connexion it may be mentioned that a branch of the butlers for a while in the fifteenth century took macrichard as their surname and had an important chief somewhat in the gaelic fashion eventually, however, they reverted to the name butler. among the numerous catholic butlers who were loyal jacobites perhaps the most noteworthy were the abbe james butler of nantes, who was chaplain to prince charles edward ( the " young pretender " ) in the 1745 expedition ; and pierce butler ( 1652 - 1740 ), third viscount galmoy, who fought with sarsfield in all his irish and french campaigns. a branch of the butler family has long been established in co. clare : a very full account of them is to be found in the butlers of co. clare by sir henry butler blackall. professor edmund curtis in his history of medieval ireland, shows that the macrichard butlers were actually the ancestors of the later earls of ormond, and that at least two branches of the butlers were patrons of gaelic - irish learning and great collectors of irish manuscripts. to the list of distinguished persons of the name that of sir theobald, commonly called sir toby butler, should be added. he was attorney - general in the reign of james ii and the framer of the treaty of limerick on the irish side ; he made a memorable speech in 1703 against the anti - popery act. name variations : butler, ormond, buticularius, pincerna, boteler, boutillier, botiller, butiller, botyller, boutler, buttlar, buteler. references : one or more of the following publications has been referenced for this article. the general armory ; sir bernard burke - 1842. a handbook of mottoes ; c. n. elvin - 1860. irish families, their names, arms & origins ; edward maclysaght - 1957. the surnames of ireland ; edward maclynsaght - 1957. the beautiful heraldry artwork for this family is available to purchase on select products from the celtic radio store. we look forward to filling your order!


caste in transition education, economics and protest drive changes and reform to india ' s ancient societal divisions caste is not a pleasant topic for hindus, and in the international arena today, it has elicited a shame upon the hindu religion. i have written this article to initiate dialogue within our community. the negative issues associated with caste will not go away, but will only tear at the credibility of the religion. i am not suggesting the abolishment of hinduism or of hindu texts or the defamation of those in the upper castes. rather, i write out of reverence for hinduism itself, to initiate change, to affirm the positive aspects of hinduism and to bring a spiritual sense of unity to hindu believers worldwide. origins : the standard explanations of india ' s caste system are based on the now discredited " aryan invasion " theory of ancient india. we await new speculations from the historians and anthropologists. suffice it to say that many ancient societies had hereditary classes of people, eventually lost in social upheaval. the modern term caste is derived from the portuguese casta, alluding to family, tribe or race, and was introduced into indian society in the late 16th century. the hindu religious texts describe varna ashrama dharma, the religious / social law delineating duties of four castes. gurudeva, satguru sivaya subramuniyaswami, founder of hinduism today, wrote, " the original caste system had these four divisions. the divisions were all based on the ability of the individual to manage his body, his mind and his emotions properly. if he stopped fulfilling the dharma of his caste, society would recognize that he had moved from one caste and was now in another. the original caste system was based on self - discipline through education and through personal sadhana. the original caste system was based on the unfoldment of the consciousness within each individual through the chakras. people everywhere naturally divide themselves up into castes. we have the workers. you go to work, you work under somebody elsenthat happens all over the worldnthat ' s the shudra caste. we have the merchants, who are self - motivated. that ' s the vaishya caste. we have the politicians and the lawmakers and the law - enforcement people. that ' s the kshatriya caste. and then you have the priests, the ministers, the missionaries. that ' s the brahmin caste. every society has these four castes working within it in one way or another. " ja


. that ' s the kshatriya caste. and then you have the priests, the ministers, the missionaries. that ' s the brahmin caste. every society has these four castes working within it in one way or another. " jati and its advantages : today, most hindus do not abide by the chaturvarna ( four caste ) system but classify themselves according to the more specific colloquial form of caste known as the jati system. jati are horizontal divisions within the four castes, and there are thousands of them, segregated according to occupational, sectarian, regional and linguistic distinctions. " the operative unit even today for social and marriage purposes is not caste but jati. you talk of brahmins as a caste, which is pan - indian, but the fact is that a tamilian brahmin would rarely have a marriage alliance with a punjabi brahmin, " stated madhu kishwar, editor of manushi magazine and one of india ' s foremost women ' s rights advocates. " they are as far apart from each other culturally as could possibly be. it ' s really not the operative and, yet, we have the whole notion of brahmin domination, brahmins as a caste, whereas the regional differences matter much more. " kishwar points out the advantages of the jati system : " it allows even the most disadvantaged and impoverished groups to identify themselves and a political assertion based on their numerical strength. it has kept democracy not just alive, but has given it very deep roots. i think all these modernists attacking caste can ' t understand the survival strategy of the subcontinent. for example, it has provided social security for a rural migrant when he or she comes to the city as an impoverished economic refugee. " kishwar ' s points are valid. there are certain advantages to the caste system with regard to communal pride and access to political power. but what about those at the bottom, the untouchable dalits? on november 4, 2001, the conversion of several thousand dalits to buddhism gained worldwide attention. " i am walking out of hinduism because the 3, 000 - year - old caste system will never allow me any respect or dignity, " stated the organizer of the event, ram raj, who dropped his first name upon conversion. caste and class discrimination : as a hindu, you might wonder : is this really a fair portrayal of hinduism? is the caste system so unique to hindu society? and is it really that bad? it cannot be


who dropped his first name upon conversion. caste and class discrimination : as a hindu, you might wonder : is this really a fair portrayal of hinduism? is the caste system so unique to hindu society? and is it really that bad? it cannot be denied that all countries have experienced, or are experiencing, some form of caste. for example, modern - day britain supports strong class divisions on the basis of economics. recently laura spence, a student of the lower social economic class, was not admitted into upper - crust oxford, despite her extraordinary academic qualifications. harvard university gladly admitted her, on a full scholarship. hierarchical divisions on the basis of race and economics are part and parcel of the american experience as well. " in america, we have caste. there are black people and white people, rich people and poor people, superior people and inferior people, " states swami brahmavidyananda of the institute of holistic yoga of north america. according to smita narula, director of the asia division of human rights watch, the difference between class and caste is " that being born into a particular caste invites a certain amount of restrictions on your basic freedoms, your basic rights. so it is the combination of work and descent - based discrimination that makes caste different from the class system. there ' s very little mobility. " class divisions are mostly culturally and economically based and, therefore, have the capacity to change as culture changes [ though slowlynsee sidebar, page 33 ]. the inequalities associated with the hindu caste system are more complex, mainly with regard to its undeniable roots in scripture and to the shameful existence of the untouchables. other religions receive bad press due to patriarchal constraints of women, for example, but hinduism is the only religion to be bombarded with issues of race, intolerable human rights violations among its own believers and inequality on such a grand scale. the untouchables : although untouchability was abolished under article 17 of the indian constitution in 1950, it is still widely practiced all over india today. the untouchables or " scheduled castes and scheduled tribes " ( as they are listed by name on government schedules ) are not associated with any caste mentioned in the original chatur varna hindu system. rather, untouchables are outcastes placed below the sudra caste. the untouchable sect of hinduism is relegated to labor that no other caste will perform, such as the cleaning of latrines, scavenging dead animals and funeral duties.


rights movements have been subjected to a variety of violent acts, as stated in broken people, the published culmination of human rights watch ' s investigations ( available atwww. hrw. org / reports / 1999 / india / ). it is the most comprehensive ngo documentation of human rights violations against dalits. in addition to several massacres of dalits in the 1990s, upper caste men are accused of ongoing cases of rape against dalit women. out of hundreds of documented cases, for example, the rape of a 12 - year - old dalit girl by a man of the thevar caste in tamil nadu was covered up by the thevar community via blackmail and kickbacks. origin of untouchability : in a religion that preaches the all - pervasiveness of god, how did untouchability even come to be? mahatma gandhi called it a product of " sheer ignorance and cruelty. " " the scheduled tribes and scheduled castes in indianthis is the biggest problem that we have, " said swami brahmavidyananda. " this is man ' s creation. " explanations also include the " unclean " occupations of the untouchables and the eating of meat. swami tathagatananda of the vedanta center of new york believes that the development of untouchability through hindu history is a result of some basic human tendency, and has nothing to do with hinduism itself. " america is a democratic country, but democracy is not practiced all of the time, " he points out. " good hindus, like mahatma gandhi, swami vivekananda and others, did not believe in untouchability, but regardless of their beliefs or convictions or vocations against it, they were not able to remove it. suppose the american government wants to abolish drugs. just because we make a law, you cannot abolish drugs. there are many laws, but who is obeying the laws? the division of all society is always based on color, on gender and on money or education. " gurudeva noted boldly, " castenor at least discrimination on the basis of castenhas been thrown out of the laws of india, but people still hang on to it as an ego structure. the high caste people love to hurt the low caste people, so to speak, by ignoring them, treating them roughly. that ' s not the way it should be. if you find the high caste people in your society ignoring and not wanting to speak with and associate with the


to hurt the low caste people, so to speak, by ignoring them, treating them roughly. that ' s not the way it should be. if you find the high caste people in your society ignoring and not wanting to speak with and associate with the lower castes, those are nasty people, and those are people you should avoid. spiritual people, even ordinary kindly people, would never think of behaving that way. " swami tathagatananda concurs, " what you are seeing today is the hardened system which has misinterpreted the main points of division of labor. this hereditary business was not there originally. hindu people have perpetuated this system in order to enjoy the benefit of the status. " swami brahmavidyananda said, " the caste system is in one way good, but in another way harmful. when the ego bonds with ignorance, then it brings harm to society. " other religions and regions : caste is by no means only a hindu issue. today, caste, or the jati system, more specifically, is pervasive, cutting across religions, cultures and national identities both in south asia and its diaspora, according to kishwar. all of the religions practiced within the south asian subcontinent reflect this very same caste system, especially with regard to untouchability. those who convert from hinduism into christianity, buddhism and islam still face discrimination on the basis of caste. there are separate churches in south india for brahmin converts and dalit converts. the dalits are also rendered more vulnerable to violence from the upper castes, as they lose their right to protection under the 1989 scheduled castes and scheduled tribes act when they change religion. caste proves to be a troubling factor for the younger generation of hindus in the diaspora. an anonymous contributor from the us notes : " i am not a brahmin but have brahmin friends who do, from time to time, bring up their spiritual and intellectual superiority to me, in very subtle ways. this really undercuts our friendships and is pretty ridiculous, since i have demonstrated equally, if not more, spiritual and intellectual superiority than they have. " toward a solution : swami brahmavidyananda suggests, " we have to reinterpret problematic texts and set a good example in our society. we should not disrespect our culture, but we should condemn those who are not properly versed in the philosophy that god belongs to everyone, god does not feel color or sex, or whether you are white or black.


