until recently, i never paid much attention to the possibility that abnormalities of the parathyroid glands could be relevant to patients in my practice. but i decided to learn more about this issue when one of my patients with bipolar disorder who had been treated with lithium ( drug information on lithium ) told me that she had been given a diagnosis of a parathyroid adenoma after her primary care physician noted hypercalcemia on routine testing. since undergoing successful surgery to remove the adenoma, she is feeling much sharper mentally and more energetic. lithium continues to be the gold standard for the treatment of bipolar disorder. it is also helpful for related diagnoses, such as schizoaffective disorder and cyclic major depression. in addition to watching out for the well - known complications of lithium treatment — hypothyroidism and decreased renal function — health care providers should be aware of hyperparathyroidism. development of hyperparathyroidism the parathyroid glands are 4 small structures located on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland, which monitor calcium levels in the blood and release parathyroid hormone ( pth ). pth is a peptide that acts to increase the concentration of calcium in the blood by enhancing the release of calcium from bones. in addition, pth acts on the kidneys to increase active reabsorption of calcium from distal tubules as well as to increase the excretion of phosphate, also leading to more free calcium in circulation. finally, pth raises calcium levels by increasing the production of activated vitamin d, which enhances absorption of calcium by the intestine. primary hyperparathyroidism usually results from an adenoma in a single gland, although other causes may be double adenoma or hyperplasia in multiple glands. previous exposure to radiation in the facial or neck area and certain medications, including thiazide diuretics, may cause primary hyperparathyroidism. in some families, the disease may be inherited. parathyroid cancer is an extremely rare cause of primary hyperparathyroidism. secondary hyperparathyroidism results from any medical condition that causes low calcium levels. this is most often due to kidney failure and the consequent rise in phosphate levels. vitamin d deficiency is another possible cause. the lithium connection. it turns out that lithium, a mainstay in the treatment of bipolar disorder, is associated with an increased incidence of hyperparathyroidism. approximately 15 % to 20 % of patients receiving long - term lithium treatment show elevated calcium


a green, rechargeable battery that is suitable for powering electric vehicles and stationary power storage applications, and that would survive tens of thousands of charge cycles in a useful life of 100 years without loss of capacity. what could be a better innovation for our times? such a battery has been developed, and recently improved by stanford researchers. oh, one other thing. the battery was invented by thomas edison in 1901. the first era of electric cars took place from about 1890 until 1930. america ’ s first commercially successful electric vehicle was built by william morrison of des moines, iowa in 1891. in 1900, 28 percent of the cars built in the u. s. were electric. generally these electric cars had low power motors – a kilowatt or two compared to the 15 kw of the 1908 ford model t. their drivability, however, was acceptable because of the effortless starting of the electric motor, its large starting torque, and the perception that relatively slow electric cars were well suited to city driving by ladies and physicians ( this was the era of the house call ). a group of researchers at stanford has significantly improved the performance of nickel - iron batteries, which may lead to new applications for this venerable battery. the stanford team has created an ultrafast nickel - iron battery that can be fully charged in about two minutes and discharged in less than 30 seconds, making the new batteries ideal to supplement slow - charging lithium - ion batteries in regenerative braking.


even though the myisam table format is very reliable ( all changes to a table made by an sql statement are written before the statement returns ), you can still get corrupted tables if any of the following events occur : the mysqld process is killed in the middle of a write. an unexpected computer shutdown occurs ( for example, the computer is turned off ). you are using an external program ( such as myisamchk ) to modify a table that is being modified by the server at the same time. a software bug in the mysql or typical symptoms of a corrupt table are : you get the following error while selecting data from the table : incorrect key file for table : '... '. try to repair it queries don ' t find rows in the table or return incomplete results. you can check the health of a check table statement, and repair a corrupted myisam table with repair table. when mysqld is not running, you can also check or repair a table with the myisamchk command. see section 22. 214. 171. 124, “ check table syntax ”, section 126. 96. 36. 199, “ repair table syntax ”, and section 4. 6. 3, “ myisamchk — myisam table - maintenance utility ”. if your tables become corrupted frequently, you should try to determine why this is happening. the most important thing to know is whether the table became corrupted as a result of a server crash. you can verify this easily by looking for a recent restarted mysqld message in the error log. if there is such a message, it is likely that table corruption is a result of the server dying. otherwise, corruption may have occurred during normal operation. this is a bug. you should try to create a reproducible test case that demonstrates the problem. see section c. 5. 4. 2, “ what to do if mysql keeps crashing ”, and porting to other systems.


april 22 to 28 this year has been established as the first ever “ national severe weather awareness week. ” as the nation marks the first anniversary of one of the largest tornado outbreaks in u. s. history, the national oceanic and atmospheric administration and the federal emergency management agency are teaming up this week to save lives from severe weather. the two agencies encourage the public to “ know your risk, take action, and be a force of nature ” by taking proactive preparedness measures and inspiring others to do the same. last april, tornadoes raked the central and southern united states, spawning more than 300 tornadoes and claiming hundreds of lives. that devastating, historic outbreak was only one of many weather - related tragedies in 2011, which now holds the record for the greatest number of multi - billion dollar weather disasters in the nation ’ s history. the country has already experienced early and destructive tornado outbreaks in the midwest and south this year over the last two months, including a significant number of tornadoes last weekend. may is the peak season for tornadoes, so it is important to take action now. “ the damaging tornadoes that struck this year, causing widespread devastation as well as loss of life, also spurred many amazing and heroic survival stories, ” said noaa administrator jane lubchenco, ph. d. “ in every one of these stories, people heard the warning, understood a weather hazard was imminent and took immediate action. we can build a weather - ready nation by empowering people with the information they need to take preparedness actions across the country. ” “ one of the lessons we can take away from the recent tornado outbreaks is that severe weather can happen anytime, anywhere, ” said fema administrator craig fugate. “ while we can ’ t control where or when it might hit, we can take steps in advance to prepare and that ’ s why we are asking people to pledge to prepare, and share with others so they will do the same. ” to “ be a force of nature, ” fema and noaa encourage citizens to prepare for extreme weather by following these guidelines : - know your risk : the first step to becoming weather - ready is to understand the type of hazardous weather that can affect where you live and work, and how the weather could impact you and your family. check the weather forecast regularly and sign up for alerts from your local emergency management officials. severe weather comes in many forms and your shelter plan should include all types of local hazards. - take action : pledge to develop an emergency plan based on your local


check the weather forecast regularly and sign up for alerts from your local emergency management officials. severe weather comes in many forms and your shelter plan should include all types of local hazards. - take action : pledge to develop an emergency plan based on your local weather hazards and practice how and where to take shelter. create or refresh an emergency kit for needed food, supplies and medication. post your plan where visitors can see it. learn what you can do to strengthen your home or business against severe weather. obtain a noaa weather radio. download fema ’ s mobile app so you can access important safety tips on what to do before and during severe weather. understand the weather warning system and become a certified storm spotter through the national weather service. - be a force of nature : once you have taken action, tell your family, friends, school staff and co - workers about how they can prepare. share the resources and alert systems you discovered with your social media network. studies show individuals need to receive messages a number of ways before acting – and you can be one of those sources. when you go to shelter during a warning, send a text, tweet or post a status update so your friends and family know. you might just save their lives, too. for more information on how you can participate, visit www. ready. gov / severeweather


word origin & history o. e. forcippian " to pare away by cutting, " v. form of cipp " small piece of wood, " perhaps from pie base * keipo - " sharp post " ( cf. du. kip " small strip of wood, " l. cippus " post, stake, beam " ). sense of " break off fragments " is 18c. noun is attested by early 14c. ; meaning " counter used in a game of chance " is first recorded 1840 ; electronics sense is from 1962. used for thin slices of foodstuffs ( originally fruit ) since 1769 ; specific ref. to potatoes is from 1859 ( in " a tale of two cities " ) ; potato chip is attested by 1886. meaning " piece of dried dung " first attested 1846. to chip in " contribute " ( 1861 ) may come from card - playing. potato chip is 1859. chip of the old block is used by milton ( 1642 ) ; earlier form was chip of the same block ( 1621 ) ; more common modern phrase with off in place of of is early 20c. to have a chip on one ' s shoulder is from at least 1820s, u. s., from the custom of a boy determined to fight putting a chip on his shoulder and defying another to knock it off. chip in " contribute " is 1861, amer. eng.


ziegenbalg was born in pulsnitz, saxony on july 10, 1682 to poor but devout christian parents - bartholomaus ziegenbalg sr. ( 1640 - 1694 ), a grain merchant and maria nee bruckner ( 1646 - 1692 ). through his father he was related to the sculptor ernst friedrich august rietschel, and through his mother ' s side to the philosopher johann gottlieb fichte. he showed an aptitude for music at an early age. he studied at the university of halle under the teaching of a. h. francke, then the center of pietistic lutheranism. under the patronage of frederick iv of denmark, ziegenbalg, along with his fellow student, heinrich plutschau, became the first protestant missionaries to india. they arrived at the danish colony of tranquebar on july 9 1706. “ at times devanandan seems to imply a universalism that considers all people to be actual sharers in the new humanity ( formed in christ as created by god ), but in other places he seems to mean only that the scope or intention of the christian message is universal ( … ) but he also believes that the observer cannot resist the impulse of the faith that believes in a god who is also the lord of history, and in a creative spirit who is ever at work in the world, redeeming it even in its present involvements and directing its course to the ultimate fulfilment of his purpose ( … ) ”, bob robinson paraphrases the enigmatic ideas of “ south india churchman ” and the first director of the christian institute for the study of religion and society ( cisrs, founded in bangalore in 1957 ) paul david devanandan. a church of the syrian tradition was probably born in south india as long back in history as the third century, at least. kp kesava menon in his forward to christianity in india ( prakam, 1972 ) described a church typical of that tradition as “ hindu in culture, christian in religion, and oriental in worship. ” robinsons laments the failure of the further forward moment of this potential dialogue between the two religions. he notes that even superlatively supportive sympathisers of the european missionary ’ s endorsement of hinduism as roberto de nobili and ziegenbalg despite their enthusiasm for this foreign faith could never shake their conviction of the superiority of their own faith. the propagation of the gospel, despite danish


