combined with em ’ s rigorous and coherent content, will do more to help your instruction align with the ccssm than tearing the program apart. what did you take out of em as you aligned with the ccssm? how will we have time to teach the new material if nothing has been removed? for the ccss edition, we took out some things, moved quite a lot of things, increased or decreased emphasis on certain topics at certain grades, and modified the treatment of many topics. the net addition of content was, in the end, quite modest, on the order of five or ten new lessons out of the more than 600 lessons in the program. we have been working with many teachers who have been able to get through the 2007 edition with time to spare, so we expect teachers will be able to get through the ccss edition as well. research has shown a couple of things that are important to keep in mind. one is that time on task is hugely important. the more time you spend on something, the more children are going to learn. if you want children to learn more mathematics, the first step is to allot more time to it. one hour a day, every day, should be the minimum. even better would be 75 or 90 minutes a day. another important research finding is that distributed instruction and practice over time is more effective than concentrated practice. this finding is well established in the research literature on learning, but is counterintuitive and often unfamiliar. most people think concentrated study is more effective. as the daughter of one of the em authors said, when she got an a in latin, “ see, dad, cramming works. ” but cramming doesn ’ t work if your goal is long - term learning rather than a short - term boost in performance for a test. what you ’ ve crammed, you quickly forget. you have at best the illusions that you have learned something. em is built on the principle of distributed instruction and practice. this is entirely in harmony with the ccssm, which is based on learning progressions that span multiple grades and which also does not dictate which pedagogical approach is to be used. rather than adopting a distributed approach, some teachers get bogged down trying to teach to mastery skills that are just being introduced. this slows down progress through the curriculum so that teachers feel even more time pressure. we ’ re working with teachers and schools in chicago and across the nation to better explain the distributed approach and why it ’ s more effective


that are just being introduced. this slows down progress through the curriculum so that teachers feel even more time pressure. we ’ re working with teachers and schools in chicago and across the nation to better explain the distributed approach and why it ’ s more effective. we ’ re also working with teachers and schools that are changing how they organize for instruction. many teachers have had success “ borrowing ” time for mathematics from across the school day. during the literacy block, for example, students who are not meeting with the teacher can do math boxes or journal pages or even play math games. many teachers have also had success using a “ centers ” approach with em. all this can help with an overcrowded school day in which finding sufficient time for mathematics can be difficult. shouldn ’ t there be more changes to be 100 % aligned as you claim? the teachers are not feeling like they are reaching or will reach mastery with the limited changes and additional material to cover that isn ’ t at their grade level. as we did our alignment to the ccssm during the planning phases of this edition, we found that in many cases em was well aligned with the standards, but needed some clarification to make this alignment explicit. one example is standard 6. ee. 9, which reads “ use variables to represent two quantities in a real - world problem that change in relationship to one another ; write an equation to express one quantity, thought of as the dependent variable, in terms of the other quantity, thought of as the independent variable. analyze the relationship between the dependent and independent variables using graphs and tables, and relate these to the equation. ” in g6 em, students already did much work using equations, graphs, and tables to represent real - world problems. we were simply not using the terms dependent variable and independent variable. it did not make sense to add a lot of work to “ cover ” this standard — it was a matter of including appropriate vocabulary to work the students were already doing. we found that much of the coverage that we added was of this type : clarifying and pointing out where we already are well aligned to the standards. how have em ’ s assessments changed to reflect the added ccssm content to the program? new “ recognizing student achievement ” assessments were added in the teacher ’ s lesson guides, where appropriate, to assess new ccssm content that was added to the program. whenever a grade - level goal was changed to better fit ccssm – when memorization of the multiplication facts was moved from fourth grade to third, for


guides, where appropriate, to assess new ccssm content that was added to the program. whenever a grade - level goal was changed to better fit ccssm – when memorization of the multiplication facts was moved from fourth grade to third, for example – unit progress checks and assessments in the assessment handbook were updated to reflect the new goal. but whenever em ’ s assessments gave adequate information about progress towards mastery of the grade - level goals, those assessments were not changed. these changes preserve the basic structure of em ’ s assessment system, which is designed to track progress towards grade - level goals. assessment in the context of the common core state standards is a moving target. the u. s. department of education has funded two large consortia of states, parcc and sbac, to develop new assessments aligned with ccssm. those assessments are currently scheduled for use beginning in the 2014 – 2015 school year, but details of the consortia ’ s plans are not yet available. in the meantime, most states continue to use state tests based on pre - ccssm standards. some states are using their current assessments this year, modified assessments better aligned to ccssm in 2013 or 2014, and assessments from parcc or sbac in 2014 – 2015. in this evolving environment, the em authors are closely following the work of the consortia so that em ’ s assessments can be adjusted to better complement instruments from the assessment consortia. the authors are also working with em ’ s publisher to create interim solutions such as revised assessments tools and items that will be embedded in the program, test item generation software, and an online assessment and differentiation system. grade 6 has a lot of changes but not a lot of new journal pages. why? we tried to make as many changes as possible within the context of existing lessons, without adding extra pages that needed to be completed. in some instances, this was as simple as including appropriate vocabulary in the lesson itself. when we added new lessons or activities, we also added new journal pages. when a lesson or part of a lesson was revised, the journal pages were revised to reflect the content in the lessons, but additional pages were not necessarily added.


mosquitoes and ticks did you know … … …. - pennsylvania is home to 60 different species of mosquitoes? species most commonly responsible for transmitting west nile and other diseases are species that seek out human made containers or areas of environmental disturbances. - the simplest way to reduce biting mosquito concerns around your home is to inspect your property for items that will collect and hold water and eliminate these items? during the summer mosquitoes can go from egg to adult within 7 days. - for the past three years pennsylvania has ranked # 1 in the united states for reported cases of lyme disease? take time to dress properly, wear repellent and inspect yourself after being outside. - mosquitoes and ticks also transmit diseases to pets and other animals such as horses? - helping to cleanup your surrounding community will also reduce mosquito breeding sources. some mosquito species can fly up to 20 miles away from a breeding source. penn state resources - penn state west nile virus page - penn state ticks background information - penn state lyme disease - pest ed blog - featuring west nile virus through fall - pennsylvania ’ s west nile virus control program - report a dead bird - center for disease control west nile virus information - center for disease control lyme disease information - keep pennsylvania beautiful - penn state mosquito fact sheets - a guide to stormwater management and mosquito concerns - asian tiger mosquito for more information contact : 112 pleasant acres rd york, pa 17402 phone : ( 717 ) 840 - 2375


is it time to change our training yet? part 4 : magnesium fires a small piece of magnesium in the stearing column reacts to water in delray beach, florida. ( photo : lee junkins ) lee junkins, midsouth rescue technologies as we saw in part 3, manufacturers have been forced to cut every ounce of weight possible, in order to meet the economic problems. one way of doing that is by the extensive use of magnesium. magnesium is stronger and 1 / 3 lighter than aluminum and can be molded and machined into most any shape. today manufacturers are using it for most all the brackets under the dash, transmission housings, wheels, and some as high as 45 % of the engine parts. as firefighters we know that magnesium is one metal that will burn and once burning is extremely hard to extinguish, but do we really understand the dangers of fighting a magnesium fire? as can be seen in the picture, magnesium has a very violent reaction to water. the reaction seen in the picture is just a very small bracket on the steering column. we see the pretty flash as the water hits it but, notice the little sparklers in the picture. each one of these pretty little sparklers is a ball of hot molten metal. welders will tell you that these bits of molten metal will collect in any little wrinkle in your clothing and will burn through until they cool. imagine having them on your bare skin, yet many firefighters do not see the need for full ppe on a vehicle fire. let ’ s look at another aspect ; these balls of molten metal are much hotter than our gear is made to withstand. these will lay in the wrinkles of your gear and burn holes in them, not only destroying a very expensive set of gear, but putting the firefighter in danger on the next interior call. so how are we to avoid this?


gd star rating gd star rating this article explores the immediate and long - term effects of the federal reservethe central bank in control of regulating the u. s. financial and monetary system. ’ s ( the fed ’ s ) purchase of $ 1. 25 trillion in mortgage - backed bondsan asseta valuable item which can be converted to cash by its owner. - backed security representing a claim on the cash flows received on a mortgage loan. ( mbbs ) during 2009 and 2010, and the current and future benefits of fed purchases for homebuyer financing. the federal responsibility to regulate america ’ s central bank is responsible for limiting the harmful effects of falling prices and unemploymentwhen an employee loses their job, resulting in no income. associated with the nation ’ s reduced spending power in times of economic crisis. while many of the painful signs of a recessionan economic event triggered and controlled by the federal reserve to maintain the sustainability of economic growth. are beyond the government ’ s direct control, the u. s. federal reserve ( the fed ) does have the crucial authority to alter interest rates through monetary policythe federal reserve ' s use of short - term interest rates and other infusions and withdrawals of dollars in circulation to control pricing and employment in the economy. and affect the recession ’ s outcome by doing so. the fed is able to lend to banks at a lower cost by printing and increasing the amount of money available to businesses and consumers. a larger supply of money encourages banks to lend and — perhaps most importantly — helps to fight the possibility of consumer and asset price deflation in the market. while right - wing inflationthe price changes over time in consumer goods and services, quantified in the consumer price index ( cpi ). - hawks promulgate fear - laden demagoguery about the dangers of inflation simply because the fed prints money ( which — don ’ t forget — is its job ), first tuesday asserts that consumer inflation is not, and will not soon be, a concern for the u. s. economy or the fed. on the other hand, value deflation — should it develop in prices — is a pernicious bane that threatens from the shadows in times of economic crisis. japan ’ s “ lost decade ” of the 1990s is attributed to consumer and asset price deflation, and our fed ’ s efforts to avoid a similar fate in our economy are to be commended. [ for more on the realities of inflation, see the october 2010 article, deflation ’ s push on the real estate recovery