our society. we should not disrespect our culture, but we should condemn those who are not properly versed in the philosophy that god belongs to everyone, god does not feel color or sex, or whether you are white or black. " most activists fighting for dalits are not fighting to dismantle hinduismnthough some arenbut to demand accountability from the indian government to uphold existing laws, such as the constitutional abolishment of untouchability and the prevention of atrocities act ( 1989 ). narula states : " the dalit movement is also asking for the international community to work hand in hand with the indian government and with ngos in india to insure enforcement of the laws that are already in place to take care of issues such as violence, rape, scavenging, bonded labor and other issues. " higher government representation for dalits is needed to bring visibility to their issues. dr. kiran bedi, india ' s highest ranking female police officer, said, " the largest deterrents are the local politicians who use and abuse the situations for narrow political gain. " bedi points out that dalit leaders themselves need to unite in their views. swami brahmavidyananda said, " india today is not the india of 50 years ago. people want to change. in order to protect our religion, our system, we should reorganize properly and slowly. we should pass out right information and correct these issues. " the rise in interfaith and intercaste marriages has forced families to overlook issues of caste, to learn to live with one another equally. gurudeva summarized : " we can see around us the deterioration of the system which has been abused beyond the point of recognition. members of the brahmin caste are now beating their children, abusing their wives. members of the kshatriya caste disrespect the laws of the land. members of the business caste are deceptive and dishonest. all are confused, living in anger and in jealousy. no wonder their families break apart and their businesses fail. in the eyes of the gods, most of those who adhere to the caste system that exists today are low caste. this is because they live in lower consciousness. these undeveloped humans are struggling through the lower chakras, trying to get out of the dark worlds of the mind. let us not be deluded about what the sapta rishis [ the " seven sages " ] had in mind when they casted humans according


through the lower chakras, trying to get out of the dark worlds of the mind. let us not be deluded about what the sapta rishis [ the " seven sages " ] had in mind when they casted humans according to the soul ' s spiritual unfoldment. we should totally ignore the hindu caste system as lived in india today and, through example, show a better and more wholesome path for modern society. " caste as a fact of life in india economics bends the ancient system by rajiv malik as deeply embedded in the psyche of hindus ascaste is, there has been a revolutionary change in the situation at the grassroot level in the past few decades. this positive development is more visible and has taken place in a big way in india ' s metropolitan cities, such as delhi, mumbai and kolkata. these cities have developed a unique culture and character of their own in which the question of caste is generally relegated to the background. the fast lifestyle, materialism and pressure of living in big cities are factors which leave little patience for people to watch the whole scenario through the glasses of caste. in these cosmopolitan cities there is a free intermingling and interaction between the masses of different castes and religions which allows people to think and live beyond the barriers of caste. economic interests, not castism, reign supreme in these cities. my personal assessment is that in the cities it is the upper and lower economic strata of the hindu society who are most caste conscious. the upper stratum is so because they can choose to live the way they want. the lower stratum is entangled in the caste system because they have to live in the slum areas where caste consciousness remains stronger. the real revolution has come in the middle class of india where there is a phenomenal change in the outlook towards the caste system. it is the middle class which is intermingling with all sections and castes of the society, working together in offices, industries, business and government. it is the girls and boys of the hindu middle class who take part in intercaste and interreligious marriages in a big way. two other factors are noteworthy in the context of caste - ridden hindu society in india. one is that latelynin the past two decades or sonthe political system has produced over two dozen well - known national and scores of state level leaders from the lower castes. due to these leaders, the lower castes and dalits are now no longer meek and subdued. they have discovered their self respect and prestige, and


system has produced over two dozen well - known national and scores of state level leaders from the lower castes. due to these leaders, the lower castes and dalits are now no longer meek and subdued. they have discovered their self respect and prestige, and had a small taste of political clout. mayawati, of the dalit community, is the current chief minister of uttar pradesh, one of the biggest states of india. she projects herself as a leader from the lower caste, proud of her roots and identity. then there are national leaders, such as ram vilas paswan, who have also helped the dalits to be proud of their community. we had a dalit president, which enormously boosted the morale of the lower castes in this country. the second significant factor is the reservation policy of the government. the reservation policy is india ' s version of affirmative action, providing education and employment opportunities for disadvantaged communities. a government job is a matter of prestige. in india, jobs are reserved, even promotions are given, to those of lower castes on a preferential basis. government jobs and high government posts have boosted the morale and prestige of the lower caste masses. lower caste people who thus became successful economically have been welcomed by the middle class hindus in matrimonial alliances. times have truly changed in india when affluence trumps caste affiliation. unfortunately, the situation has not changed much in the villages, where long - practiced caste - based system and infrastructure flourish. there is a little improvement being made in the villages and small towns, but they are far behind the big cities. caste in the village continues to play an major role in arranging marriages. now in the cities, and increasingly in the villages, if the choice is between a high - caste poor groom and a low - caste rich groom, the father of the bride, and the bride herself, will consider the well settled, economically well - off lower - caste person very seriously. similarly, if the choice is between a higher caste girl who is not likely to work outside the home and a lower caste girl working as a government official who has status and money both, the boy and his father definitely consider the proposal of the lower caste girl very seriously. i am not an expert on the extremely complex caste system, but offer my views as an engaged observer within india ' s middle class. untouchability, american style america ' s version of untouchability is the still - existent racial discrimination against african - americans. the slaves were freed by abraham lincoln in 1863 and made


my views as an engaged observer within india ' s middle class. untouchability, american style america ' s version of untouchability is the still - existent racial discrimination against african - americans. the slaves were freed by abraham lincoln in 1863 and made citizens of the us in 1868. but upon the reconstruction of the former southern slave states by 1877, local government policies of segregation went into full effect. blacks lived in certain areas of town, had different schools, hotels, beauty salons, drinking fountains and public toilets. the us military had separate units for black soldiers. there were no black baseball or basketball players in the major leagues. some of the greatest athletes of the time were relegated to the american negro league. the military led the way in integration, beginning in 1940. in 1954, the us supreme court ruled " separate but equal was inherently unequal " on the issue of segregated schooling. desegregation of the south began in earnest with the civil rights movement led by martin luther king, employing the methods of mahatma gandhi [ see page 56 ]. how far has america come? still today, blacks are twice as likely to be unemployed, and when they do have a job, they earn 70 cents to the white man ' s one dollar for the same work. the typical black family ' s net worth is an eighth of the typical white family ' s. blacks, 14 percent of the population, make up 50 percent of the prison inmates, and get stiffer sentences. while overall segregation has decreased in america, it remains very high in the major cities, such as new york, detroit and chicago. there white people have fled to the suburbs, leaving black and now hispanic students in typically inferior schools. the interracial marriage rate is a mere four percent. on the plus side, president bush has the most racially diverse cabinet in history. both his secretary of state and national security advisor are black. most americans don ' t tolerate racist attitudes too well anymore. just ask senator trent lott. he was unceremoniously dumped by his own party as senate majority leader, one of the nation ' s most powerful positions, for informal remarks taken as an endorsement of racial segregation. the comments are owned by the author. we aren ' t responsible for their content.