, the press was taken over, and bustamante was to stay to set up the press with the indian who assists, at the college of st. paul, a seminary that still exists. the arrival of the first press in goa was rejoiced by st. francis xavier whose insight ’ s perception of the precepts of the bible had been in tranquebar around 1542. then inexplicably, and, significantly, all the presses died out in india. tamil printing seems to have stopped after 1612. records show that the last books in latin and portuguese were printed in goa in 1674. ziegenbalg responded to the king of denmark ’ s request for the bequest of a christian mission to spread the vision of the gospel in india, and, in 1706, ziegenbalg and colleague heinrich plutschau reached the region of tranquebar, thus becoming the first protestant missionaries to arrive on the indian sub - continent and began their revisionary project. the two established the danish - halle mission. the two laboured intensively, despite opposition from the local hindu and danish authorities in tranquebar, baptizing their first indian converts on may 12, 1707. education has always been an integral component of missionary work. and ziegenbalg recognized from the start the imperative of learning the local languages in the progress of their mission. stephen neill notes this curious serendipity ( one among the host of others which actively play creator of reality ), “ the original plan was that ziegenbalg should concentrate on portuguese and plutschau on tamil. for no explicit reason, but to the great advantage of the work, this arrangement was changed, and mastery of tamil became the primary objective of ziegenbalg. he had little to help him. no grammar was available. the jesuits in the sixteenth century had printed a number of books in tamil, but the work had been discontinued, and the lutheran missionaries seem never even to have heard that such printed books existed. ” ziegenbalg, quite possibly, spent more time picking up the local tongue than set his own wagging incomprehensibly and in vain to a folk who would then call him insane. he went on to write in 1709, " i choose such books as i should wish to imitate both in speaking and writing... their tongue... ( now ) is as easy to me as my mother tongue, and in the last two years i have been


in 1709, " i choose such books as i should wish to imitate both in speaking and writing... their tongue... ( now ) is as easy to me as my mother tongue, and in the last two years i have been enabled to write several books in tamil... ” in a manner of mention, he was practising a well - intentioned form of cultural imperialism. but due to the circumstances in which european culture was established and promoted, in the midst of indigenous, alien people, the bridge estranging the cultural differences ( amid christianity and other cultures, the will to power promoted by a multiplicity of western nation - states, and also the friction between the fractions of the umbrageous faction of christianity ) posed many obstacles. this resistance circles our consideration back to the conflicting attitudes of the missionaries and the hindus they sought to convert. classical hindu views regarding religious and other pluralisms during this point in history are kind to our comprehension, though over times this abandoned dialogue between the two faiths has been revived spuriously by the likes of ram mohan roy to ramakrishna and vivekananda to gandhi. ziegenbalg was publicly critical of some members of the brahmin caste, accusing them of disregard for lower castes in hindu society. for that reason, at least one group plotted to kill him. this reaction by native indians was unusual and ziegenbalg ' s work did not generally encounter unfriendly crowds ; his lectures and classes drawing considerable interest from locals. in 1708, a dispute over whether the illegitimate child of a danish soldier and a non - christian woman should be baptized and brought up as a roman catholic or a protestant resulted in heinrich plutschau being brought before a court. although plutschau was released, ziegenbalg wrote that " the catholics rejoiced, that we were persecuted and they were authorized. " he connected this incident, which he took to have emboldened the catholics, directly with a second nearly two weeks later, which resulted in his imprisonment. this incident arose from ziegenbalg ’ s intervention on behalf of the widow of a tamil barber over a debt between her late husband and a catholic who was employed by the company as a translator. the commander of the danish fort in tranquebar, hassius, regarded ziegenbalg ' s repeated intervention in the case, including his advice that the widow kneel before him in the danish church, as inappropriate and sent for ziegen


commander of the danish fort in tranquebar, hassius, regarded ziegenbalg ' s repeated intervention in the case, including his advice that the widow kneel before him in the danish church, as inappropriate and sent for ziegenbalg to appear before him. when ziegenbalg demurred, requesting a written summons, he was arrested and, because he refused to answer questions, imprisoned. although released after a little more than four months, ziegenbalg still had a difficult relationship with hassius and that was one reason for ziegenbalg ' s return to europe in 1714 - 1716. ziegenbalg was also married in 1716. he was also active in cooperation with the anglican society for the propagation of christian knowledge, making his work one of the first ecumenical ventures in the history of protestant missionary work. stephen neill suggests, “ as a missionary of the danish crown, ordained in denmark, ziegenbalg felt himself bound by the liturgy and customs of the danish church ( … ) only in one respect does ( he ) seem to have made a concession to the fact that this new church was growing up in india ; he made use of the presence in the christian community of a measure of literary and musical talent to introduce the singing of tamil lyrics to indian melodies, in addition to using in church the growing collection of hymns which had been translated from german but in which the original metres and tunes had been preserved. ” 1 ) translations : the 16th century saw the rise of protestantism and an explosion of translations of the new ( and old ) testament into the vernacular. after all this time spent in blood - wrenching and sweat - drenching scholarship, ziegenbalg wrote numerous texts in tamil, for dissemination among hindus. he was fully conscious of the importance of print in the history of the protestant church. he commenced his undertaking of translating the new testament, in 1708, and completed it in 1711, though printing was delayed till 1714, because of ziegenbalg ’ s insistent, perfectionist revisions. stephen neill comments, “ only rarely has the first translation of scripture in a new language been found acceptable. ziegenbalg ’ s achievement was considerable ; for the first time the entire new testament had been made available in an indian language. but from the start ziegenbalg ’ s work was exposed to criticism on a variety of grounds ” and that johann fabricius ’ update on the pioneering text was so clearly superior, “ before long the older


made available in an indian language. but from the start ziegenbalg ’ s work was exposed to criticism on a variety of grounds ” and that johann fabricius ’ update on the pioneering text was so clearly superior, “ before long the older version ceased to be used. ” it was obvious to ziegenbalg that without a printing press all his effort would come to nought. possibly as early as 1709 he requested a printing press from denmark. the danes forwarded the appeal to london to the society for promoting christian knowledge. the spck, not allowed a foothold in india by john company ' s merchants, was only too eager to help and in 1712 shipped out to the tranquebar mission a printing press with type, paper, ink, and a printer. he was also hindered by delays in the construction of a suitable tamil typeface for his purposes. in a letter dated 7 / 4 / 1713 to george lewis, the anglican chaplain at madras, and first printed, in portuguese, on the press the mission had recently received from the society for promoting christian knowledge, ziegenbalg writes : “ we may remember on this occasion, how much the art of printing contributed to the manifestation of divine truths, and the spreading of books for that end, at the time of the happy reformation, which we read of in history, with thanksgiving to almighty god. ” following this, he began translating the old testament, building “ himself a little house in a quiet area away from the centre of the town, where he could pursue tranquilly what he regarded as the most important work of all. on 28 september 1714 he reports to francke that the book exodus has now been completed. at the time of his death he had continued the work up to the book of ruth. ” 2 ) s. muthiah in his fond remembrance ( “ the legacy that ziegenbalg left ” ) ends with an inventory of the man ’ s lesser - known works : “ apart from the numerous tamil translations of christian publications he made, he wrote several books and booklets that could be described as being indological in nature. he also had the press printing educational material of a more general nature. as early as 1708 he had compiled his bibliothece malabarke, listing the 161 tamil books he had read and describing their content. in 1713, in biblia tamulica he expanded this bibliography. also in 1713 the press produced what was perhaps the first almanac to be printed in india. then, in


listing the 161 tamil books he had read and describing their content. in 1713, in biblia tamulica he expanded this bibliography. also in 1713 the press produced what was perhaps the first almanac to be printed in india. then, in 1716, there appeared what was probably the first book printed in asia in english, a guide to the english tongue, by thomas dyche. the next year the press printed an a. b. c. ( in portuguese ) for schools in the english territories. what did not get printed in tranquebar were ziegenbalg ' s indological writings. in fact, his works like nidiwunpa ( malabari moral philosophy ), kondei wenden ( malabari morals ) ulaga nidi ( malabari civil justice ), and his books on hindusim and islam were printed only 150 - 250 years later in europe and madras. ” 1. ziegenbalg was troubled by ill health his entire life, a condition aggravated by his work in the mission field. he died on february 23, 1719, at the age of thirty - six, in tranquebar. his last 13 years were spent laying the foundations for german scholarship in tamil that continues to this day. he faced many obstacles through his life ’ s work. in a letter to one dr. lutkens, ziegenbalg sketches out humbly the zeal and diligence of his daily pursuits. on any given day, he could be engaged in more ( if not as many ) and as varied tasks as the study of tamil to perchance conversation with a native poet to repose and contemplation to catechizing children of lutheran catechisms, to maybe more study or exercises in piety. george thos, jr. asks, “ can it be surprising that a man thus piously and ardently engaged should be eminently successful? or that he should too soon be exhausted by such incessant exertions? ” the blessings of god for their selfless tireless labours were mingled congruously with various circumstances testing their faith. their work was opposed both by militant hindus and by the local danish authorities. in 1707 / 08, ziegenbalg spent four months in prison on a charge that by converting the natives, he was encouraging rebellion. more than the opposition, he had to cope with the climatic conditions in india. ziegenbalg wrote : “ my skin was like a red cloth. the heat here is very


