science fair project encyclopedia the trade winds are a pattern of wind found in bands around the earth ' s equatorial region. the trade winds are the prevailing winds in the tropics, blowing from the high - pressure area in the horse latitudes towards the low - pressure area around the equator. the trade winds blow predominantly from the northeast in the northern hemisphere and from the southeast in the southern hemisphere. their name comes from the fact that these winds enabled trading ships to sail in two directions between europe and the americas : the ships could sail a southern route with the trade winds westward from europe to the americas, then head north to the middle latitudes and sail with the westerlies eastward from the americas back to europe. in the zone between about 30° n. and 30° s., the surface air flows toward the equator and the flow aloft is poleward. a low - pressure area of calm, light variable winds near the equator is known to mariners as the doldrums. around 30° n. and s., the poleward flowing air begins to descend toward the surface in subtropical high - pressure belts. the sinking air is relatively dry because its moisture has already been released near the equator above the tropical rain forests. near the center of this high - pressure zone of descending air, called the " horse latitudes, " the winds at the surface are weak and variable. the name for this area is believed to have been given by colonial sailors, who, becalmed sometimes at these latitudes while crossing the oceans with horses as cargo, were forced to throw a few horses overboard to conserve water. the surface air that flows from these subtropical high - pressure belts toward the equator is deflected toward the west in both hemispheres by the coriolis effect. because winds are named for the direction from which the wind is blowing, these winds are called the northeast trade winds in the northern hemisphere and the southeast trade winds in the southern hemisphere. the trade winds meet at the doldrums. surface winds known as " westerlies " flow from the horse latitudes toward the poles. the " westerlies " meet " easterlies " from the polar highs at about 50 - 60° n. and s. near the ground, wind direction is affected by friction and by changes in topography. winds may be seasonal, sporadic, or daily. they range from gentle breezes to violent gusts at speeds greater than 300 km / h ( ~ 200 mph ). the contents of this article is licensed from www. wikipedia.


social support systems organisation and financing of social support to people with dementia and carers background information on the social / healthcare system in bulgaria until 1990, bulgaria had a communist government. this was replaced in 1991 by a multiparty parliamentary democracy, governed by a single chamber with a president as head of state. prior to 1991, bulgaria had a semashko kind of health care system ( a centralised, tax - based system ). although it became clear that certain elements of this system were problematic, it was not until 1997, when the health care system seemed to be in danger of collapsing, that measures were taken to rationalise the system and improve the effectiveness of health care provision. social health insurance was introduced at the end of the 1990 ’ s but out - of - pocket payments remain a problem for people on a lower income ( koulaksazov et al., 2003 ). the organisation of social support for people with dementia and carers specific support for people with dementia and their carers is not available in bulgaria. however, people with mental disorders can attend social houses which are financed and supported by the state. unfortunately, the conditions in these social houses are often poor. the current european trend is to encourage people with dementia to remain with their families but the appropriate services and support are not available due to a lack of regulations and of practical and financial support for carers. social support is organised by the ministry of labour and social policy and by the agency for social support. this is general social support which people with dementia can benefit from but to do so, they have to have the necessary health certification as without this, they are not eligible for social support. the house doctor in coordination with a specialist doctor prepares a set of documents for a special commission (??????????? a???????? a??????? a??????? (???? ) – territorial expert medical commission ), which certifies the level of disability and the municipality supplies the social support according to the regulations of the agency for social support. the ministry of labour and social policy does not accept responsibility for people with dementia. although it is responsible for the homes for people with dementia, the administration of this ministry, which has direct responsibility for these homes, tries to transfer responsibility to the ministry of health ( which only covers medical treatment ) on the grounds that the people in these homes are ill. as a result of pressure from the european union and with the


ministry, which has direct responsibility for these homes, tries to transfer responsibility to the ministry of health ( which only covers medical treatment ) on the grounds that the people in these homes are ill. as a result of pressure from the european union and with the help of financial support, some projects are now underway. unfortunately, they are too generalised and are dedicated to people with mental disabilities. they do not cater for the needs of people with dementia. compassion alzheimer bulgaria recently submitted a project proposal entitled “ deinstitutionalisation through the provision of community - based services for risk groups ” but this was classified as not relevant or important for bulgaria and therefore rejected. cooperation between the state and the private sector, voluntary associations and ngos is progressing very slowly. currently, support for people with dementia is insufficient and constructive cooperation between the state and the above mentioned parties, which is necessary to resolve this problem, is clearly lacking. in fact, the ministry of labour and social policy avoids a constructive dialogue and cooperation with alzheimer bulgaria. the overall funding of social support for people with dementia and carers social houses are 100 % funded by the state through general taxation. there are places for about 800 people in bulgaria and the cost is about eur 100 per person per month. this is paid by the state. service users do not pay anything. social services ( i. e. the provision of food and home cleaning ) are only partly financed by the state in that the state pays 20 % of the cost and the person with dementia or his / her family pay the remaining 80 %. social houses and social services are supposed to be funded through general taxation. the legal framework surrounding the provision of social support there is no specific law covering support for people with dementia or their carers. people with dementia are covered by legislation for people with disabilities who need some kind of social support. the law on social support – 19. 05. 1998r (?????????????????????????? - 19. 05. 1998? ) deals with social support in general. the regulation of 5. 11. 1998 covering the application of the law on social support (??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 243?? 5. 11. 1998? )


???????????????????????????????????????? 243?? 5. 11. 1998? ) is also relevant. the problems of people with dementia are covered by the decree n : 4 – from 16. 03. 1999 on the requirements and supply of social services (???????? 4?? 16. 03. 1999?.???????????????????????????????????????????? ). this is a common regulation relating to the kinds of services provided, minimum standards and the control of these services. the suitability of social support for people with dementia and carers adequacy and accessibility in general none of the existing social services are specifically designed for people with dementia. only general services are available which cater for general needs, not those that are specifically related to dementia. the provision of social services throughout bulgaria is insufficient. consequently, people with dementia have difficulty accessing them. the state does not provide sufficient funds to ensure adequate services in social houses. for this reason, social houses are frequently situated in isolated, rural areas where it is difficult to find qualified staff. people living in rural areas as stated above, social houses are often situated in rural areas rather than in larger towns. people with different types of dementia there are no services that are aimed at people with specific types of dementia. people from ethnic minorities there are no services that are specifically aimed at people with dementia or carers from ethnic minorities. younger people with dementia access to most social services is based on disability rather than age, but home help and the meals service are both for the elderly so younger people with dementia would presumably be excluded. services and support for people with dementia and their carers types of care there are no day care centres in bulgaria. there are, however, day care centres for young disabled people but they are not suitable for people with dementia. respite care in the home and short - term respite care services do not exist. long - term residential care however, long - term residential respite care ( in social houses ) does. this is completely funded by the state which pays eur 100 to eur 120 on average per person. staff in such care centres are usually inadequately trained. most of the


long - term residential respite care ( in social houses ) does. this is completely funded by the state which pays eur 100 to eur 120 on average per person. staff in such care centres are usually inadequately trained. most of the people who benefit from such care are there because they are not cared for by relatives. many have no diagnosis. the bulgarian alzheimer association considers this service insufficient and plans to organise training for staff in these establishments. there are no palliative care centres or provisions for palliative care at home in bulgaria. monitoring in the home via alarm systems there are no tele - alarm systems whereby a person can signal for assistance in case of emergency. personal assistance and home help private companies provide assistance with personal hygiene, eating and drinking, as well as supervision taking medication. these services are not specifically designed for people with dementia and are financed totally by the service users. the following services are not available : - assistance with mobility e. g. lifting, moving and walking - assistance dealing with incontinence - assistance with skin care e. g. hydration, preventing and dealing with bedsores - companionship and social activities - occupational therapy / ergotherapy - assistive devices assistance with housework ( e. g. cleaning the home ) and with the preparation of food ( or delivery of meals to the home ) is a social service provided to the elderly. the state only contributes 20 % towards the cost of this service. the remainder must be paid by service users ( or by their carers ). shopping, transportation and laundry services do not exist. the bulgarian alzheimer association considers that the existing social services covering personal assistance and home help are insufficient. psychosocial support and training for people with dementia and carers a general information service to direct people towards the services they need does not exist. however, there is a general clinical psychologist in every main hospital who can provide such information. he / she would be partly paid by the state and partly by the service user. the bulgarian alzheimer association provides more specialised information through publications and its telephone help - line. the association tries to make use of existing information channels i. e. the administration of social houses, doctors, specialists in the field, state institutions, people with dementia themselves and their carers. there are no counselling services or support groups for people with dementia or their carers. similarly, there are no services which organise holidays for people with dementia or their carers, or which provide substitute carers to enable the latter to organise their own holidays or time