and asset price deflation, and our fed ’ s efforts to avoid a similar fate in our economy are to be commended. [ for more on the realities of inflation, see the october 2010 article, deflation ’ s push on the real estate recovery. ] how, then, can the fed continue to fight price deflation and job loss after it has already reduced interest rates to near zero? the answer : by buying long - term bonds from banks and private investors — a process which, in turn, requires the minting of new money for the purchase. between late 2008 and early 2010, the fed purchased a total of $ 1. 3 trillion in mortgage - backed bonds ( mbbs ) from fannie maea government - sponsored entity operating in the secondary mortgage market. ( fannie ) and freddie mac ( freddie ), as well as bonds insured by ginnie mae. the fed has since announced it intends to purchase an additional $ 800 billion in bonds. this federal bond - purchasing process is referred to as the large scale asset purchase ( lsap ) program. the lsap program is intended to depress interest rates on long - term yields ( such as 30 - year mortgages ) since short - term interest rates have already reached their lowest possible level. in theory, this move will prove useful in multiple ways. first, the fed ’ s extensive purchases will indicate to lenders and buyers that the fed fully intends to maintain short - term interest rates at their current low level. restoring investora purchaser who holds a property long - term on a buy - to - let basis as an income - producing investment. contrast with a speculator who buys - to - flip a property for fast profits, rather than annual income. confidence will support private investment in business and real estate, which is necessary for a stable recovery. restoring investor confidence is necessary for a stable recovery. second, the purchase of bonds will immediately remove loans from the books of lenders and investors. that money will be injected back into the market via bank reserves and deposits, and made available for investment through lending. third, and most importantly, long - term bond purchases by the fed are expected to reduce the supply of long - term bonds available for investors, thereby raising bond prices and lowering interest rate yields. in short, banks see their cash reserves and deposits increase and lower the interest rates they charge, thus promoting private investment of borrowed funds. so far, signs indicate that these hopes are justified. according to the federal reserve bank of san francisco ( frbsf )


, banks see their cash reserves and deposits increase and lower the interest rates they charge, thus promoting private investment of borrowed funds. so far, signs indicate that these hopes are justified. according to the federal reserve bank of san francisco ( frbsf ), the lsap program is likely to lower the national unemployment rate 1. 5 percentage points by 2012 : a total of approximately three million jobs created nationwide. that translates into roughly 300, 000 additionally employed in california during 2011 ( the ucla anderson school of management predicts 200, 000 in 2011 ). california real estate brokers ( and the governor ) need around 400, 000 new jobs annually for a period of at least four years to start smiling again. employment is the single most crucial factor determining a homebuyer ’ s ability to obtain and retain a home, and the lsap ’ s role in promoting employment is thus vital. [ for more information on the frbsf ’ s analysis of the lsap program, see the frbsf economic letter 2011 - 03. ] although it remains uncertain, the frbsf finds it likely that the fed ’ s asset purchases have played an important role in preventing harmful deflation. the frbsf indicates the current level of inflation in the united states is approximately one full percentage point higher than it would have been without the lsap program. given the still - low level of inflation, this means that we would currently be approaching deflationary levels without the lsap. [ for current levels of inflation, see the first tuesday current market chart feature, the consumer price indexthe consumer price index measures and tracks the rate of consumer inflation. this is presented as an index of fluctuations in the general price of a wide selection of consumable items, goods and services. ] results for homebuyers while homebuyers have benefited from artificially - low mortgage rates brought about by the lsap program, many are left wondering what other effects the fed ’ s asset purchases may have upon the real estate market. after all, the fed ’ s extensive resources were largely devoted to the purchase of real estate mortgage debt, especially 30 - year loans produced by fannie and freddie. in fact, the fed ’ s purchases in the lsap program succeeded in single - handedly sustaining fannie and freddie by buying all the bonds needed to fund the mortgages made or guaranteed by both lending institutions in 2009 and early 2010. as an immediate side effect, housing bond market investors regained a small level of confidence — a good thing


implementation of the lsap program, the number of homeowners looking for refinance loans tripled immediately, indicating the lsap was effective in stimulating the mortgage refinancing ( refi ) market. however, news of the fed ’ s asset purchases did not succeed in increasing the number of homebuyers applying for mortgage loans. in the aftermath of the market crash, the hype of the fed ’ s large - scale purchase of home loans did little to stimulate interest in buying homes. in conclusion, it appears the fed ’ s decision to purchase mbbs was a success for owners with sufficient credit and positive equity in their homes ; in other words, the wealthy. the lsap program successfully boosted the ability and motivation for many such homeowners to refinance. this is good news, since refinancing at a low interest rate is a positive choice that dramatically lowers homeowners ’ monthly payments, putting more disposable income in their hands to spend. however, many homeowners refinanced 30 - year mortgages with 15 - year mortgages without increasing ( or decreasing ) their payments — many have even succeeded in decreasing their rates ( good for them, but not helpful for the economy ). [ for more on 15 - and 30 - year interest rates, see the october 2010 article, the abuses of lower interest rates. ] on the other hand, benefits were largely limited to those with high credit scores and a positive equity in their home ; again, the wealthy. in the meantime, those who had the greatest need to refinance have been unable to do so on improved terms. this includes negative equitythe condition of a property owner owing more on a mortgage than the current fair market value of the encumbered property. homeowners, who still make up 25 % to 30 % of homeowners in california. second wave bond purchases two federal authorities have the power to ameliorate a mortgage crisis : congress and the fed. when congress fails to create employment or take other actions through legislative incentives designed to stimulate home sales, the fed has both the ability and responsibility to make up for congress ’ shortcomings. to fill the present vacuum left by congressional inaction, the fed has already begun yet another round of large - scale asset purchases ( referred to in government circles as quantitative easingthe purchase of government bonds by the federal reserve ( the fed ) to drive down interest rates and increase liquidity. ( qe ), with this second round popularly termed q


of large - scale asset purchases ( referred to in government circles as quantitative easingthe purchase of government bonds by the federal reserve ( the fed ) to drive down interest rates and increase liquidity. ( qe ), with this second round popularly termed qe2 ). the qe2 has an effect on the u. s. economy roughly similar to the fed dropping the discount ratethe interest rate the federal reserve charges banks and thrifts who borrow funds directly from the fed to maintain reserve requirements. by approximately 0. 66 % : a necessary stimulative measure if they are to encourage borrowing, investing and hiring. meanwhile, the fed is unable to actually lower rates : the discount rate currently sits at an extremely low 0. 55 %, and any drop would bring them practically to zero or below. the fed can “ go negative ” with rates by lending dollars now and being repaid a lesser amount sometime in the future : a move that will cause lenders to borrow funds and resume lending practices, but will cause inflation hawks to go crazy. the qe2 is a necessary stimulative measure to encourage borrowing, investing and hiring. while the frbb ’ s article demonstrates that a second round of asset purchases is unlikely to have a significant effect on low - income homeowners seeking to refinance, qe2 is desirable for an entirely different reason. the fed ’ s purchase of bonds acts as an injection of cash into the market. this inflationary measure works to prevent deflation, which would be far more catastrophic than the more easily - controlled. this measure is absolutely necessary to improve employment ( by increasing the capital available to businesses ) and avoid deflation, both of which are on the cusp of falling backwards. as all are aware, a fall in employment inevitably leads to a corresponding fall in the housing market. the recovery remains far too tenuous to be risked unnecessarily. the fed has an endless supply of money to lend, always gets it back, and can never go broke. while the fed ’ s purchase of mbbs seems extravagant to the uninformed, it is important to understand that the fed ’ s money - printing costs the government absolutely nothing, in contrast to a stimulus package produced by congress to spend taxpayer money. the fear the fed inspires among a “ no - change ” congress and some hedge fund investors is based upon an unfounded but persistent belief that inflation arises every time the fed increases the amount of money printed. no such threat of inflation is present or immediately fore


one of the most controversial and influential public intellectuals in american life is weighing in with a new theory on the roots of jewish intelligence. charles murray, famous for “ the bell curve, ” his book on the racial basis of intelligence, has published an article in this month ’ s commentary, titled “ jewish genius. ” in the essay, murray theorizes that the preponderance of very smart jews throughout the ages can be traced back to evolutionary processes that began even before the destruction of the second temple in jerusalem. “ there is reason to think that selection for intelligence antedates the 1st century c. e., ” writes murray, a scholar at the conservative - leaning american enterprise institute. “ from its very outset, apparently going back to the time of moses, judaism was intertwined with intellectual complexity. ” at the beginning of his article, murray says that he, a “ scots - irish gentile, ” was writing about the topic because his jewish colleague and co - author, richard herrnstein, was always hesitant to take it on. and his article was published barely a year and a half after the media was set ablaze by an academic article positing an evolutionary link between the high iq scores of ashkenazic jews and jewish life in the middle ages. one of the authors of that previous study, gregory cochran, has already taken fire at murray ’ s effort in the same field. “ i would call it pure speculation, ” said cochran, who is a researcher in utah. “ i don ’ t think there ’ s any evidence he ’ s right. ” both cochran and murray start from recent evidence that ashkenazic jews tend to have higher iq levels than other ethnic groups. but murray goes beyond cochran to argue that in the middle ages and the first millennium, both ashkenazic and sephardic jews exhibited unusual levels of intelligence. as one piece of evidence, murray points to the jewish role in writing both the old and new testaments of the bible. murray acknowledges that his work is based more on historical impressions than on rigorous science, but it is already provoking debate in a corner of the intellectual world that tends to make jews very uncomfortable : genetics. cochran ’ s work was widely panned by geneticists, and murray makes even less of an effort to placate these experts with scientifically grounded evidence. the assumption from which both researchers work — that intelligence has a genetic basis — is still disputed by many scientists. harry ostrer, a leading jewish geneticist, said that murray ’