a charge that by converting the natives, he was encouraging rebellion. more than the opposition, he had to cope with the climatic conditions in india. ziegenbalg wrote : “ my skin was like a red cloth. the heat here is very great, especially during april, may and june, in which season the wind blows from the inland so strongly that it seems as if the heat comes straight out of the oven ”. for an account of his death, see death - bed scenes : or, dying with and without religion, designed to illustrate the truth and power of christianity, volume 43 ; volume 651, part i, section ii, chapter 28. johann phillip fabricius, picked up where ziegenbalg left off on bible translation, particularly tamil christian hymnody. he also felt that the previous translation by ziegenbalg urgently needed emendations. “ the four qualities which fabricius found in the originals were lucidity, strength, brevity and appropriateness ; these were sadly lacking in the existing tamil translation, but he hoped that by the help of god he had been able to restore them. ” both scholars can also be referred to as proto - linguists, both worked arduously on dictionaries and grammars in tamil. interesting semiotic and linguistic questions arise, when taking into consideration both gentlemen ’ s translations of the bible. stephen neill summarises ziegenbalg ’ s failures and the cause of tragedy in his life, thus : “ he was little too pleased with his position as a royal missionary, and too readily inclined to call on the help of the civil power in denmark. in his controversies with the authorities at tranquebar he was generally in the right, but a less impetuous and more temperate approach might in the end have been more beneficial to the mission. he was too ready to open the coffers of the mission to those who claimed to be needy christians, though he was right that those who had lost all their property through becoming christians could not be allowed to starve. ” dictionary and translator for handheld new : sensagent is now available on your handheld a windows ( pop - into ) of information ( full - content of sensagent ) triggered by double - clicking any word on your webpage. give contextual explanation and translation from your sites! with a sensagentbox, visitors to your site can access reliable information on over 5 million pages provided by sensagent. com. choose the design that fits your site. improve


once known as the kansa ( or konza ) tribe, the kaw are a people of dhegiha - siouan linguistic descent who migrated from the lower ohio valley to present northeastern kansas prior to 1750. in nineteenth - century kansas they fell victim to white land speculators, traders, missionaries, and the federal government ' s policy of tribal concentration and dissolution. the result was their forced removal to a small reservation in present kay county, oklahoma, in 1873 and the allotment of their land by federal law in 1902. among the 249 allottees was charles curtis, a future vice president of the united states ( 1929 - 33 ), who played a significant role in the kaw allotment proceedings. between 1902 and their legal reconstitution as a federally recognized tribe in 1959, social and legal struggles were a common feature of nascent kaw nationalism. under the allotment law of 1902 the kaws retained 260 acres of trust land of their former reservation. when this tract was inundated by the kaw reservoir in the mid - 1960s, the kaw council house was moved to a smaller tract nearby and the kaw cemetery to newkirk, oklahoma. thus newkirk and then kaw city, the present tribal headquarters some fifteen miles southeast of newkirk, emerged as the epicenters of the kaw nation of oklahoma. a revised kaw constitution was adopted in 1990, and a tribal court was instituted two years later. other important kaw projects are a housing project, a museum and social service facility, and some thirty additional projects in oklahoma and kansas. in 2000 the kaws purchased a remnant of their pre - 1873 reservation, a tract near council grove, kansas, which will be developed into a park for interpreting their sojourn in that state. in january 2002 the kaw nation of oklahoma membership totaled 2, 553, a dramatic increase from the 249 persons on the allotment roll a century ago. the last kaw full blood, william mehojah, died april 23, 2000. by the end of the twentieth century the kaw had begun cultural revitalization activities that included providing instruction in the kaw language to students in the local elementary schools and to adults through various electronic media. bibliography : berlin b. chapman, " charles curtis and the kaw reservation, " kansas historical quarterly 15 ( november 1947 ). william e. unrau, the kansa indians : a history of the wind people, 1673 - 1873 ( norman


researchers in spain and norway reported in the periodical nature they had found tree - like growth rings on the bones of mammals, a characteristic that until now was thought to be limited to cold - blooded creatures and dinosaurs. they also found proof that dinosaurs probably had a high metabolic rate to allow fast growth another pointer of warm - bloodedness. " our results strongly propose that dinosaurs were hot - blooded, " lead author meike koehler of spain ' s institut catala de paleontologia told afp. if so, the findings should punctual a rethink about reptiles, she said. modern - day reptiles are cold - blooded, meaning they cannot control their body temperatures through their own metabolic system relying instead on outside means such as basking in the sun. while the dinosaurs may have been hot - blooded, their other characteristics kept them directly in the reptile camp, said koehler. paleontologists have long noted the ring - like markings on the bones of cold - blooded creatures and dinosaurs, and taken them to designate pauses in growth, perhaps due to cold periods or lack of food. the bones of hot - blooded animals such as birds and mammals had never been correctly assessed to see if they, too, display the lines. koehler and her team found the rings in all 41 hot - blooded animal species they studied, counting antelopes, deer and giraffes. the finding " eliminates the strongest quarrel that does survive for cold - bloodedness " in dinosaurs, she said. the team ' s analysis of fillet tissue also showed that the fast enlargement rate of mammals is related to a high metabolism, which in turn is characteristic of hot - bloodedness. " if you compare this hankie with dinosaur tissue you will see that they are equal, " said koehler. " so this means that dinosaurs not only grew very fast but this increase was sustained by a very high metabolic rate, representative hot - bloodedness. " a comment by university of california palaeontologist kevin padian that was available with the paper said the study was the latest to chip away at the long - held theory that dinosaurs were cold - blooded. " it seems that these were anything but characteristic reptiles, and koehler and colleagues ' findings remove another false association from this picture. "


i open my wallet, finger a $ 20 bill, pull it out and hand it to the farmer. in return i load my bag with fresh apples and pears, or beets and squash. the paper note is lightweight, compact, easily folded and stored. it is accepted anywhere in the country, for any purchase, any time. this reliable currency did not always exist. between the revolutionary war and the civil war, most people preferred carrying gold and silver coins for transactions. the paper money was locally printed by banks, merchants, states, and cities ; one never knew if it would hold its value or if it would be accepted by folks in the next town over. in 1861, the federal government began its efforts to convert the country to a uniform currency. on demand notes were issued in $ 5, $ 10, and $ 20 denominations, and could be redeemed for the equivalent in gold “ on demand ”. in 1862, the first $ 1 bill was issued as legal tender. the national banking act of 1863 established a national banking system, and with it a uniform national currency. under this act local banks could apply for a national charter. the institution could then purchase united states bonds which were stored with the u. s. treasury, and have a corresponding amount of paper currency issued. this worked to both parties ’ advantage : the federal government could fund its war against the confederacy and the banks could continue issuing their own unique currency. until 1877, these national bank notes were printed by private bank note companies under contract to the federal government. the overall look of the notes was uniform, but each bank could choose designs from the engraver ’ s catalog to create a unique national note. the bills were shipped in sheets to the bank, where they were signed by the bank ’ s president and register, cut and put into circulation. the greenbacks were lightweight, compact, easily folded and stored. and they were accepted anywhere in the country. the farmers and drovers bank of waynesburg, pennsylvania was first chartered as a state institution in 1835. known as a conservatively managed, dependable financial fixture of the waynesburg area, it was granted national bank status in january of 1865, just three months before the fall of the confederacy. this greenback, # 259 / 453127, was issued in july of that summer, when the nation was struggling to reestablish its identity. the bill has but one fold and has no pin holes from being pinned to someone ’ s pocket or tacked on a bankers ’ spike. the corners are


| skip navigation links | | exit print view | | man pages section 3 : basic library functions oracle solaris 11 information library | - get current file position information # include < stdio. h > int fgetpos ( file * stream, fpos _ t * pos ) ; the fgetpos ( ) function stores the current value of the file position indicator for the stream pointed to by stream in the object pointed to by pos. the value stored contains unspecified information usable by fsetpos ( 3c ) for repositioning the stream to its position at the time of the call to fgetpos ( ). upon successful completion, fgetpos ( ) returns 0. otherwise, it returns a non - zero value and sets errno to indicate the error. the fgetpos ( ) function may fail if : the file descriptor underlying stream is not valid. the file descriptor underlying stream is associated with a pipe, a fifo, or a socket. the current value of the file position cannot be represented correctly in an object of type fpos _ t. the fgetpos ( ) function has a transitional interface for 64 - bit file offsets. see lf64 ( 5 ). see attributes ( 5 ) for descriptions of the following attributes :


the power operator binds more tightly than unary operators on its left ; it binds less tightly than unary operators on its right. the syntax is : thus, in an unparenthesized sequence of power and unary operators, the operators are evaluated from right to left ( this does not constrain the evaluation order for the operands ). the power operator has the same semantics as the built - in pow ( ) function, when called with two arguments : it yields its left argument raised to the power of its right argument. the numeric arguments are first converted to a common type. the result type is that of the arguments after coercion. with mixed operand types, the coercion rules for binary arithmetic operators apply. for int and long int operands, the result has the same type as the operands ( after coercion ) unless the second argument is negative ; in that case, all arguments are converted to float and a float result is delivered. for example, 0. 01. ( this last feature was added in python 2. 2. in python 2. 1 and before, if both arguments were of integer types and the second argument was negative, an exception was raised ). 0. 0 to a negative power results in a zerodivisionerror. raising a negative number to a fractional power results in a valueerror. see about this document... for information on suggesting changes.