achilles tendon rupture type of procedure : outpatient length of procedure : one hour anesthesia : general and popliteal block rupture of the achilles tendon : what is it? rupture or tearing of the achilles tendon typically occurs while playing sports or from a misstep. a strong contraction of the muscle excessively loads the tendon and it results in a tear. the patient often describes the sensation that something struck the back of the leg. pain is suddenly present, and walking is painful and the leg is weak. while it is possible to treat this ruptured tendon without surgery, this may not be ideal. surgical correction of the ruptured tendon may be recommendable. the surgery is performed in order to regain as much as possible the normal strength of the achilles during push off. regaining optimum strength depends on establishing the correct tension between the muscle and the tendon. following the tendon repair no walking on the foot is permitted for two weeks, then walking is begun in a removable boot. the design of this boot is important, and the positioning of the foot will be controlled in the first several weeks after surgery. general recovery facts the goal of surgery is to regain strength and function in as short a time as possible. you will need to use crutches for approximately two weeks after surgery. once the sutures are removed, walking in a removable boot will be started. walking and exercise are very important to regain strength after surgery and a careful physical therapy program and rehabilitation protocol is outlined below : - foot wrapped in bulky bandage and surgical splint - ice, elevate, take pain medication - expect numbness in foot for 12 - 24 hours, then pain will increase - use crutches for a approximately 2 - 3 weeks - first follow up in the office - dressing changed, and boot is worn in equines ( foot pointed downward ) - plantarflexion ( downward movement of foot ) is allowed - write out alphabet with foot twice a day - start full weight bearing in boot - if incision is dry, swimming is encouraged at 2 3 weeks - gentle exercise on bicycle with boot - by 6 weeks the boot comes up to a neutral position, with gradual progression to this position completed by the removal of inserts from the boot - start physical therapy under supervision - gradually wean from boot into open back shoe - walking is the most important form of therapy at this point


chapter x. king cotton for two weeks there was no lightening of southern depression in england. but on june 28 mcclellan had been turned back from his advance on richmond by lee, the new commander of the army of virginia, and the much heralded peninsular campaign was recognized to have been a disastrous failure. earlier northern victories were forgotten and the campaigns in the west, still progressing favourably for the north, were ignored or their significance not understood. again, to english eyes, the war in america approached a stalemate. the time had come with the near adjournment of parliament when, if ever, a strong southern effort must be made, and the time seemed propitious. moreover by july, 1862, it was hoped that soon, in the cotton districts, the depression steadily increasing since the beginning of the war, would bring an ally to the southern cause. before continuing the story of parliamentary and private efforts by the friends of the south it is here necessary to review the cotton situation - now rapidly becoming a matter of anxious concern to both friend and foe of the north and in less degree to the ministry itself. " king cotton " had long been a boast with the south. " perhaps no great revolution, " says bancroft, " was ever begun with such convenient and soothing theories as those that were expounded and believed at the time of the organization of the confederacy.... in any case, hostilities could not last long, for france and great britain must have what the confederacy alone could supply, and therefore they could be forced to aid the south, as a condition precedent to relief from the terrible distress that was sure to follow a blockade. " this confidence was no new development. for ten years past whenever southern threats of secession had been indulged in, the writers and politicians of that section had expanded upon cotton as the one great wealth - producing industry of america and as the one product which would compel european acquiescence in american policy, whether of the union, before 1860, or of the south if she should secede. in the financial depression that swept the northern states in 1857 de bow ' s review, the leading financial journal of the south, declared : " the wealth of the south is permanent and real, that of the north fugitive and fictitious. events now transpiring expose the fiction, as humbug after humbug explodes. " on march 4, 1858, senator hammond of south carolina, asked in a speech, " what would happen if no cotton was furnished for three years? i


now transpiring expose the fiction, as humbug after humbug explodes. " on march 4, 1858, senator hammond of south carolina, asked in a speech, " what would happen if no cotton was furnished for three years? i will not stop to depict what everyone can imagine, but this is certain : england would topple headlong and carry the whole civilized world with her save the south. no, you dare not make war on cotton. no power on earth dares make war upon it. cotton is king. " two years later, writing before the elections of 1860 in which the main question was that of the territorial expansion of slavery, this same southern statesman expressed himself as believing that " the slave - holding south is now the controlling power of the world.... cotton, rice, tobacco and naval stores command the world ; and we have sense enough to know it, and are sufficiently teutonic to carry it out successfully. " these quotations indicative of southern faith in cotton might be amplified and repeated from a hundred sources. moreover this faith in the possession of ultimate power went hand in hand with the conviction that the south, more than any other quarter of the world, produced to the benefit of mankind. " in the three million bags of cotton, " said a writer in de bow ' s review, " the slave - labour annually throws upon the world for the poor and naked, we are doing more to advance civilization... than all the canting philanthropists of new england and old england will do in centuries. slavery is the backbone of the northern commercial as it is of the british manufacturing system.... " nor was this idea unfamiliar to englishmen. before the civil war was under way charles greville wrote to clarendon : " any war will be almost sure to interfere with the cotton crops, and this is really what affects us and what we care about. with all our virulent abuse of slavery and slave - owners, and our continual self - laudation on that subject, we are just as anxious for, and as much interested in, the prosperity of the slavery interest in the southern states as the carolinan and georgian planters themselves, and all lancashire would deplore a successful insurrection of the slaves, if such a thing were possible. "


4 nero ascended to the roman throne. 1332 rinchinbal khan, emperor ningzong of yuan became the khagan of the mongols and emperor of the yuan dynasty, reigning for only 53 days. 1775 the united states continental congress orders the establishment of the continental navy ( later renamed the united states navy ). 1777 british general john burgoyne ’ s army at the battles of saratoga was surrounded by superior numbers, setting the stage for its surrende which inspired france to enter the american revolutionary war against the british. 1792 the cornerstone of the united states ’ executive mansion ( known as the white house ) was laid. 1812 war of 1812 : battle of queenston heights – as part of the niagara campaign in ontario, united states forces under general stephen van rensselaer were repulsed from invading canada by british and native troops led by sir isaac brock. 1843 henry jones and 11 others founded b ’ nai b ’ rith ( the oldest jewish service organization in the world ). 1845 a majority of voters in the republic of texas approved a proposed constitution, that if accepted by the u. s. congress, would make texas a u. s. state. 1862 mary kingsley, english writer and explorer, was born ( d. 1900 ). 1885 the georgia institute of technology ( georgia tech ) was founded in atlanta. 1904 wilfred pickles, english actor and broadcaster, ws born ( d. 1978 ). 1915 the battle for the hohenzollern redoubt marked the end of the battle of loos in northern france, world war i. 1917 the “ miracle of the sun ” was witnessed by an estimated 70, 000 people in the cova da iria in fatima, portugal. 1918 mehmed talat pasha and the young turk ( c. u. p. ) ministry resigned and signed an armistice, ending ottoman participation in world war i. 1923 ankara replaced istanbul as the capital of turkey. 1925 lenny bruce, american comedian ( d. 1966 ) 1925 – margaret thatcher, former british prime minister, was born. 1934 nana mouskouri, greek singer and politician, was born. 1941 paul simon, american singer and musician ( simon & garfunkel ), was born. 1943 world war ii : the new government of italy sided with the allies and declared war on germany. 1946 france adopted the constitution of the fourth republic. 1959 marie osmond, american entertainer, was born. 1962 the pacific northwest experienced a cyclone the equal of a cat 3 hurricane. winds measured above 150 mph at several locations


and declared war on germany. 1946 france adopted the constitution of the fourth republic. 1959 marie osmond, american entertainer, was born. 1962 the pacific northwest experienced a cyclone the equal of a cat 3 hurricane. winds measured above 150 mph at several locations ; 46 people died. 1968 carlos marin, spanish baritone ( il divo ), was born. 1969 nancy kerrigan, american figure skater, was born. 1970 paul potts, british opera singer, was born. 1972 an aeroflot ilyushin il - 62 crashed outside moscow killing 176. 1972 uruguayan air force flight 571 crashed in the andes mountains. by december 23, only 16 out of 45 people were still alive to be rescued. 1975 dame whina cooper led a land march to parliament. 1976 a bolivian boeing 707 cargo jet crashed in santa cruz, bolivia, killing 100 ( 97, mostly children, killed on the ground ). 1976 the first electron micrograph of an ebola viral particle was obtained by dr. f. a. murphy. 1977 four palestinians hijacked lufthansa flight 181 to somalia and demanded the release of 11 members of the red army faction. 1983 ameritech mobile communications ( now at & t ) launched the first us cellular network in chicago, illinois. 1990 end of the lebanese civil war. syrian forces launched an attack on the free areas of lebanon removing general michel aoun from the presidential palace. 1992 an antonov an - 124 operated by antonov airlines crashed near kiev. 1999 – the united states senate rejected ratification of the comprehensive test ban treaty ( ctbt ). 2010 – the 2010 copiapo mining accident in copiapo, chile came to an end as all 33 miners arrived at the surface after surviving a record 69 days underground awaiting rescue. sourced from nz history online & wikipedia


optics : light at work - part i. part 2 you can order free dvds from spie : light in action : lasers, cameras & other cool stuff ; optics : light at work ; and careers in optics. & optics : science and art closer than you think optical technology and the study of light go far back in human culture. contemporary artists are often quick to adopt new technology, or to absorb its implications. was it any different then? why should the use of a tool diminish the value of the art? of light and color a set of interactive java applet tutorials to help you understand how color and light work. beautifully done. lots of levers to slide to make changes. from molecular expressions. here you ' ll find pictures, videos, games, educational materials, and more. a fun way to learn all about the " cool " part of the electromagnetic spectrum : infrared light. this site is dedicated to light in all its manifestations : in physics, in technology, in nature and in culture. to help you learn about light, we ' ve included a message board for posting questions. a thinkquest site. system of web pages about light light is great, light is mysterious, light is useful. after all, they say everything started with light. when any revolution has happened in the history of science, light was always there. so it deserves a little attention. here on earth the speed of light can change. how? go to joe ' s room and see if you can figure it out. an interactive tour of current research in the materials sciences at berkeley lab ' s advanced light source. for high school students, this site explains how intense light is used for physics research. for kids : science and engineering some fun and interesting things about optics : the science of light, and one of the most important fields of physics. by bruce irving, optical research associates. - light without heat to do this experiment, you ' ll need some light sticks from a sporting goods store or a necklace from a fair. you ' ll watch what happens when you put it in hot water and in your refridgerator.. from experiments by professor shakhashiri. how fireflies produce light via a chemical reaction and how you can attract fireflies to your yard, if you have them in the area in the first place. colors in a green leaf using chromatography to help you understand just how leaves change colors in the fall and why some trees change to red while others change to orange or yellow, try this experiment on leaves