effort to placate these experts with scientifically grounded evidence. the assumption from which both researchers work — that intelligence has a genetic basis — is still disputed by many scientists. harry ostrer, a leading jewish geneticist, said that murray ’ s work was “ speculation ” and that both murray and cochran trade in a “ love of group typology — jews are smart and blacks are great athletes. ” in “ the bell curve, ” murray and his co - author argued that african americans, as a group, were less innately intelligent than white americans. the work was attacked by many commentators who took issue with murray ’ s methodology and with his reliance on funding from right - wing foundations. still, ostrer said that murray ’ s new work “ asks some interesting questions. ” murray sets out to find periods of history when the jewish population was subjected to a dramatic change that may have resulted in survival of the more intelligent members. he points to the babylonian captivity, when the best and brightest jews were carted away to what is now iraq. he also looks at the effect of an edict in 64 bce that mandated universal education for all jewish males. he argues that this, along with the talmudic mode of jewish religion after the destruction of the second temple, may have pushed out less - intelligent members of the community. ostrer said that these theories eventually might be tested by geneticists doing regression analysis. for now, though, to ostrer, the most interesting element of the debate is the continuing controversy about the subject. “ we ’ re really in this period of judophilia right now, ” ostrer said. “ clearly in the mainstream western christian world, christian academics and intellectuals like and admire jews a lot. ”


alphabetic index : a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z gasoline / ˈɡæsəliːn /, or petrol / ˈpɛtrəl / is a transparent, petroleum - derived liquid that is used primarily as a fuel in internal combustion engines. it consists mostly of organic compounds obtained by the fractional distillation of petroleum, enhanced with a variety of additives. some gasolines also contain ethanol as an alternative fuel. in north america, the term gasoline is often shortened in colloquial usage to gas, but some people use the term petrol, which is the common name in the uk and elsewhere in the commonwealth of nations. under normal ambient conditions, its material state is liquid, unlike liquefied petroleum gas or natural gas. gasoline is more volatile than diesel oil, jet - a, or kerosene, not only because of the base constituents, but also because of additives. volatility is often controlled by blending with butane, which boils at −0. 5 °c. the volatility of petrol is determined by the reid vapor pressure ( rvp ) test. the desired volatility depends on the ambient temperature. in hot weather, petrol components of higher molecular weight and thus lower volatility are used. in cold weather, too little volatility results in cars failing to start. in hot weather, excessive volatility results in what is known as " vapor lock ", where combustion fails to occur, because the liquid fuel has changed to a gaseous state in the fuel lines, rendering the fuel pump ineffective and starving the engine of fuel. this effect mainly applies to camshaft - driven ( engine mounted ) fuel pumps which lack a fuel return line. vehicles with fuel injection require the fuel to be pressurized within a set range. because the camshaft speed is nearly zero before the engine is started, an electric pump is used. it is located in the fuel tank so the fuel may also cool the high - pressure pump. pressure regulation is achieved by returning unused fuel to the tank. therefore, vapor lock is almost never a problem in a vehicle with fuel injection. in the us, volatility is regulated to reduce the emission of unburned hydrocarbons by the use of so - called reformulated gasoline that is less prone to evaporation. in australia, summer petrol volatility limits are set by state governments and vary among states. most countries simply have a


of unburned hydrocarbons by the use of so - called reformulated gasoline that is less prone to evaporation. in australia, summer petrol volatility limits are set by state governments and vary among states. most countries simply have a summer, winter, and perhaps intermediate limit. volatility standards may be relaxed ( allowing more gasoline components into the atmosphere ) during gasoline shortages. for example, on 31 august 2005, in response to hurricane katrina, the us permitted the sale of nonreformulated gasoline in some urban areas, effectively permitting an early switch from summer to winter - grade gasoline. as mandated by epa administrator stephen l. johnson, this " fuel waiver " was made effective until 15 september 2005. modern automobiles are also equipped with an evaporative emissions control system ( ' evap system ' in automotive jargon ), which collects evaporated fuel from the fuel tank in a charcoal - filled canister while the engine is stopped, and then releases the collected vapors to the engine for consumption when the engine is running ( usually after it has reached normal operating temperature ). the evaporative emissions control system also includes a sealed gas cap to prevent vapors from escaping via the fuel filler tube. octane rating for more details on this topic, see octane rating. spark ignition engines are designed to burn gasoline in a controlled process called deflagration. but in some cases, the unburned mixture can autoignite, which results in rapid heat release and can damage the engine. this phenomenon is often referred to as engine knocking or end - gas knock. one way to reduce knock in spark ignition engines is to increase the gasoline ' s resistance to autoignition, which is expressed by its octane rating. octane rating is measured relative to a mixture of 2, 2, 4 - trimethylpentane ( an isomer of octane ) and n - heptane. there are different conventions for expressing octane ratings, so a fuel may have several different octane ratings based on the measure used. research octane number ( ron ) for commercially - available gasoline varies by country. in finland, sweden, and norway, 95 ron is the standard for regular unleaded petrol and 98 ron is also available as a more expensive option. in the uk, ordinary regular unleaded petrol is 91 ron ( not commonly available ), premium unleaded petrol is always 95 ron, and super unleaded is usually 97 - 98 ron. however, both shell and bp produce fuel


. in the uk, ordinary regular unleaded petrol is 91 ron ( not commonly available ), premium unleaded petrol is always 95 ron, and super unleaded is usually 97 - 98 ron. however, both shell and bp produce fuel at 102 ron for cars with high - performance engines, and the supermarket chain tesco began in 2006 to sell super unleaded petrol rated at 99 ron. in the us, octane ratings in unleaded fuels can vary between 86 and 87 aki ( 91 - 92 ron ) for regular, through 89 - 90 aki ( 94 - 95 ron ) for mid - grade ( european premium ), up to 90 - 94 aki ( 95 - 99 ron ) for premium ( european super ). the octane rating became important as the military sought higher output for aircraft engines in the late 1930s and the 1940s. a higher octane rating allows a higher compression ratio or supercharger boost, and thus higher temperatures and pressures, which translate to higher power output. some scientists even predicted that a nation with a good supply of high octane gasoline would have the advantage in air power. in 1943, the rolls royce merlin aero engine produced 1, 320 horsepower ( 984 kw ) using 100 ron fuel from a modest 27 litre displacement. towards the end of the second world war, experiments were conducted using 150 ron fuel. stability quality gasoline should be stable almost indefinitely if stored properly. such storage should be in an airtight container, to prevent oxidation or water vapors mixing, and at a stable cool temperature to reduce the chance of the container ' s leaking. when gasoline is not stored correctly, gums and solids may accumulate, resulting in " stale fuel ". the presence of these degradation products in fuel tank, lines, and carburetor or fuel injection components, make it harder to start the engine. upon resumption of regular vehicle usage, the buildups should eventually be cleaned out by the flow of fresh petrol. a fuel stabilizer can be used to extend the life of fuel that is not or cannot be stored properly. fuel stabilizer is commonly used for small engines, such as lawnmower and tractor engines, to promote quicker and more reliable starting. users have been advised to keep gasoline containers more than half full and properly capped to reduce air exposure, to avoid storage at high temperatures, to run an engine for ten minutes to circulate the stabilizer through all components prior to storage, and to run the engine at intervals to purge stale fuel from the carburet


capped to reduce air exposure, to avoid storage at high temperatures, to run an engine for ten minutes to circulate the stabilizer through all components prior to storage, and to run the engine at intervals to purge stale fuel from the carburetor. energy content ( high and low heating value ) energy is obtained from the combustion of gasoline by the conversion of a hydrocarbon to carbon dioxide and water. the combustion of octane follows this reaction : 2 c8h18 + 25 o2 → 16 co2 + 18 h2o gasoline contains about 35 mj / l ( 9. 7 kw · h / l, 132 mj / us gal, 36. 6 kwh / us gal ) ( higher heating value ) or 13 kwh / kg. gasoline blends differ, and therefore actual energy content varies according to the season to season and producer by up to 4 % more or less than the average, according to the us epa. on average, about 19. 5 us gallons ( 16. 2 imp gal ; 74 l ) of gasoline are available from a 42 - us - gallon ( 35 imp gal ; 160 l ) barrel of crude oil ( about 46 % by volume ), varying due to quality of crude and grade of gasoline. the remaining residue comes off as products ranging from tar to naptha. a high - octane - rated fuel, such as liquefied petroleum gas ( lpg ) has an overall lower power output at the regular compression ratio of an engine run at on gasoline. however, with an engine tuned to the use of lpg ( i. e. via higher compression ratios, such as 12 : 1 instead of 8 : 1 ), this lower power output can be overcome. this is because higher - octane fuels allow for a higher compression ratio, hence a higher cylinder temperature, which improves efficiency. also, increased mechanical efficiency is created by a higher compression ratio through the concomitant higher expansion ratio on the power stroke, which is by far the greater effect. the higher expansion ratio extracts more work from the high - pressure gas created by the combustion process. the applicable formula is. an atkinson cycle engine uses the timing of the valve events to produce the benefits of a high expansion ratio without the disadvantages, chiefly detonation, of a high compression ratio. a high expansion ratio is also one of the two key reasons for the efficiency of diesel engines, along with the elimination of pumping losses due to throttling of the intake air flow. a high compression ratio can be viewed as


