly favour the formation of methane over that of heavier organic molecules, mckay ' s team argues. biological processes, in contrast, should produce much higher amounts of methane than heavier organic compounds, they say. researchers have taken advantage of this disparity to trace the source of organic compounds on earth. earlier this year, it was used to rule out a biological origin for oils and gases released from the " lost city " hydrothermal vents at the bottom of the atlantic ocean. mckay and colleagues believe a similar study could be carried out on enceladus using data from cassini ' s ion and neutral mass spectrometer ( inms ), which can measure the concentration of


vents at the bottom of the atlantic ocean. mckay and colleagues believe a similar study could be carried out on enceladus using data from cassini ' s ion and neutral mass spectrometer ( inms ), which can measure the concentration of different molecules in the plume. that hints that the moon ' s methane was created early on, perhaps in clouds of gas that predate the solar system. " that doesn ' t mean there ' s not a biological signal hidden under the other stuff, but we don ' t have any evidence to suggest that is the case, " says inms lead scientist hunter waite of the southwest research institute in san antonio, texas. " it ' s not a clear - cut, hands - down winner for biology, " mckay acknowledges. to better understand what a biological signal on enceladus might look like, mckay has reconfigured a chamber previously used to simulate conditions on saturn ' s moon titan to simulate non - biological ways of making methane and other organic molecules. the signatures could help researchers interpret cassini ' s results, mckay says. waite says the best way to search for evidence of life may be to return to enceladus with more sensitive instruments. in 2009, nasa will choose between two competing ideas for the next mission to the outer planets. one mission would send two orbiters to jupiter and its moon europa. the other would send an orbiter to saturn and a probe that could descend to the surface of saturn ' s moon titan. the titan - saturn mission would also include a number of flybys of enceladus, waite told new scientist. journal reference : astrobiology ( vol 8, p 909 ) view a slideshow of cassini ' s best images, narrated by imaging team leader carolyn porco. if you would like to reuse any content from new scientist, either in print or online, please contact the syndication department first for permission. new scientist does not own rights to photos, but there are a variety of licensing options available for use of articles and graphics we own the copyright to. have your say only subscribers may leave comments on this article. please log in. only personal subscribers may leave comments on this article get to it then tue nov 04 08 : 39 : 59 gmt 2008 by supernova it would only be the discovery of the century. not quite panspermia tue nov 04 10 : 54 : 37 gmt 2008 by constantino its tuesday morning and im letting my imagination get carried away with itself, but


##t 2008 by supernova it would only be the discovery of the century. not quite panspermia tue nov 04 10 : 54 : 37 gmt 2008 by constantino its tuesday morning and im letting my imagination get carried away with itself, but what if the conditions underneath enceladus are perfect life - starting condtions with plumes spewing out jets of " biological starter packs " that over time ended up on the friendlier earth where they were able to develop and evolve. that ' s assuming that conditions on earth have never been quite right to actually start biological processes, see where i ' m going with this? anyway i ' m fairly certain my last assumption is incorrect so i will file this idea under whimsical fantasy but it is nice to think of our solar system as all connected and " one big process " tue nov 04 15 : 32 : 30 gmt 2008 by larian lequella i am enthralled at the innovative thinking going on here. considering the news that i have been force - fed for nearly 2 years, and the historic events taking place at us polls, i find this to be the most awe inspiring and significant news of the day! i ' ve seen dr. mckay on a few natgeo and discovery channel specials as of late. best of luck! constantino, no harm in that sort of speculation. i am interested in seeing what sort of actual results come through though before making any fanciful leaps of the imagination. but if your whimsical fantasy bears out, i guess we ' re all aliens! ins will have a heck of a time deporting us! : p all comments should respect the new scientist house rules. if you think a particular comment breaks these rules then please use the " report " link in that comment to report it to us. if you are having a technical problem posting a comment, please contact technical support.


tuesday, november 22, 2011 they could lead the way to hi - def displays that are large, almost paper thin, and portable. while everyone is fully cognizant of the more common terms, such as lcd ( liquid crystal display ) and plasma ; which fortunately is not an acronym, but a rather a descriptive term of the weird, futuristic, fourth state of matter science going on behind the flat panel, there continue to be new sets of letters, and the latest seem to end in “ ed ”. since the attack of the “ eds ” is all good news for lovers of state - of - the - art technology, i will attempt to elucidate some of the important points in an easy to understand way beginning with oled. surprisingly, oled is already in use in some smaller video applications such as cell phones and digital camera displays. it could have an extremely bright future in fpd ( flat panel display ), but its debut into the world of widespread mass production and sales in television is still a year or two off. samsung has released a prototype 40 - inch hdtv using oled that is extremely thin. in the future, we could see an oled set that is twice as large and only a fraction of an inch thick! it will even be possible to roll up these extremely thin screens and carry them around! oled works by conducting electrons through layers of organic materials that emit light to create the standards of current high definition television. photons ( particles of light ) are emitted as electrons are sent from a cathode layer across two or three layers of organic material ( the “ o ” in oled ) to the anode layer. the colors of the hdtv are determined by the type of organic material used in the emissive layer and the brightness of the picture seen by the viewer ’ s eye is controlled by the level of voltage used. the “ o ” in oled stands for organic material, which in this case means a carbon based chain of molecules, also known as a polymer. oled promises to give us extremely wide screen, hd televisions that could be only a few millimeters thick and use very little electricity. the tiny amounts of electrical power needed to power this type of display can solve the problem of hot operating temperatures in today ’ s lcd and plasma sets. newer generations of hd ( high definition ) technologies are constantly being invented. there are already at least six types of oled technology now in existence. it will be fascinating to view the subsequent forms of flat panel displays using