counselling services or support groups for people with dementia or their carers. similarly, there are no services which organise holidays for people with dementia or their carers, or which provide substitute carers to enable the latter to organise their own holidays or time off caring. work / tax related support for people with dementia there is no legislation relating to the rights of people with dementia in paid employment e. g. to protect their job security and social rights. people with dementia who receive a pension are entitled to a supplement to purchase services on the basis of disability provided that they have the necessary health certification. the actual amount received depends on their level of disability. they are not entitled to tax refunds or other financial incentives for employing a person to provide home care services or to pay for necessary home adaptations. people with dementia are entitled to reductions for telephone and transport services but do not benefit from subsidised or free television or radio licences. work / tax related support for carers and carer allowances carers are not entitled to any paid time off work or flexible working hours in order to organise more effectively the care of a person with dementia. they can, if they wish, try to negotiate with their employer unpaid time off work but this is not covered by any specific legislation. carers do not receive any direct or indirect payments from the state for caring and they are not entitled to any tax benefits / incentives for the care they provide. the state does not pay or contribute towards the state pension scheme when a carer gives up paid employment in order to care for a person with dementia. unless otherwise stated, the information in this report was provided by ms zvezdelina triffonova and the bulgarian alzheimer society ( compassion alzheimer bulgaria ) in may 2007 - koulaksazov, s., todorova, s., tragakes, e. et al. ( 2003 ), health care systems in transition, bulgaria, http : / / www. observatory. dk - datzova, b. ( 2003 ), health care reform and inequality in access to health care in bulgaria, ( draft paper prepared for the ruig / unrisd project on globalization, inequality and health, a collaborative international project forming part of the ruig research programme on the social challenge of development ), http : / / www. ruig - gian. org / ressources / comeliau - health _ bulgaria - datzova. pdf - law on social support ( in english ) : http : / / www


researchers are continuing to uncover various genes that may play a role in the onset of alzheimer ’ s disease. the findings offer new clues about who will get alzheimer ’ s in old age, and why, and may offer new approaches to treating or preventing the mind - ravaging illness. scientists at the university of miami miller school of medicine found that a gene on chromosome 6, called mthfd1l, appeared to nearly double a person ’ s risk of developing late - onset alzheimer ’ s, the most common form of dementia. the findings were published in the journal plos genetics. " we are hopeful our identification of mthfd1l as a risk gene for alzheimer ' s disease will help us to better understand how this disease develops and potentially serve as a marker for people who may be at increased risk, " said adam naj, ph. d., a co - author of the study. " identifying this gene is important because the gene is known to be involved in influencing the body ' s levels of homocysteine, and high levels of homocysteine are a strong risk factor for late - onset alzheimer ' s disease, " said dr. margaret pericak - vance, who led the study. homocysteine is an amino acid that circulates in the blood, and high levels are associated with blood vessel diseases and an increased risk of heart disease and strokes. the findings provide further evidence of the link between heart health and brain health. " variations of the mthfd1l gene have been reported to possibly increase the risk of coronary artery disease, ” dr. pericak - vance said. “ since the function of blood vessels in the brain may affect alzheimer ' s disease, this finding may also help us understand how homocysteine levels and blood vessel function in the brain affect alzheimer ' s disease. " scientists have identified genes that play a role in the rare, early - onset form of alzheimer ’ s that runs in families and which can strike people as young as their 30s or 40s. but the far more common late - onset form of the disease, which becomes increasingly prevalent in old age, is not as well understood. studies have shown that having a parent with alzheimer ’ s increases your risk of developing the disease. twin studies likewise suggest that genetic factors play a role in late - onset alzheimer ’ s. but until recently, only one gene – called apoe, for apolipoprotein e – was shown to strongly influence risk. having a form


disease. twin studies likewise suggest that genetic factors play a role in late - onset alzheimer ’ s. but until recently, only one gene – called apoe, for apolipoprotein e – was shown to strongly influence risk. having a form of the apoe gene known as apoe - e4 increases your risk, and about 40 percent of those with alzheimer ’ s have the gene. but many people who carry the gene never get alzheimer ’ s. several other genes are also suspected of playing a role, though the risks they impart is smaller than the risk associated with apoe - e4. dozens of additional genes are under investigation as possible contributing factors to alzheimer ’ s disease, and as yet undiscovered genes may impart different levels of risk as well. in a separate study in the u. k., researchers at oxford university found that carrying the apoe - e4 gene may produce changes in the brains of young, healthy individuals who have no memory problems. the investigators studied men and women in their 20s and 30s, and compared them with those over 50. scans revealed that the brains of the younger people who had the apoe - e4 gene were normal in size. but they did find some abnormalities in the connections between cells in the white matter part of the brain, suggesting that the gene may have some effects on brain function decades before the memory loss of alzheimer ’ s appears. they are conducting follow - up studies to learn more about how genes affect the brain and contribute to alzheimer ’ s disease. the findings are consistent with ongoing research into the ways in which genes and brain changes interact to influence alzheimer ’ s risk. researchers hope that continued study of genes that may contribute to alzheimer ’ s will lead to better understanding of the disease. it may also allow for the development of new drugs that may be able to halt or reverse the memory and behavior problems of the disease. researchers are only now beginning to understand the complexities of alzheimer ’ s. in addition to genetic factors, lifestyle factors like diet and exercise, mental and social stimulation, advancing age, and other environmental components may all play a role in its onset. it will likely take years of continued research to understand the roles of genes and other factors in the development of alzheimer ’ s. source : plos genetics, sept. 23. bbc news.


how green is my desert? dry lands - - places where rainfall is scarce and evaporation is high - - have been crucial incubators of human culture. but deserts are precarious places for cities, and many of the ancient dry land settlements - - chaco canyon in new mexico, sumer in iraq - - are now only ruins visited by archaeologists and tourists. today, new cities are appearing in arid regions around the world. in aerial photos these desert cities may look like mirages... and perhaps they are. the price of watering our deserts can include destruction of the fragile desert ecosystem, groundwater depletion, and lowered rivers. can we keep that up indefinitely? the world ' s deserts deserts, today cover about 25 percent of earth ' s surface. more than 500 million people live in deserts and dry lands. " whiskey is for drinking ; water is for fighting over. " - - attributed to mark twain farm, united arab emirates population 4, 444, 011 ( 2007 ) annual rainfall 120mm ( 5 inches ) population 230, 000 ( 2006 ) average yearly rainfall 210 mm ( 8 inches ) las vegas, nevada population 1, 820, 232 ( 2006 ) average yearly rainfall 120mm ( 5 inches ) mesa county, colorado population 134, 189 ( 2006 ) average yearly rainfall 203 mm ( 8 inches ) farm, saudi arabia population 27, 601, 038 ( 2007 ) average yearly rainfall 100mm ( 4 inches ) population 1. 4 million ( 2006 ) annual rainfall 100 - 200 ( 4 - 8 inches ) population 518, 956 ( 2006 ) average yearly rainfall 300mm ( 12 inches ) al ain oasis, abu dhabi population 348, 000 ( 2003 ) average yearly rainfall 361mm ( 14 inches ) palm springs, california population 47, 806 ( 2006 ) average yearly rainfall 150mm ( 6 inches )


phylogenetic analysis of mexican cave scorpions suggests adaptation to caves is reversible new evidence that specialized adaptations are not evolutionary dead ends blind scorpions that live in the stygian depths of caves are throwing light on a long - held assumption that specialized adaptations are irreversible evolutionary dead - ends. according to a new phylogenetic analysis of the family typhlochactidae, scorpions currently living closer to the surface ( under stones and in leaf litter ) evolved independently on more than one occasion from ancestors adapted to life further below the surface ( in caves ). the research, currently available in an early online edition, will be published in the april issue of cladistics. " our research shows that the evolution of troglobites, or animals adapted for life in caves, is reversible, " says lorenzo prendini, associate curator in the division of invertebrate zoology at the american museum of natural history. " three more generalized scorpion species living closer to the surface evolved from specialized ancestors living in caves deep below the surface. " scorpions are predatory, venomous, nocturnal arachnids that are related to spiders, mites, and other arthropods. about 2, 000 species are distributed throughout the world, but only 23 species found in ten different families are adapted to a permanent life in caves. these are the specialized troglobites. this study concentrates on the family typhlochactidae that includes nine species of scorpions endemic to the karstic regions of eastern mexico. these species were initially grouped together by robert mitchell in 1971 but were elevated to the rank of family for the first time last year, based on morphological data published by prendini and valerio vignoli of the department of evolutionary biology, university of siena, italy, in the bulletin of the american museum of natural history. prendini, vignoli, and oscar f. francke of the departmento de zoologia, instituto de biolog ’ a at the universidad nacional aut — noma de mexico, mexico city, also created a new genus, stygochactas, for one species in the family and described a new surface - living species, typhlochactas sissomi, in a separate american museum novitates paper. all species in the family have adapted to the dark with features such as loss of eyes and reduced pigmentation. the family contains the most specialized troglobite scorpion, sotanochactas elliotti