trectangle = class ( tshape ) class pascalimplementation trectangle : public tshape trectangle defines 2d rectangles with customized corners. it inherits tcontrol and can be used in styles to construct controls. the rectangle size and position are defined by the following properties of the trectangle object : - the shape rectangle shaperect defines the initial size and position of the rectangle. - you can use the scaling factors to the trectangle object to proportionally scale rectangle coordinates along local coordinate axes. scaling moves the rectangle and changes its size. note : scaling not only scales the shape of an object proportionally to the scaling factors, but also changes the strokethickness of the contour proportionally to the scaling factor for each axis. - you can use the rotation axis rotationcenter and rotation angle rotationangle of the trectangle object to rotate and move the rectangle. - the corners, cornertype, xradius, and yradius properties customize the shape of the rectangle corners. trectangle draws the contour and fills the background with the paint method. paint draws the contour and fills the background using the drawing pen and brush with the properties, color, and opacity defined by the stroke, strokethickness, strokecap, strokedash, strokejoin, and fill properties of the trectangle object.


the digital music archiving project is a combination of two separate projects in which technical and human resources can be best shared. the two parts retain their individual focus and distinct character, but the staff and equipment are common to both. 1. digital archive of north indian classical music : phase ii with emphasis on special collections the digital archive of north indian classical music was initiated in 2004 as part of the school of cultural texts and records at jadavpur university, kolkata. the aim at inception was to create a collection of digitised recordings of north indian classical music, and by 2007 a collection of about 1, 000 hours was digitised, catalogued and made available. this new project will concentrate on performances of artists usually under - represented in large general collections. this appears to be because these artists performed within a limited geographical range, and their music did not circulate widely ; certain styles like the ancient dhrupad were less popular, and hence survived in fewer copies. it is estimated that another 1500 hours of recordings will be digitised in the next 24 months, which would be in part selective and focused, concentrating on particular artists, styles, genres and instruments. prominent among them would be the dhrupad style of singing and the music of the rudra - veena, surasringar and surbahar. there would also be an attempt to acquire recordings of artists less recorded and circulated, but of great historical importance. most of these collections are held by different collectors in and around kolkata. 2. digital archive of bengali songs this part of the project will digitise a collection of bengali songs from 78rpm shellac disc records. the first commercial recording in india was made at kolkata ( then calcutta ) in 1902. these records, for the first time, enable us to preserve as an archive what was earlier an oral and performative, hence unrecorded, tradition. the kind of material to be digitised consists of all types of popular ( non - classical ) bengali songs, such as folk, devotional, romantic, comic, songs from theatre and complete musical dramas in the folk tradition etc. many of these songs actually go back to the 19th century but have been put in recorded form only in the 20th. unless they are preserved properly, some remarkable specimens of bengali music, and the rare voices of many eminent artistes will be irretrievably lost. a private collector has approximately 9, 000 records in his collection, spanning the entire period of recording in india. the physical condition of these records is mostly satisfactory to allow them


rare voices of many eminent artistes will be irretrievably lost. a private collector has approximately 9, 000 records in his collection, spanning the entire period of recording in india. the physical condition of these records is mostly satisfactory to allow them to be copied. however, if the work of preservation of these records is not taken up now, this huge collection of bengali songs and music will be lost for ever. quick and proper action is needed to save it by transferring the records to digital mode, as the old 78 rpm records are made of shellac, which is very fragile. approximately 4, 000 songs will be digitised and thereby preserved from the oldest and most valuable portion of the collection, from 1902 to 1937. the project succeeded in digitising 16 collections in whole or part, contributed by private collectors, musicologists and musicians. this totalled 6, 860 tracks amounting to 1, 670 hours of listening time. together with the recordings previously digitised ( partly under eap132 ), the archive of north indian classical music at jadavpur university now contains one of the largest collections of north indian classical music in the country. a digital copy is housed at the school of cultural texts and records at jadavpur university and a copy has been deposited with the british library. in addition, individual collectors have received a copy of their material.


scientists estimate that critically endangered north atlantic right whales have lost 63 to 67 percent of their communication space in the stellwagen bank national marine sanctuary due to noise created by passing ships. the paper was published on august 14, 2012 in an early online edition of the journal conservation biology. the north atlantic right whale is one of the rarest marine mammals. only 350 to 400 whales are believed to currently exist. they are spectacularly large and can grow up to 45 to 55 feet ( 13. 7 to 16. 7 meters ) in length and weigh up to 70 tons ( 63, 500 kilograms ). they feed on plankton, particularly copepods, by straining seawater through baleen plates located in their mouths. north atlantic right whales face many threats including those from shipping strikes, entanglement in fishing gear and habitat degradation caused by chemical and noise pollution. while much effort has been put forth to reduce whale deaths caused shipping strikes and gear entanglements, little is known about how noise pollution may negatively impact these whales. to study how noise impacts north atlantic right whales, a group of scientists placed several acoustic recording devices in the stellawagen bank national marine sanctuary – a critical feeding ground for right whales – and compared the noise from ships today to historically lower noise levels that existed nearly a half century ago. they estimate that right whales have lost 63 to 67 percent of their communication space in the sanctuary and surrounding waters. the louder ambient noise created by today ’ s busy world appears to be reducing the ability of the whales to detect calls from other whales. scientists call this phenomenon communication masking. you can listen to what communication masking sounds like on the cornell university whale listening project ’ s website. first, listen to a typical right whale call at the top of the webpage. then, try to see if you can hear the whale call within the recording from a noisy shipping lane. i could not. however, i did listen to a lot of loud music as a teenager. leila hatch, a marine ecologist at the stellwagen bank national marine sanctuary and lead author of the paper, commented on the findings in a press release. she said : a good analogy would be a visually impaired person, who relies on hearing to move safely within their community, which is located near a noisy airport. large whales, such as right whales, rely on their ability to hear far more than their ability to see. chronic noise is likely reducing their opportunities to gather and share vital information that helps them find food and mates, navigate, avoid predators and


airport. large whales, such as right whales, rely on their ability to hear far more than their ability to see. chronic noise is likely reducing their opportunities to gather and share vital information that helps them find food and mates, navigate, avoid predators and take care of their young. christopher clark, director of cornell ’ s bioacoustics program and co - author of the work also commented on the findings. he said : we had already shown that the noise from an individual ship could make it nearly impossible for a right whale to be heard by other whales. what we ’ ve shown here is that in today ’ s ocean off boston, compared to 40 or 50 years ago, the cumulative noise from all of the shipping traffic is making it difficult for all the right whales in the area to hear each other most of the time, not just once in a while. basically, the whales off boston now find themselves living in a world full of our acoustic smog. it remains to be seen just how the underwater noise and decreased communication space may impact the right whales ability to survive and reproduce. a previous study published on february 8, 2012 in proceedings of the royal society found that decreased shipping noise in the bay of fundy, canada after the events of september 11, 2011 was associated with a decrease in the right whales stress hormone levels. long - term elevation of stress hormones is known to have negative health effects in many different species. holly bamford, deputy assistant administrator of noaa ’ s national ocean service also commented on the august 14, 2012 study in the press release. she said : we are starting to quantify the implication of chronic, human - created ocean noise for marine animals. now, we need to ask how we can adapt our management tools to better address these problems. bottom line : scientists estimate that critically endangered north atlantic right whales have lost 63 to 67 percent of their communication space in the stellwagen bank national marine sanctuary due to noise created by passing ships. the paper was published on august 14, 2012 in an early online edition of the journal conservation biology.


one of my favorite constellations, little squarish corvus the crow, can be found in the south after sunset at this time of year. it ’ s not far from the bright star spica – and, in 2013, the golden planet saturn. learn more about how to find spica and saturn here. once you find spica and saturn in sring 2013, you ’ ll recognize the constellation corvus. it ’ s always near the star spica on the sky ’ s dome. it ’ s recognizable for its compact, boxy shape. corvus is an easy constellation to pick out in the sky. in greek mythology, corvus was seen as the cupbearer to apollo, god of the sun. in ancient israel, corvus wasn ’ t a crow. instead, it was seen as a raven. in china, this grouping of stars had more distinction as an imperial chariot, riding on the wind. corvus is a friendly sight in the heavens. along with all the stars, corvus ’ s stars will be found a bit farther west at nightfall in the coming weeks and months as earth moves around the sun. check it out now and watch for it in the next few months. the bright star spica – near corvus on our sky ’ s dome – will always be there to guide your eye. bottom line : use the star spica – and in 2013 the planet saturn – to introduce yourself to the constelaltion corvus the crow.