the boer wars were fought between british and dutch settlers of the south african transvaal. the dutch were known as " boers " from the word for " farmer. " their ancestors had settled in the cape area from the 1650s onwards. from 1828, many trekked to the transvaal with the express purpose of avoiding british rule. the british had occupied the cape from 1806. boers felt a natural dislike the anglicizing policy of the colonial administration, policies which they believed undermined their own cultural heritage. abolition of slavery in 1830 led many of them to believe that continued british interference would surely destroy their economic prosperity. following wars with zulu peoples in 1834, some boers felt that the colonial authorities seemed to be more protective of non - white than of white interests. believing this to be the case, boers who held attitudes of racial superiority were disturbed. by 1853, however, following the great trek, two boer states had gained recognition by the british, the transvaal and the orange free state. some suggest that many of the boers, also known as afrikaners, came to think of their land as a divine gift. for those with such a mindset the trek came to be compared to the exodus. as with all cultures, some boers ethnocentrically came to think of themselves as superior, as the only truly civilized people in africa. language and ideology paralleled biblical notions comparing themselves to how the israelites in canaan had the injunction to keep themselves pure and uncontaminated by the land ' s original inhabitants. but a new imperial policy arose in england. it aimed to bring the whole of southern africa under british rule. because of this, the transvaal was annexed by the british in 1877. the annexation led to the first of the two boer wars. the second boer war, from 1899 until 1902, followed an insurrection against british rule in both of the boer states. much of the second war a guerrilla campaign waged by the boers. the issue was both economic and cultural. the discovery of gold in the transvaal led to british demands for access, while the boers sought predominantly to preserve their way of life. both wars were over territory, power, and culture fought by european settlers and troops on foreign soil. neither european power gave any thought to the native africans who of, course, actually had a prior claim to ownership of the the land in question. the british used the argument that they were best suited to rule, discipline, and educate africans in the context of britain ' s planned " cape to cairo empire


who of, course, actually had a prior claim to ownership of the the land in question. the british used the argument that they were best suited to rule, discipline, and educate africans in the context of britain ' s planned " cape to cairo empire. " in reality, the british aim was to exploit africa ' s resources more efficiently by building and controlling railroads. to the boers these were wars against imperial oppression. in some respects, with troops from australia, canada and new zealand contributing to the british victory, these wars prepared the british for involvement in world war i and world war ii, during which time she was supported by these former colonies. first boer war the first boer war also known as the transvaal war, was fought from december 16, 1880, until march 23, 1881. it was the first clash between the british and the transvaal boers. it was precipitated by sir theophilus shepstone who annexed the south african republic ( transvaal republic ) for the british in 1877. the british consolidated their power over most of the colonies of south africa in 1879 after the anglo - zulu war. the boers protested and in december 1880 they revolted. the war began on december 16, 1880, with shots fired by transvaal boers at potchefstroom after transvaal formally declared independence from great britain. it led to the action at bronkhorstspruit on december 20, 1880, where the boers ambushed and destroyed a british convoy. from december 22, 1880, to january 6, 1881, british army garrisons all over the transvaal became besieged. the boers were dressed in their everyday farming clothes, which were a neutral or earth tone khaki color, whereas the british uniforms were still bright scarlet red, a stark contrast to the african landscape, which enabled the boers, being expert marksmen, to easily snipe at british troops from a distance. other significant advantages to the boers included their widespread adoption of the breech loading rifle, which could be aimed, fired, and reloaded from a prone position, and the boers ' unconventional military tactics, which relied more on stealth and speed than discipline and formation. conduct of the war the besieging of the british garrisons led to the battle of laing ' s nek on january 28, 1881, where a british force composed of the natal field force under major - general sir george pomeroy colley attempted to break through the boer positions on the drakensberg range to relieve their garrisons. but the boers,


january 28, 1881, where a british force composed of the natal field force under major - general sir george pomeroy colley attempted to break through the boer positions on the drakensberg range to relieve their garrisons. but the boers, under the command of p. j. joubert repulsed the british cavalry and infantry attacks. further actions included the battle of schuinshoogte ( also known as ingogo ) on february 8, 1881, where another british force barely escaped destruction. but the final humiliation for the british was at the battle of majuba hill on february 27, 1881, where several boer groups stormed the hill and drove off the british, killing colley in the process. unwilling to get further involved in a war which was already seen as lost, the british government of william gladstone signed a truce on march 6, and in the final peace treaty on march 23, 1881, they gave the boers self - government in the transvaal under a theoretical british oversight. the second boer war the second boer war, also known as the south african war ( outside of south africa ), the anglo - boer war ( among some south africans ) and in afrikaans as the anglo - boereoorlog or tweede vryheidsoorlog ( second war of independence ), was fought from october, 11 1899, until may 31, 1902. the war was fought between the british empire and the two independent boer republics of the orange free state and the south african republic ( transvaal republic ). after a protracted hard - fought war, the two independent republics lost and were absorbed into the british empire. with the 1885 discovery of gold in transvaal, thousands of british and other prospectors and settlers streamed over the border from the cape colony and from across the globe. the city of johannesburg sprang up as a shanty town nearly overnight as the uitlanders poured in and settled near the mines. the uitlanders rapidly outnumbered the boers on the witwatersrand, but remained a minority in the transvaal as a whole. the afrikaners, nervous and resentful of the uitlander presence, denied them voting rights and taxed the gold industry heavily. in response, there was pressure from the uitlanders and the british mine owners to overthrow the boer government. in 1895, cecil rhodes sponsored a failed coup d ' etat backed by an armed incursion, known as the jameson raid. the failure to gain improved rights for britons was used to justify a major military buildup in the cape, since several


in 1895, cecil rhodes sponsored a failed coup d ' etat backed by an armed incursion, known as the jameson raid. the failure to gain improved rights for britons was used to justify a major military buildup in the cape, since several key british colonial leaders favored annexation of the boer republics. these included the cape colony governor sir alfred milner, british colonial secretary joseph chamberlain and mining syndicate owners ( nicknamed the " gold bugs " ) such as alfred beit, barney barnato and lionel phillips. confident that the boers would be quickly defeated, they attempted to precipitate a war. president martinus steyn of the orange free state invited milner and paul kruger ( president of the transvaal ) to attend a conference in bloemfontein which started on may 30, 1899, but negotiations quickly broke down. in september 1899, chamberlain sent an ultimatum demanding full equality for british citizens resident in transvaal. kruger, sure that war was inevitable, simultaneously issued his own ultimatum prior to receiving chamberlain ' s. this gave the british 48 hours to withdraw all their troops from the border of transvaal ; otherwise the transvaal, allied with the orange free state, would be at war with them. first phase : the boer offensive of october to december 1899 war was declared on october 11, 1899, and the boers struck first by invading cape colony and natal colony between october 1899 and january 1900. this was followed by some early afrikaner military successes against general redvers buller. the boers were able to besiege the towns of ladysmith and mafeking ( defended by troops headed by colonel robert baden - powell ), and kimberley. siege life took its toll on both the defending soldiers and the civilians in the cities of mafeking, ladysmith, and kimberley as food began to grow scarce after a few weeks. in mafeking, sol plaatje wrote, " i saw horseflesh for the first time being treated as a human foodstuff. " the cities under siege also dealt with constant artillery bombardment, making the streets a dangerous place. near the end of the siege of kimberley, it was expected that the boers would intensify their bombardment, so a notice was displayed encouraging people to go down into the mines for protection. the townspeople panicked, and people flowed into the mine shafts constantly for a 12 - hour period. although the bombardment never came, this did nothing to diminish the distress of the civilians. in kimberley many of the towns people, now under siege, sheltered in the