separate american museum novitates paper. all species in the family have adapted to the dark with features such as loss of eyes and reduced pigmentation. the family contains the most specialized troglobite scorpion, sotanochactas elliotti, one of the world ' s smallest scorpions, typhlochactas mitchelli, and the scorpion found at the greatest depth ( nearly 1 km below the surface ), alacran tartarus. three of the species ( including t. mitchelli ) live closer to the surface and are more generalized morphologically than the other six, making this family an excellent model with which to test and falsify cope ' s law of the unspecialized ( novel evolutionary traits tend to originate from a generalized member of an ancestral taxon ) and dollo ' s law of evolutionary irreversibility ( specialized evolutionary traits are unlikely to reverse ). for the current research paper, prendini and colleagues gathered data for 195 morphological characteristics, including a detailed mapping of the positions of all trichobothria ( sensory setae ) on the pedipalps, among the species of typhlochactidae. the resulting phylogenetic tree shows that adaptation to life in caves has reversed among this group of scorpions : two of the less specialized, surface - living species, t. mitchelli and t. sylvestris, share a common ancestor with a much more cave - adapted species, and a similar pattern was found for the third less specialized, surface - living species, t. sissomi. " scorpions have been around for 450 million years, and their biology is obviously flexible, " says prendini. " this unique group of eyeless mexican scorpions may have started re - colonizing niches closer to the surface from the deep caves of mexico after their surface - living ancestors were wiped out by the nearby chicxuluxb impact along with non - avian dinosaurs, ammonites, and other species. " the research was funded by the national science foundation, the theodore roosevelt memorial fund, and a synthesys grant. media inquiries : department of communications, 212 - 769 - 5800


australasian plant conservation originally published in australasian plant conservation 21 ( 1 ) june - august 2012, p 18 - 20 ex - situ conservation of the rare tall yellow - top daisy ( senecio pilosicristus ) michael thorpe, dan duval and phillip ainsley sa seed conservation centre, adelaide botanic gardens, sa. email : email @ example. com tall yellow - top ( senecio pilosicristus ) habitat in billiat conservation park. this population was located in a mallee woodland fire scar growing with other specific fire responsive species. photo : sa seed conservation centre. tall yellow - top ( senecio pilosicristus ) plant observed in 2010. photo : sa seed conservation centre. tall yellow - top ( senecio pilosicristus ) flower. photo : sa seed conservation centre. in south australia, the tall yellow - top ( senecio pilosicristus ) is a rare daisy which was historically collected in the karoonda to lameroo area in the murraylands region of the state. the majority of herbarium collections for c were from the 1910s to the 1960s. apart from a single herbarium collection from an unknown locality in 1984 there have been no further herbarium collections in sa. this species also occurs in western victoria where it is considered very rare and it is currently listed as vulnerable in victoria. there is little is known about the biology and habitat of the tall yellow - top. the south australian seed conservation centre ( sascc ), based at the adelaide botanic gardens, is dedicated to the conservation of the state ’ s threatened native plants. more specifically this includes locating plants and recording habitat details, collecting and banking seeds, research to determine germination requirements and the propagation of plants to assist with restoration programs. staff at the sascc identified the tall yellow - top as a priority species to locate and collect seeds. the historic location information and lack of recent records suggested that this species may occur on the more fertile loams that have since been cleared for cropping. although there were no notes with herbarium vouchers to suggest that the tall yellow - top was collected post fire, it was suspected that the lack of records may indicate this species might only be detectable after environmental disturbance events such as bushfire. in recent years, staff from the sascc have searched some of the historical south australian localities for the tall yellow - top without success. the majority of the land where historic records were made has been substantially cleared for agricultural use and the fragmented


bushfire. in recent years, staff from the sascc have searched some of the historical south australian localities for the tall yellow - top without success. the majority of the land where historic records were made has been substantially cleared for agricultural use and the fragmented remnant vegetation is highly impacted by numerous introduced plants and animals. however in september 2010, a chance find of a post burn site in billiat conservation park ( cp ) during field searches yielded success. a small population of the tall yellow - top was located in a mallee woodland fire scar growing in a low open swale on pale red sandy loams in regenerating mallee with other specific fire responsive species such as small - leaf ray flower ( cyphanthera myosotidea ), false buckbush ( gyrostemon australasicus ), azure daisy - bush ( olearia rudis ), branched everlasting ( coronidium adenophorum ), oondooroo ( solanum simile ), cup velleia ( velleia connata ), twiggy lignum ( muehlenbeckia diclina ) and williamson ’ s riceflower ( pimelea williamsonii ). this localised population contained at least a few hundred individuals. apart from a sub - population of approximately fifty plants that was identified another 800 m north of the original population, no further populations have been recorded during follow up searches within a radius of 7 km. photos of the characteristics of the plant such as flower, leaves and habit were taken along with pressed plant specimens in order to build knowledge about this daisy. regional staff working for the department of environment and natural resources ( denr ) based in the area were made aware of this population and asked to monitor other post - fire mallee in the region for this species. a follow up visit to the population twelve months later ( spring 2011 ) revealed a small number of plants resprouting. however these plants produced much less vigorous growth than observed during the previous spring immediately post fire. this observation suggests that although plants can persist for a second year post - fire, this species is quite short ‑ lived. observations of the plant characteristics the tall yellow - top is an erect, fleshy, glaucous, short - lived herb to approximately 70 cm tall. it has sessile, stem clasping, tapered - lanceolate cauline leaves on reddish purple stems with a basal rosette of lobed spathulate leaves. flowers are a yellow daisy up to 50 mm in


70 cm tall. it has sessile, stem clasping, tapered - lanceolate cauline leaves on reddish purple stems with a basal rosette of lobed spathulate leaves. flowers are a yellow daisy up to 50 mm in diameter with up to ten ray petals. the seeds are a brown achene with longitudinal ridges of white hairs and white pappus. tall yellow - top ( senecio pilosicristus ) seed. photo : sa seed conservation centre. germination results from testing tall yellow - top ( senecio pilosicristus ) seeds. key : ga3 = gibberellic acid ; kno3 = potassium nitrate treatment the sascc collected and banked more than eight thousand seeds for this rare daisy in 2010 and has undertaken research to determine its germination requirements. germination screening was undertaken for this species in both winter and spring diurnal conditions using gibberellic acid, potassium nitrate and untreated controls. gibberellic acid is a naturally occurring plant growth hormone which can alleviate seed dormancy in some species. potassium nitrate was used because the availability of free nitrogen post fire as nitrates in the soil can act as a ‘ gap detection ’ signal and provide a cue for seed germination. no germination was recorded for the untreated controls or the seeds which received potassium nitrate treatment in either winter or spring conditions. whilst only a single germinant resulted from gibberellic acid treatment in spring conditions, a germination rate of 42 % was achieved with gibberellic acid in winter conditions. these results suggest the tall yellow - top specifically prefers winter conditions for germination. further research is required to ascertain the germination response to environmental cues such as heat and smoke chemicals. staff at the sascc anticipate that more populations of the tall yellow - top will be observed in post fire mallee in the region. the denr regional ecologist working in the murray region has identified and mapped further areas of mallee for prescribed burning which may be potential habitat for the tall yellow - top. regional staff and the sascc will perform further searches in spring 2012 upon completion of prescribed burns for billiat cp scheduled for autumn 2012. in addition to the tall yellow - top, this will be an opportunity for regional and sascc staff to monitor for other fire responsive species such as the nationally vulnerable yellow swainson - pea ( swainsona pyrophila ) and showy lawren


from ancestry. com wiki the tanoli are a tribe of the tanawal valley region in the hazara. the tanolis are arabic origin and descent from abbas ibn abd al - muttalib, the paternal uncle of prophet mohammad ( p. b. u. h ). the most members of the tanoli tribe reside in the former princely state of amb in the hazara division of khyber - pakhtunkhwa province of pakistan, in the cities of abbottabad, khalabat township, haripur and its district, mansehra, battagram and kohistan districts. a branch of the tanoli tribe also resides in kashmir, mainly in muzaffarabad and srinagar. tanolis also inhabit the cities of quetta and karachi. they dominate the tanawal - sherwan belt. tanoli history the tanoli are a tribe of the tanawal valley region in the hazara. the tanolis are arabic origin and descent from abbas ibn abd al - muttalib, the paternal uncle of prophet mohammad ( p. b. u. h ). the most members of the tanoli tribe reside in the former princely state of amb in the hazara division of khyber - pakhtunkhwa province of pakistan, in the cities of abbottabad, khalabat township, haripur and its district, mansehra, battagram and kohistan districts. a branch of the tanoli tribe also resides in kashmir, mainly in muzaffarabad and srinagar. tanolis also inhabit in afghanistan, the tanoli primarily live in the eastern provinces of paktia, gardez, and ghazni.. the word tanawal is derived from taniwal., the tanoli participated in the frontier wars with the british and in charles allen ' s analysis of those wars were described as " extremely hostile " and " brave and hardy and accounted for the best swordsmen in hazara. " - 1 names - 2 homelands - 3 history - 4 list of the hereditary tanoli rulers of amb state - 5 characteristics and features of tribal tanolies ( based on the classification of tribes of the indo - pak by the british ) - 6tanoli sub tribes - 7 tanolis today - 8 notable tanolis - 9 notes - 10references and bibliography the tanoli are also known as tanawal, for the name of the river. the british census included several variant forms of the name : taniwal tanole tan