in the area in the first place. colors in a green leaf using chromatography to help you understand just how leaves change colors in the fall and why some trees change to red while others change to orange or yellow, try this experiment on leaves from the same tree both before and after color changes. what do animals look like in the infrared? actually " see " the differences between warm and cold - blooded animals, and learn how animals use fur, blubber and feathers to insulate themselves. build a pizza box solar oven the sun is hot enough to bake food. here ' s how to make a simple solar oven that gets hot enough to warm up cookies and other treats, like s ' mores. it won ' t get really hot, though, so you can ' t bake things in it and you won ' t burn yourself when playing with it. be sure to have an adult help you with this! feng shui and color response to color symbolism is a response to color preconception, and it is a predetermined response based on literary and psychological ideas about color itself. make a splash with color we see red apples, green grass, and blue sky. did you ever wonder why this is? maybe it has something to do with the apples, the grass, and the sky? or maybe something to do with your eyes? or maybe even something to do with your mind? light in nature and technology polarization is present in the rainbow, in the hidden color of minerals, in the dance of honeybees, in the flow of molten metal, in the color of beetles, and the gloss of tree leaves at dawn. miller ' s light walk artist bob miller ' s " light walk " at the exploratorium is always an eye - opening expereience for students and teachers alike. his unique discoveries will change the way you look at light, shadow, and images. the purpose of this activity is to experiment with shadows and light sources and to understand the relationship between the angle of illumination and the shadow ' s length. what creates these shimmering celestial lights? information, resources and experiments you can carry out to learn more about the northern lights. from newton ' s apple. lightning in a pan try this easy experiment to make your own miniature version of a lightning bolt. young students will enjoy just creating online rainbows. more advanced students can take the whole lab course to understand how rainbows obey the rules of calculus. physics of a rainbow a most charming example of chromatic dispersion is


pascal ’ s triangle is a special triangular arrangement of numbers used in many areas of mathematics. it is named after the famous 17th century french mathematician blaise pascal because he developed so many of the triangle ’ s properties. however, this triangular arrangement of numbers was known by the arabian poet and mathematician omar khayyam ( c 1044 - 1123 ) and the chinese mathematician zhu shijie ( c 1260 - 1320 ) some 250 years before pascal. at the top of the triangle is a 1, which makes up the 0th row. the 1st row ( 1, 1 ) contains two 1s each formed by adding the two numbers above them, one to the left and one to the right, in this case 0 and 1. ( all numbers outside the triangle are 0s. ) do the same to create the 2nd row ; 0 + 1 = 1, 1 + 1 = 2, 1 + 0 = 1 and all subsequent rows. a number in the triangle can be found by using ncr ( n choose r ), where n is the number of the row and r is the number of the element in that row. this is especially helpful to find a particular term in the expansion of a binomial in the form ( x + y ) n. find the 4th term in the 6th row of the triangle. ( remember : the first 1 in each row is the 0th element so this is correct. ) sum of rows : the sum of the numbers in any row is equal to 2n, when n is the number of the row. 20 = 1 = 1 21 = 2 = 1 + 1 22 = 4 = 1 + 2 + 1 23 = 8 = 1 + 3 + 3 + 1 24 = 16 = 1 + 4 + 6 + 4 + 1 and so forth. prime numbers : if the first element in a row is a prime number ( remember the first 1 in any row is the 0th element. ) all of the numbers in that row ( excluding the 1s ) are divisible by it. for example in the 7 th row ( 1, 7, 21, 35, 35, 21, 7, 1 ) 7, 21, 35 are divisible by 7. in algebra, each row in pascal ’ s triangle contains the coefficients of the binomial ( x + y ) raised to the power of the row. ( x + y ) 0 = 1 ( x + y ) 1 = 1x + 1y ( x + y ) 2 = 1x2 + 2


monitoring power usage effectiveness paints a powerful picture as the importance of information technology has grown in the world of business, data centers have become the centerpieces at many companies. the demands placed on these facilities — and the hvac systems that serve them — grow constantly and will likely continue to do so into the foreseeable future. the green grid ( www. thegreengrid. org ) is an organization dedicated to helping the information technology industry improve energy efficiency in data centers. the non - profit, open industry consortium of end - users, policy - makers, technology providers, facility architects, and utility companies collaborates to improve the resource efficiency of data centers and business computing ecosystems. the organization was formed in 2007, and on april 5, 2010, it announced a global consortium agreement on the guiding principles of data center energy efficiency metrics. their goal is to create a set of globally accepted metrics for data center efficiency, and this effort requires a unity of communication. green grid and its consortium organizations have established power usage effectiveness ( pue ) as the industry ’ s preferred energy efficiency metric. the group will leverage guiding principles to help drive a universal understanding of energy efficiency metrics and generate dialogue to improve those metrics. the fundamental first step is to prioritize energy saving opportunities by gaining an understanding of data center energy consumption. it also requires an analysis of demand - side systems compared to supply - side systems. demand - side includes processors, server power supplies, other server components, storage and communication. these components usually account for about half of total consumption. the other half encompasses supply - side systems such as the uniterruputible power supply, power distribution, cooling, lighting, and building switchgear. the supply - side equipment is not an independent consumer of power ; its power consumption depends on the power demand. recognizing that all data centers are different and savings potential will vary by facility, data center managers still will appreciate recognizing this measurement. reductions in demand - side energy usage cascade through the supply side. a 2008 model1 showed that every watt of electricity that can be saved on the processor level ( demand - side ) creates 2. 84 w of savings for the facility. in 2009 hpac engineering published an article2 that was the collaborative effort of professionals from the lawrence berkeley national laboratory. the article indicated calculating pue requires knowing site energy usage, source energy usage, and total power usage. enter health insurer medical mutual of ohio ' s beachwood, ohio data center. medical mutual is the oldest ( 1934 ) and largest health


. the article indicated calculating pue requires knowing site energy usage, source energy usage, and total power usage. enter health insurer medical mutual of ohio ' s beachwood, ohio data center. medical mutual is the oldest ( 1934 ) and largest health insurer in the state of ohio, and it prides itself on providing security during a disaster to its clients. since 1977, the company has provided customer service, data storage, billing help - desk services, call center staff, and website services. in 2009, medical mutual approved an integration of multiple hvac systems within the beachwood data center. at the time, one side of the facility was being controlled by a 14 - year - old building - automation and control system from one manufacturer, while the other side was being controlled by a 2 - year - old direct digital control system from another. the separate monitoring of two independent building control systems was becoming frustrating to energy - management specialist ed haywood, so medical mutual ' s senior management decided to eliminate the multiple front - end hmi terminals and perform a single integration that would be hosted on the company ' s ethernet. enterprise hvac service & control performed this integration successfully. afterwards, medical mutual ' s it personnel saw the results of these two merged building control systems with dissimilar protocols, and asked enterprise if the same system could be used to calculate and report hourly, daily, and monthly pue. programmers for enterprise performed this calculation by dividing the amount of power entering the data center by the power used to run computer infrastructure ( uniterruptible power supply and data - center cooling equipment loads ). this data is shown as a display of current pue on a daily, weekly, monthly, and yearly basis. values are captured to logs every 15 minutes. daily values reset at midnight every night, weekly values reset at midnight sunday, monthly values reset at midnight on the last day of the month, and yearly values reset at midnight on new year ' s eve. the figures that accompany this article show a typical screen of data center calculated. the overall goal of mark sweeney, medical mutual ' s manager of it, is to have the data center earn the u. s. environmental protection agency ' s energy star status. he sees the constant awareness of pue as a big step towards achieving this goal. he also knows that energy efficiency translates into lower premiums for medical mutual ’ s clients. 1. judge, j., pouchet, j., ekbote, a., & dixit, s. ( 2008


epo is a nootropicwednesday, 10 september, 2008 erythropoietin ( epo ), a hormone that increases red blood cells and is used as a performance enhancer for athletic performance, has now been shown to enhance memory in normal, healthy mice. mice that received epo injections had enhanced memory for 3 - 4 weeks afterwards, which is longer than the elevation in red blood cell count lasts. this effect isn ’ t actually novel, as other researchers had noticed that epo improved brain function over 18 years ago ( grimm et al, 1990 ), and research into mental illness has also suggested that epo has an effect on brain function ( ehrenreich et al, 2004 ). but it was always thought to be dependent on the change in red blood cells, but more recent evidence has suggested it works independently of effects on blood cells ( miskowiak et al, 2007 ). this mouse model confirms this. of course, the researchers have been focusing on this as a treatment, but anyone can see that this is a promising enhancement too. this mouse research showed that epo enhanced memory and athletic function in healthy mice. it enhances both athletic and mental performance – how good is that? then again, if epo becomes a common cognitive enhancer, it will mean that few of us normal people would ever be able to compete in the olympics. it was only in 2004 that caffeine was allowed in professional competition, but pretty soon college students will be doping themselves with epo as a biochemical study aid. it will be interesting when almost all normal people would not be able to pass an olympic - level drug test. the possibility exists, however, that we may want the cognitive boost without increasing our red blood cells too much. and now that we know the cognitive effects of epo are independent of red blood cell production, this may be possible too. make a drug that stimulates the brain like epo does, but doesn ’ t effect an increase in red blood cells. and this study has gone a long way to unraveling the relevant effects of epo on neuronal plasticity that underly the enhancement to memory circuitry in the brain, which means that we may be able to find drugs that do so more effectively than epo or act on other brain functions.