a high compression ratio. a high expansion ratio is also one of the two key reasons for the efficiency of diesel engines, along with the elimination of pumping losses due to throttling of the intake air flow. a high compression ratio can be viewed as a necessary evil to have a high expansion ratio. the lower energy content ( per litre ) of lpg in comparison to gasoline is due mainly to its lower density. energy content per kilogram is higher than for gasoline ( higher hydrogen to carbon ratio, see for example standard _ enthalpy _ of _ formation # examples : _ inorganic _ compounds _. 28at _ 25 _. c2. b0c. 29 ). density the specific gravity ( or relative density ) of gasoline ranges from 0. 71 – 0. 77 kg / l ( 719. 7 kg / m3 ; 0. 026 lb / in3 ; 6. 073 lb / us gal ; 7. 29 lb / imp gal ), higher densities having a greater volume of aromatics. gasoline floats on water ; water cannot generally be used to extinguish a gasoline fire, unless used in a fine mist. chemical analysis and productiona pumpjack in the united statesan oil rig in the gulf of mexico gasoline is produced in oil refineries. material that is separated from crude oil via distillation, called virgin or straight - run gasoline, does not meet the required specifications for modern engines ( in particular octane rating ; see below ), but will comprise part of the blend. some of the main components of gasoline : isooctane, butane, 3 - ethyltoluene, and the octane enhancer mtbe. the bulk of a typical gasoline consists of hydrocarbons with between four and 12 carbon atoms per molecule ( commonly referred to as c4 - c12 ). the various refinery streams blended to make gasoline have different characteristics. some important streams are : the terms above are the jargon used in the oil industry, but terminology varies. overall, a typical gasoline is predominantly a mixture of paraffins ( alkanes ), naphthenes ( cycloalkanes ), and olefins ( alkenes ). the actual ratio depends on : currently, many countries set limits on gasoline aromatics in general, benzene in particular, and olefin ( alkene ) content. such regulations led to increasing preference for high octane pure paraffin ( alkane ) components, such as alkylate, and is forcing ref


aromatics in general, benzene in particular, and olefin ( alkene ) content. such regulations led to increasing preference for high octane pure paraffin ( alkane ) components, such as alkylate, and is forcing refineries to add processing units to reduce benzene content. gasoline can also contain other organic compounds, such as organic ethers ( deliberately added ), plus small levels of contaminants, in particular organosulfur compounds, but these are usually removed at the refinery. additives see also : list of gasoline additives antiknock additivesa plastic container for storing gasoline used in germany most countries have phased out leaded fuel. different additives have replaced the lead compounds. the most popular additives include aromatic hydrocarbons, ethers and alcohol ( usually ethanol or methanol ). tetraethyl lead gasoline, when used in high - compression internal combustion engines, has a tendency to autoignite ( detonate ) causing damaging " engine knocking " ( also called " pinging " or " pinking " ) noise. early research into this effect was led by a. h. gibson and harry ricardo in england and thomas midgley and thomas boyd in the united states. the discovery that lead additives modified this behavior led to the widespread adoption of their use in the 1920s, and therefore more powerful, higher compression engines. the most popular additive was tetra - ethyl lead. with the discovery of the extent of environmental and health damage caused by the lead, however, and the incompatibility of lead with catalytic converters found on virtually all newly sold us automobiles since 1975, this practice began to wane ( encouraged by many governments introducing differential tax rates ) in the 1980s. in the us, where lead had been blended with gasoline ( primarily to boost octane levels ) since the early 1920s, standards to phase out leaded gasoline were first implemented in 1973 — due in great part to studies conducted by philip j. landrigan. in 1995, leaded fuel accounted for only 0. 6 % of total gasoline sales and less than 2000 short tons ( 1814 t ) of lead per year. from 1 january 1996, the clean air act banned the sale of leaded fuel for use in on - road vehicles. possession and use of leaded gasoline in a regular on - road vehicle now carries a maximum $ 10, 000 fine in the us. however, fuel containing lead may continue to be sold for off - road uses, including aircraft, racing cars, farm equipment


and use of leaded gasoline in a regular on - road vehicle now carries a maximum $ 10, 000 fine in the us. however, fuel containing lead may continue to be sold for off - road uses, including aircraft, racing cars, farm equipment, and marine engines. similar bans in other countries have resulted in lowering levels of lead in people ' s bloodstreams. gasolines are also treated with metal deactivators, which are compounds that sequester ( deactivate ) metal salts that otherwise accelerate the formation of gummy residues. the metal impurities might arise from the engine itself or as contaminants in the fuel. detergents gasoline, as delivered at the pump, also contains additives to reduce internal engine carbon buildups, improve combustion, and to allow easier starting in cold climates. high levels of detergent can be found in top tier detergent gasolines. these gasolines exceed the u. s. epa ' s minimum requirement for detergent content. the specification for top tier detergent gasolines was developed by four automakers : gm, honda, toyota and bmw. according to the bulletin, the minimal epa requirement is not sufficient to keep engines clean. typical detergents include alkylamines and alkyl phosphates at the level of 50 - 100 ppm. ethanol european union in the eu, 5 % ethanol can be added within the common gasoline spec ( en 228 ). discussions are ongoing to allow 10 % blending of ethanol ( available in finnish and french gas stations ). most gasoline sold in sweden has 5 - 15 % ethanol added. brazil in brazil, the brazilian national agency of petroleum, natural gas and biofuels ( anp ) requires gasoline for automobile use to have from 18 to 25 % of ethanol added to its composition. australia legislation requires retailers to label fuels containing ethanol on the dispenser, and limits ethanol use to 10 % of petrol in australia. such petrol is commonly called e10 by major brands, and its price per litre is less than that of regular unleaded petrol. united states in most states, ethanol is added by law to a minimum level which is currently 5. 9 %. most fuel pumps display a sticker stating the fuel may contain up to 10 % ethanol, an intentional disparity which allows the minimum level to be raised over time without requiring modification of the literature / labelling. until late 2010, fuels retailers were only authorized to sell fuel containing up to 10 percent ethanol ( e10 ), and most vehicle warrant


disparity which allows the minimum level to be raised over time without requiring modification of the literature / labelling. until late 2010, fuels retailers were only authorized to sell fuel containing up to 10 percent ethanol ( e10 ), and most vehicle warranties ( except for flexible fuel vehicles ) authorize fuels that contain no more than 10 percent ethanol. in parts of the united states, ethanol is sometimes added to gasoline without an indication that it is a component. india the government of india in october 2007 decided to make 5 % ethanol blending ( with petrol ) mandatory. discussions are ongoing to increase the blending of ethanol to 10 %. dye main article : fuel dyes in australia, petrol tends to be dyed a light shade of purple. in india petrol is dyed red. in the united states, aviation gasoline ( avgas ) is dyed to identify its octane rating and to distinguish it from kerosene - based jet fuel, which is clear. in the u. s., many rural states offer ' off road diesel ' that contains a red dye. it is chemically the same as undyed diesel but can be purchased without paying a road tax. its use is for off road vehicles, such as tractors. however, if the fuel is used in on road vehicles, the dye will be transferred to fuel filters and other components. offenders with marked components are liable for tax evasion. oxygenate blending adds oxygen - bearing compounds such as mtbe, etbe and ethanol. the presence of these oxygenates reduces the amount of carbon monoxide and unburned fuel in the exhaust gas. in many areas throughout the us, oxygenate blending is mandated by epa regulations to reduce smog and other airborne pollutants. for example, in southern california, fuel must contain 2 % oxygen by weight, resulting in a mixture of 5. 6 % ethanol in gasoline. the resulting fuel is often known as reformulated gasoline ( rfg ) or oxygenated gasoline, or in the case of california, california reformulated gasoline. the federal requirement that rfg contain oxygen was dropped on 6 may 2006 because the industry had developed voc - controlled rfg that did not need additional oxygen. mtbe use is being phased out in some states due to issues with contamination of ground water. in some places, such as california, it is already banned. ethanol and, to a lesser extent, the ethanol - derived etbe are common replacements. since most ethanol is derived from biomass, such as corn, sugar cane or grain, it is referred to as bioeth


as california, it is already banned. ethanol and, to a lesser extent, the ethanol - derived etbe are common replacements. since most ethanol is derived from biomass, such as corn, sugar cane or grain, it is referred to as bioethanol. a common ethanol - gasoline mix of 10 % ethanol mixed with gasoline is called gasohol or e10, and an ethanol - gasoline mix of 85 % ethanol mixed with gasoline is called e85. the most extensive use of ethanol takes place in brazil, where the ethanol is derived from sugarcane. in 2004, over 3. 4 billion us gallons ( 2. 8 billion imp gal / 13 million m³ ) of ethanol was produced in the united states for fuel use, mostly from corn, and e85 is slowly becoming available in much of the united states, though many of the relatively few stations vending e85 are not open to the general public. the use of bioethanol, either directly or indirectly by conversion of such ethanol to bio - etbe, is encouraged by the european union directive on the promotion of the use of biofuels and other renewable fuels for transport. since producing bioethanol from fermented sugars and starches involves distillation, though, ordinary people in much of europe cannot legally ferment and distill their own bioethanol at present ( unlike in the us, where getting a batf distillation permit has been easy since the 1973 oil crisis ). safety environmental considerations combustion of 1 us gallon ( 3. 8 l ) of gasoline produces 8, 788 grams ( 19. 37 lb ) of carbon dioxide ( 2. 3 kg / l ), a greenhouse gas. the main concern with gasoline on the environment, aside from the complications of its extraction and refining, is the potential effect on the climate. unburnt gasoline and evaporation from the tank, when in the atmosphere, react in sunlight to produce photochemical smog. addition of ethanol increases the volatility of gasoline, potentially worsening the problem. the chief risks of such leaks come not from vehicles, but from gasoline delivery truck accidents and leaks from storage tanks. because of this risk, most ( underground ) storage tanks now have extensive measures in place to detect and prevent any such leaks, such as monitoring systems ( veeder - root, franklin fueling ). toxicity the material safety data sheet for unleaded gasoline shows at least 15 hazardous chemicals occurring in various amounts, including benzene ( up to 5 % by volume )