- 8 notable tanolis - 9 notes - 10references and bibliography the tanoli are also known as tanawal, for the name of the river. the british census included several variant forms of the name : taniwal tanole tanaoli, tanol, tol, tholi, tahoa, tarnoli, tanis, tanai the tanoli were first encountered by westerners around 1700 ad " in the trans indus basin of the mahaban from which they were driven across the indus by the yusufzai " tribe. by the late 19th century the tanaoli had settled the tanawal tract in the west center of the district between abbottabad and the indus, and in the extensive hill country between the river and the urash plains. according to the settlement report of hazara, compiled by major wace ( 1872 ), the tanolis, who founded a state named amb, had already established their authority over tanawal. the voluminous urdu copy of the settlement report of hazara contains many passages in its historical resume of the area. in a number of maps drawn at the time and enclosed in the report, showing hazara under the mughals and under the durranis, the amb state has been shown as mulk - i - tanawal. the original existence of that mulk is as old as the middle period of the great afghan invasions of india. the tanoli are divided into two major sub - tribes : the hindwal and the pallal. the latter occupies the northern portion of the tanawal tract, and, until the dissolution of the princely states in 1968, constituted the semi - independent principality of amb. according to tanoli tradition ( preserved in a commentary based on an 1881 / 1891 census report they are named after a place in " afghanistan " ( not to be confused with the present - day state of afghanistan they have a history that akber gahee khan was son of zorab khan who came to kashmir as general of army on the commandment of qutab shah, on signing a treaty with king of kashmir and marrying his daughter he was on way back when he went to a saint in kahuta asking him to pray for a child of him. the saint asked for promise of staying at the place in reward for a pray for child birth. the child who took birth was named as akber gahee khan, akber gahee khan married and twelve son took birth named as 1 ) kahonder khan


asked for promise of staying at the place in reward for a pray for child birth. the child who took birth was named as akber gahee khan, akber gahee khan married and twelve son took birth named as 1 ) kahonder khan ( forefather of dhonde abbasis ) 2 ) sultan bala or barayas al mahroof tanoli khan ( forefather of tanolis in area of tanawal and amb durband ) 3 ) chajjar kanal 4 ) salal 5 ) agar khan 6 ) kool or koor 7 ) hakim khan 8 ) sarrara ( forefather of sarrara abbasi living in pattan and kukmang ) 9 ) hans khan 10 ) molam khan 11 ) dilhawas 12 ) barra hazaria. tanoli ' s have ruled the state of amb of hazara since the 13th century up until the wars with the sikhs in the 19th century. they were frequently engaged in rebellions with successive rulers of the delhi sultanate as well as allying with ahmed shah abdali in his conquest of india. charles allen in his book referred to them as " the extremely hostile and powerful tanolis of the tanawal moutains ". they were also the last ruling dynasty of the state of amb. " many mouths, many sayings " many people tried to link the tanoli with their own tribe or another one else. but it ' s clear and accepted from the history. that they are abbasi. tanoli are not jungua. tanoli are not barlas mughals. barlas mughals are those who connect them selves with ( iero ma jeet barlas ) ( turk and barlas mughals are from same branch there grand father is same if we are mughal or turk... why turk arrange the army of soldiers against tanoli ' s to stop them to enter in pakhal because they rule pakhal at that time if we are there brothers they welcome us with open arms but they fight with us many time but they failed to stop us to enter us in this area. tanoli are not rajas. tanoli did ' t come with greek alaxander. tanoli ' s are not pukhtoon : check the list of pahtoon tribes ( http : / / www. khyber. org / pashtotribes. shtml you can not finde tanoli ' s in the history books of pushtoons as a sub


farid khan, acceded to pakistan. in 1969, the state was incorporated into the north - west frontier province and in 1971 the royal status of the nawab was abolished by the government of pakistan. the construction of the tarbela dam across the indus river in the early 1970s resulted in much of amb state being submerged by the reservoir. rulers of amb the state was ruled by a dynasty who originally held the title of mir and in 1868 were granted the title of nawab by the british raj. a listing of the known rulers of amb is provided here. tenure rulers of amb ( tanawal ) unknown date - 1818 ( mir ) nawab khan 1818 - 1840 ( mir ) payenda khan 1840 - 1868 ( nawab ) jahandad khan 1868 - 1907 ( nawab ) mohammad akram khan 1907 - 26th february 1936 ( nawab ) zaman khan 26th february 1936 - 1971 ( nawab ) mohammad farid khan 1973 royal status abolished upper tanowl darband kripplian lower tanowl kokal shenghree books references - bagh - e - dawaz dahe imam written by syed hidayat hussain shah sahab - maratus salatin urdu trajuma sairul mutakhireen ( mir ghulam nawab khan shab ) - subha sadiq written by aziz ur rehman - aina - e - qiresh written by justic akram khan - abbasi shumal mashriki pakistan ma written by just ayub shaba - tarikh - e - aqwam - e - pounch written by muhamamd deen fouqe - tarikh - e - muree written by noor elahi sahab - traikh - e - abbasiya written by riyaz ur rehman saghar - tarikh - e - haft janagh written by sardar meer akbar khan - islam ki daswin kitab by moulana rehman baksh lahori - alvu awan tarikh ka aina ma written by muhabbat hussain awan - tehkik al ansabe by muhammad karim khan awan - anisab al qabail akbariya written by capt muhammad ashraf khan - tarikh e fatikh anisab written by syed mehmood hussain shah - punjab chiefs lepal h griffon - punjabi musalmans by j m wikely


most fruits and vegetables have a very limited life after harvest if held at normal harvesting temperatures. postharvest cooling rapidly removes field heat, allowing longer storage periods. proper postharvest cooling can : in addition to helping maintain quality, postharvest cooling also provides marketing flexibility by allowing the grower to sell produce at the most appropriate time. having cooling and storage facilities makes it unnecessary to market the produce immediately after harvest. this can be an advantage to growers who supply restaurants and grocery stores or to small growers who want to assemble truckload lots for shipment. postharvest cooling is essential to delivering produce of the highest possible quality to the consumer. although small, commercial, contractor - built cooling rooms are available, they are often much more expensive than owner - built structures. in addition to avoiding a substantial amount of the construction cost, you can tailor a cooling facility to your individual needs by designing and building it yourself. whether the cooling facility is built or bought, you can ensure its effectiveness by giving careful thought to the topics discussed in the following sections. types of produce. different types of produce have different cooling requirements. for example, strawberries, apples, and broccoli all require near - freezing temperatures, whereas summer squash or tomatoes can be injured by low temperatures ( table 1 ). if small quantities of produce with different cooling requirements must be cooled or stored together, the temperature will have to be set high enough to prevent chill injury of susceptible produce. this temperature, however, will not provide optimum quality and storage life for other types of produce. table 1. products that sustain cold injury chill sensitive freeze sensitive ( below 40 - 45 f ) ( below 32 f ) beans ( all types ) apples eggplant asparagus okra brambles peppers cabbage potatoes peaches pumpkins sweet corn squash ( summer ) strawberries sweetpotatoes squash ( winter ) tomatoes watermelons some fruits and vegetables produce ethylene gas as a natural product of ripening and respond to this gas by accelerating their ripening. others do not produce ethylene but are very sensitive to it ( table 2 ). for sensitive produce, minute quantities of ethylene gas will greatly accelerate the ripening process even at low storage temperatures. it is very important not to store items sensitive to ethylene with those that produce this gas. table 2. products that produce ethylene or are ethylene sensitive. ethylene producers ethylene sensitiveapples broccoli cantaloupes cabbage honeydew melons