, and people flowed into the mine shafts constantly for a 12 - hour period. although the bombardment never came, this did nothing to diminish the distress of the civilians. in kimberley many of the towns people, now under siege, sheltered in the local convent, now the mcgregor museum. since the mining that occurred there, for diamonds, was open air, the people were not able to shelter in mine shafts. the mine is now known as the big hole, a popular tourist attraction in the area. the middle of december proved difficult for the british army. in a period known as black week ( december 10 - 15, 1899 ), the british suffered a series of devastating losses at the battles of magersfontein, stormberg, and colenso. at the battle of stormberg on december 10, british general william forbes gatacre, who was in command of 3, 000 troops protecting against boer raids in cape colony, tried to recapture a railway junction about 50 miles south of the orange river. but gatacre chose to assault the orange state boer positions surmounting a precipitous rock face in which he lost 135 killed and wounded, as well as two guns and over 600 troops captured. at the battle of magersfontein on december 11, 14, 000 british troops, under the command of general paul sanford methuen, 3rd baron methuen, attempted to fight their way to relieve kimberly. the boer commanders, koos de la rey and piet cronje, devised a plan to dig trenches in an unconventional place to fool the british and to give their riflemen a greater firing range. the plan worked. the british were decisively defeated, suffering the loss of 120 british soldiers killed and 690 wounded, which prevented them from relieving kimberley and mafeking. but the nadir of black week was the battle of colenso on december 15, where 21, 000 british troops, under the command of redvers henry buller, attempted to cross the tugela river to relieve ladysmith where 8, 000 transvaal boers, under the command of louis botha, were awaiting them. through a combination of artillery and accurate rifle fire, the boers repelled all british attempts to cross the river. the british had a further 1, 127 casualties, and lost 10 artillery pieces to the boers during the ensuing retreat. the boer forces suffered 40 casualties. second phase : the british offensive of january to september 1900 the british suffered further defeats in their attempts to relieve ladysmith at


1, 127 casualties, and lost 10 artillery pieces to the boers during the ensuing retreat. the boer forces suffered 40 casualties. second phase : the british offensive of january to september 1900 the british suffered further defeats in their attempts to relieve ladysmith at the battle of spion kop of january 19 to 24, 1900, where redvers buller again attempted to cross the tugela west of colenso and was defeated again by louis botha after a hard - fought battle for a prominent hill feature which resulted in a further 1, 000 british casualties and nearly 300 boer casualties. buller attacked botha again on february 5, at vaal krantz and was again defeated. it was not until reinforcements arrived on february 14, 1900 that british troops commanded by field marshal lord roberts could launch counter - offensives to relieve the garrisons. kimberley was relieved on february 15, by a cavalry division under john french, 1st earl of ypres. at the battle of paardeberg on february 18 to 27, 1900, roberts surrounded general piet cronje ' s retreating boer army, and forced him to surrender with 4000 men after a siege lasting a week. meanwhile, buller at last succeeded in forcing a crossing of the tugela, and defeated botha ' s outnumbered forces north of colenso, allowing the relief of ladysmith the day after cronje surrendered. roberts then advanced into the two republics, capturing bloemfontein, the capital of the orange free state, on march 13. meanwhile, he detached a small force to relieve baden - powell, and the relief of mafeking on may 18, 1900, provoking riotous celebrations in england. after being forced to delay for several weeks at bloemfontein due to sickness within his army ( caused by poor hygiene and medical care ), roberts resumed his advance and captured the capital of the transvaal, pretoria, on june 5. british observers believed the war to be all but over after the capture of the two capital cities. however, the boers had met at a new capital of the orange free state, kroonstad, and planned a guerrilla campaign to hit the british supply and communication lines. the first engagement of this new form of warfare was at sanna ' s post on march 31, where 1, 500 boers under the command of christiaan de wet attacked bloemfontein ' s waterworks about 23 miles east of the city, and ambushed a heavily escorted convoy which resulted in 155 british casualties and


on march 31, where 1, 500 boers under the command of christiaan de wet attacked bloemfontein ' s waterworks about 23 miles east of the city, and ambushed a heavily escorted convoy which resulted in 155 british casualties and with seven guns, 117 wagons and 428 british troops captured. after the fall of pretoria, one of the last formal battles was at diamond hill on june 11 - 12, where field marshal lord roberts attempted to drive the remnants of the boer field army beyond striking distance of the city. although roberts drove the boers from the hill, the boer commander, louis botha, did not regard it as a defeat, for he inflicted more casualties on the british ( totaling 162 men ) while only suffering around 50 casualties. the set - piece period of the war now largely gave way to a mobile guerrilla war, but one final operation remained. president kruger and what remained of the transvaal government had retreated to eastern transvaal. roberts, joined by troops from natal under buller, advanced against them, and broke their last defensive position at bergendal on august 26. as roberts and buller followed up along the railway line to komatipoort, kruger sought asylum in portuguese east africa ( modern mozambique ). some dispirited boers did likewise, and the british gathered up much material. however, the core of the boer fighters under botha easily broke back into the transvaal. under the new conditions of the war, heavy equipment was no use to them, and therefore no great loss. third phase : guerrilla war of september 1900 to may 1902 by september 1900, the british were in control of both republics, except for the northern part of transvaal. however, they found that they only controlled the ground their columns physically occupied. as soon as the columns left a town or district, british control of that area faded away. the huge territory of the republics made it impossible for the 250, 000 british troops to control it effectively. the vast distances between the columns allowed the boer commandos considerable freedom to move about. the boer commanders decided to adopt a guerrilla style of warfare. the commandos were sent to their own districts with the order to act against the british there whenever possible. their strategy was to do as much damage to the enemy as possible, and then to move off and vanish when enemy reinforcements arrived. the boer commandos in the western transvaal were very active after september 1901. several battles of importance were fought here between september 1901 and march 1902. at moedwil on september 30, 1901, and again at drie