, such as monitoring systems ( veeder - root, franklin fueling ). toxicity the material safety data sheet for unleaded gasoline shows at least 15 hazardous chemicals occurring in various amounts, including benzene ( up to 5 % by volume ), toluene ( up to 35 % by volume ), naphthalene ( up to 1 % by volume ), trimethylbenzene ( up to 7 % by volume ), methyl tert - butyl ether ( mtbe ) ( up to 18 % by volume, in some states ) and about ten others. hydrocarbons in gasoline generally exhibit low acute toxicities, with ld50 of 700 – 2700 mg / kg for simple aromatic compounds. benzene and many antiknocking additives are carcinogenic. inhalation huffed gasoline is a common intoxicant that has become epidemic in some poorer communities and indigenous groups in australia, canada, new zealand, and some pacific islands. in response, opal fuel has been developed by the bp kwinana refinery in australia, and contains only 5 % aromatics ( unlike the usual 25 % ) which weakens the effects of inhalation. flammabilityuncontrolled burning of gasoline produces large quantities of soot. like other alkanes, gasoline burns in a limited range of its vapor phase and, coupled with its volatility, this makes leaks highly dangerous when sources of ignition are present. gasoline has a lower explosion limit of 1. 4 % by volume and an upper explosion limit of 7. 6 %. if the concentration is below 1. 4 % the air - gasoline mixture is too lean and will not ignite. if the concentration is above 7. 6 % the mixture is too rich and also will not ignite. however, gasoline vapor rapidly mixes and spreads with air, making unconstrained gasoline quickly flammable. many accidents involve gasoline being used in an attempt to light bonfires ; the gasoline readily vaporizes after being poured and mixes with the surrounding air. usage and pricing main articles : gasoline usage and pricing and peak oiluk petrol prices the united states account for about 44 % of the world ’ s gasoline consumption. in 2003 the us consumed 476. 474 gigalitres ( 1. 25871×1011 us gal ; 1. 04810×1011 imp gal ), which equates to 1. 3 gigalitres of gasoline each day ( about 360 million us or 300 million imperial gallons ). the


. 25871×1011 us gal ; 1. 04810×1011 imp gal ), which equates to 1. 3 gigalitres of gasoline each day ( about 360 million us or 300 million imperial gallons ). the us used about 510 billion litres ( 138 billion us gal / 115 billion imp gal ) of gasoline in 2006, of which 5. 6 % was mid - grade and 9. 5 % was premium grade. western countries have the highest usage rates per person. europe unlike the us, countries in europe impose substantial taxes on fuels such as gasoline. the price of gasoline in europe is typically more than twice that in the us. in italy, due to the amendments imposed by monti ' s government in december 2011, the price of gasoline has passed, in the period of two weeks, from 1. 50 € / l ( 7. 48 us $ / gal ) to 1. 75 € / l ( 8. 72 us $ / gal ) ; on march, 17th, in a gasoline station located near ancona, has reached the psychological threshold of 2 € / l : the price was € 2. 001 / l ( this means 9. 97 us $ / gal ) this chart needs to be compared to the usa national average price of gasoline of 0. 71 € / l. from 1998 to 2004, the price of gasoline fluctuated between $ 1 and $ 2 usd per u. s. gallon. after 2004, the price increased until the average gas price reached a high of $ 4. 11 per u. s. gallon in mid - 2008, but receded to approximately $ 2. 60 per u. s. gallon by september 2009. more recently, the u. s. experienced an upswing in gas prices through 2011, and by 1 march 2012, the national average was $ 3. 74 per gal. unlike most consumer goods, the prices of which are listed before tax, in the united states, gasoline prices are posted with taxes included. taxes are added by federal, state and local governments. as of 2009, the federal tax is 18. 4¢ per gallon for gasoline and 24. 4¢ per gallon for diesel ( excluding red diesel ). among states, the highest gasoline tax rates, including the federal taxes as of 2005, are new york ( 62. 9¢ / gal ), hawaii ( 60. 1¢ / gal ), and california ( 60¢ / gal ). however, many states ' taxes are a percentage and thus vary in amount depending on the cost of the


new york ( 62. 9¢ / gal ), hawaii ( 60. 1¢ / gal ), and california ( 60¢ / gal ). however, many states ' taxes are a percentage and thus vary in amount depending on the cost of the gasoline. about 9 % of all gasoline sold in the us in may 2009 was premium grade, according to the energy information administration. consumer reports magazine says, “ if says to use regular fuel, do so — there ’ s no advantage to a higher grade. ” the associated press said premium gas — which is a higher octane and costs several cents a gallon more than regular unleaded — should be used only if the manufacturer says it is “ required ”. cars with turbocharged engines and high compression ratios often specify premium gas because higher octane fuels reduce the incidence of " knock ", or fuel pre - detonation. if regular fuel is used the engine computer will usually switch to a less aggressive fuel map in order to protect the engine, and performance is decreased. history the first automotive combustion engines, so - called otto engines, were developed in the last quarter of the 19th century in germany. the fuel was a relatively volatile hydrocarbon obtained from coal gas. with a boiling point near 85 °c ( octanes boil about 40 °c higher ), it was well suited for early carburetors ( evaporators ). the development of a " spray nozzle " carburetors enabled the use of less volatile fuels. further improvements in engine efficiency were attempted at higher compression ratios, but early attempts were blocked by knocking ( premature explosion of fuel ). in the 1920s, antiknock compounds were introduced by migley and boyd, specifically tetraethyl lead ( tel ). this innovation started a cycle of improvements in fuel efficiency that coincided with the large - scale development of oil refining to provide more products in the boiling range of gasolines. in the 1950s oil refineries started to focus on high octane fuels, and then detergents were added to gasoline to clean the jets and carburetors. the 1970s witnessed greater attention to the environmental consequences of burning gasoline. these considerations led to the phasing out of tel and its replacement by other antiknock compounds. subsequently, low - sulfur gasoline was introduced, in part to preserve the catalysts in modern exhaust systems. etymology and terminology " gasoline " is cited ( under the spelling " gasolene " ) from 1863 in the oxford english dictionary. it was never a trademark, although it may have been


, in part to preserve the catalysts in modern exhaust systems. etymology and terminology " gasoline " is cited ( under the spelling " gasolene " ) from 1863 in the oxford english dictionary. it was never a trademark, although it may have been derived from older trademarks such as " cazeline " and " gazeline ". variant spellings of " petrol " have been used to refer to raw petroleum since the 16th century. " petrol " was first used as the name of a refined petroleum product around 1870 by british wholesaler carless, capel & leonard, who marketed it as a solvent. when the product later found a new use as a motor fuel, frederick simms, an associate of gottlieb daimler, suggested to carless that they register the trade mark " petrol ", but by this time the word was already in general use, possibly inspired by the french petrole, and the registration was not allowed. carless registered a number of alternative names for the product, while their competitors used the term " motor spirit " until the 1930s. in many countries, gasoline has a colloquial name derived from that of the chemical benzene ( e. g., german benzin, dutch benzine, italian benzina, chile bencina, thai ). argentina, uruguay and paraguay use the colloquial name nafta derived from that of the chemical naphtha. the terms " mogas ", short for motor gasoline, or " autogas ", short for automobile gasoline, are used to distinguish automobile fuel from aviation gasoline, or " avgas ". in british english, gasoline can refer to a different petroleum derivative historically used in lamps, but this usage is relatively uncommon. see also


america ' s most important assets are its people - - decent, hard - working, creative and concerned. when that talent is focused through our economic and political system to solve a problem, it can accomplish great things. we have put people on the moon, we have won the cold war, and we have provided unparalleled prosperity. we can now begin to do the same for the global environment. this plan harnesses economic forces to meet the challenges posed by the threat of global warming. it calls for limited, and focused, government action and innovative public / private partnerships. it relies on the ingenuity, creativity, and sense of responsibility of the american people. president clinton ' s action plan responds to the threat of global climate change and helps guide the u. s. economy toward environmentally sound economic growth into the twenty - first century. the plan is comprehensive, targeting all greenhouse gases and all sectors of the economy. the plan inaugurates a new era of partnership with american business to help solve environmental problems. the plan is designed for rapid implementation that can quickly deliver cost - effective results. the plan was developed by an interagency team that relied greatly on public input, and is a coordinated federal response, involving many agencies working together. the plan will be actively monitored for effectiveness and will adapt to changing circumstances. finally, the plan lays the foundation for an international response to this global challenge. emissions of greenhouse gases are pervasive in the u. s. economy. a policy that relies on dramatic reductions of greenhouse gas emissions from one sector of the economy or one region of the country is unlikely to be effective or economic : there is no " magic bullet " that solves the problem. however, opportunities to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in cost - effective ways are distributed broadly throughout the economy. therefore, the climate change action plan consists of almost 50 actions involving all sectors - - industry, transportation, homes, office buildings, forestry, and agriculture. these actions are targeted in specific sectors to stimulate markets for technologies that reduce emissions of carbon dioxide ( co2 ), methane, nitrous oxide, and halogenated compounds that contribute to global warming. the plan also reduces emissions of co2 by protecting forests, which are greenhouse gas " sinks " that store carbon removed from the atmosphere. establishing partnerships for progress the climate change action plan will continue to break new ground in the relationship between government and the private sector - - fostering cooperative approaches and a forward looking agenda, rather than relying exclusively on command - and - control mandates that tend to