a new code article covering lighting systems operating at 30v or less will modify some and help standardize other low - voltage lighting designs. additional requirements, however, apply if wet contact is a factor. low - voltage lighting has been in use for about 30 years, with widely differing acceptance by local inspection authorities due to its ambiguous coverage in the nec. now it has its own article, the new art. 411. underwriters laboratories ( ul ) is now writing a new standard ( ul 2108 ) to cover these systems. when the standard is complete, probably within the year, we will see products listed accordingly. there are, however, products available now that are listed and happen to comply with the new article, although not expressly listed to those terms. at present, they are being listed to the general incandescent lamp standard ( ul 1571 ), although when the new standard is finalized, these listings will change over to the new standard. these products are being listed under art. 725 of the nec by incorporating power supplies that work under either class 2 power limitations [ by using a listed class 2 power supply per sec. 725 - 41 ( a ) ] or power - limited class 1 circuits meeting the 1000va, 30v limitations in sec. 725 - 21 ( a ). the requirements in the new article are summarized in fig. 1. the new requirements the most important thing to remember about these systems is that they are exactly that, systems. although these may be assembled ( and disassembled ) in the field, each of the components will be listed as part of an overall system. be careful of sec. 411 - 6, which imposes a 20a branch - circuit restriction. the restriction applies to what the systems as a whole are connected to, and not to the ratings within a given lighting system. these systems use an isolating power supply that must not exceed 30v ( 42. 4vpk ) under any load condition, even while open circuited. the secondary circuits must have some form of current limitation such that the current cannot exceed 25a. note that this creates an effective power limitation of 750va ( 30v x 25a ). this is less than the power4imited class 1 threshold of 1000va. the restriction is based on practical concerns involved with the desired physical flexibility for these systems ; if the current went up above 25a, the wire size would increase to no. 10. many manufacturers didn ' t think that was practical. for this reason, the 25a


based on practical concerns involved with the desired physical flexibility for these systems ; if the current went up above 25a, the wire size would increase to no. 10. many manufacturers didn ' t think that was practical. for this reason, the 25a limitation applies even at lower voltages where the resulting va is lower ; at 12v for example, the va limitation would be ( 12vx25a ) = 300va. nevertheless, some manufacturers have been producing listed systems in the range between 750va and the 1000va maximum in sec. 725 - 21 ( a ), particularly for 24v indoor applications. they have been willing to pay the price in cumbersome conductors for being able to get longer runs, particularly for aisle pathway systems in large movie theaters, for example. note that at 24v, the va differential is even greater ; 24v x 25a = 600va. it now appears that after the new ul 2108 standard takes effect, these listings will no longer be able to continue. this may have a significant impact on lighting layouts that extend long distances in only one direction. in some cases, it may be possible to center - feed these layouts with multiple circuits originating at a common power supply. sec. 411 - 2 clearly allows for this, recognizing one or more circuits originating at the isolating power supply. these systems, per sec. 411 - 3, must be listed. the listing process will include additional restrictions. for example, if these systems are used outdoors or where wet contact could occur, the voltage limitation becomes 15v maximum, with most systems using 12v as a result. this restriction has been in art. 725 for class 2 systems for many years, and now is in the notes for chapter 9, table 11. for other applications, the 30v limitation is adequate to assure that there won ' t be a shock hazard. the other provisions of art. 411 are primarily designed to prevent fires. these systems must not be extended through a wall, unless using conventional wiring as covered in chapter 3 of the code. presumably, this requirement sec. 411 - 4 ( 1 ) is also supposed to apply to a floor penetration, but the only term used is " building wall. " this limits the possibility of heat being retained around the conductors. in general, these systems didn ' t need chapter 3 wiring methods, having been covered under art. 725 which, as part of chapter 7, can supplement or modify the requirements in chapter 3. now that the rules are in art. 411, co


general, these systems didn ' t need chapter 3 wiring methods, having been covered under art. 725 which, as part of chapter 7, can supplement or modify the requirements in chapter 3. now that the rules are in art. 411, correlating language probably needs to be included in sec. 300 - 1 ( a ). the other restriction addresses the possibilities of sparks from short circuits. although sec. 411 - 5 ( c ) allows the use of bare conductors, they must be high enough ( 7 ft ) so that inadvertent bridging between the wires with conductive objects is very unlikely. if they are lower than 7 ft, then they must be specifically listed for this use. there are sophisticated power supplies that shut themselves off if the power demand varies from very close tolerances, and testing laboratories have evaluated them in conjunction with these applications. otherwise, the conductors for these circuits will be insulated. in addition, if these systems are used in hazardous ( classified ) locations, then they must comply with the usual rules for those locations. just because these circuits have some degree of power limitation doesn ' t mean they are inherently safe for these locations. an energy release of just 0. 25 mw - sec will ignite a suitable methane - air mixture ; this is obviously far below the capability of one of these lighting systems. the circuits supplied by these systems, in addition to having current and voltage limitations, also have important system grounding and insulation limitations to reduce the possibility of fire. the secondary must be fed from an isolating transformer. these transformers have been recognized in sec. 680 - 5 ( a ) for many years for use with underwater lighting fixtures in swimming pools, and in sec. 680 - 51 ( a ) ex. for use with fountains. they have a grounded metal barrier between the primary and secondary windings. although there is a grounded barrier, that does not mean that the secondary circuit is grounded, and sec. 411 - 5 ( a ) prohibits grounding this circuit. this is a system grounding restriction ; that is, you cannot intentionally connect one of the conductors " to earth or to some conducting body that serves in place of the earth, " as defined in art. 100. there are important ramifications to this limitation that aren ' t obvious from reading the new article. sec. 250 - 5 ( a ) ( 1 ) requires system grounding if the supply transformer of a 50v or lower system is itself supplied from a source exceeding 150v to ground. therefore, you cannot


obvious from reading the new article. sec. 250 - 5 ( a ) ( 1 ) requires system grounding if the supply transformer of a 50v or lower system is itself supplied from a source exceeding 150v to ground. therefore, you cannot connect one of these new systems directly to a 277v branch circuit. you would need to first step the 277v circuit down to a 120v grounded system [ and it would need grounding, per sec. 250 - 5 ( b ) ( 1 ) ] and then supply the new art. 411 lighting system. the system grounding limitations also affect equipment grounding. since these systems must fall within the parameters of class 2 or class 1 power - limited circuits, for the purposes of the code, they would fall within the equipment grounding rules in sec. 250 - 43 ( i ). that section requires equipment grounding for limited - energy systems if system grounding is required in part b of art. 250. as we have seen, these systems cannot be grounded. therefore, these lighting systems don ' t require any provisions for equipment grounding. swimming pool lighting sec. 411 - 4 ( 2 ) defers to art. 680 on the use of this lighting within 10 ft of a pool, spa, or fountain. this turns out to be quite complicated. sec. 680 - 6 ( b ) ( 1 ) generally allows fixtures to be as near as 5 ft to a pool ( but no closer unless at least 12 ft above the water level ). however, there are additional requirements that apply to fixtures closer than 10 ft. both sec. 680 - 6 ( b ) ( 2 ) for lighting in the 5 - 10 ft zone, and the two exceptions to sec. 680 - 6 ( b ) ( 1 ) that allow closer distances for existing lighting and for indoor pools 7 1 / 2 ft or more above the water level require gfci protection for such fixtures. as noted in fig. 2, gfci devices as presently listed won ' t operate on a circuit with two ungrounded conductors. therefore, these lighting systems are excluded between the 5 - ft to the 10 - ft radius around a pool unless the fixtures are rigidly attached to a structure at a point at least 5 ft above the maximum water level. they cannot be run at all, even on an existing structure, closer than 5 ft from the pool. nevertheless, we do see these lights used closer to swimming pools. these lights aren ' t installed under the provisions of art. 411. this type of lighting operates


run at all, even on an existing structure, closer than 5 ft from the pool. nevertheless, we do see these lights used closer to swimming pools. these lights aren ' t installed under the provisions of art. 411. this type of lighting operates on class 2 power - limited circuits evaluated for wet - contact applications. therefore, you install this type of lighting using listed class 2 power supplies that typically don ' t exceed 75va. another application of limited - energy lighting is in the path and accent lighting commonly used outdoors, as well as indoors in shopping malls, hotel atriums, and similar locations. these systems are listed to another standard entirely ( ul 1838, low voltage landscape lighting systems ), and there are no plans to convert these systems over to the new ul 2108 standard. because wet contact could be involved, these systems are limited to 15v, and ul already imposes the same 25a limitation as in the new sec. 411 - 2. the output of one of these power supplies must never be connected in series or in parallel, and the maximum number and ratings of lighting units must never exceed the quantity specified in the listing and in the accompanying product directions. the other issue with these systems is the location of the power supply. installers need to be aware of the restrictions that come with various markings on these power supplies. for example, the " outdoor use only " power unit cannot be used indoors. although this seems obvious, we are used to assuming that if something can be used outdoors, it surely must be usable indoors. in this product category, only a power unit marked " indoor use only " or " indoor / outdoor use " ( the other two possibilities ) can be used indoors. the power supplies will be arranged for a chapter 3 wiring method connection, except outdoor units may be arranged for a cord - and plug - connection. in this case, the receptacle must be arranged to be weatherproof with the cord and plug connected, in accordance with sec. 410 - 57 ( b ). these landscape lighting systems may also be used to supply submersible fixtures in fountains. in these cases, the transformer will have an isolated secondary to comply with sec. 680 - 5 ( a ), as required in sec. 680 - 51 ( a ) ex. of the nec. the lighting system will be marked " for use with submersible fixtures or submersible pumps. " be careful here! this product category is only for decorative fountains not intended for swimming or wading. note that underwater lighting fixtures intended for


nec. the lighting system will be marked " for use with submersible fixtures or submersible pumps. " be careful here! this product category is only for decorative fountains not intended for swimming or wading. note that underwater lighting fixtures intended for use in swimming pools are listed in a different category entirely. these fixtures, even if below 15v, must meet additional requirements. as in the case of art. 411 systems, this wiring will originate at an isolating transformer. the secondary conductors from this transformer must never enter raceways or other enclosures with other conductors, however, in accordance with sec. 680 - 5 ( c ). gfci protection is not required for these systems. in general, however, these systems will be wired in the same way and using the same wiring methods as 120v lighting in the same environment. about the only other difference is that a potted, flush deck box can be used [ sec. 680 - 21 ( a ) ( 4 ) ex. ], instead of the elevated swimming pool junction box required at line voltage. in any case, you must use a fixture listed as one of the forms of " underwater lighting fixture for swimming pool. " ul reserves the term " submersible " for underwater use in fountains, etc, not swimming pools and spas.