and vanish when enemy reinforcements arrived. the boer commandos in the western transvaal were very active after september 1901. several battles of importance were fought here between september 1901 and march 1902. at moedwil on september 30, 1901, and again at driefontein on october 24, gen. de la rey ’ s forces attacked the british but were forced to withdraw after the british offered strong resistance. a time of relative quiet descended thereafter on the western transvaal. february 1902 saw the next major battle in that region. on february 25, de la rey attacked a british column at ysterspruit near wolmaranstad. de la rey succeeded in capturing the column and a large amount of ammunition — enough to last his commandos a long time. the boer attacks prompted lord methuen, the british second - in - command after lord kitchener, to move his column from vryburg to klerksdorp to deal with de la rey. on the morning of march 7, 1902, the boers attacked the rear guard of methuen ’ s moving column at tweebosch. in the confusion that soon reigned in british ranks, methuen was wounded and captured by the boers. the battle of tweebosch was one of the de la rey ’ s finest victories. the boer victories in the west led to stronger action by the british. in the second half of march 1902 large british reinforcements were sent to the western transvaal. the opportunity the british waited for arose on april 11, 1902, at rooiwal, where the combined forces of gens. grenfell, kekewich and von donop came into contact with the forces of gen. kemp. the british soldiers were superbly positioned on the mountain side and mowed down the boers charging on horseback over a large distance, beating them back with heavy casualties. this was the end of the war in the western transvaal and also the last major battle of the anglo - boer war. orange free state while the british occupied pretoria, the boer fighters in the orange free state had been driven into a fertile area in the north east of the republic, known as the brandwater basin. this offered only temporary sanctuary, as the mountain passes leading to it could be occupied by the british, trapping the boers. a force under general hunter set out from bloemfontein to achieve this in july 1900. the hard core of the boers under christiaan de wet, accompanied by president steyn, left the basin early. those remaining fell into confusion and


force under general hunter set out from bloemfontein to achieve this in july 1900. the hard core of the boers under christiaan de wet, accompanied by president steyn, left the basin early. those remaining fell into confusion and most failed to break out before hunter trapped them. 4500 boers surrendered and much equipment was captured, but as with robert ' s drive against kruger at the same time, these losses were of little consequence if the hard core of the boer armies and their most determined and active leaders remained at large. from the basin, de wet headed west. although hounded by british columns, he succeeded in crossing the vaal into the western transvaal, to allow steyn to travel to meet the transvaal leaders. returning to the orange free state, de wet inspired a series of attacks and raids from the hitherto quiet western part of the country. in late january 1901, he also led a renewed invasion of cape colony. this was less successful, because there was no general uprising among the cape boers, and de wet ' s men were relentlessly pursued by british forces. they escaped across the orange river, almost by a miracle. from then until the final days of the war, de wet remained comparatively quiet, partly because the orange free state was effectively left desolated by british sweeps. two boer forces fought in this area ; under botha in the south east and ben viljoen in the north east. botha ' s forces were particularly active, raiding railways and even mounting a renewed invasion of natal in september 1901. however, botha ' s forces were the target of increasingly large and ruthless drives by british forces, and eventually, he had to abandon the highveld and retreat to a narrow enclave bordering swaziland. to the north, ben viljoen grew steadily less active. his forces mounted comparatively few attacks and as a result, the boer enclave around lydenburg was largely unmolested. viljoen was eventually captured. after he escaped across the orange in march 1901, de wet had left forces under cape rebels kritzinger and scheepers to maintain a guerrilla campaign in the cape midlands. the campaign here was one of the least chivalrous, with intimidation by both sides of each other ' s civilian sympathizers. several captured rebels, including scheepers, were executed for treason by the british, some in public. in most cases though, the executions were ostensibly for capital crimes such as the murder of prisoners or of unarmed


' s civilian sympathizers. several captured rebels, including scheepers, were executed for treason by the british, some in public. in most cases though, the executions were ostensibly for capital crimes such as the murder of prisoners or of unarmed civilians. fresh boer forces under jan christiaan smuts, joined by the surviving rebels under kritzinger, made another attack on the cape in september 1901. they suffered severe hardships and were hard pressed by british columns, but eventually rescued themselves by routing some of their pursuers and capturing their equipment. from then until the end of the war, smuts increased his forces until they numbered 3000. however, no general uprising took place, and the situation in the cape remained a stalemate. final days of the war towards the end of the war, british drives and offensives became more successful. this was achieved by establishing lines of blockhouses and wire fences which parceled up the wide veld into smaller areas. de wet narrowly avoided being trapped against these by a drive, but kitchener ' s forces at last began to seriously affect the boers ' fighting strength and freedom of maneuver. the concentration camps these had originally been set up for refugees whose farms had been destroyed by the british " scorched earth " policy ( burning down all boer homesteads and farms ). however, following kitchener ' s new policy, many women and children were forcibly moved to prevent the boers from resupplying at their homes and more camps were built and converted to prisons. this relatively new idea was essentially humane in its planning in london but ultimately proved brutal due to its lack of proper implementation. this was not the first appearance of concentration camps. the spanish used them in the ten years ' war that later led to the spanish - american war, and the united states used them to devastate guerrilla forces during the philippine - american war. but the concentration camp system of the british was on a much larger scale. there were a total of 45 tented camps built for boer internees and 64 for black african ones. of the 28, 000 boer men captured as prisoners of war, 25, 630 were sent overseas. so, most boers remaining in the local camps were women and children, but the native african ones held large numbers of men as well. even when forcibly removed from boer areas, the black africans were not considered to be hostile to the british, and provided a paid labor force. the conditions in the camps were very unhealthy and the food rations were meager. women and children