resources - homeschool groups - article this article was published in the hslda discount groups e - zine, march 2007. guest article : a mom shares her perspective — making families of handicapped students welcome by esther mast given that homeschoolers come in all shapes and sizes, it is not surprising to find a few in wheelchairs. the local homeschool group is in a position to make these students feel as valued and included as possible. there are a few practical ways to do this : first of all, keep the physical limitations of handicapped students in mind when planning group activities. try to arrange at least a couple events a year that can include everyone, even those who can ’ t kick a ball or run races. such awareness of limitations is especially important when planning a field trip. a considerate coordinator will research the proposed location well beforehand and inform the pupil ’ s parents about accessibility issues, so that there is less chance of an unpleasant surprise on arrival. in addition, all students must be treated with respect by their homeschooled peers. even if the venue of an activity is physically accessible, a handicapped student may feel out of place if other people constantly stare, ask awkward questions, or try to be too helpful by pushing the wheelchair for him. remember, it is not the responsibility of the handicapped family to educate the entire group on demand, they have enough stress as it is. make it a priority to teach proper courtesy to your own able - bodied children ; if you must ask, direct a tactful question to the parents privately. if a handicapped student senses that others are uncomfortable around him, he will also feel very uncomfortable. a wheelchair indeed places certain restrictions on the student and her family and homeschool group. with thoughtful planning and good manners, however, it need not be a hindrance to the homeschool experience. the masts have homeschooled eight children, four of whom have graduated and gone on to college. one of these college students is in a wheelchair.


sirat : the forgotten iban attire the loincloths was once of the most basic markers of cultural identity, is now distinctively ignored among modern ibans. even the so called expert such as the anthropologists give a word or two regarding it, then pass on to other matters. the writers on customs seems to forgot the topics altogether. for as the dutchman karl martin said of the sulawesi loincloth a hundred years ago, “ once it ’ s on it ’ s hard to figure out how it got that way. ” some may thinks, a paper on the loincloth ought to be brief and cover only the essentials. yet just as we wear clothes for more reasons than mere utility, and dress decorates as much as it hides, the subject of the loincloth furnishes an occasion for remarks on history, culture, and psychology. the reasons why it did not attracts any attention of the scholar, though the purpose of the loincloth is to cover the male genitals, it leaves the buttocks bare. most peoples feel shame about all or part of the genitals ; but it seems to be a peculiarly western trait to feel equal shame about the buttocks, probably from a fear of homosexuality, an anxiety which also seems to grow with civilization. hence, westerners have always considered the loincloth an immodest garment. the loincloth is a garment of great antiquity, the original men ’ s clothing of most of the world, and particularly of the malayo - polynesian area, which includes the islands of the pacific ocean as far east as hawaii and as far south as new zealand, the malay archipelago and the philippines, the malay peninsula, the island of madagascar to the west, and mainland places inhabited by such dayak - like peoples as the mnongs of vietnam, the mru of bangladesh and the nagas of assam. on the continent west of india the loincloth is unknown. in malaya, java, bali, and elsewhere, the loincloth was replaced by the skirtlike kain because of hindu influence, while the sarong ( a sewn tube of cloth ) is an islamic import. it is worth noting that in the balinese wayang kulit, the most venerable character, twalen, wears a loincloth and not a skirt. twalen is both a funny rustic servant and one of the highest of gods, and it has been suggested that his character represents the pre - hindu and animist “ native


twalen, wears a loincloth and not a skirt. twalen is both a funny rustic servant and one of the highest of gods, and it has been suggested that his character represents the pre - hindu and animist “ native ” nature of the balinese. how to use a ‘ sirat ’ take a strip of material about 10 inches wide and 10 to 12 feet long. hold up one end in front with your left hand or chin. the distance it falls determines the length of the apron. pass the rest of the material between your legs to the back and bring it up from back to front, from right to left around your waist ( the other way if lefthanded ). wind it around your waist, and then, when you reach again to the back, double the material over and pass it under the cloth that comes between your legs, and pull on the loop thus formed until belt and pouch are sufficiently tight. there should be a little “ tail ” [ iko sirat in iban ] in the back. the loincloth wound this way is quite secure and will not fall off even on a hard trek through the jungle. simple enough. but as dress is an important medium for individuals as well as whole peoples to express their individual styles, the loincloth too has many variants which we must consider. the standard borneo loincloth goes at least twice around the waist, and usually more, and the apron and tail will hang at least two thirds of the way down the thighs. the borneo fashion is to cover a broad band of waist, including the navel, although in the past, men often liked to squeeze the cloth of the pouch and apron very narrow. while in the midst of some chore in which the apron and tail might be dirtied or caught, a man can tuck them into the waistband. although dayaks have been trading with other countries for thousands of years, barkcloth was certainly the original material for loincloths, as it was in hawaii. barkcloth was worn quite often in later times, even in the middle of this century, when trade stopped during world war 2 and nobody whether in kuching or in the ulu could buy cloth. the poor sebuyau of lundu, who had by that time abandoned the sirat, were forced to make barkcloth shorts. this ancient barkcloth loincloth must have been elegant. dayaks preferred bark from the ipoh tree for its whiteness and softness, and often gave it a damasked


time abandoned the sirat, were forced to make barkcloth shorts. this ancient barkcloth loincloth must have been elegant. dayaks preferred bark from the ipoh tree for its whiteness and softness, and often gave it a damasked texture by beating it with a carved mallet. one example is on display at the sarawak museum. there is a limit to how long a strip of barkcloth can be made. the longest will go only about twice around the waist. usually the borneo loincloth is made of a piece of commercial cloth and longer than the minimum twelve feet, often eight to ten yards of cloth and more. early brooke officials frowned on this “ extravagant waste. ” the common daily style was to wind the loincloth of a single long length off the bolt, folded in half lengthwise and not cut. thus it would be about 18 inches wide. dayaks preferred to use cloth dyed in some color, especially dark blue, or bright red ( kesumba, an assertive color ), or black. a cheap cotton such as is still sold in kuching was acceptable, but one hears even of silk loincloths. photographs taken by charles hose around a hundred years ago show orang ulu men wearing loincloths of white cotton, which seems to have been the fashion in those days. many photographs from the beginning of this century as well as the 40s and 50s show dayak men wearing loincloths of cotton printed in a calico or large flowered pattern. its an old authentic fashion. it is very hard to see old examples of sirat woven in the ikat technique peculiar to the ibans, though recent ikat loincloths exist from eastern indonesian islands. it would be natural to suppose that iban women did weave them for their men, and there is evidence in the following passage of an ensera. keling comes on a night visit to court kumang [ ngayap ] and, as he gets up to leave, not yet having assurance of her love, she takes the tail of his loincloth in her hand. this must have been a very splendid sirat, since it was the custom for young men to dress carefully and stylishly for a courting visit. ninga jako orang ka indu munyi nya dia keling lalu angkat beguai pulai. sepi iya tak tekait iko sirat. digama iya tak besabong sam


ninga jako orang ka indu munyi nya dia keling lalu angkat beguai pulai. sepi iya tak tekait iko sirat. digama iya tak besabong sama jari. “ nama main nuan megai iko sirat aku deh unggal? enti nuan deka neladan iya tau ga unggal, ” pia ko keling. “ enda ga unggal. ukai aku deka neladan tanda sirat nuan. aku enda kala neladan japai jamah orang, ” pia ko kumang. keling asks : do you want to copy the designs on the front and tail of my loincloth? as the great art of iban women is the design and execution of ikat weavings, and since kumang is in mythology the very greatest weaver, keling here ironically supposes that kumang wants to examine the ikat design of the ends [ tanda ] of his sirat. these tanda are the most important part of the sirat, as they are that which shows, the body of the sirat being hidden under its coils. women often weave only these decorated ends and stitch them later to a strip of commercial cloth. there is also seen sirats made out of a body of white commercial drill cloth, with separate pieces stitched to the ends. these tanda are thickly embroidered with colored thread, in a style of design i have seen neither on mats nor on pua or other weavings, but most resembling mat designs. the hems of these tanda sirat are decorated with tassels of yarn and little pompoms. they also are about 10 inches wide and long enough to pass only twice or three times around the body. the fashion of the recent present among all dayak peoples is to wear a loincloth of red, black or dark blue commercial cotton with one broad bar of white, then a bar of color contrasting with the color of the sirat ’ s body, then another bar of white sewn to the apron and tail portions. dayaks seem to have invented this design in imitation of hornbill feathers. other loincloths have tanda decorated with appliques of commercial fringe, or, among the orang ulu, with tanda painted in their special own tendril - like designs or with beaded portions. these modern


changing them spiritually in the same way as selempandai forged humans. according to tradition, a departed iban soul encountered numerous obstacles in searching the land of ancestors ( heaven ). the toughest obstacle was the river of death. only the soul that was properly tattooed was able to cross the bridge that spanned the river. the soul ’ s tattoos began to shine and guide the soul to the heaven. meanwhile, maligang, the bridge guardian, refused such passage to those failing souls, forcing them to descend into the river to be eaten by patan, a giant fish. common borneo tribal designs other than those beliefs, iban tattooing was also an initiation rite in the community and served as vital elements of beauty for women. iban tattoos are specific to particular parts of the body. for instance, images of jar appear on the neck, the brinjal flower on the forepart of shoulders ; scorpion on the hands and other images appear regularly on the backs and legs. interestingly, tattoos for women are predominantly on the hands and forearms with limited designs like bracelet, ring and dot ; and tattoos on the throat are distinctively meant for men only. dogs, scorpions, tigers, the hornbill, tuba root, the garing tree, and rosettes feature highly in borneo designs, as well as other images all depicting features of nature, such as bamboo. these designs denoted spiritual assistance, protection, prestige, and tribal identity among other things. how do they do it? iban tattooing was carried out outside the longhouse. the designs were first drawn with soot from burnt resin onto the parts of the body to be tattooed. using ancient dye - recipes and a special tool with one or more sharp points embedded in native rubber on the one end, a skilled tattoo artist hammered against the tool with a wooden stick to pierce the body, resulting in excruciating pain. after working on the designs, a rice - flour paste was applied to cool the tattooed areas. headgear worn in the turban style, about 2 yard in length, normally a combination of white / red color. labung also also consists of a few different type, which also differ the way they were known as. labung belanjan, is a headgear decorated with long tail feathers. labung tenun, is a woven headgear. a polka dot patterns textile used as a headgear is called labung engkari, while, a batik designs or paterns will make a labung bat


long tail feathers. labung tenun, is a woven headgear. a polka dot patterns textile used as a headgear is called labung engkari, while, a batik designs or paterns will make a labung batik. ketapu in iban mean hat. this ketapu also has a few different type, depend on how it made and what it made of. ketapu rutan ( tisik tenggiling / tisik empurau ) is a helmet type of hat, more to a skull cap made of coarsely plaited rattan, covered with fish scales ( tisik empurau ) ( tisik tenggiling ) or ant - eater scales. in batang rajang area, it is a cap made from sliced rattan and decorated with beads and feathers or furs. ketapu tunjang is a hand woven rattan / bamboo sliced haedgear with several pointed tops where plumes or feathers are inserted. ketapu silong, mainly used in batang rajang area, is a beaded headgear decorated with long hornbill feathers. ketapu sutar ( see picture above ) and ketapu pirak is a silver headgear. in limbang, ketapu pirak were decorated with floral pattern.