establishing partnerships for progress the climate change action plan will continue to break new ground in the relationship between government and the private sector - - fostering cooperative approaches and a forward looking agenda, rather than relying exclusively on command - and - control mandates that tend to lock technologies into place and stifle innovation. these partnerships reflect the mutual responsibility of both the private sector and the government to improve environmental performance while enhancing economic growth and job creation. in several key areas - - electric utilities, motor manufacturers and users, automobile manufacturers, chemical and aluminum manufacturers - - american firms are entering into partnerships with the federal government to attain environmental objectives using flexible and cost - effective options. today, president clinton is announcing the climate challenge, a partnership between the department of energy and major electric utilities who have pledged to their reduce greenhouse gas emissions. under the partnership, utilities have the opportunity to choose from a wide range of control options and to experiment with innovative ideas to achieve their emission reduction goals. the same partnership approach motivates the joint doe / epa climate wise program - - firms who respond to the challenge of reducing greenhouse gas emissions will set bottom - line emission targets that they can attain using the most cost - effective means available. in another initiative announced today, the doe motor challenge, motor system manufacturers, industrial motor users, and utilities will begin an aggressive program to install the most energy - efficient motor systems in industrial applications. chemical companies have formed a working partnership with epa to reduce by - product emissions of potent greenhouse gases by 50 percent from their manufacturing operations. aluminum producers are joining with epa to identify greenhouse gas emission reduction opportunities, and to set targets for real reductions. these new commitments - - and the partnerships established between the private sector and the federal government - - provide a strong foundation for the other initiatives outlined in the action plan, ensuring that the programs will deliver real results. design for rapid implementation while the action plan contains major new initiatives, many of the actions build on the success of earlier public and private programs that have focused attention on energy savings or other emission reduction opportunities. these programs do not rely on exotic new technologies, but can help accelerate the diffusion of existing technologies into the marketplace. much of the program outlined here can be implemented rapidly and without new legislative authority. expanding, adapting, or reinforcing innovative and successful programs will ensure that emission reductions can begin quickly enough to meet the president ' s goal to return greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by the year 2000. programs that already demonstrate success on limited budgets will be expanded, largely by redirecting resources to those programs that


ensure that emission reductions can begin quickly enough to meet the president ' s goal to return greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by the year 2000. programs that already demonstrate success on limited budgets will be expanded, largely by redirecting resources to those programs that deliver real results. additional funding will allow successful programs to cover larger market segments or to expand into new sectors or technologies. the best programs in one agency will be adapted by other agencies and programs will be reinforced by complementary initiatives. low cost and even profitable opportunities exist to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases. while markets work well in most circumstances, significant transaction costs, information gaps, regulatory barriers and other market imperfections exist that can raise greenhouse gas emissions. reducing these market imperfections will save money for many u. s. consumers and firms as they reduce greenhouse gases. the action plan targets these opportunities through public / private partnerships, allowing the private sector maximum flexibility to devise innovative programs to reduce emissions. and by taking a comprehensive approach encompassing all major greenhouse gases, both sources and sinks, and all sectors of the economy, the action plan offers the widest scope for creative and cost - effective actions. the president directed his administration to tap the ingenuity and creativity of the american people. part of that effort involved identifying innovative programs in all levels of government and in the private sector to explore their potential for reducing emissions. the white house conference on global climate change, held on june 10 - 11 in washington, dc, provided the opportunity for hundreds of recognized experts in the private sector, the environmental community, academics, and others to offer their suggestions and views directly to the administration officials responsible for developing the plan and analyzing its implications. additional workshops were held during the following months, and participants continued to offer new and innovative ideas. this plan is based on the best ideas that americans have offered. the action plan was developed in an interagency process that involved the white house and key agencies, including the environmental protection agency and the departments of agriculture, commerce, energy, interior, state, transportation, and treasury. in addition, a team of analysts from these agencies was assigned the task of quantifying the impact of various proposals on greenhouse gas emissions and the economy. coordinated federal activity the president directed his administration to work together for the benefit of the american people and for the environment. too often, federal programs are a confusing and contradictory patchwork quilt that lack coordination and are poorly linked with state and local level efforts or private initiatives. this plan was developed with an unprecedented degree of cooperation at all levels in the administration,


the environment. too often, federal programs are a confusing and contradictory patchwork quilt that lack coordination and are poorly linked with state and local level efforts or private initiatives. this plan was developed with an unprecedented degree of cooperation at all levels in the administration, from cabinet secretaries and administrators to program managers and staff in the agencies. implementation will require a similar degree of interagency coordination to deliver results. the national performance review has highlighted areas where effective coordination can deliver better performance and cost less in every area of government action. the development and implementation of this plan will apply the same lessons to the climate change problem. adapting to changing circumstances the action plan is expected to reach the emission reduction goal under reasonable assumptions concerning economic growth and other trends. however, a substantial degree of uncertainty accompanies any attempt to project future emission levels. the analysis supporting the plan represents a best estimate under the most likely scenario, but we recognize that these estimates could vary by a significant degree under other plausible assumptions. the economy continually evolves in ways we cannot predict perfectly ; businesses and citizens must adapt to changing circumstances. successful policy must do the same, and this plan will evolve as circumstances warrant. a white house task force will actively monitor trends in greenhouse gas emissions and the implementation of the action plan, and if necessary will modify the program to keep the emission reductions on track. the first opportunity to evaluate the action plan is likely to come within one year. the framework convention on climate change will enter into force when 50 countries ratify the agreement, and this could occur in early 1994. within six months of entry into force, the u. s. will submit a national action plan to the conference of the parties of the convention. this climate change action plan, or an updated version if necessary, will form the cornerstone of the u. s. national action plan required by the climate convention. after that milestone is reached, the white house task force will reassess and update the action plan every two years, or sooner if called upon by the conference of the parties. the administration will also begin to identify additional opportunities for long term emission reductions. the action plan focuses on near - term emission reduction opportunities in order to attain a near - term goal. perhaps more importantly, the plan sets in motion an ongoing process of policy development to address the long term global threat. encouraging international emission reductions while the plan achieves the president ' s goal with domestic actions alone, the administration recognizes the significant potential for cost - effective emission reductions in other countries. the framework convention on climate change allows countries to explore


the spice mix super computer was a part of the abandon normal devices in manchester, england this weekend. the and festival commissioned the center for genomic gastronomy to create a new work inside a traveling caravan and this is what we made : the centre for genomic gastronomy had deigned a exciting new culinary commission, the spice mix super - computer! the spice mix super - computer is a massive mobile food machine, which allows users to create, print and taste a unique blend of spices from millions of possible combinations. first, plug into the bespoke olfactory synthesizer to combine and compare smells from our database of international spices. then, choose your favorite spices and watch the computer process and interpret your selection. after the food - printing is complete, take your customized container of spice to the betataster™ food counter and share your recipe and experience, and take home your spice mix to share with others. spices as social media spices are one of the oldest forms of long distance communication on the planet, but we do not usually treat them as information that can be combined and disseminated as a form of human - to - human communication. digital technology has created opportunities for individuals to mix and share images and sounds across great distances, but not flavors and smells. this project assembles spices from all over the globe, allowing individuals to customize, mix and spread smell and taste messages with other humans. the spice mix super - computer is designed to record and store every possible spice combination, analyzing user preferences and patterns along the way. we hope this data will begin to reveal the underlying structures and the role of spices in the agri - eco - culinary system. are combinations of spices strange attractors, naturally aligning, or can we open our mouths and minds to novel combinations of smell, taste and chemical reaction? spices change minds but be careful : spices are dead and dried plant corpses with the substantial power to direct and regulate human activity. many spices come from poisonous plants, and have powerful physical and mental effects on humans. if you are mixed up with spices how do you know they are not using you to achieve their dark designs? might a heretofore untasted spice combination unlock a door to unexpected culinary experiences and states of consciousness? there are not enough betatasters™ on the planet asking these questions. the spice mix super computer can help.