even when forcibly removed from boer areas, the black africans were not considered to be hostile to the british, and provided a paid labor force. the conditions in the camps were very unhealthy and the food rations were meager. women and children of men who were still fighting were given smaller rations than others. the poor diet and inadequate hygiene led to endemic contagious diseases such as measles, typhoid, and dysentery. coupled with a shortage of medical facilities, this led to large numbers of deaths — a report after the war concluded that 27, 927 boers ( of whom 22, 074 were children under 16 ) and 14, 154 black africans had died of starvation, disease, and exposure in the concentration camps. in all, about 25 percent of the boer inmates and 12 percent of the black african ones died ( although recent research suggests that the black african deaths were underestimated and may have actually been around 20, 000 ). a delegate of the south african women and children ' s distress fund, emily hobhouse, did much to publicize the distress of the inmates on her return to britain after visiting some of the camps in the orange free state. her fifteen - page report caused uproar, and led to a government commission, the fawcett commission, visiting camps from august to december 1901 which confirmed her report. they were highly critical of the running of the camps and made numerous recommendations, for example improvements in diet and provision of proper medical facilities. by february 1902 the annual death - rate dropped to 6. 9 percent and eventually to 2 percent. counterinsurgency techniques which were applied by the british in the boer war were later reused by the british to fend off malayan communist rebels during the malayan emergency. pows sent overseas the first sizable batch of boer prisoners of war taken by the british consisted of those captured at the battle of elandslaagte on october 21, 1899. at first many were put on ships. but as numbers grew, the british decided they didn ' t want them kept locally. the capture of 400 pows in february 1900 was a key event, which made the british realize they could not accommodate all pows in south africa. the british feared they could be freed by sympathetic locals. they already had trouble supplying their own troops in south africa, and didn ' t want the added burden of sending supplies for the pows. britain therefore chose to send many pows overseas. the first overseas ( off african mainland ) camps were opened in


they already had trouble supplying their own troops in south africa, and didn ' t want the added burden of sending supplies for the pows. britain therefore chose to send many pows overseas. the first overseas ( off african mainland ) camps were opened in saint helena, which ultimately received about 5000 pows. about 5000 pows were sent to ceylon ( sri lanka ). other pows were sent to bermuda and india. some pows were even sent outside the british empire, with 1, 443 boers ( mostly pows ) sent to portugal. the end of the war in all, the war had cost around 75, 000 lives — 22, 000 british soldiers ( 7, 792 battle casualties, the rest through disease ), 6, 000 - 7, 000 boer soldiers, 20, 000 - 28, 000 boer civilians and perhaps 20, 000 black africans. the last of the boers surrendered in may 1902 and the war ended with the treaty of vereeniging in the same month. but the boers were given £3, 000, 000 for reconstruction and were promised eventual self - government, and the union of south africa was established in 1910. the treaty ended the existence of the transvaal and the orange free state as boer republics and placed them within the british empire. the boers referred to the two wars as the " freedom wars. " those boers who wanted to continue the fight were known as " bitter - einders " ( or " irreconcilable " ) and at the end of the war a number like deneys reitz chose exile rather than sign an undertaking that they would abide by the peace terms. over the following decade, many returned to south africa and never signed the undertaking. some, like reitz, eventually reconciled themselves to the new status quo, but others waited for a suitable opportunity to restart the old quarrel. at the start of world war i the bitter - einders and their allies took part in a revolt known as the maritz rebellion. those boers who now formed the south african government, along with their english speaking allies, quickly suppressed the revolt. compared with the fate of leading irish rebels of the easter rising in 1916, the leading boer rebels in the maritz rebellion got off lightly, with terms of imprisonment of six and seven years and heavy fines. two years later, they were released from prison, as louis botha recognized the value of reconciliation. after this, the bitter - einders concentrated on working within the constitutional system and built up the national national party which


and seven years and heavy fines. two years later, they were released from prison, as louis botha recognized the value of reconciliation. after this, the bitter - einders concentrated on working within the constitutional system and built up the national national party which would come to dominate the politics of south africa from the late 1940s until the early 1990s, when the apartheid system they had constructed also fell. the party enshrined as law boer racist views. during the conflict, 78 victoria crosses ( vc ) — the highest and most prestigious award in the british armed forces for bravery in the face of the enemy — were awarded to british and colonial soldiers. effect of the war on domestic british politics the war highlighted the dangers of britain ' s policy of non - alignment and deepened her isolation. the united kingdom general election, 1900 uk general election, also known as the " khaki election, " was called by the prime minister, robert gascoyne - cecil, 3rd marquess of salisbury on the back of recent british victories. there was much enthusiasm for the war at this point, resulting in a victory for the conservative government. however, public support quickly waned as it became apparent that the war would not be easy and it dragged on, partially contributing to the conservatives ' spectacular defeat in 1906. there was public outrage at the use of scorched earth tactics — the burning of boer homesteads, for example — and the conditions in the concentration camps. it also became apparent that there were serious problems with public health : up to 40 percent of recruits were unfit for military service, suffering from medical problems such as rickets and other poverty - related illnesses. this came at a time of increasing concern for the state of the poor in britain. the use of chinese labor, known as " coolies, " after the war by the governor of the new crown colonies, alfred milner, 1st viscount milner, also caused much revulsion in the uk. workers were often kept in appalling conditions, received only a small wage and were forbidden to socialize with the local population — this led to further public shock at the resulting homosexual acts between those forbidden the services of prostitutes. some believe the chinese slavery issue can be seen as the climax of public antipathy with the war. many irish nationalists sympathized with the boers, seeing them as a people oppressed by british imperialism, much like themselves. irish miners already in the transvaal at the start of the war formed the nucleus of two irish commandos and small groups of irish volunteers went to south africa to


with the boers, seeing them as a people oppressed by british imperialism, much like themselves. irish miners already in the transvaal at the start of the war formed the nucleus of two irish commandos and small groups of irish volunteers went to south africa to fight with the boers — this despite the fact that there were many irish troops fighting with the british army. in britain, the " pro - boer " campaign expanded. many british authors gave their " pro - boer " opinions in british press, such as g. k. chesterton ' s writing to 1905, with writers often idealizing the boer society. the vast majority of troops fighting for the united kingdom came from the uk or south africa. however, in the second boer war ( south africa war ) a number did come from other parts of the empire. these countries had their own internal disputes over whether they should remain tied to the united kingdom, or have full independence, which carried over into the debate over whether they should send forces to assist the united kingdom. though not fully independent on foreign affairs, these countries did have local say over how much support to provide, and the manner in which it would be provided. ultimately, canada, australia, and new zealand all chose to send volunteers to aid the united kingdom, but did not send them in sufficient size or speed to be critical to the final outcome. the commonwealth of australia was formed from the six australian colonies on january 1, 1901, making the boer war the first war in which the commonwealth of australia fought. as part of the british empire prior to federation the australian colonies also offered troops for the war in south africa. in all, 16, 175 australians served in contingents raised by the six colonies and the commonwealth. about 4, 500 men served more than one contingent. 267 died from disease and slightly less, 251, died in action or from wounds sustained in battle, while a further 43 men were reported missing. a small number of australians are known to have fought on the boer side. the australian climate and geography were far closer to that of south africa than the towns and cities of britain where most of the british troops originated, so australians were perceived by the british authorities as better suited to the conditions in south africa than many of the british troops and a particularly useful adjunct to the british regular forces. the australians served mostly as powerful " mounted rifles " in units formed in each colony. some contingents fought in the second phase of the war when the british counter - attack captured the boer capitals. later contingents fought in the guerrilla war phase