the aerosphere supports a range of animal life both at the earth ’ s surface and in the air. while monitoring the movements and activities of terrestrial animals can be demanding, observation of volant organisms are even more challenging because they require novel technologies. here we focus on the analysis of animal movements using radar. it has long been known that radio waves scattered from flying organisms ( bioscatter ) can be detected and processed using radar. depending on the particular design, radar can be used to track individuals, observe the movements of organisms over a variety of spatial and temporal scales, and to some extent discriminate between and identify different taxa. these capabilities are being further enhanced through continuing innovations in radar hardware and signal processing technologies. moreover, thousands of radar installations are located around the world with many of these already integrated into cohesive networks. for example, nexrad ( next - generation radar ) operates continuously and provides near complete spatial coverage across the continental u. s. in near real time. in this presentation we explore the fundamental question : to what extent can radar observations be used to investigate questions about ecology, abundance, and airborne movement of animals over large spatial and temporal domains, and promote the transdisciplinary field of aeroecology. although designed to collect meteorological data, weather radars such as the wsr - 88d also regularly detect bioscatter. we provide an overview of existing and developing radar technology within the framework of “ radar aeroecology ” and outline an approach to generate meaningful biological products. our investigations have shown that observations from existing radar networks provide a viable means of observing and studying flying animals. additionally, when coupled with measurements of the scattering properties of individual animals, we are using radar data to estimate numbers of birds and bats and the population sizes of roosting colonies. results of this collaborative research are benefitting biologists and atmospheric scientists and creating crossover research opportunities. our findings are timely given the importance of using this technology for understanding factors that affect movements of animals in the aerosphere relative to regional and global climatic variability. together with complementary weather observations, nexrad data provide unprecedented opportunities to observe birds, bats, and insects in the aerosphere on both local and large scales.


( cnn ) - - australia ' s northeastern state of queensland begins 2011 facing historic river flooding along many coastal rivers, namely the fitzroy river near the city of rockhampton. in rockhampton, the river is expected to reach its crest on wednesday at a height exceeded only once in recorded history, back in january 1918. the landmark floods, which have affected at least 200, 000 people and spanned an area approximately the size of france and germany, according to the australian bureau of meteorology, are the result of extremely heavy rains which occurred at the end of 2010. many locations along the central coast of queensland saw rainfall amounts during the month of december top 800mm ( 31. 5 inches ), which amounted to 400 percent of their average for the month. much of this rainfall came from cyclone tasha, which made landfall in eastern queensland on christmas morning. queenslanders cannot simply point to tasha ' s torrential rainfalls as the sole cause of their current water - logged nightmare, however, as rivers and streams were already swollen from months of above average rainfall. australia had their wettest spring ( september to november ) since records began 111 years ago, according to the u. s. national oceanic and atmospheric administration ' s ( noaa ) national climate data center. for queensland in particular, 2010 ended up the rainiest year on record. so what is behind the months of above average rainfall for an area that has been suffering from a decade - long drought? the la nina coupled ocean - atmosphere phenomenon, which was declared by the australian bureau of meteorology to be in effect beginning in the summer of 2010, is associated with above normal rainfall, especially over the second half of the year, in eastern and northern australia. la nina, and its counterpart el nino, are opposite ends of an oscillation which is defined by changes in sea surface temperature in the pacific ocean. although el nino and la nina occur in the equatorial pacific, they can affect weather patterns around the globe. during a la nina event, the trade winds in the pacific, which blow from east to west, strengthen, resulting in warmer than average waters building up in the west pacific ( which borders eastern australia ). during el nino, the trade winds weaken, allowing the warm waters of the western pacific to spread out into the central and eastern pacific all the way to south america. the location of the warmer water plays an important role in determining the weather patterns present with el nino and la nina. warmer sea surface temperatures lead to enhanced rainfall by allowing for lower pressure and greater amounts of water vapor. thus


the way to south america. the location of the warmer water plays an important role in determining the weather patterns present with el nino and la nina. warmer sea surface temperatures lead to enhanced rainfall by allowing for lower pressure and greater amounts of water vapor. thus, during la nina years, above average rainfall is experienced where the warm water is found - - in the western pacific. conversely, during el nino years, as you would expect, above average rainfall is generated along the eastern pacific in such locations as california and peru. the warmer than average sea surface temperatures also tend to spawn more tropical cyclones, called hurricanes when they occur in the atlantic. as a result of this year ' s la nina, the bureau of meteorology in australia is predicting an above average tropical cyclone season. normally the waters off the east coast of australia see four tropical cyclones during a tropical season ( november - april ), but the forecast for this tropical season is for six to seven tropical cyclones to form. cyclone tasha was the first of the year in the region, thus queensland could see further rainfall and flooding from an increased cyclone threat through the rest of the summer and into autumn. el nino and la nina, as well as a neutral state in between the two, occur over periods of about every five years, but can vary from three to seven years. the intensity of an el nino or la nina can vary as well, where stronger events are normally associated with more extreme weather. the current la nina, though ongoing and thus hard to rank historically, appears to be a moderate and possibly strong episode of the phenomenon which is to end later in 2011. it is also unclear whether or not el ninos and la ninas are becoming more or less frequent in a changing climate, or if the intensity is at all affected by climate change. it stands to reason that a warmer climate would lead to warmer ocean temperatures, thus enhancing the rainfall brought about by el nino / la nina even further. some studies have shown this relationship, but like other climate change studies, the results are based on a limited and somewhat unreliable data record. one thing we know for sure is that la nina is still occurring in early 2011, just as it was for the latter half of 2010, and eastern australia lies perilously close to its source regions in the vast pacific ocean. australia ' s climate is dominated by the cycles of el nino and la nina, and flooding is expected to occur whenever la nina is present, just as drought is prevalent down - under during el nino years. later this week, the level of the


ib environmental studies / ecosystem topic 2 : the ecosystem ecosystems are the biotic and abiotic factors in a specified area that interact with one another. biotic factor - a living, biological factor that may influence an organism or ecosystem, such as producers - plants, consumers - animals etc abiotic factors – a non - living or physical factor that may influence an organism or ecosystem. for example, precipitation, wind, sunlight, soil, temperature, ph, salinity, light, temperature - understanding the interaction of the biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem can help us to see why particular human activities may be a problem for human survival. - example : the loss of ozone in the stratosphere increases the quantity of uv radiation on the surface of the planet. in the same way that humans experience sunburn from too much sun exposure, so do plants. excessive uv may damage or destroy plant protein and dna, killing the plant. trophic level - the position that an organism occupies in a food chain, or a group of organisms in a community that occupy the same position in food chains. and is mainly considered as feeding level. producers / autotrophs - organisms that make their own food. usually plants through photosynthesis. primary consumers - organisms that consume producers. secondary consumers - organisms that consume primary consumers. herbivores - organisms that eat plants, but no meat. carnivores - meat - eaters. omnivores - organisms that eat both plants and meat. heterotrophs - decomposers - species - a group of organisms that interbreed and produce fertile offspring. population - a group of organisms of the same species living in the same area at the same time, and which are capable of interbreeding. community - a group of populations living and interacting with each other in a common habitat. ecosystem - a community of interdependent organisms and the physical environment they inhabit. habitat - the environment in which a species normally lives. niche - a species ' share of a habitat and the resources in it. an organism ' s ecological niche depends not only on where it lives but on the role it plays in the ecosystem. fundamental niche - the part of the habitat in which a species can live in the absence of competitors and predators realized niche - the part of the habitat that the organism actually occupies. biome – large, relatively distinct terrestrial region characterized by similar climate ( temperature and precipitation ), soil, and organisms. competition – [ –, – ] two species ( inter


predators realized niche - the part of the habitat that the organism actually occupies. biome – large, relatively distinct terrestrial region characterized by similar climate ( temperature and precipitation ), soil, and organisms. competition – [ –, – ] two species ( interspecies competition ) or two populations of the same species ( intraspecies competition ) compete for the same resources. both sides are harmed. symbiosis – biological interaction where two different species are in direct contact with each other. commensalism – [ 0, + ] one species benefits, the other is unaffected amensalism – [ 0, – ] one species is harmed, the other is unaffected mutualism – [ +, + ] both species benefit predation – [ +, – ] one species benefits, the other is harmed. the prey is usually killed quickly. parasitism – [ +, – ] one species benefits, the other is harmed. the host is killed slowly if at all. photosynthesis – 6co2 + 6h2o + light energy ⇒ c6h12o6 + 6o2 + heat – carbon dioxide, water and sunlight go in, glucose, oxygen and heat are produced. respiration – c6h12o6 + 6o2 ⇒ 6co2 + 6h2o + released energy ( heat ) – glucose and oxygen go in, carbon dioxide and water and heat are produced. reproductive strategies : r and k - short - lived - large broods - reproduce early in life - little to no care for young - relatively small - long - lived - few offspring per reproductive period - reproduce later in life - nurture young - relatively large succession – a change over time in the types of species that occupy a given area. primary succession – ecological succession in an environment that has not been previously inhabited ( no soil is present ). pioneer communities – the first organisms to colonize ( or recolonize ) an area. secondary succession – ecological succession in an environment that was exposed to some type of disturbance ( soil is already present ). sere – a sequence of communities over ecological time. each stage of succession is called a seral stage. lithosere – succession on bare rock hydrosere – succession in freshwater lakes psammosere – succession on sand dunes halosere – succession on salt marshes climax community – species composition no longer changes over time ; secession stops. community retains an overall uniform appearance.