fisheries management in public waters the aquatic education program consists of three key components : youth education ; adult education ; and kids fishing. youth education involves training educators to use aquatic project wild ( apw ), an award winning environmental and conservation program of instructional workshops and supplementary curriculum materials for kindergarten through twelfth grade teachers. about 1, 000 educators are trained annually to use apw in their classrooms. wildlife resources division ( wrd ) staff also use apw materials when giving presentations to youth in schools and at wrd facilities. educational materials, including posters and lesson planning material, are produced to assist educators teaching youth about aquatic resources. adult education consists primarily of producing materials such as the annual freshwater and saltwater sport fishing regulations, news releases, public service announcements, brochures and programs. fish identification aids, fish consumption advisories, how to handle and release fish properly, and suggested places to go fishing are examples of educational material that are included in the fishing regulations booklet. brochures are produced and updated regularly that offer the public information on where to go fishing, how to get started, and what kind of fishing to expect on major reservoirs and rivers. fisheries personnel also make presentations to various organizations and staff booths at large events such as the georgia national fair and the atlanta and perry fisheramas. aquatic education opportunities for all ages are available to visitors at fisheries section facilities, where signs and trails provide an opportunity to learn more about what the section does and why, and about the aquatic resources in the area. kids fishing events ( kfea€™s ) are popular community activities that introduce youth under age 16 and their families to the joys of fishing and promote a better understanding of the natural environment. kfea€™s provide an opportunity for youth to fish, often for the first time, where knowledgeable volunteers are available to assist and where the probability of catching a fish is high. wrd co - sponsors most events by providing channel catfish and trout to enhance fish populations, educational materials for the participants, and technical assistance. kfea€™s are also conducted by fisheries staff at fish hatcheries and pfaa€™s. navigate to page :


| | june 14, 2001 gsa release no. 01 - 18 scientists share multidisciplinary discoveries at " earth system processes " ( ii ) session highlights - session 23 : tuesday, june 26. archean earth and contemporary life : the transition from an anaerobic to an aerobic marine ecosystem session 30 abstracts ] - can you imagine our world being devoid of oxygen for almost half of its history? and suddenly there ' s an abrupt rise at ~ 2 ga? this amazing picture of our earth is finding increasing support from rock record geologic data. - " but what intrigues physical and biological scientists alike is ' why the rise and why at ~ 2 ga '? " remarked janet siefert, co - chair for this session. siefert is a molecular evolutionist at rice university in houston, texas. - " we know with increasing certainty from geologic biomarkers, fossils, and molecular phylogenies that the organisms most likely responsible for this rise, the ubiquitous cyanobacteria or their ancestors, were surely present at least half a million years prior to the rise. so why the lag? " - the rise of oxygen is a great science question. it is unique because there are as many theories that postulate the event as dominated by physical processes as there are ones that predict it was a biologically mediated phenomenon. this session will bring oceanographers, genome analysts, and geoscientists with their competing theories, together in one venue with the hopes that a more substantive and accurate picture of what may have actually occurred can be brought to the - the newest discoveries are coming from papers that are multidisciplinary - david catling, from the space science division of the nasa ames research center and the seti institute, will build on the idea that the archean atmosphere was dominated by methane as the primary greenhouse gas, but expands it to include an explanation for the oxidation of earth. he postulates that the kinetic effects of oxygen and methane are reversed from today ; in effect hydrogen escape to space was inescapable and oxygenation of the atmosphere was irreversible. - christian j. bjerrum, danish center for earth system science at the university of copenhagen, will postulate that due to the limited availability of phosphorous, a principle nutrient in limiting carbon production, photosynthesis was depressed in cyanobacteria during the archean and early proterozoic. - christopher house, a microbial geobiologist from pennsylvania state university, will provide further evidence


, a principle nutrient in limiting carbon production, photosynthesis was depressed in cyanobacteria during the archean and early proterozoic. - christopher house, a microbial geobiologist from pennsylvania state university, will provide further evidence for a newly discovered archaeal bacterial lineage that consumes methane anaerobically. he gathered this evidence using fish and iron microbe techniques to measure carbon isotope depletion. - martin brasier, earth sciences at the university of oxford, will provide a new look at whether or not morphological remains of fossils thought to be photosynthetic are as old as previous estimates have stipulated. this is important as it is some of the most quoted evidence for the antiquity of oxygenic photosynthesis. - janet siefert will present data that uses some of the most basic molecules for biochemistry, iron - sulfur clusters, to determine the sequence of metabolic events that may have occurred in the archean timeframe. - george fox, department of biology and biochemistry at the university of houston, will give a genomic perspective of what the archean contemporary cyanobacteria must have contained as its genomic component. this is an important piece of molecular evidence that can be compared to the morphological fossil record and the proposed atmospheric conditions prior to the rise of oxygen. - session 24 : tuesday, june 26. controls on phanerozoic diversifications and extinctions : long - term interactions between the physical and biotic realms - in this session, scientists from the usa and the uk will explore what controls the long - term patterns of origination and extinction that give shape to the history of life and how life itself has participated in that process. this connects directly to contemporary concerns with biodiversity issues and questions about the effects of climate change. for example : what natural processes have caused past climate shifts and mass extinction episodes? - by examining the records of climate changes over the past 600 million years, what caused the changes, and what effects they had on ancient organisms, these scientists are discovering what implications this information has for understanding - the most important general themes of the papers in this session are : ( 1 ) the adoption of a systems approach to the understanding of earth ' s history ( major events being caused by multiple, independent factors ) and ( 2 ) the significance of ' feedback mechanisms. ' - some of the highlights are as follows : - session co - chair norman macleod will begin by taking a look at the identifying controls on phanerozoic extinction and diversification patterns. ( macleod is the associate


significance of ' feedback mechanisms. ' - some of the highlights are as follows : - session co - chair norman macleod will begin by taking a look at the identifying controls on phanerozoic extinction and diversification patterns. ( macleod is the associate keeper in the department of palaeontology at the natural history museum in london. ) patterns of biodiversification and extinction over the last 250 million years show evidence of having been controlled by multiple factors, especially the interplay between tectonic processes ( e. g., volcanism, sea - level change ), and the evolutionary history of primary producer lineages ( e. g., phytoplankton and land plants ). - doug erwin, from the department of paleobiology at the smithsonian institution, will explain how the biodiversity increase that characterizes the biotic recovery from a mass extinction event is structured by ecological factors to a larger extent than previously thought. - paul wignall, earth sciences department at the university of leeds, has discovered that the relationship between mass extinction events and large volcanic eruptions is complex and likely involves climate forcing factors other than the eruption itself, including the presence of life forms ( e. g., phytoplankton ) that collectively possess the ability to buffer the global climate from short - term - geerat vermeij, from the department of geology at the university of california, davis, will consider how patterns of ecological feedback between herbivores and carnivores that result in a progressive intensification of nutrient recycling in the oceans have been a dominant theme in the history of life and have exerted an important ' top - down ' ( as opposed to bottom - up ) evolutionary and ecological - session 28 : tuesday, june 26. anthropogenic modifications to the earth system poster session 27 abstracts ] - the human presence on earth has greatly impacted the environment for better or worse. geoscientists in this session will consider a wide variety of evidence for the nature, magnitude, and implications of human impact on our planet for the past, present, and future. - fred t. mackenzie, professor of sedimentary and global geochemistry from the department of oceanography at the university of hawaii, will begin the session by looking at how human activities influenced the biogeochemical cycles of carbon, phosphorus, and nitrogen in the surface of the earth since 1840. this will be quite interesting for those who would like to know what the unperturbed earth system was like, and who also want to understand


##geochemical cycles of carbon, phosphorus, and nitrogen in the surface of the earth since 1840. this will be quite interesting for those who would like to know what the unperturbed earth system was like, and who also want to understand the fate of these elements through projections to the year 2040. - timothy m. lenton, centre for ecology and hydrology at the edinburgh research station, will speak about positive feedbacks in the global carbon cycle that may make it more difficult for the oceans and atmosphere to absorb anthropogenic co2 in the future. - gary hughes, from raytheon santa barbara remote sensing in california, will talk about a direct, empirical correlation between atmospheric co2 and land temperature measurements that indicates a strong greenhouse warming effect : 5 degrees celsius for co2 doubling. - berry lyons, department of geological sciences and byrd polar research center at the ohio state university, will take a look at how urbanization - - specifically in atlanta, georgia and columbus, ohio - - affects water quality in local rivers. he will note the similarity of increased concentrations of elements in the chattahoochie river downstream from atlanta, georgia, with those observed for the seine river as it passes through metro paris. ( yet the scioto river in the columbus, ohio, metro area, shows little urban influence. ) the urban " footprint " in various areas in the united states and europe has made quite an impact on the water quality of rivers downstream from major urban centers. - session 36 : wednesday, june 27. role of hydrothermal systems in biospheric evolution poster session 40 abstracts ] - hydrothermal environments are unique because they offer a potentially widespread habitat for life both on the early earth, and elsewhere in the solar system. the study of hydrothermal systems provides a doorway into the early history of life and allows us to better understand the origins of our biosphere, its history, and place in the universe. this session will provide an updated overview of the field and will serve as a forum to report its cutting - edge science. - " i think one of the most intriguing things about hydrothermal systems is that they teem with life at temperatures far exceeding what humans would consider viable, " said session co - chair jack farmer. farmer is an astrobiologist and geologist at arizona state university. - " they also harbor many unusual organisms and unique metabolic strategies. some of the organisms found living at the highest temperatures appear to be very primitive forms, close to a last common ancestor of life. these forms are able


and geologist at arizona state university. - " they also harbor many unusual organisms and unique metabolic strategies. some of the organisms found living at the highest temperatures appear to be very primitive forms, close to a last common ancestor of life. these forms are able to exist on inorganic by - products derived from the aqueous weathering of rocks. " not requiring sunlight for their metabolism, nor organic inputs from other organisms, these " chemoautotrophic " ( chemically - based ) forms provide models for the kinds of organisms that could exist in subsurface environments of mars, europa, and - hydrothermal systems are also very interesting places to explore for novel organisms and their metabolic processes of interest to biotechnology. " the famous example of pcr ( polymerase chain reaction ), a genetic process whereby even tiny sequences of a genome can be cloned and amplified, was discovered in a yellowstone hot spring, " farmer explained. " this discovery revolutionized molecular biology and spawned a multi - billion dollar industry. " - franco piranjo ( geological survey of western australia ) will present an overview on the nature of hydrothermal environments and anna louise reysenbach ( portland state university ) will provide an overview of their microbiology. - mike russell, from the isotope geoscience unit at the scottish universities environmental research centre, also co - chairs the session and will present a talk on hydrothermal systems as a potential cradle for early prebiotic chemistry and - sherry cady, geology department at portland state university, will review what we have learned about life near its upper temperature limit. - tullis onstott, from the department of geosciences at princeton, will discuss the exploration for a deep, hot microbial biosphere in deep gold mines in south africa. - malcolm walter, australian centre for astrobiology at macquariue university, will talk about a variety of fossil biosignatures in billion - year - old - plus deep - sea vent deposits in australia. - beda hofmann, from the natural history museum in bern, switzerland, will review a newly - discovered fossil record of deep subsurface life found in - these subsurface talks hold special importance in opening up new opportunities to explore for life on the early earth and elsewhere in the solar system. - finally, martin van kranendonk, geological survey of western australia, will describe hydrothermal environments associated with the oldest previously - reported cellular fossils ( ~ 3. 5 billion years ) from australia. - in the poster session, meredith payne ( arizona state