forces. the australians served mostly as powerful " mounted rifles " in units formed in each colony. some contingents fought in the second phase of the war when the british counter - attack captured the boer capitals. later contingents fought in the guerrilla war phase. they were valued for the ability to be able to match the speed and agility of the boer commandos on the veldt and were often used as quick - response reserves sent to areas where the more sedate british infantry units often in blockhouses reported contact with the boers. some of these troops formed the kernel of the australian lighthorsemen regiments later sent to middle east in world war i. in australia at the start of the war sympathy lay with the imperial cause, but as the war dragged on the australian public started to become disenchanted, in part because the sufferings of boer civilians became known through newspaper reports on the well - publicized conviction and execution of lieutenants breaker morant and handcock in 1902. at first canadian prime minister wilfrid laurier tried to keep canada out of the war. the canadian government was divided between those, primarily french canadians, who wished to stay out of the war and others, primarily english canadians, who wanted to join with britain in her fight. in the end, canada agreed to support the british by providing volunteers, equipment, and transportation to south africa. britain would be responsible for paying the troops and returning them to canada at the end of their service. the boer war marked the first occasion in which large contingents of canadian troops served abroad. the battle of paardeburg in february 1900 represented the second time canadian troops saw battle abroad ( although there was a long tradition of canadian service in the british army and royal navy ), the first being the canadian involvement in the nile expedition of 1884 - 85. ultimately, over 8, 600 canadians volunteered to fight in the south african war. however, not all saw action since many landed in south africa after the hostilities ended while others performed garrison duty in halifax, nova scotia so that their british counterparts could join at the front. approximately 277 canadians died in the south africa war : 89 men were killed in action, 135 died of disease, and the remainder died of accident or injury. 252 were wounded. when the second boer war seemed imminent, new zealand offered its support. on september 28, 1899, prime minister richard seddon asked new zealand parliament to approve the offer to the imperial government of a contingent of mounted rifles and the raising of such a force if the offer were accepted and thus becoming


zealand offered its support. on september 28, 1899, prime minister richard seddon asked new zealand parliament to approve the offer to the imperial government of a contingent of mounted rifles and the raising of such a force if the offer were accepted and thus becoming the first british colony to send troops to the boer war. the british position in the dispute with the transvaal was " moderate and righteous, " he maintained. he stressed the " crimson tie " of empire which bound new zealand to the mother - country and the importance of a strong british empire for the colony ' s security. in many ways the south african war set the pattern for new zealand ' s later involvement in the two world wars. specially raised units, consisting mainly of volunteers, were dispatched overseas to serve with forces from elsewhere in the british empire. the success enjoyed by the new zealand troops fostered the idea that new zealanders were naturally good soldiers, who required only a modicum of training to perform creditably. - ↑ anglo - boer war museum. boer prisoners of war. retrieved may 24, 2007. - ↑ the anglo - boer war philatelic society. collecting interests. retrieved may 24, 2007. - ↑ the anglo - boer war philatelic society. picture detail. retrieved may 24, 2007. - ↑ australian war memorial. australia and the boer war. retrieved may 24, 2007. - ↑ veterans affairs canada. south african war 100th anniversary. retrieved may 24, 2007. - ↑ new zealand history online. new zealand in the south african war. retrieved may 24, 2007. - doyle, arthur conan : the great boer war. london : smith, elder, 1900. - farwell, byron the great anglo - boer war. new york : harper and row, 1976. isbn 0 - 06 - 011204 - 2 ( published in the uk as the great boer war. london : allen lane, 1977. isbn 0 - 7139 - 0820 - 3 ) - gordon, april a and donald l. gordon, ( eds. ) : understanding contemporary africa. 3rd ed. boulder, colorado : lynne rienner, 2001. isbn 1 - 55587 - 850 - 4 - harrison, david the white tribe of africa : south africa in perspective. los angeles : university of california press, 1981. isbn 0 - 520 - 04690 - 0 - judd, denis and surridge, keith the boer war. london : john murray, 2003. isbn 0719561698 - pakenham, thomas the boer war. new york : random house


0 - 520 - 04690 - 0 - judd, denis and surridge, keith the boer war. london : john murray, 2003. isbn 0719561698 - pakenham, thomas the boer war. new york : random house, 1979. isbn 0 - 394 - 42742 - 4 - pretorius, fransjohan scorched earth. cape town : human & rousseau, 2001. isbn 0 - 7981 - 4192 - plaatje, sol t mafeking diary : a black man ' s view of a white man ' s war. cambridge : meridor books ; athens : ohio university press, 1990. isbn 0 - 852550 - 64 - 2 - milner, alfred the milner papers, " south africa 1899 - 1905. london : cassell, 1933. all links retrieved february 14, 2013. - war museum of the boer republics. anglo boer war museum. - national uk archives site. - battlefields in kwazulu natal. - a handbook of the boer war by gale and polden, limited, from project gutenberg. - the record of a regiment of the line, by m. jacson, from project gutenberg. - commando : a boer journal of the boer war, a book ( now in the public domain and readable online ), written by deneys reitz, a participant in the war and later deputy prime minister of south africa. - colonial units. new world encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the wikipedia article in accordance with new world encyclopedia standards. this article abides by terms of the creative commons cc - by - sa 3. 0 license ( cc - by - sa ), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the new world encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the wikimedia foundation. to cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats. the history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here : note : some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.