to ethylene with those that produce this gas. table 2. products that produce ethylene or are ethylene sensitive. ethylene producers ethylene sensitiveapples broccoli cantaloupes cabbage honeydew melons carrots peaches cucumbers pears cut flowers plums eggplant tomatoes green beans leaf greens okra peas peppers squash sweetpotatoes watermelons in addition to ethylene sensitivity, some types of produce generate odors that are readily absorbed by other items. the odor of apples and onions in particular are easily transferred to other produce items. consequently, care should be exercised when storing other products with either of these items. most conflicts in storing mixed produce are avoidable, but serious problems may develop if the unique requirements of each commodity are not kept in mind. complete information on postharvest cooling and storage requirements may be obtained from introduction to proper postharvest cooling and handling methods. quantity and movement of produce. although the primary function of any cooling facility is to remove field heat, an important secondary function is to provide cold storage space. cooling capacity and storage capacity are separate characteristics, but together they determine the size of the facility. cooling capacity and, to a lesser degree, storage capacity depend upon the size of the facility and the capacity of its refrigeration system. therefore, it is important to determine the amount of produce you are likely to cool and store. a refrigeration system can be thought of as a pump that moves heat from one place to another. refrigeration capacity, a measure of the rate at which a system will transfer heat energy, is normally expressed in tons. a ton of refrigeration capacity is the ability to transfer the amount of heat required to melt 1 ton of ice in a 24 - hour period ( 288, 000 btu ). said another way, a refrigeration system of 1 - ton capacity is theoretically capable of freezing 1 ton of water in 24 hours. that is, it can transfer 288, 000 btu in 24 hours or 12, 000 btu per hour. the correct size for a refrigeration unit is determined by three factors, the first of which is the weight of produce to be cooled. since most produce is sold by volume ( by crates, boxes, or bushels ) you may have to determine its weight per unit of volume. obviously, the more produce to be cooled, the larger the refrigeration unit must be. the second factor is the minimum


by volume ( by crates, boxes, or bushels ) you may have to determine its weight per unit of volume. obviously, the more produce to be cooled, the larger the refrigeration unit must be. the second factor is the minimum time required from start to finish of cooling. ideally, cooling should take place fast enough to prevent serious degradation of the produce but no faster. cooling produce faster than necessary is unduly expensive because the refrigeration system must be larger and the demand cost for electrical energy is greater. to cool a load of produce in 2 hours instead of 4 may require twice the refrigeration capacity, and the cost of electricity may be three times as high. the third factor is the nature of the refrigerated space : its size, how well it is insulated, and how it is to be operated. because as much as one - half of the refrigeration capacity in a typical facility is used to overcome heat gained through the floor, walls, ceiling, and doors, it is important to minimize these gains. selecting a refrigeration unit of the proper size will be discussed in a later section. storage capacity. the decision to cool and ship produce immediately or to store it for a time often depends not only on the type of produce and market conditions but also on the availability of space in the storage facility. the type of produce you grow will determine, in part, how much storage space you need. obviously, highly perishable produce requires less storage space than less perishable items simply because it cannot be held for long periods without losing quality. if the construction budget will allow, it is advisable to construct enough storage space for at least one day s maximum harvest of the most perishable commodities and even more for the less perishable items. it is much easier to build adequate storage space initially than to add space later. cost per square foot decreases and energy efficiency increases with the size of the facility. adequate storage space should not be overlooked, since one of the major benefits of a postharvest cooling facility is the marketing flexibility it allows by providing short - term storage. on the other hand, excess ( unused ) storage space is a waste of energy and money. to determine the amount of refrigerated space to build, use the following formula : v = 2. 5 x ( c + s ) where : v = volume of the refrigerated space in cubic feet c = maximum number of bushels to be cooled at any


should be inclined at a slope of no more than 1 to 5. it is also convenient to include a raised dock for loading trucks and trailers. location and layout. the location chosen for the cooling facility should reflect its primary function. if you plan to conduct retail sales of fresh produce from the facility, it should be located with easy access to public roads. a retail sales operation located away from the road, particularly behind dwellings or other buildings, discourages many customers. adequate parking for customers and employees, if any, must be provided. if the cooling facility is used in connection with a pick - your - own operation, it is best to locate it near restrooms and retail sales areas. if, however, the primary function of the cooling facility is to cool and assemble wholesale lots, ease of public access is less important. in this case, the best location may be adjacent to the packing or grading room. in addition to housing grading and packing equipment, the space could be used to store empty containers and other equipment and supplies when it is not needed for cooling. all cooling and packing facilities should have convenient access to fields or orchards to reduce the time from harvest to the start of cooling. regardless of how it is used, the facility will need access to electrical power and water. for larger cooling rooms requiring more than about 10 tons of refrigeration in a single unit, access to three - phase power will be necessary. the location of existing utility lines should be carefully considered, as connection costs can be prohibitive in some rural areas. consult your local power company for details. in addition, it is a good idea to anticipate any future growth when locating and designing your facility. before you begin construction, familiarize yourself with any applicable laws, regulations, and codes pertaining to construction and electrical systems, worker health and safety, and the handling and storage of food products. plan number 6145 for a moderate - sized refrigerated storage building with adjacent space for packing and sorting is included at the end of this publication. the plan includes an optional retail sales room that can be built if needed. this facility provides approximately 7, 400 cubic feet of refrigerated space with a design storage capacity of approximately 3, 000 bushels. the nominal design cooling capacity is 300 bushels per day with a 3 1 / 2 ton refrigeration unit. as explained earlier, however, the required refrigeration capacity cannot be accurately determined unless the types and amounts of produce to be cooled are known. these plans illustrate only one of many


with a 3 1 / 2 ton refrigeration unit. as explained earlier, however, the required refrigeration capacity cannot be accurately determined unless the types and amounts of produce to be cooled are known. these plans illustrate only one of many workable designs. what may be ideal for one operation may not be suitable for another. in developing the overall design, therefore, give serious consideration to how the produce will move through your facility. doors, loading docks, and adjacent work areas should be conveniently located to accommodate the flow of material. remember the cardinal rule of industrial engineering, always make it easy to do the right thing. the construction of a produce cooling and storage facility is an investment in quality maintenance. therefore, the materials and workmanship of the facility itself should be of the best possible quality. many different construction materials are suitable for such a project. the difficulty is deciding which ones are the most appropriate and cost effective for your application. many problems can be avoided by paying particular attention during the construction phase to the items discussed in the following sections. foundation and floor. almost all postharvest cooling facilities built nowadays are constructed on an insulated concrete slab with a reinforced, load - bearing perimeter foundation wall. the slab should be built sufficiently above grade to ensure good drainage away from the building, particularly around doors. the floor should also be equipped with a suitable inside drain to dispose of wastewater from cleaning and condensation. the floor of a refrigerated room must support heavy loads and withstand hard use in a wet environment but still provide an acceptable measure of insulation. the slab floor should be at least 4 inches of wire - mesh - reinforced concrete over 2 inches of waterproof plastic foam insulation board such as dow styrofoam or equivalent. five or even 6 inches of concrete may be necessary for situations where loads are expected to be unusually heavy. the need for floor insulation is often poorly understood and therefore neglected to cut cost. this is false economy, however, since the insulation will pay for itself in a few seasons of use. if the room is to be used for long - term subfreezing storage, it is essential that the floor be well insulated with at least 4 inches of foam insulation board ( having a rating of r - 20 or greater ) to prevent ground heave. any framing lumber in contact with the concrete floor must be pressure treated to prevent decay, especially the sill plates and lower door frames, which may be in long - term contact with water. although no produce would normally come into contact


ground heave. any framing lumber in contact with the concrete floor must be pressure treated to prevent decay, especially the sill plates and lower door frames, which may be in long - term contact with water. although no produce would normally come into contact with it, the lumber must be treated with an approved nontoxic material. information on the toxicity of treated lumber should be obtained from the building materials supplier. during construction, the interface between the underside of the sill plate and the floor must be sealed to prevent the movement of water. this is easily done by completely coating the underside of the sill plate with a heavy layer of suitable sealant before securing it to the foundation pad with anchor bolts. the sill plate must be adequately secured to the floor to prevent the building from moving off the foundation in a high wind. although the plan shows a treated 4 - by - 4 - inch bumper guard adjacent to the sill plate, a 4 - by - 6 - inch guard is recommended ( figure 2 ). this essential component serves two important purposes. first, it protects the walls from being damaged by movement of loaded produce pallets and lift trucks. it also ensures that a suitable air gap is maintained between the produce and the walls. figure 2. bumper guard insulation. thermal energy always flows from warm objects to cold ones. all materials, even good conductors like metals, offer some resistance to the flow of heat. insulation, however, is any material that offers high resistance to the flow of energy. hundreds of different materials have been used at one time or another for thermal insulation. since selecting the proper insulation is one of the most important building decisions you will make, it is important that the material be not only cost effective but also correct for the job. the characteristics of insulation materials differ considerably. suitability for a particular application, not cost, should be the deciding factor in choosing a material. some of the important characteristics that should be considered are the product s r - value, its cost, and the effects of moisture on it. r - value. a measure of an insulation s resistance to the movement of heat is its r - value. the r ( for resistance ) number, is always associated with a thickness ; the higher the r - value, the higher the resistance and the better the insulating properties of the material. the r - value can be given in terms of a 1 - inch - thick layer or in terms of the total thickness of the material. the total resistance to the flow of heat through any insulated wall is simply