optimal control theory for undergraduates abstractdynamic optimization is widely used in financial economics, macroeconomics and resource economics. this is accounting for some tension between the undergraduate and graduate teaching of economics because most undergraduate programs still concentrate on static economic analysis. this paper shows how, with the help of the microsoft excel solver tool, the principles of dynamic economics can be taught to students with minimal knowledge of calculus. as it is assumed that the reader has no prior knowledge of optimal control theory, some attention is paid to the main concepts of dynamic optimization. download infoif you experience problems downloading a file, check if you have the proper application to view it first. in case of further problems read the ideas help page. note that these files are not on the ideas site. please be patient as the files may be large. bibliographic infopaper provided by the university of western australia, department of economics in its series economics discussion / working papers with number 05 - 07. length : 35 pages date of creation : jan 2005 date of revision : contact details of provider : postal : 35 stirling highway, crawley, w. a. 6009 phone : ( 08 ) 9380 2918 fax : ( 08 ) 9380 1016 web page : http : / / www. business. uwa. edu. au / school / disciplines / economics more information through edirc optimal control theory ; economic education ; microsoft excel ; find related papers by jel classification : - a22 - general economics and teaching - - economic education and teaching of economics - - - undergraduate - c61 - mathematical and quantitative methods - - mathematical methods ; programming models ; mathematical and simulation modeling - - - optimization techniques ; programming models ; dynamic analysis - d91 - microeconomics - - intertemporal choice and growth - - - intertemporal consumer choice ; life cycle models and saving - d92 - microeconomics - - intertemporal choice and growth - - - intertemporal firm choice and growth, financing, investment, and capacity - q00 - agricultural and natural resource economics ; environmental and ecological economics - - general - - - general this paper has been announced in the following nep reports : - nep - all - 2006 - 06 - 03 ( all new papers ) - nep - cmp - 2006 - 06 - 03 ( computational economics ) - nep - edu - 2006 - 06 - 03 ( education ) please report citation or reference errors to, or, if you are the registered author of the


by john campbell i had always thought that africa was a cornucopia of mineral riches : gold, platinum, coal, diamonds, oil – you name it ; africa has it all. maybe not so, writes bright simons in “ africa ’ s fabulous mineral wealth that isn ’ t all there, ” published in african arguments. he argues, inter alia, that on a per square mile and on a per capita basis, africa is poorer in mineral production and reserves than the world average. only ten of the hundred minerals most important to industrial production play a major role in african mining. further, their production and reserves are concentrated in only four countries : south africa, angola, congo, and guinea. his “ per capita ” argument is intriguing : norway and nigeria each produce about the same amount of oil per year. using 2012 prices, he calculates that if the oil revenue were divided equally among all 4, 707, 270 norwegians, he or she would each receive $ 15, 000. but under the same methodology, the nearly 170, 123, 740 nigerians would receive only $ 460. his discussion of the value of minerals is also fascinating. he states that the worldwide value of gold reserves is about $ 2. 6 trillion using 2012 prices. the total value of gold production in 2011, again using 2012 prices, was $ 138 billion. africa ’ s share was worth about $ 30 billion. iron is in short supply in africa. worldwide, he estimates the value of iron reserves at $ 128 trillion. the value of 2011 iron production was about $ 475 billion. so, the value of iron reserves and production greatly exceeds the value of gold. and while africa has the latter, it has little of the former. simons ’ argument is the beginning of a conversation, not the end. but, these considerations highlight the possibility that advocates of the “ resource curse ” argument may be short - sighted. it is also relevant to note that when the african national congress came to power in south africa after the 1994 ‘ non - racial ’ elections, its leaders were surprised that the country was not nearly as rich as they had thought it to be. ralph bunche senior fellow for africa policy studies


a m a z i n g h u m a n f a c t s : ( if you have the time to read about you : ) ) except for your brain cells, 50, 000, 000 of the cells in your body will have died and been replaced with others, all while you have been reading this sentence. more than half the bones in the human body are in the hands and feet. the highest recorded “ sneeze speed ” is 165 km ( 102 miles ) per hour. ( they checked that the heart beats about 3 billion times in the average person ’ s lifetime. a newborn baby has 350 bones, but a fully - grown adult has only 206. our lungs inhale over two million liters of air every day, without even thinking. the surface area of the lungs is approximately the same size as a tennis court. food will get to your stomach even if you ’ re standing on your head. research has shown that guilt damages your immune system by lowering your immunoglobulin levels. the total length of your circulatory system stretches an amazing 60, 000 miles. that is more than twice the distance around the earth. in one square inch of skin : we have 4 yards of nerve fibers, 600 pain sensors, 1300 nerve cells, 9000 nerve endings, 36 heat sensors, 75 pressure sensors, 100 sweat glands, 3 million cells, and 3 yards of blood vessels. your heart beats about 100, 000 times in one day, about 40, 000, 000 times a year. in one hour the heart works hard enough to produce enough energy to raise almost one ton of weight one yard from the ground. the central nervous systemis connected to every part of the body by 43 pairs of nerves. twelve pairs go to and from the brain, with 31 pairs going from the spinal cord. there are nearly 45 miles of nerves running through our bodies. messages travel along the nerves as electrical impulses. they travel at speeds up to 248 mile per hour. the aorta, the largest artery in the body, is almost the diameter of a garden hose. capillaries, on the other hand, are so small that it takes ten of them to equal the thickness of a human hair. your body has about 5. 6 liters ( 6 quarts ) of blood. these 5. 6 liters of blood circulates through the body three times every minute. in one day, the blood travels a total of 19, 000 km ( 12, 000 miles ) – that ’ s four times


cancer of the throat alternative namessquamous cell carcinoma of the tonsil what is cancer of the throat throat cancer takes its beginning in your throat ( pharynx ), voice box ( larynx ) or tonsils. the throat is the passage from the back of your mouth to the top tubes that go down to your stomach and lungs. voice box is the part of your throat that you use to produce the sounds when you speak. both the throat and the voice box are located below the throat. throat cancer is subdivided into different types : - nasopharyngeal cancer originates just behind your nose. - oropharyngeal cancer starts behind your mouth that includes your tonsils. - hypopharyngeal cancer ( laryngopharyngeal cancer ) develops in the hypopharynx ( the lower part of your throat, just above your esophagus and windpipe ). - glottic cancer located in the vocal cords. - supraglottic cancer begins in the upper portion of the larynx ( the part of your throat where the voice produced ). - subglottic cancer. this type of the cancer is found in the lower portion of your voice box, below your vocal cords. signs and symptoms the symptoms below may signal that the person has got a throat cancer : - a cough - a hoarseness ( when you speak in a low rough voice ) - swallowing problems - feeling pain in your ear - open wound - a sore throat the patients with throat cancer can have possible complications : - swallowing problems - airway obstruction - disfigured neck or face - stiff skin of the neck - speaking disability - metastasis of the cancer the main reasons leading to the occurrence of throat cancer is the development of genetic mutations in your throat. as a result uncontrolled growth of tumour cells happen which can live longer than healthy cells. unfortunately there are no proper ways which help to prevent the disease. but in order to avoid your risk of occurrence of throat cancer, you should : - get rid of smoking - avoid drinking alcohol - keep to a healthy diet rich in fruits and vegetables - don ’ t contact chemicals - avoid breathing hazardous chemical fumes - air your room and working place there are the following ways of throat cancer treatments : - surgery – can help to get rid of tumour alone, either combined with radiation therapy, especially when it ’ s of small size. some patients are offered operations which can help to remove the tumor, including


evolution is generally regarded as pretty good at specializing species for certain ecological niches, but with a glacial pace of adaptation, sometimes it needs a helping hand. meet the team of the weizmann institute of science in israel, who decided they wanted to beef up the paraoxonase 1 ( pon1 ) to the point it could combat sarin and other g - type nerve agents. pon1 is an enzyme that is produced by our livers that can counteract sarin, tabun, soman, and cyclosarin, but not well enough for use in case of emergency — requiring people to use masks and suits, which can be penetrated. so the researchers undertook a path of " directed enzyme evolution, " intentionally speeding up the course of adaptation to further their goal. this technique is, essentially, the sort of wonderful mad science that we love here at io9. they artificially induced mutations into the gene that encoded target enzyme, creating variations in its efficiency and ability, and picking the best out of the lot. within four generations of this process, the enzyme was functioning 340 times more efficiently than its natural form. the hope is that the modified enzyme will be able to given to people going into an area exposed to these nerve agents to protect them, as well as being used to fight those already subjected to it. it also shows that with some judicious use of mutations and population pressure, " directed evolution " can provide very speedy results. photo by dr _ ed _ needs _ a _ bicycle. evolved stereoselective hydrolases for broad - spectrum g - type nerve agent detoxification [ chemistry & biology ]