get your binoculars and bird seed ready. this weekend is the rspb ’ s big garden birdwatch. people all over the uk will spend an hour recording the birds they see in their garden for the survey ’ s 30th anniversary. anyone can take part and the information the survey collects is one of the important ways the public can help track bird numbers around the uk. the british trust for ornithology ( bto ) has a year - round project to gather information on how birds use gardens, a more and more important habitat for wild birds as other natural habitats decline. over the years, the rspb survey and bto research has shown changes in uk bird populations. there has been an increase in, for example, the collared dove and wood pigeon, but serious declines in the house sparrow ( passer domesticus ), song thrush ( turdus philomelos ) and starling ( sturnus vulgaris ). the reasons for many of these declines are not fully understood which makes monitoring their numbers and distribution all the more important. getting the public ’ s help with wildlife surveys is crucial and means scientists can get up - to - date information about population numbers. the natural history museum ’ s annual bluebell survey relies on the public ’ s participation too. in partnership with plantlife and the ramblers ' association, it collects sightings of bluebells and the results help scientists work out if the native bluebell is being threatened by two other species, the spanish bluebell and the hybrid. in march, the museum in partnership with opal, will be carrying out an earthworm survey. for such a common creature, surprisingly little is know about them and the public ’ s observations should help change this. the rspb big garden birdwatch survey is during 24 - 25 january and the museum ’ s bluebell survey begins in the spring when the bluebells appear.


residential buildings use approximately 22 % of the total energy consumed in the u. s. the objective of this project is to increase the energy efficiency of the residential building sector by reducing the uncertainties in tools and techniques that are currently used to make energy predictions during three phases of a building ’ s lifetime : construction / design, regular operation, and retrofit. objective : to improve estimates of residential whole - building energy consumption by 2014 through characterization of uncertainties of tools used in modeling whole buildings in support of national energy efficiency standards, providing energy feedback to building occupants, and selecting retrofit options to improve the performance of existing buildings. what is the new technical idea? providing measures for residential energy use on a whole building scale is challenging because of the interacting components and systems that come into play. as these building components and systems increase in efficiency, a holistic assessment of energy consumption is necessary to target effective ways to better energy performance in homes. in this project, nist will focus on improving the measurement science utilized by standards developers, designers, occupants, and retrofit professionals to assess the energy performance of a residence by quantifying the uncertainties associated with these assessments. whole building energy simulations often inform the development of next - generation building codes for energy efficiency by using the analyses to understand the implications of proposed code changes. nist will work toward determining the sensitivity of residential building energy simulations to various parameters, such as construction and occupant factors, to make the energy savings predictions of the standards to which the modeled buildings will be compliant more complete. once the building is in operation, real - time energy feedback to occupants is needed to continue to meet and exceed the efficiency goals described in the construction standards ; it is estimated that up to a 20 % energy savings can be achieved through behavioral changes that result from appropriate feedback. nist has been evaluating commercially - available residential energy monitoring systems ( rems ) and will develop a metric and a test method to quantify measurement accuracy and communication performance so commercial products can meet the needs of building occupants. finally, to fully address energy efficiency of residential buildings, it is imperative to identify ways to improve the performance of existing buildings. energy auditing is a process by which retrofits needed to improve the energy performance of a building are determined. nist will enable quantification of the uncertainty in audit recommendations by formalizing a procedure to implement a round - robin program so that building professionals and homeowners have greater confidence in energy efficiency improvements resulting from retrofits. quantifying the uncertainties associated


enable quantification of the uncertainty in audit recommendations by formalizing a procedure to implement a round - robin program so that building professionals and homeowners have greater confidence in energy efficiency improvements resulting from retrofits. quantifying the uncertainties associated with these modeling tools, sensor systems, and guidelines will provide more confidence to building designers, operators, homeowners, and standards developers to move the nation toward net - zero energy, high performance buildings. what is the research plan? to decrease uncertainty in predictions of energy efficiency improvements of proposed code provisions, nist will assess the sensitivity of computer models used to evaluate those proposals. assessments of prescriptive standards and codes such as ashrae 90. 2 and the international energy conservation code performed by the residential building energy codes community typically utilize single building types to represent the nation ’ s residential building stock. in fy13, nist will create energyplus models of multiple prototype buildings using data from the census bureau ’ s american housing survey and the doe residential energy consumption survey to expand the representation of the u. s. building stock. nist will then perform a sensitivity study to quantify the uncertainty and variability in modeling results when factors such as location, occupant behavior, construction type, and square footage are varied. these factors can all be examined by changing inputs into the software, with occupant behavior being examined through changes in hot water use, thermostat setpoints, appliance usage, and plug load usage that are documented in the building science literature. to assess the uncertainty in energy use estimates from continuous feedback systems, nist will utilize a testbed to develop metrics and test methods to assess such systems. a hardware test platform for electricity sensors that also possesses the functionality to assess the software included to retrieve sensor data was designed in fy12 to assess the accuracy of commercially available residential energy monitoring systems ( rems ). the platform makes use of individual energy end - uses ( e. g., small and large appliances, and plug loads ) to simulate what would be used in a home. in fy13, nist will expand the test platform to include the measurement of simultaneous household loads and multiple sensors to further represent typical home energy use. current investigations have shown that certain appliances have variable power states, a trend emerging with appliances incorporating more complex electronics. the results of testing end - uses on the platform will allow nist to categorize various household electrical loads and determine which rems are the most appropriate for these categories. fy13 tasks


, a trend emerging with appliances incorporating more complex electronics. the results of testing end - uses on the platform will allow nist to categorize various household electrical loads and determine which rems are the most appropriate for these categories. fy13 tasks will culminate in the draft and evaluation of a test method to assess the performance of residential electricity monitoring systems, with the aid of a load generator to simulate the sum of household loads and the development of suitable metric ( s ) of comparison. to characterize the uncertainty in projected energy efficiency improvements arising from residential retrofits, nist will investigate the variability in the predictions from energy audits of existing buildings. in fy12, with the assistance of a grantee, a qualitative “ round robin ” study was performed with multiple auditors conducting energy audits on the same homes using short - term evaluative tools such as blower doors, infrared thermography, and flow measuring devices. results showed widely varying retrofit recommendations and estimated savings from those recommendations. in fy13, nist will formalize the round - robin procedure to identify key areas of variability in a statistically significant manner and will work with the retrofit community to assess this framework, starting by implementing a round robin during a leading home performance conference. this effort will result in a process that will help reduce variability in energy audit results and increase confidence in predictions of energy savings. nist will work with standards and credentialing residential energy retrofit organizations to incorporate lessons learned from the studies into new standards. the first step in this endeavor will be to create a map of gaps and overlaps in the standards landscape. nist will team with a contractor or grantee to assess the residential auditing standards and evaluate the round robin framework. standards and codes : results of sensitivity analyses of residential buildings models will be shared with ashrae standards committee 90. 2 and a proposed ashrae committee on high performance, green residential buildings. ( boyd / kneifel / healy ) results of energy audit analysis will lead to modifications of standards and guidelines developed by organizations such as the residential energy services network ( resnet ) and the building performance institute ( bpi ). ( healy ) test method for residential energy monitoring systems and results of its evaluation will be disseminated to organization deemed most appropriate. candidate organizations include ashrae, astm international, and ieee ( ullah / guo ) lead organizational unit : el related programs and projects : 100 bureau drive, m / s 8632