insulating properties of the material. the r - value can be given in terms of a 1 - inch - thick layer or in terms of the total thickness of the material. the total resistance to the flow of heat through any insulated wall is simply the sum of the resistances of the individual components. that is, in addition to the thermal resistance of the insulation, the inside and outside sheathing, layers of paint, and even the thin layer of air next to the surface contribute to the wall s overall thermal resistance. although they are highly weather resistant and require little upkeep, metal sheathing materials are very poor insulators. when specifying building materials, be sure to select those with the best combination of economic value and thermal resistance. the r - values of common building materials are listed in table 3. table 3. insulation r - values for common building materials glass wool, mineral wool, or fiberglass 3. 50 fill - type insulation cellulose 3. 50 glass or mineral wool 2. 50 - 3. 00 vermiculite 2. 20 wood shavings or sawdust 2. 22 rigid insulation plain expanded extruded polystyrene 5. 00 expanded rubber 4. 55 expanded polystyrene molded beads 3. 57 aged expanded polyurethane 6. 25 glass fiber 4. 00 polyisocyranuate 8. 00 wood or cane fiber board 2. 50 foamed - in - place insulation sprayed expanded urethane 6. 25 urea - formaldehyde 4. 20 - 5. 50 building materials solid concrete 0. 08 8 - inch concrete block, open core 1. 11 8 - inch lightweight concrete block, open core 2. 00 8 - inch concrete block with vermiculite in core 5. 03 lumber, fir or pine 1. 25 metal siding < 0. 01 3 / 8 - inch plywood 1. 25 0. 47 1 / 2 - inch plywood 1. 25 0. 62 masonite particleboard 1. 06 25 / 32 - inch insulated sheathing 2. 06 1 / 2 - inch sheetrock 0. 45 1 / 2 - inch wood lapsiding 0. 81r - value full thickness material 1 inch thick of materialbatt and blanket insulation cost. the cost of insulation varies considerably with the type, whether expressed in dollars per square foot per inch of thickness or dollars per square foot per unit of thermal resistance ( r ). for example, even though the r - value per inch of polyisocyranuate ( table 3


considerably with the type, whether expressed in dollars per square foot per inch of thickness or dollars per square foot per unit of thermal resistance ( r ). for example, even though the r - value per inch of polyisocyranuate ( table 3 ) is more than twice that of loose - fill cellulose, the cellulose may actually be less expensive in terms of insulating value per dollar. of the insulation materials commonly used for refrigerated rooms, loose - fill cellulose is usually the least costly, followed by batts and blankets, then various foam sheet materials, and finally sprayed or foamed - in - place materials, which are the most expensive. sprayed - on and foamed - in - place insulations have the added advantage of sealing an otherwise leaky structure and thereby greatly reducing infiltration. sprayed - on foam also significantly reduces labor and material costs because an interior panel wall is not required. certain types of foam insulation may constitute a fire hazard if carelessly handled, and care should therefore be exercised. check local fire and building codes. in selecting any insulation material, carefully consider the cost associated with installation and any additional material costs. effects of moisture. in most types of insulation the flow of heat energy is impeded by small cells of trapped air distributed throughout the material. when the insulation absorbs moisture, the air is replaced by water and the insulating value is greatly reduced. for this reason, insulation should be kept dry at all times. with the exception of most plastic foam insulations, which are essentially waterproof, all insulation materials must be used with a suitable vapor barrier. a 4 - mil polyethylene sheet is normally installed on the warm side ( outside ) of the insulation, the opposite of the normal practice for house construction. this placement prevents the formation of condensation on and within the insulating material. the vapor barrier sheet must be continuous from floor to ceiling. where two sheets join, they should overlap 12 inches and be positively sealed ( for example, with duct tape ). doors and other hardware items. the door is a critical part of a cooling facility. improperly built or maintained doors can waste large quantities of energy. doors should have as much insulation as the walls and should be well weather stripped to reduce the infiltration of warm air. door gaskets should always provide a good seal. door seals can be checked by inserting a thin sheet of paper between the door and the seal area and then closing the door. the seal is acceptable only if resistance is felt


of warm air. door gaskets should always provide a good seal. door seals can be checked by inserting a thin sheet of paper between the door and the seal area and then closing the door. the seal is acceptable only if resistance is felt when the paper is pulled out. remember that a large single sliding or swinging door is much easier to keep tight than a set of double swinging doors. all large doors have a tendency to sag over time unless they are diagonally braced and well supported. use only the best grade of hinges and latches. be sure that the door can be opened from the inside. plastic strip curtains are often added to reduce energy loss when the door must remain open for long periods. these curtains allow free entry and exit by people, produce, and fork trucks but block the mixing of inside and outside air, which can waste a substantial amount of energy. although there are many ac - ceptable designs, three door section details that have been proven in actual use are shown in figure 3. figure 3. three acceptable door designs. the optimal storage temperature must be continuously maintained to obtain the full benefit of cold storage. to make sure the storage room can be kept at the desired temperature, calculate the required refrigeration capacity using the most severe conditions expected during operation. these conditions include the mean maximum outside temperature, the maximum amount of produce cooled each day, and the maximum temperature of the produce to be cooled. the total amount of heat that the refrigeration system must remove from the cooling room is called the heat load. if the refrigeration system can be thought of as a heat pump, the refrigerated room can be thought of as a boat leaking in several places with an occasional wave splashing over the side. the leaks and splashes of heat entering a cooling room come from several sources : example. the following example illustrates the method for calculating the amount of refrigeration needed to operate a cold storage facility. two thousand bushels of summer apples are loaded into a storage room 23 feet square and 14 feet high ( inside dimensions ) at the rate of 200 bushels per day. the walls have an insulation value of r - 16, the ceiling a value of r - 20, and the floor a value of r - 11. the cold storage room will be operated at 32 f during august when the mean maximum temperature is 80 f. the average maximum temperature for all 12 months for locations throughout north carolina can be obtained from table 4. table 4. average monthly maximum dry -


. the cold storage room will be operated at 32 f during august when the mean maximum temperature is 80 f. the average maximum temperature for all 12 months for locations throughout north carolina can be obtained from table 4. table 4. average monthly maximum dry - bulb temperatures for various north carolina cities city jan feb mar apr may jun jul aug sep oct nov dec asheboro 48 51 58 69 76 81 84 84 78 69 59 50 asheville 48 51 58 69 76 81 84 84 78 69 59 50 banner elk 42 44 51 61 68 74 76 76 71 62 52 45 elizabeth city 51 53 61 71 78 84 88 87 82 72 63 55 franklin 50 53 61 71 78 83 86 85 80 72 61 53 gastonia 52 56 64 74 81 87 90 89 83 73 63 54 laurinburg 55 59 67 77 83 89 91 91 86 76 67 58 mount airy 48 52 61 72 79 85 88 87 81 71 60 51 new bern 54 57 64 74 80 85 88 88 83 74 66 57 oxford 50 53 62 73 80 86 89 88 82 72 62 53 smithfield 53 56 64 75 82 88 91 90 85 74 65 56 southport 56 57 63 72 79 84 87 87 83 75 67 59 the walls have an r - value of 16 and an area of 4 x ( 23 x 14 ) or 1, 288 square feet. the temperature difference between the inside and outside is 80 f - 32 f, or 48 f. the heat conduction, hc, through the walls is found by multiplying the area of the walls by the temperature difference and dividing the product by the r - value. wall area ( sq ft ) x temp. difference ( f ) hc ( btu / hr ) = - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - r - value ( sq ft f / btu ) 1, 288 sq ft x 48 f = - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 16 sq ft f / btu = 3, 864 btu / hr heat conducted through the ceiling is calculated using the same equation. however, since the ceiling usually has a more direct exposure to sunlight and hence a higher temperature, more insulation is installed in it, and the temperature difference in the calculation is increased by 10 f ( that is, 80 f + 10 f = 90 f ). if applicable, the installation of an attic fan will reduce the temperature considerably