frank lloyd wright - if you would see how interwoven it is in the warp and woof of civilization... go at night - fall to the top of one of the down - town steel giants and you may see how in the image of material man, at once his glory and his menace, is this thing we call a city. there beneath you is the monster, stretching acre upon acre into the far distance. high over head hangs the stagnant pall of its fetid breath, reddened with light from myriad eyes endlessly, everywhere blinking. thousands of acres of cellular tissue, the city ’ s flesh outspreads layer upon layer, enmeshed by an intricate network of veins and arteries radiating into the gloom, and in them, with muffled, persistent roar, circulating as the blood circulates in your veins, is the almost ceaseless beat of the activity to whose necessities it all conforms. the poisonous waste is drawn from the system of this gigantic creature by infinitely ramifying, thread - like ducts, gathering at their sensitive terminals matter destructive of its life, hurrying it to millions of small intestines to be collected in turn by larger, flowing to the great sewers, on to the drainage canal, and finally to the ocean. - lecture to the chicago chapter of the daughters of the american revolution ( 1904 ) ; later published as " the art and craft of the machine " in on architecture : selected writings ( 1894 - 1940 ) ( 1941 ) - pictures deface walls oftener than they decorate them. - " in the cause of architecture ", in the architectural record ( march 1908 ) - it is where life is fundamental and free that men develop the vision needed to reveal the human soul in the blossoms it puts forth.... in a great workshop like chicago this creative power germinates, even though the brutality and selfish preoccupation of the place drive it elsewhere for bread. men of this type have loved chicago, have worked for her, and believed in her. the hardest thing they have to bear is her shame. these men could live and work here when to live and work in new york would stifle their genius and fill their purse.... new york still believes that art should be imported ; brought over in ships ; and is a quite contented market place. so while new york has reproduced much and produced nothing, chicago ’ s achievements in architecture have gained world - wide recognition as a distinctively american architecture. - lecture to the chicago


; brought over in ships ; and is a quite contented market place. so while new york has reproduced much and produced nothing, chicago ’ s achievements in architecture have gained world - wide recognition as a distinctively american architecture. - lecture to the chicago women ’ s aid ( 1918 ) ; later published as " chicago culture " in on architecture : selected writings ( 1894 - 1940 ) ( 1941 ) - no house should ever be on a hill or on anything. it should be of the hill. belonging to it. hill and house should live together each the happier for the other. - frank lloyd wright, an autobiography ( 1932 ) - so here i stand before you preaching organic architecture : declaring organic architecture to be the modern ideal. - an organic architecture ( 1939 ) - i ' m no teacher. never wanted to teach and don ' t believe in teaching an art. science yes, business of course.. but an art cannot be taught. you can only inculcate it, you can be an exemplar, you can create an atmosphere in which it can grow. well i suppose i, being an exemplar, could be called a teacher, in spite of myself. so go ahead, call me a teacher. - quote from an interview on the nbc television program, wisdom - a conversation with frank lloyd wright ( 1953 ) - a free america, democratic in the sense that our forefathers intended it to be, means just this : individual freedom for all, rich or poor, or else this system of government we call ' democracy ' is only an expedient to enslave man to the machine and make him like it. - the future of architecture ( 1953 ), p. 174 - every great architect is — necessarily — a great poet. he must be a great original interpreter of his time, his day, his age. - the future of architecture ( 1953 ) - the physician can bury his mistakes, but the architect can only advise his clients to plant vines. - new york times magazine ( 4 october 1953 ) sometimes paraphrased : " a doctor can bury his mistakes, but the architect can only advise his clients to plant vines. " - i doubt if there is anything in the world uglier than a midwestern city. - address at evanston illinois ( 8 august 1954 ) - clear out 800, 000 people and preserve it as a museum piece. - on boston, the new york times ( 27 november 1955 ) - new york : prison towers and modern posters for soap and whiskey.


evanston illinois ( 8 august 1954 ) - clear out 800, 000 people and preserve it as a museum piece. - on boston, the new york times ( 27 november 1955 ) - new york : prison towers and modern posters for soap and whiskey. pittsburgh : abandon it. - on new york and pittsburgh, the new york times ( 27 november 1955 ) - if you ’ re going to have centralization, why not have it! - on his designs for " the illinois " a 528 - story chicago office building ( 10 september 1956 ) - the scientist has marched in and taken the place of the poet. but one day somebody will find the solution to the problems of the world and remember, it will be a poet, not a scientist. - as quoted in the star ( 1959 ) and morrow ' s international dictionary of contemporary quotations ( 1982 ) by jonathon green - i believe in god, only i spell it " nature ". - as quoted in quote magazine ( 14 august 1966 ) - nature is all the body of god we mortals will ever see. - as quoted in the duality of vision : genius and versatility in the arts ( 1970 ) by walter sorrell, p. 28 - architecture is life, or at least it is life itself taking form and therefore it is the truest record of life as it was lived in the world yesterday, as it is lived today or ever will be lived. - as quoted in an organic architecture ( 1970 ) - here i am, philip, am i indoors or am i out? do i take my hat off or keep it on? - on philip johnson ’ s glass house, as quoted in architectural digest ( november 1985 ) - study nature, love nature, stay close to nature. it will never fail you. - as quoted in the wright style ( 1992 ) by carla lind, p. 3 - early in life i had to choose between honest arrogance and hypocritical humility. i chose honest arrogance and have seen no occasion to change. - as quoted in the world ' s best thoughts on life & living ( 1981 ) compiled by eugene raudsepp ; also quoted in the michigan daily ( 10 november 1998 ) - god is the great mysterious motivator of what we call nature and it has been said often by philosophers, that nature is the will of god. and, i prefer to say that nature is the only body of god that we shall ever see. if we wish to know the truth concerning anything, we ' ll find it


has been said often by philosophers, that nature is the will of god. and, i prefer to say that nature is the only body of god that we shall ever see. if we wish to know the truth concerning anything, we ' ll find it in the nature of that thing. - as quoted in truth against the world : frank lloyd wright speaks for an organic architecture ( 1987 ) edited by patrick j. meehan - the thing always happens that you really believe in ; and the belief in a thing makes it happen. - as quoted in my favorite quotations ( 1990 ) by norman vincent peale - human beings can be beautiful. if they are not beautiful it is entirely their own fault. it is what they do to themselves that makes them ugly. the longer i live the more beautiful life becomes. if you foolishly ignore beauty, you will soon find yourself without it. your life will be impoverished. but if you invest in beauty, it will remain with you all the days of your life. - quoted in a living architecture : frank lloyd wright and taliesin architects ( 2000 ) by john rattenbury the living city ( 1958 ) - the screech and mechanical uproar of the big city turns the citified head, fills citified ears — as the song of birds, wind in the trees, animal cries, or as the voices and songs of his loved ones once filled his heart. he is sidewalk - happy. - new york is the biggest mouth in the world. it appears to be prime example of the herd instinct, leading the universal urban conspiracy to beguile man from his birthright ( the good ground ), to hang him by his eyebrows from skyhooks above hard pavement, to crucify him, sell him, or be sold by him. - “ the - shadow - of - the - wall – primitive instincts still alive ” - to look at the cross - section of any plan of a big city is to look at something like the section of a fibrous tumor. - “ social and economic disease ” - all fine architectural values are human values, else not valuable. - i find it hard to believe that the machine would go into the creative artist ’ s hand even were that magic hand in true place. it has been too far exploited by industrialism and science at expense to art and true religion. - “ night is but a shadow cast by the sun ” - the present is the ever moving shadow that divides yesterday from tomorrow. in that lies hope. - closing


been too far exploited by industrialism and science at expense to art and true religion. - “ night is but a shadow cast by the sun ” - the present is the ever moving shadow that divides yesterday from tomorrow. in that lies hope. - closing words, “ night is but a shadow cast by the sun ” ↑jump back a section ↑jump back a section - there is nothing more uncommon than common sense. - anonymous saying, dating back at least to its citation in natural theology ( 1836 ) by thomas chalmers, bk. ii, ch. iii : on the strength of the evidences for a god in the phenomena of visible and external nature, § 15, where the author states : " it has been said that there is nothing more uncommon than common sense. " ; it has since become misattributed to particular people, including frank lloyd wright. quotes about wright - he ' s the greatest architect of the nineteenth century. - his place in history is secure. his continuing influence is assured. this country ' s architectural achievements would be unthinkable without him. he has been a teacher to us all. - tribute after his death in the journal of the american institute of architects - so long, frank lloyd wright. i can ' t believe your song is gone so soon. i barely learned the tune - among the great modern architects, louis sullivan, frank lloyd wright, and louis kahn were arguably deists.... wright ’ s use of the word “ nature ” did not mean only what - we - find - outdoors. it was something deeper. wright knew that when people speak of the “ nature of things ” they mean their very essence, the that - which - makes - them - what - they - are, which is always and only one step away from that - who - makes - them - what - they - are.... wright thought not that he was god but that he brought or allowed god into the world through what he did, creating and designing.... wright actually thought himself a prophet, which of course is a different to being god, or an angel.... bringing god into the world in an act of something like mid - wifery from the womb of nature, is not at all moses - like. it is not a bringing down of law from on high after personal coaching from god, but a bringing forth of a god already there in potential. there is no presumption of having seen or met god of the bible. one makes the god one