dog walking pays $ 10 to $ 15 a day in my neighborhood. have you ever found yourself wanting something like a cellphone or a laptop but you just didn ' t have enough money to get it? it ' s true that jobs like babysitting, dog walking, and lawn mowing would earn you money, but not that much. have you ever thought of an internship? for me, an internship is basically a class in which you get to practice a certain topic. sometimes they pay you, sometimes they don ’ t. regardless, internships give experience for a future career — and some give money too. when an internship gives you money, the pay tends to be similar to conventional jobs. for example, the top pay for one four - week ( three hours a day ) internship i found was a whopping $ 1, 200! more than just the money internships give you something that many conventional jobs don ' t : experience. internships differ from conventional jobs in a few ways. in most regular jobs : - employers expect you to have some experience before they hire you. - you are paid the going rates for what you do and get a raise as you become more experienced. - your employer expects you to stick around for at least a few years. in an internship : - employers expect to be teaching you the ropes of various jobs in a real work environment. you learn a lot from the people you work with. - if you get paid at all, it ’ s at a flat internship rate. your pay might not be called “ pay, ” but “ award ” or some other term, like “ stipend. ” the amount you earn might not be the going rate for that position ; you might not be paid at all. - your employer knows you ’ ll be moving on as soon as the school year ends or within some other predetermined time. you can tutor a student on an instrument such as the piano. middle school too! if you surf the web or look in your local newspaper, you might find internships for kids in middle school. here are some of the internships i found in different parts of the country : - urban trailblazers. this is an outdoor program in the san francisco area that lasts six weeks. it ’ s targeted specifically to middle - school youth. the program gives a $ 225 award to participants. - youth express. this year - round program in st. paul, minn., targets middle - and high - school students. only the high - school students get


diet may hold secret to limiting e. coli beef recall prompts new research by focusing on how nutrition of ruminants affects colonization and growth of e. coli o157 : h7, university of nebraska - lincoln researchers hope to find a diet that limits the potentially deadly bacteria in feedlot cattle. “ the next step is to positively use nutrition because it ’ s logical that what you feed an animal affects its microbiology, ” said terry klopfenstein, unl animal scientist. the institute of agriculture and natural resources team expects the study to complement unl ’ s earlier, nationally recognized e. coli research. the team includes ianr veterinary scientists david smith and rod moxley and animal scientists galen erickson and klopfenstein. unl expanded its e. coli research program with support from nebraska ’ s legislature afer the massive recall of e. coli - contaminated ground beef processed at hudson foods in columbus in 1997. early research helped confirm that o157 : h7 is common and widespread in feedlot cattle. since e. coli is everywhere, eliminating it isn ’ t realistic. limiting it at key times, such as before slaughter, is the goal, smith said. by studying what goes on in cattle ’ s digestive system, researchers will be able to study how what cattle are fed affects microorganisms in their gut. a goal is to soon add a rumen ( gut ) microbiologist to the team to study this. other unl e. coli research tested several potential control methods for use in feedlots, including feeding a commercially available lactobacillus acidophilus feed additive. unl also worked closely with canadian researchers on a vaccine. feeding the lactobacillus acidophilus feed additive reduced fecal shedding of e. coli by about 35 percent, while the vaccination reduced shedding by about 65 percent. the canadian company bioniche has obtained approval to market the vaccine in canada. the vaccination still is awaiting approval for commercial use in the united states. moxley said learning more about the gut will complement this earlier research and offer one more added protection for reducing e. coli in feedlot cattle. “ it ’ s like wearing your seat belt, not texting while driving and obeying the speed limit, ” moxley said. “ studying the gut will be an added step in making food safer. ” knowing when and where e. coli is being shed in manure also is key, smith said. klopfenstein said e


can i use house plants to improve my home ' s indoor air quality? there is data and research on the value of outdoor plantings and the positive effect on air quality through natural transpiration. it would seem that the same would be true of indoor plants, if well maintained, both in terms of overall humidity levels, and in terms of potential co2 reduction and biofiltration. nasa did a study in conjunction with the associated landscape contractors of america ( alca, now planet, the professional landcare network ) that showed that yes, - indoor plants not only absorb co2 and release oxygen, but they also - scrub the air of pollutants commonly found indoors from our carpeting, paints, and cleaning products. common household products can contain volatile organic compounds ( vocs ), gases that pollute indoor air. paint, paint strippers, cleaning supplies, glues and adhesives all contain vocs. breathing these compounds causes symptoms that range from allergic reactions to respiratory tract irritation to more serious conditions like cancer. there are now paints, carpeting products, and indoor cleaners that have low or no vocs. regardless, nasa found that a house plant for every 50 feet will help reduce vocs and improve home air quality. the top air scrubbers found by nasa are listed below ( this plant list came from zone10. com ) : - bamboo palm, chamaedorea seifritzii - chinese evergreen, aglaonema modestum - english ivy, hedera helix - gerbera daisy, gerbera jamesonii - janet craig, dracaena “ janet craig ” - marginata, dracaena marginata - mass cane / corn plant, dracaena massangeana - mother - in - law ’ s tongue, sansevieria laurentii - pot mum, chrysantheium morifolium - peace lily, spathiphyllum - warneckii, dracaena “ warneckii ” for more information : wikipedia describes the nasa study here. read more about how you can improve your home ' s indoor air quality in green home guide ' s know - how article " improving your home ' s indoor air quality : from basic to bigger and better steps. "


beginning in the 1980s, when mcdonald ' s stopped putting its burgers in polystyrene clamshells, and accelerating dramatically in the 2000s when an inconvenient truth highlighted the dangers of greenhouse gases, businesses large and small have made it a point to be sensitive to the environment. while there may be an almost across - the - board belief that reducing pollution is important, being " green " means different things to different companies. some corporations do it to cut costs, others to attract customers, and still others to practice what they preach philosophically ( or all of the above ). the ways to be eco - friendly can vary wildly, too, from using energy - efficient lightbulbs to illuminate stores, to cleaning up harmful chemicals at overseas factories that don ' t even have the same corporate parent. more than three decades after the green wave began, corporate america is now almost reflexively embracing the trend, even businesses that might seem unlikely converts. critics say some of this is greenwash, a calculated attempt to appear environmentally conscious, but the companies would beg to differ. " i think it ' s very possible for a for - profit business to be green, " says jamie meyers, sustainability manager at walgreens. since 2010, walgreens, which is the largest drugstore chain in the country, has opted for 25 - watt fluorescent tubes and high - efficiency mechanical systems. in addition, since 2007, 133 stores have added solar panels, though these stores make up less than 2 percent of the total, meyers admits. can walgreens and other companies, whose mission is to increase market share whenever possible, really be green while developing new stores which utilize significant resources, and which often require that customers drive to do their shopping? yes, says meyers, despite the fact that walgreens has almost tripled in size, from 3, 000 to 8, 000 stores, in a decade. parking lots are shrinking to 50 - car lots, " less than what most cities mandate, " he says. some critics are not so sure. al norman, the founder of sprawl - busters, an advocacy group that began in 1993 to oppose the location of a walmart in greenfield, massachusetts, says solar panels and low - flow faucets mask the fact that chain - store buildings are flimsily constructed. " these are disposable buildings that have life spans of maybe 20 years before they ' re abandoned, " norman says. " this is low - commitment, dead architecture


##ts mask the fact that chain - store buildings are flimsily constructed. " these are disposable buildings that have life spans of maybe 20 years before they ' re abandoned, " norman says. " this is low - commitment, dead architecture. " other critics are more equivocal, saying that the steps toward energy efficiency by big - box stores and other retailers can drive the whole industry, because they have the most to gain. their " margins are pretty thin, so saving money on energy, water, and other resources goes a long way, " says green consultant bill browning, who worked with walmart in 1993 on its first prototype green store, in lawrence, kansas. greenwashing incidents may be on the wane, browning adds, because of greater scrutiny by government agencies like the federal trade commission, which is increasing its examination of deceptive marketing practices, including what ' s stated about energy use. " it ' s much harder to get away with [ greenwashing ] now, " he concludes. another influential watchdog is b lab, which since 2006 has awarded its " b corp " seal of approval to companies that significantly reduce waste, use non - coal energy, and support conservation causes and other efforts. among the 450 current b corp companies that b lab monitors is patagonia, the outdoor apparel brand, which got its b corp status this past january. much of what earned the company that recognition has to do with its decision that same month to reorganize as a " benefit corporation, " a legal status that encourages businesses to make more socially conscious decisions, even if they may hurt the bottom line in the short run. patagonia, whose website proclaims " we cannot avert our eyes from the harm done, by all of us, to our one and only home, " is often considered a leader among companies that aspire to green initiatives.