higher temperature, more insulation is installed in it, and the temperature difference in the calculation is increased by 10 f ( that is, 80 f + 10 f = 90 f ). if applicable, the installation of an attic fan will reduce the temperature considerably, but the cost of the fan and the electricity to run it should be weighed against the saving in heat conduction. 529 sq ft x 58 f 1, 534 btu / hr = - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 20 heat conducted through the floor is also calculated with this equation. however, since the ground has an average year - round temperature of approximately 55 f in most parts of north carolina, less insulation is put in the floor, and the temperature differential used in the equation is decreased to 23 f. 529 sq ft x ( 55 f - 32 f ) 1, 106 btu / hr = - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 11 the total amount of heat conducted through the walls, ceiling, and floor is the sum of these three calculated values : 3, 864 btu / hr + 1, 534 btu / hr + 1, 106 btu / hr = 6, 504 btu / hr ( walls ) ( ceiling ) ( floor ) ( total ) field heat, fh, is the product of the specific heat, sh, of the crop ( the amount of heat energy it holds per degree ), the difference, dt, between the field temperature and the storage temperature, and the weight, w, of the produce. fh ( btu / hr ) = sh ( btu / lb / f ) x dt ( f ) x w ( lb ) the specific heat of water is 1 btu per pound per degree fahrenheit. since fruits and vegetables are mostly water, their individual specific heat is directly related to their water content and can for practical purposes be estimated as 1. for actual specific heat values, see table 5. for this example, we will use the actual value of 0. 87. this means that 0. 87 btu of heat must be removed to cool 1 pound of apples 1 f. table 5. specific heat and heat of respiration for horticultural crops grown in north carolina respiration - - - - - - - - - - - - - specific heat cool warm commodity ( btu / lb / f ) ( btu / lb / hour ) apples, summer


heat of respiration for horticultural crops grown in north carolina respiration - - - - - - - - - - - - - specific heat cool warm commodity ( btu / lb / f ) ( btu / lb / hour ) apples, summer 0. 87 0. 018 0. 340 apples, fall 0. 87 0. 012 0. 240 asparagus 0. 94 0. 245 2. 523 beans, butter 0. 73 0. 123 0. 716 beans, string 0. 91 0. 161 0. 885 beets, topped 0. 90 0. 028 0. 092 blueberries 0. 86 0. 028 0. 748 brambles 0. 87 0. 092 0. 711 broccoli 0. 92 0. 092 1. 376 cabbage 0. 94 0. 023 0. 257 cantaloupes 0. 94 0. 025 0. 305 cucumbers 0. 97 0. 119 0. 170 grapes 0. 86 0. 014 0. 179 green onions 0. 91 0. 096 0. 704 leafy greens 0. 90 0. 100 1. 034 okra 0. 92 0. 257 1. 583 peaches 0. 91 0. 023 0. 466 peas, garden 0. 79 0. 177 1. 651 peas, field 0. 73 0. 160 1. 554 peppers 0. 94 0. 046 0. 252 potatoes 0. 84 0. 028 0. 055 squash 0. 95 0. 161 0. 751 strawberries 0. 92 0. 069 0. 872 sweet corn 0. 79 0. 186 1. 644 sweetpotatoes 0. 75 0. 064 0. 100 tomatoes, mature green 0. 94 0. 030 0. 197 tomatoes, ripening 0. 95 0. 067 0. 188 turnips 0. 93 0. 034 0. 130 watermelons 0. 94 0. 034 0. 110 although a bushel of apples weighs about 45 pounds, we will assume a weight of 50 pounds to take into account the weight of the container, which must also be cooled. the amount of field heat that must be removed is : 0. 87 btu / lb x ( 80 f - 32 f ) x 200 bu x 50 lb / bu = 417, 600 btu since the apples are to be cooled to 32 f in one day, the hourly field heat


removed is : 0. 87 btu / lb x ( 80 f - 32 f ) x 200 bu x 50 lb / bu = 417, 600 btu since the apples are to be cooled to 32 f in one day, the hourly field heat load is 417, 600 btu divided by 24 hours, or 17, 400 btu per hour. on the last day of harvest, the storage facility will contain 1, 800 bushels of cool apples and 200 bushels of field - warm apples. at this time the respiration heat load generated by the stored crop will be the largest. table 5 shows that field - warm summer apples pro - duce about 0. 340 btu per pound per hour, whereas properly cooled summer apples produce only 0. 018 btu per pound per hour. thus field - warm apples pro - duce nearly 19 times as much heat by respiration as do cool apples. since the freshly harvested ( warm ) apples will be cooled to their proper storage temperature within one day, the heat of respiration used in the calculation will be the average of the values. the average is : 0. 340 + 0. 018 - - - - - - - - - - - - - = 0. 179 btu / lb / hr 2 the weight, w, of the 1, 800 bushels of cool apples is approximately : w = 1, 800 bu x 50 lb / bu = 90, 000 lb the heat of respiration of the cool apples, hrc, is : hrc = 90, 000 lb x 0. 018 btu / lb / hr = 1, 620 btu / hr the weight, w, of the 200 bushels of warm apples is approximately : w = 200 bu x 50 lb / bu = 10, 000 lb the average respiration rate, as given previously, is 0. 179 btu per pound per hour. therefore the heat of respiration for the warm apples, hrw, is : hrw = 10, 000 lb x 0. 179 btu / hr = 1, 790 btu / hr to obtain the total heat of respiration, hrt, we add the value for cool and warm apples : hrt = 1, 620 btu / hr + 1, 790 btu / hr = 3, 410 btu / hr sl = 0. 10 x ( 6, 504 + 17, 400 + 3, 410 btu / hr ) = 2, 731 btu / hr the total heat load is the sum


/ hr = 3, 410 btu / hr sl = 0. 10 x ( 6, 504 + 17, 400 + 3, 410 btu / hr ) = 2, 731 btu / hr the total heat load is the sum from all four sources, as shown in table 6. table 6. total heat load for example cooling facility 1. heat conductance walls 3, 864 ceiling 1, 534 floor 1, 106 6, 504 btu / hr 2. field heat 200 bushels per day at 80 f 17, 400 btu / hr 3. heat of respiration 200 bushels warm apples 1, 790 1, 800 bushels cold apples 1, 620 3, 410 btu / hr subtotal 27, 314 btu / hr 4. service load 10 % of subtotal 2, 731 btu / hr total heat load 30, 045 btu / hr the approximate proportion of the total heat load contributed by each of the four sources is : heat conduction.... 21. 6 percent field heat....... 57. 9 percent heat of respiration.. 11. 3 percent service load...... 9. 1 percent as discussed previously, refrigeration systems are rated by how much heat they will move or displace in a given length of time. the standard unit of rating is the ton. since 1 ton of refrigeration equals 288, 000 btu per 24 hours, or 12, 000 btu per hour, the refrigeration capacity, rc, for a unit that would just handle the heat load in the previous example under the conditions described would be : 30, 061 btu / hr rc = - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 12, 000 btu / hr ton = 2. 51 tons a 2. 51 - ton refrigeration unit would need to run continuously to keep the temperature in this storage facility at 32 f under the conditions listed above. if the conditions used in this calculation were changed, a 2. 51 - ton unit could be either too large or too small to maintain the desired storage temperature. the capacity needed to maintain a temperature of 32 f would increase if : for example, if harvesting were increased to 400 bushels of apples per day, the total heat load would increase to nearly 51, 000 btu per hour. a 4 1 / 4 - ton unit running continuously would be required to maintain


increase if : for example, if harvesting were increased to 400 bushels of apples per day, the total heat load would increase to nearly 51, 000 btu per hour. a 4 1 / 4 - ton unit running continuously would be required to maintain a storage temperature of 32 f under these conditions. in practice, it is advisable in selecting a refrigeration system to add reserve capacity to the calculated rating as a protection against overloads. of particular interest is the fact that refrigeration systems, for reasons to be discussed later, are operated for a total of only 16 to 20 hours per day. the total capacity of the system must be increased, therefore, to compensate for the " off time. " for example, if the system described in the example were to operate for only 16 hours per day, it would need to be 24 / 16, or 1. 5 times as large - - that is, 3. 77 tons instead of 2. 51 tons. furthermore, it is good practice to increase the capacity of the system by a chilling rate factor. the rate at which heat is removed from the produce is not constant during the cycle but is greatest at the beginning. if the capacity of the system is not sufficient to overcome the thermal inertia of the produce, cooling time may increase above the specified limits for the product. to compensate, a chilling rate factor of 1. 5 is applied to most fresh fruits and vegetables. this factor is applied in addition to the on - time factor. thus the actual refrigeration system capacity, rc, required for the example facility would be : rc = 2. 51 x 1. 5 x 1. 5 = 5. 65 tons in the example, field heat accounts for 58. 9 percent of the total heat load. once field heat has been removed from the crop, much less refrigeration capacity is required to maintain the storage temperature. while 5. 65 tons of refrigeration are needed to cool the apples in the example, about 2 1 / 2 tons are needed to maintain a constant temperature after they have reached 32 f. therefore, anything that can be done to lower the temperature of the crop brought into the storage facility will significantly reduce the initial heat load, thus reducing the cost of the refrigeration equipment needed and the electrical energy to operate it. harvesting early or late in the day or even at night helps reduce refrigeration cost. some large growers of highly perishable crops have started harvesting " under the lights " to