young boy in kuthri, kenya. the population of africa will grow the fastest, analysts say. world population is expected to rise from 7 billion to 9 billion by 2050. africa will be home to a 2 billion increase, the fastest rate of increase in the world. as world population increases, so does the demand to feed the hungry. catherine bertini, 2003 world food prize laureate, spoke nov. 15 at the university of nebraska - lincoln on “ where america must lead : ensuring the world can feed its people. ” bertini is the co - chair of the global agricultural development initiative at the chicago council of global affairs. she has “ tremendous expertise in feeding people and avoiding starvation in times of famine, war, natural disasters and other catastrophes, ” said ronnie green, vice chancellor for nu ’ s institute of agriculture and natural resources. to keep up with the growth, food production will need to increase by 60 percent, bertini said. but price volatility, especially in war - torn countries, makes it hard to plant and sell crops. “ we have to think - - where are markets going to be in the future and we have to think about where people are going to be, ” bertini said. she noted that 1. 3 billion people live in poverty, on less than $ 1. 25 a day. as one of the nation ’ s top food producers, nebraska farmers are expected to be major contributors to relief. with only 12 percent of the world ’ s arable land remaining, bertini said spreading farther out is not an option. instead, major steps toward increased production are the only way to meet future food security pressures. “ agriculture productivity is 2 - 4 times more effective than any other productivity in alleviating poverty, ” bertini said. among the productivity enhancements bertini discussed was technology, such as advancements in irrigation. in africa, only 6 percent of the continent ’ s arable land is irrigated, compared to 37 percent in asia. she said that despite its toils, some of africa is starting to see increases in output, specifically angola after the end of its civil war. bertini also addressed the cultural gender gap. “ when the income comes into the household through the woman, ” bertini explained, “ it ’ s much more likely to go to the betterment of the family rather than if it comes through the man. ” but because women do not have the same rights as men in most of africa, they have less access to the farm necessities such


the great reform act by michael brock humanities press, 411 pp., $ 6. 00 ( paper ) eighteen thirty - two, the year that saw the passage of the great reform act, is one of those dates in english history — 1066 and 1688 are others — whose significance has become nothing less than mythical. it is a boon alike to textbook writers and to those who set or take examinations. and the tenpound householder, whom the act enfranchised, resembles the spinning jenny and the water frame in being something that everyone talks about, usually without knowing exactly what or who it was. one student memorably defined him as “ any member of a household weighing more than ten pounds ” ; but that was surely in jest. more frequent and more serious comments consist of statements such as : “ the reform act of 1832 took power away from the aristocracy and gave it to the middle classes ” ; or “ the reform act of 1832 put britain squarely on the path to democracy. ” there is certainly no mystery about what happened in 1832. after a stormy period of fourteen months — which had witnessed not only one of the classic parliamentary debates of modern times but also a dissolution of parliament and a hard - fought election, the mobilization of public opinion on a hitherto unknown scale, a threat by the monarch to create more peers in order to force the bill through a recalcitrant house of lords, as well as a certain amount of actual violence in the country and the prospect of much more — a whig government under the second earl grey finally managed to get adopted by both houses of parliament a measure designed to correct ancient anomalies and abuses, which resulted in major changes both in the representative system and in the franchise. one principal provision of the bill took away parliamentary seats from “ rotten ” boroughs, usually under aristocratic control, at worst consisting of a few hovels, at best of a population of one or two thousand, and gave some of those seats to large and hitherto unrepresented industrial towns such as manchester, birmingham, sheffield, and leeds. another provision abolished existing urban franchise qualifications often dating back by prescription to medieval times, limiting votes to closed corporations or absentee property holders in some towns while permitting almost universal male suffrage in some others, and substituted a uniform suffrage that gave votes to all adult males occupying ( whether as landlords or tenants ) premises with a minimum rentable value of £10 a year. these were the tenpound householders. their social and economic status varied from place to place, depending


a few years ago, i decided that i needed to know more about the history of science, so naturally i volunteered to teach the subject. in working up my lectures, i was struck with the fact that in the ancient world, astronomy reached what from a modern perspective was a much higher level of accuracy and sophistication than any other science. one obvious reason for this is that visible astronomical phenomena are much simpler and easier to study than the things we can observe on the earth ’ s surface. the ancients did not know it, but the earth and moon and planets all spin at nearly constant rates, and they travel in their orbits under the influence of a single dominant force, that of gravitation. in consequence, the changes in what is seen in the sky are simple and periodic : the moon regularly waxes and wanes, the sun and moon and stars seem to revolve once a day around the celestial pole, and the sun traces a path through the same constellations of stars every year, those of the zodiac. even with crude instruments these periodic changes could be and were studied with a fair degree of mathematical precision, much greater than was possible for things on earth like the flight of a bird or the flow of water in a river. but there was another reason why astronomy was so prominent in ancient and medieval science. it was useful in a way that the physics and biology of the time were not. even before history began, people must have used the apparent motion of the sun as at least a crude clock, calendar, and compass. these functions became much more precise with the introduction of what may have been the first scientific instrument, the gnomon, attributed by the greeks variously to anaximander or to the babylonians. the gnomon is simply a straight pole, set vertically in a flat, level patch of ground open to the sun ’ s rays. when during each day the gnomon ’ s shadow is shortest, that is noon. at noon, the gnomon ’ s shadow anywhere in the latitude of greece or mesopotamia points due north, so all the points of the compass can be permanently and accurately marked out on the ground around the gnomon. watching the shadow from day to day, one can note the days when the noon shadow is shortest or longest. that is the summer or the winter solstice. from the length of the noon shadow at the summer solstice one can calculate the latitude. the shadow at sunset points somewhat south of east in the spring and summer, and