be honest — would you have guessed that red blood cells are mysterious? no, i wouldn ’ t have either. they ’ re the simplest cells in our bodies, for goodness sake — they don ’ t even have dna. all they do is carry hemoglobin around, picking up oxygen as they pass the lungs and gradually dumping it everywhere else. how hard can that be to understand? and we ’ ve studied them in various ways for over 450 years. but indeed it turns out that there are significant holes in our knowledge of how the number, size and hemoglobin concentrations of red blood cells are controlled, and how these control systems go wrong in anemia. we do know where new red blood cells come from — the bone marrow — and we know some of the factors that control the development and release of new red blood cells, such as erythropoietin. the feedback control between “ too few red cells ” and “ more erythropoietin needed ” goes mainly through the kidneys ; the mechanism the kidney uses to sense oxygen levels ( protein hydroxylation ) and induce erythropoietin synthesis has been an area of active research. what we know less about is what happens to these new red blood cells once they get out in the circulation. the population distribution of red blood cells in a healthy person is usually very stable. but the behavior of individual cells must be quite dynamic : about a quarter of a trillion [ 2. 5 x 10 ( 11 ) ] new cells are added to the population daily, and so a similar number must be taken away. new red blood cells — which can be visualized because they carry residual rna — are considerably larger than mature red blood cells. they shrink by about 10 % in the few days after they are released from bone marrow ; then they continue to shrink, but more slowly, by shedding hemoglobin - containing vesicles. because red blood cells have no dna, they can ’ t replace the hemoglobin lost in the vesicles, so the loss of hemoglobin is irreversible. calculations show, though, that they must be able to pick up membrane from somewhere ; another mystery. we don ’ t really know how or why the vesicle shedding happens. and finally, after about 3 - 4 months, they ’ re cleared ; and naturally, we don ’ t know what the trigger is for clearance ( age? size? hemoglobin content? ). the volume


content ratio ( the amount of shrinkage is larger the further away the cell is from the “ correct ” ratio ), and then as it gets close to that ratio it starts shrinking more slowly, with volume and hemoglobin lost ( on average ) in proportion. both the fast and slow shrinkage involve a certain level of stochasticity ; this explains the breadth of the distribution around the diagonal line that describes the ideal volume / hemoglobin content ratio. to describe the trajectory of a single red blood cell, they use a langevin equation, and they use the fokker - planck equation to model the dynamics of the population ( making the assumption that the system is close to steady state ). then they introduce red cell clearance as a probability function, with the probability of clearance depending on how close the cell is to a threshold volume / hemoglobin content value. putting all of this together, they have a model with six main parameters. two parameters describe how quickly a newborn red blood cell progresses towards the ideal volume / hemoglobin content ratio ; one represents the rate of change after the ideal ratio has been achieved ; two describe the “ scatter ” or diffusion around the ratio ; and one represents the threshold for cell death. now they can use this model to extract their 6 parameters from measurements of red blood cell populations in healthy individuals and in patients with anemia. they looked at three different forms of anemia, each resulting from a different cause : iron deficiency anemia ( primarily caused by poor nutrition ), thalassemia trait ( genetics ), and anemia of chronic disease ( inflammation ). in each case they chose individuals with mild disease, so that the steady - state assumption would not be too severely violated. after all this build - up, you perhaps won ’ t be surprised when i tell you that patients with anemia do have different best - fit parameters from normal patients. that ’ s interesting all by itself, but here ’ s what ’ s more interesting : the parameters that change are different in the different forms of anemia. thalassemia trait and iron deficiency anemia are more similar to each other than to anemia of chronic disease or normals : they shrink slower in the fast phase of shrinkage, faster in the slow phase, and, strikingly, have a much lower threshold for cell death. we already knew that the red blood cells in patients with these diseases are especially small — they ’ re called “ microcytic ” anemias for this reason — but it ’ s


, strikingly, have a much lower threshold for cell death. we already knew that the red blood cells in patients with these diseases are especially small — they ’ re called “ microcytic ” anemias for this reason — but it ’ s now possible to tease out the different contributions to this phenomenon. the change in threshold for clearance is the most striking, to me ; does this show that the ( unknown ) red blood cell clearance mechanism can be regulated by lack of oxygen? and if so, why doesn ’ t this ( unknown ) regulatory mechanism also reduce the threshold for cell death in anemia of chronic disease patients? iron deficiency anemia patients also show ten - fold more variability in hemoglobin loss in the slow phase of red cell shrinkage than normals. this may provide a way to distinguish iron deficiency anemia from thalassemia trait, which would be an important clinical contribution since mistakenly treating a person with thalassemia as if they were iron deficient can cause serious problems. most important from the clinical point of view, this model - based analysis may allow earlier diagnosis of some forms of anemia. using the example of an individual diagnosed with iron - deficient anemia who had three cbc tests at two - month intervals before the diagnosis was made, higgins and mahadevan show that they can identify abnormal parameter changes a full two months before the anemia became clinically detectable. the cool thing about this is that it doesn ’ t require a new machine, or a new test ; all the data are already collected routinely, it ’ s just a question of running it through a new computer program. [ on the other hand, the cynical side of me suggests that a new machine that goes ping might be more marketable than mathematics. only time will tell. ] higgins, j., & mahadevan, l. ( 2010 ). physiological and pathological population dynamics of circulating human red blood cells proceedings of the national academy of sciences doi : 10. 1073 / pnas. 1012747107


it ' s normal for a newborn ' s eyes to wander or cross occasionally during the first few months of life. but by the time a baby is 4 to 6 months old, the eyes usually straighten out. if one or both eyes continue to wander in, out, up, or down — even intermittently — it ' s probably due to a condition called strabismus. when detected early on, strabismus is curable through a variety of safe and effective treatment options. but it ' s important for kids to be treated early — waiting too long or overlooking treatment completely can lead to permanent vision loss. strabismus is the misalignment or wandering of one or both eyes either inward ( called esotropia ), outward ( exotropia ), up ( hypertropia ), or down ( hypotropia ). the condition can be constant or parents may only notice it occasionally ; for instance, when their child is tired or looking at something very close up. strabismus can be present at birth or develop in childhood. in most cases, the cause is unknown, although kids with a family history of strabismus are at an increased risk for it. most kids are diagnosed between 1 and 4 years of age. rarely, a child might develop strabismus for the first time after 6 years of age. if this happens, it ' s important to contact your doctor immediately, who will then refer your child to a pediatric ophthalmologist and possibly a neurologist to rule out any underlying conditions that may be causing the problem. how vision is affected when eyes are misaligned, the straight or straighter eye becomes dominant. the vision strength ( acuity ) of the straight eye remains normal because the eye and its connection to the brain are functioning as they should. the misaligned or weaker eye, however, does not focus properly and its connection to the brain is not formed correctly. if strabismus is left untreated, the brain will eventually suppress or ignore the image of the weaker eye, resulting in amblyopia ( or " lazy eye, " when an eye is unable to focus on details ) or permanent vision loss. longstanding eye misalignment also might impair the development of depth perception ( stereopsis ) or the ability to see in 3d. most kids with strabismus don ' t complain of eye problems. usually, it ' s a family member or teacher who notices a misalign


impair the development of depth perception ( stereopsis ) or the ability to see in 3d. most kids with strabismus don ' t complain of eye problems. usually, it ' s a family member or teacher who notices a misalignment of the eyes. some kids may complain of double vision ( seeing two objects when there ' s only one in view ) or have trouble seeing things in general. younger children who are not yet able to verbalize their vision problems may squint frequently and turn or tilt their heads in an attempt to see more clearly. if your child has any of these signs or symptoms, tell your doctor. if necessary, he or she can refer you to a pediatric ophthalmologist for proper evaluation and treatment. treatment for strabismus depends on the underlying cause and the severity of the eye misalignment. the condition usually is corrected with either glasses or eye muscle surgery. in some cases, the use of eye patching or eye drops may be helpful too. farsightedness ( hyperopia ), nearsightedness ( myopia ), and astigmatism ( a form of blurry vision ) can sometimes cause crossed eyes in very young children. these kids might benefit from wearing glasses. a child who has amblyopia as well as strabismus might be prescribed eye patches to be worn over the unaffected or straight eye. these block out all light and force the misaligned or weaker eye to do the " seeing " work. over time, consistent patching may strengthen the vision in the weaker eye. sometimes it can help strengthen the muscle of the weaker eye and restore proper alignment. typically, kids must wear the patch 2 to 3 hours per day during waking hours for several months or years depending on the severity of the condition. in more extreme cases, patches may be worn up to 6 hours or longer every day. for parents of babies and toddlers with strabismus, enforcing the use of an eye patch can seem challenging. but after the initial adjustment period, most kids adapt well and the patch just becomes part of their daily routine, like brushing their teeth. sometimes, though, despite a parent ' s best efforts, a child will refuse to wear an eye patch. in these cases, atropine drops might be used instead. just as an eye patch blocks the vision in the unaffected or straight eye, the atropine drops will temporarily blur out vision in the straight eye, forcing the misaligned eye to work


these cases, atropine drops might be used instead. just as an eye patch blocks the vision in the unaffected or straight eye, the atropine drops will temporarily blur out vision in the straight eye, forcing the misaligned eye to work harder. if glasses and / or patching or atropine drops do not achieve the proper alignment, eye muscle surgery may be recommended. surgery involves loosening or tightening the muscles that cause the eye to wander. although it is an invasive measure, surgery is considered safe and effective and usually does not require an overnight hospital stay. how well children fare with correction of strabismus depends not only on the severity of their condition, but also on how quickly it was recognized and treated. kids reach full visual maturation at around 8 years old. it is during these early years of development that vital connections between the eyes and the brain are formed. so early intervention is critical. the earlier strabismus is diagnosed and treated, the better a child ' s chances are of having straight eyes and developing good vision and proper depth perception. studies show, however, that older kids and teens and even many adults with strabismus might still benefit from treatment. the social aspect to strabismus also should not be overlooked. properly aligned eyes are important for a healthy self - image and good interpersonal relationships in kids and adults. fortunately, when strabismus is recognized and treated effectively, it can be cured and permanent vision loss prevented.