27. 01. 2010portrait of the philosopher mohammed abed al - jabricritique of arab reasonmohammed abed al - jabri is without a doubt one of the most important contemporary arab intellectuals. his work focuses on the failure of the enlightenment in the islamic world and the search for an arab identity in modernity. sonja hegasy introduces the moroccan philosopher the moroccan philosopher al - jabri subjects arab culture to fundamental analysis and critique in the enlightenment tradition the starting point of mohammed abed al - jabri ' s work is the question of referential authority in arab - islamic societies. who determines muslim history? who is entitled to read women ' s rights into the sacred texts? what kind of technical or social innovations are allowed and with what justification? these are all issues pointing to a basic conflict about the individual ' s power of judgement. al - jabri holds the view that the changes brought by modernity to the islamic world also bring about change in the religion of islam. in fact, this can be observed everywhere. islam in morocco differs considerably from islam in malaysia as well as from the islamic convictions of " black muslims " in the united states. yet, this is where jabri ' s approach encounters resistance in the arab world, as many arabs still consider themselves the custodians and preservers of the " true " and therefore only islam. deconstruction of arabic thought the discussion that al - jabri has set into motion centres on the individual and rational interpretation of sacred texts. he frees these texts from the patterns of interpretation based in the 8th century and grants the ability of interpretation to the rational power of judgement exercised by every individual. in his four volume work, the critique of arab reason, al - jabri analyses the structural boundaries of scientific ways of thinking, which he regards as the cause of the failure of the modernization process in the arab world. in his " contemporary critique " of arab - islamic philosophy, al - jabri rejects what he calls the current polarization of arab thought between an imported modernism that disregards arab tradition and a fundamentalism that would reconstruct the present in the image of an idealized past in the introduction to his first volume from 1984, al - jabri includes his the critique of arab reason in a series of publications on the theme of crisis and renaissance of arabic culture that have appeared over the last hundred years. his work revolves around the issue of how knowledge is produced. this has led al - jabri to investigate the grammar of the arabic language


a series of publications on the theme of crisis and renaissance of arabic culture that have appeared over the last hundred years. his work revolves around the issue of how knowledge is produced. this has led al - jabri to investigate the grammar of the arabic language, as well as muslim law, theology, mysticism, rhetoric, and philosophy. according to al - jabri, these fields all exhibit the same structures of knowledge production. he claims that the method of analogy is deeply rooted in thinking within the arab - islamic cultural sphere, as this method was carried over from islamic jurisprudence to all fields of science. in the science of religious interpretation ( ulum al - bayan ), the unknown is always classified below that of the already known. reasoning in the natural sciences ( ulum al - burhan ) is, by analogy, based solely on deduction. mysticism ( ulum al - irfan ), on the other hand, has meant for most intellectuals a retreat into the private sphere, so that here, as well, no momentum towards modernization can arise. al - jabri criticises these three types of understanding as posing the greatest barrier towards innovative and modern thinking, as a prescribed pattern for interpreting the past can also have consequences for the politics of today. overcoming traditional patterns of thinking by contrast, european and greek culture, al - jabri notes, are not only characterized by the division between knowledge and magic, but, in particular, by their concern with the conditions for the possibility of thinking. he calls for giving up the idea of unity ( tauhid ) outside of the religious sphere, because only in the clash of various and contradicting theories and theoreticians, between the natural sciences, religion, and state power does the necessary dynamism for progress develop. in his works, al - jabri shows the relativity and contextuality of the arabic cultural heritage and concludes that it cannot provide any guidelines for action in the modern world. he also argues against the polemic that the individual striving for reason, protest, and criticism are " imported drugs from the west " and will only weaken the muslim world. in his works, al - jabri illustrates the relativity and strong ties to context of arab cultural heritage since the 1970s, al - jabri has been one of the advocates of a radical, secular leftist society in the arab world. he was one of the active members of the union nationale des forces populaires ( unfp ), the left wing of the istiqlal party, which split off from


the advocates of a radical, secular leftist society in the arab world. he was one of the active members of the union nationale des forces populaires ( unfp ), the left wing of the istiqlal party, which split off from the main party in 1959. after the unfp was banned in morocco in 1973, he served from 1975 to 1988 as a member of the politburo of the union socialiste des forces populaires. al - jabri is co - author of a philosophy textbook published by the ministry of education and used as teaching material. in his position at the university, al - jabri has introduced a generation of alienated students to their historical heritage and its unorthodox trends. he has greatly contributed to the discourse on arab identity by popularizing philosophical and scientific knowledge within the framework of his political activity and through his teaching. in 2008, he was awarded the ibn rushd prize for freedom of thought in berlin. al - jabri proposes the thesis that the structure of arabic thinking has until now not brought forth a " scientific revolution " and subsequently no modernization, because it has internalized the systems of religious interpretation. to work out and exemplify these structures of thought is among the most important tasks needed in order to overcome the intellectual standstill in the arab world. a plea for the freedom of thought al - jabri is against tradition that means merely repeating history. and he is also against tradition that merely has to be learnt by rote by deconstructing religious interpretation and law, al - jabri ' s philosophy has taken on a political edge. al - jabri deconstructs the position of islamists, who produce a straight line, supposedly objective, and overpowering story in order to prescribe a single identity upon the individual. al - jabri ' s approach to the theory of knowledge begins with an emancipatory impulse, as he places the engaged citizen who is able to interpret historical and contemporary events at the centre of his endeavour. he regards the freedom of the individual and the differences between individuals as the core of social ( self - ) organization. differences become a constitutive basis for society. here one finds the social explosiveness of his work. al - jabri rallies against a tradition that only believes in the repetition of history. he also rejects any tradition that only requires its adherents to learn by rote in order attain its mastery. yet, for al - jabri, mastering a tradition means knowing its various aspects and thereby recognizing its relativity


microprocessor design / wire wrap historically, most of the early cpus were built by attaching integrated circuits ( ics ) to circuit boards and wiring them up. nowadays, it ' s much faster to design and implement a new cpu in a fpga - - the result will probably run faster and use less power than anything spread out over multiple ics. however, some people still design and build cpus the old - fashioned way. such a cpu is sometimes called a " home brew cpu " or a " home built cpu ". some people feel that physically constructing a cpu in this way, since it allows students to probe the inner workings of the cpu, it helps them " touch the magic ", helps them learn and understand the underlying electronics and hardware. a homebrew cpu is a central processing unit constructed using a number of simple integrated circuits, usually from the 7400 series. when planning such a cpu, the designer must not only consider the hardware of the device but also the instructions the cpu will have, how they will operate, the bit patterns for each one, and their mnemonics. before the existence of computer based circuit simulation many commercial processors from manufacturers such as motorola were first constructed and tested using discrete logic ( see motorola 6809 ). although no limit exists on data bus sizes when constructing such a cpu, the number of components required to complete a design increases exponentially as bus size gets wider. common physical data bus sizes are 1 - bit, 4 - bits, 8 - bits, and 16 - bits, although incomplete design documents exist for a 40 - bit cpu. a microcoded cpu may be able to present a significantly different instruction set to the application programmer than seems to be directly supported by the hardware used to implement it. for example, the 68000 presented a 32 - bit instruction set to the application programmer - - a 32 - bit " add " was a single instruction - - even though internally it was implemented with 16 - bit alus. for example, w : serial computers, even though they do calculations one bit per clock cycle, present a instruction set that deals with much wider words - - often 12 bits ( pdp - 14 ), 24 bits ( d - 17b ), or even wider - - 39 bits ( elliott 803 ). notable homebrew cpus the magic - 1 is a cpu with an 8 - bit data bus and 16 - bit address bus running at about 3. 75mhz 4. 09 mhz. the mark i forth also has a


74x241 ), 2 chips per 16 - bit register per bus - a demultiplexer with n inputs ( driven by microcode ) and 2 ^ n output wires that select the 3 - state buffers of one of up to 2 ^ n possible things that can drive the bus, 1 chip per bus. later we discuss a other shortcuts that may require fewer chips. like many historically important commercial computers, many home - brew cpus use some version of the 74181, the first complete alu on a single chip. ( versions of the 74181 include the 74f181, the 40181, the 74as181, the 72ls181, the 74hct181, etc. ). the 74181 is a 4 - bit wide alu can perform all the traditional add / subtract / decrement operations with or without carry, as well as and / nand, or / nor, xor, and shift. a typical home - brew cpu uses 4 of these 74181 chips to build an alu that can handle 16 bits at once. the simplest home - brew cpus have only one alu, which at different times is used to increment the program counter, do arithmetic on data, do logic operations on data, and calculate addresses from base + offset. some people who build ttl cpus attempt to " save chips " by building that one alu of less than the largest word size ( which is often 16 bits in ttl computers ). for example, the earliest data general nova computers used a single 74181 and processed all data 4 bits at a time. unfortunately, this adds complexity elsewhere, and may actually increase the total number of chips needed. the simplest 16 - bit ttl alu wires the carry - out of each 74181 chip to the carry - in of the next, creating a ripple - carry adder. historically, some version of the look ahead carry generator 74182 was used to speed up " add " and " subtract " to be about the same speed as the other alu operations. historically, some people who built ttl cpus put two or more independent alu blocks in a single cpu - - a general - purpose alu for data calculations, a pc incrementer, an index register incrementer / decrementer, a base + offset address adder, etc. we discuss ripple - carry adders, look - ahead carry generators,