chris never thought that his pet iguana would make him sick. but when he started having a fever, abdominal cramps, and diarrhea, the doctor diagnosed him with an infection called and said that the iguana may have been the cause. it ' s not just pets like iguanas and turtles that carry the salmonella bacteria. sometimes, these bacteria can find their way into foods. and recent food poisoning outbreaks involving tomatoes show that these foods aren ' t always animal products. what is salmonellosis? an infection with salmonella bacteria usually affects the gastrointestinal system ( the stomach and intestines ) in humans. in more severe cases, salmonella can spread to the blood, the bones, or even to the fluid around the brain, but these types of infection are less common. an american scientist named daniel e. salmon is credited with the discovery of the salmonella family of bacteria in the late 1800s. since then, scientists have identified more than 2, 400 types of salmonella bacteria. they ' ve also figured out where salmonella live, how they spread to humans, and how to reduce their spread among the general public. even so, each year the united states has about 40, 000 cases of salmonellosis. and many more cases go unreported. salmonella bacteria are often found in the feces ( poop ) of some animals, particularly reptiles. iguanas, for example, carry salmonella marina. people who have these animals as pets are at more risk of getting salmonellosis because the bacteria from a reptile ' s feces can get on its skin. then, when people handle the reptiles, they get the bacteria on their hands. ( hand washing is a good way to reduce the risk of getting salmonellosis. ) other strains of salmonella can spread to people in foods that have come into contact with infected animal feces. these exposures happen when foods such as poultry, eggs, and beef are not cooked enough. fruit and vegetables can also become contaminated from feces in the soil or water where they are grown. if fruit and vegetables are not washed thoroughly before they are eaten, they can spread salmonella. the bacteria can also be spread through prepared foods if infected food handlers do not wash their hands properly after using the bathroom. lots of different things influence whether someone will be infected, including the person ' s age, general health, and immune system strength. whether a person becomes sick or not can also depend on how many bacteria enter the


their hands properly after using the bathroom. lots of different things influence whether someone will be infected, including the person ' s age, general health, and immune system strength. whether a person becomes sick or not can also depend on how many bacteria enter the digestive system. people who are more likely to become ill from salmonella include : young children and infants ( their developing immune systems have a harder time fighting off the infection ) those with weakened immune systems ( such as people with hiv and those with sickle cell anemia ) people who take cancer drugs people who take antacids or stomach acid suppression medication in these higher risk groups, salmonella is more likely to invade beyond the gastrointestinal tract and cause bacteremia ( bacteria in the bloodstream ). from there the bacteria can spread deeper into the body and cause more serious diseases, like meningitis. what are the symptoms? symptoms of salmonellosis can include diarrhea that may be bloody, abdominal cramping and pain, and fever. these symptoms can take anywhere from 6 to 72 hours to appear after someone ingests the bacteria. not everyone who swallows the bacteria will become ill. in most people, the illness lasts 4 to 7 days once symptoms begin. some strains of salmonella can cause a more serious form of the disease known as typhoid or enteric fever. the symptoms of typhoid fever can include a prolonged fever, abdominal pain, headache, tiredness, a distinct rash, constipation or diarrhea, and a change in mental state. typhoid fever is rare in the united states, but it can be common in developing countries. wash your hands. good hygiene is important if you want to reduce your risk of getting salmonellosis and other food - borne illnesses. you can help prevent salmonellosis by encouraging your family to wash their hands thoroughly and frequently, particularly after going to the bathroom and before preparing food. be cautious with pets, especially reptiles. wash your hands thoroughly after touching them or cleaning their cages. small children should not have reptiles, especially turtles, as pets. be careful about food preparation. because the bacteria appear most often in animal foods, avoid eating raw or undercooked eggs, poultry, or meat. proper cooking will kill salmonella, so poultry and meat should be cooked to the proper temperature. eggs can carry salmonella bacteria both inside and outside the shell. infection from contamination outside the shell is much less common today because egg producers follow strict procedures for cleaning and inspecting eggs. but another


so poultry and meat should be cooked to the proper temperature. eggs can carry salmonella bacteria both inside and outside the shell. infection from contamination outside the shell is much less common today because egg producers follow strict procedures for cleaning and inspecting eggs. but another form of salmonella infection can contaminate eggs before the shells are formed. your best bet is to avoid eating raw or undercooked eggs, like sunny - side up or poached eggs with a soft center. unpasteurized milk and juices can also be contaminated, so stick with pasteurized. avoid cross - contamination. when raw meat or eggs touch other food, it can lead to salmonellosis. and meat or eggs don ' t have to touch the food directly — sometimes cutting boards, counters, or utensils can transfer the bacteria from raw meat to foods like fruits and vegetables. to protect against this, keep uncooked meats and eggs separate from all other foods, cooked or raw. avoid cutting raw meat with a knife and then using the unwashed knife to cut another food you are preparing — use a clean knife. and when you ' re done preparing raw meat, wash your hands, cutting boards, counters, and knives thoroughly with soap and hot water. if you ' re planning to travel overseas — especially to a developing country — be sure to receive a typhoid vaccine before traveling if it is recommended. and once you ' re there, be cautious about drinking nonbottled drinks and eating foods sold by vendors on the street. if you think you may have salmonellosis, make an appointment to see your doctor. because many different illnesses can cause similar symptoms, the doctor may send a stool ( poop ) sample to the lab for testing. if you do have salmonellosis and the infection is not severe ( that is, it has not spread beyond the gastrointestinal system ), your doctor will probably let you get better on your own. the doctor probably will not give you antibiotics unless you have a severe infection or you ' re in a high - risk group and unable to fight off the infection. antibiotics do not appear to help a healthy person whose infection is not severe — and may actually lengthen the amount of time the person will carry the bacteria. some people with salmonellosis may have to stay in the hospital to be treated for dehydration ( an abnormally low level of fluid in the body ), which can be a complication of any type of diarrhea. a severe salmonella infection will require


##sis may have to stay in the hospital to be treated for dehydration ( an abnormally low level of fluid in the body ), which can be a complication of any type of diarrhea. a severe salmonella infection will require further testing to determine the specific type behind the illness and which antibiotics can be used to treat it. people who are infected with salmonella may still be contagious from several days to several weeks after they ' ve been infected — even if their symptoms have disappeared or they ' ve been treated with antibiotics. so while you recover, be sure to wash your hands frequently and don ' t share your food or drinks with anyone. and if you work in a restaurant or your work involves handling food, check with your doctor before returning to work. what can i do to help myself feel better? because any diarrhea can lead to dehydration — and because the diarrhea caused by salmonella can be severe — drink plenty of water or drinks that contain electrolytes ( such as sports drinks ). you may be tempted to treat yourself with anti - diarrheal medicines, but they ' re not usually recommended for people with salmonellosis. they can make the infection last longer, so be sure to check with your doctor first. if you have a fever, you can take acetaminophen or ibuprofen to reduce your temperature if your doctor says it ' s ok.


jacob loves books. his mom knows this because when she sits down to read to him every night, he waves his arms excitedly. his favorite page of " goodnight moon " shows a cow jumping over the moon. he squeals and reaches for the book every time he sees it. when she is done reading, his mom usually lets him hold the sturdy board book, which he promptly sticks into his mouth. jacob is only 6 months old, but he is already well on his way to becoming a reader. why read to my baby? you may wonder about the benefits of reading to your baby. an infant won ' t understand everything you ' re doing or why. but you wouldn ' t wait until your child could understand what you were saying before you started speaking to him or her, right? nor would you bypass lullabies until your baby could carry a tune or wait until he or she could shake a rattle before you offered any toys. reading aloud to your baby is a wonderful shared activity you can continue for years to come — and it ' s an important form of stimulation. teaches a baby about communication introduces concepts such as numbers, letters, colors, and shapes in a fun way builds listening, memory, and vocabulary skills gives babies information about the world around them believe it or not, by the time babies reach their first birthday they will have learned all the sounds needed to speak their native language. the more stories you read aloud, the more words your child will be exposed to and the better he or she will be able to talk. hearing words helps to build a rich network of words in a baby ' s brain. kids whose parents frequently talk / read to them know more words by age 2 than children who have not been read to. and kids who are read to during their early years are more likely to learn to read at the right time. when you read, your child hears you using many different emotions and expressive sounds, which fosters social and emotional development. reading also invites your baby to look, point, touch, and answer questions — all of which promote social development and thinking skills. and your baby improves language skills by imitating sounds, recognizing pictures, and learning words. but perhaps the most important reason to read aloud is that it makes a connection between the things your baby loves the most — your voice and closeness to you — and books. spending time reading to your baby shows that reading is a skill worth learning. and, if infants and children are read to often with joy, excitement, and closeness, they begin to associate