cooling coils. however, the colder the coil surface, the more water vapor from the air will condense on the coils, either as a liquid or as ice. evaporator coil condensation represents wasted refrigeration capacity and should be minimized. allowing hot, humid air to enter the cooling room is particularly costly because the refrigeration system must not only cool the air but also condense the additional water vapor. figure 4. evaporator coils inside a cooling room. besides substantially reducing the energy efficiency of the system, condensation of water reduces the relative humidity of the air. since the optimum storage humidity for most produce is 90 percent or greater, either moisture must be added with a humidifier or the difference between the air and coil temperatures must be minimized. the temperature difference can be reduced by increasing the size of the coils enough that the air - to - coil temperature differential is 5 f or less. not all refrigeration contractors are aware of the special needs of produce cooling, so when purchasing a system be sure to specify a 5 f maximum air - to - coil differential. the system will be slightly more expensive, but the benefits will soon pay for the difference in cost. table 8 lists the recommended maximum coil - to - air temperature differential for various relative humidities. table 8. maximum evaporator design temperature differential desired relative design temperature humidity differential ( percent ) ( f ) 98 5 95 8 92 9 90 10 88 11 86 12 84 13 82 14 80 15 76 16 70 18 if the cooling room temperature is below 36 f, the coil temperature must be below freezing, and ice will therefore accumulate on the coil surface. the ice acts as an insulator, greatly reducing the coil ' s capacity to absorb heat from the air. this ice must be removed periodically by some type of defrosting mechanism, such as electrical resistance heaters, a warm water spray, or the momentary reversing of the refrigerant flow. if the refrigeration system has sufficient capacity, it may be allowed to remain off for 6 to 8 hours to let the ice melt naturally without adding supplemental heat. mechanisms designed specifically to aid de - frosting introduce heat into the room to melt evapor - ator ice, thus adding to the total cooling load. the amount of heat added, although small, should be taken into account when calculating refrigeration unit size. sanitation and maintenance. it is essential that storage rooms and containers be clean and sanitary. all accumulation


thus adding to the total cooling load. the amount of heat added, although small, should be taken into account when calculating refrigeration unit size. sanitation and maintenance. it is essential that storage rooms and containers be clean and sanitary. all accumulations of condensation water should be piped outside. clean all storage rooms thoroughly before filling them. if molds are found growing inside the room, disinfect the surfaces with a 0. 25 percent solution of sodium hypochlorite ( 1 gallon of household chlorine bleach in 20 gallons of water ) applied with a high - pressure washer. allow the room surfaces to air dry for several days. refrigeration coils, fans, and ducts should be inspected and cleaned regularly. refrigeration coils in particular can become clogged with dust and dirt, substantially decreasing their thermal efficiency. temperature control. in controlling a cooling facility, the most important temperature is that of the produce, not the air. measuring the air temperature will not correctly indicate produce temperature because the heat of respiration always raises the temperature of the produce above that of the surrounding air. put thermometers and thermostat sensing elements into the produce or at least into the produce container. directly measuring the temperature of the pulp ( interior of the product ) is the only accurate way to determine the produce temperature. it is good practice to use several pulp thermometers in various locations to obtain an accurate temperature reading. thermostats and wet - bulb thermometers should be recalibrated from time to time with an accurate mercury thermometer. humidistats can be checked for accuracy with a sling psychrometer. if possible, avoid positioning the sensing elements of controllers on the exterior walls or ceiling. typical temperature controllers are shown in figure 5. figure 5. temperature controllers. the produce temperature and the humidity must be monitored frequently during cooling and storage to prevent undercooling and chill injury. also, maintaining the proper temperature and humidity becomes more important with increasing time in storage. container design and positioning. the movement of air inside the cooling room helps conduct heat away from the produce. produce containers should be designed and stacked to allow sufficient air circulation to enhance the cooling rate and keep the crop at the optimum storage temperature. evaporator coil fans may be positioned to aid air circulation inside the cooling room. for the rapid cooling required by many horticultural crops, it may be necessary to move cool air past the produce with additional fans.


crop at the optimum storage temperature. evaporator coil fans may be positioned to aid air circulation inside the cooling room. for the rapid cooling required by many horticultural crops, it may be necessary to move cool air past the produce with additional fans. fans designed and operated specifically to force cold air through produce containers can reduce cooling time by more than 80 percent if sufficient refrigeration capacity is available. although cooling increases production cost, it is essential to maintaining high product quality. no amount of cooling, however, will improve poor - quality produce. if you wish to have high - quality produce after cooling and storage, you must start with high - quality produce. maintaining quality requires harvesting the crop at the correct stage of maturity ; handling it with tender, loving care ; and quickly cooling it to the proper storage temperature. many factors must be considered when planning and building a cooling facility. among them are how it is to be used, the types and amounts of produce to be cooled and stored, and the desired refrigeration capacity. the correct size of a cooling facility cannot be determined strictly on a " square foot per acre " basis. similarly, the capacity of the refrigeration system needed cannot be accurately determined solely on the basis of the floor area or volume of the facility. by taking the time to follow the design procedures described in this publication, you can assure yourself that the facility you build will be adequate to meet your needs under all foreseeable conditions. update : 28 / 02 / 2002


topic : tsarskoye selo january 15th marked the 180th anniversary of the death of saint seraphim of sarov. in honour of this anniversary, a cross was erected in memory of an unfinished church which stood on the spot in 1916. the church was to constructed in honour of the miraculous escape of anna vyrubova, friend and confidant of the empress alexandra feodorovna, who survived a horrific train disaster on january 2 [ o. s. ], 1915. at the initiative of vyruobova, the saint seraphim hospital was opened, designed for russian soldiers officers wounded during world war one. the hospital could hold up to 50 patients at one time. in the spring of 1916, empress alexandra allocated a plot of land for the construction of hospital buildings and the saint seraphim of sarov church. a cross was erected on the spot where the church would be constructed. on november 5 [ o. s. ], 1916, a liturgy was held during the laying of the foundation stone for the new church. the service was attended by emperor nicholas ii and his family, anna vyrubova, and members of the clergy. sadly, the outbreak of the february revolution in 1917 and other subsequent events prevented further construction of the church. the church was nothing more than a simple wooden frame measuring 20 x 20 meters. after the revolution the church was destroyed. some sources say it was burnt to the ground, while others maintain that it was dismantled for firewood by locals. one point of interest is that it was here that rasputin ' s body was buried on december 21, 1916, on the north side of the church. his final resting place was disrupted in march 1917 by the bolsheviks, who dug up his remains and subsequently destroyed them. © paul gilbert @ royal russia. 18 january, 2013


about one - third of cancer deaths in 2012 will be caused by tobacco use, and another third will be related to overweight or obesity, physical inactivity, and poor nutrition, according to the american cancer society ' s annual report, cancer statistics, 2012. released yesterday, the report says that death rates continue to decline for lung, colon, breast, and prostate cancers, which are responsible for the most cancer deaths. however, there has been an increase in the past decade of people developing some less common cancers, including pancreas, liver, thyroid, and kidney cancer. a total of 1, 638, 910 new cancer cases and 577, 190 deaths from cancer are projected to occur in the united states in 2012. between 1990 / 1991 and 2008, the most recent year for which data is available, overall death rates decreased by about 23 % in men and 15 % in women. this translates to more than 1 million cancer deaths that were avoided. the rates of new cancer cases and cancer deaths vary quite a bit among racial and ethnic groups. for all cancer sites combined, african - american men have a 15 % higher rate of new cancer cases and a 33 % higher death rate than white men. african - american women have a 6 % lower rate of new cancer cases, but a 16 % higher death rate than white women. however, in the past decade, african - american men had the most rapid decline in death rates, at 2. 4 % per year. a companion piece to the report, cancer facts & figures 2012 highlights cancers with increasing incidence trends. despite a decline in the rates of the most common cancers, there has been an increase in the rates of several less common cancers : pancreas, liver, thyroid, kidney, melanoma of the skin, esophageal adenocarcinoma ( a kind of esophagus cancer ), and some kinds of throat cancer associated with hpv ( human papillomavirus ) infection.


saturday 15 june giant clam ( tridacna gigas ) giant clam fact file - find out more - print factsheet giant clam description this enormous shellfish is the largest species of bivalve mollusc in the fossil record, and the heaviest of all the living molluscs ( 4 ). like all bivalve molluscs, the shell of the giant clam ( tridacna gigas ) consists of two valves, although in the larger giant clams these cannot close completely ( 6 ). the shell is extremely thick and lacks bony plates ; when viewed from above, each valve has four to five inward facing triangular projections ( 6 ). the mantle of the giant clam is visible between the two shells, and is a golden brown, yellow or green, although there may be such an abundance of small blue - green circles that the overwhelming impression is of a beautiful iridescent colour ( 6 ) ( 7 ). a number of pale or clear spots on the mantle, known as ' windows ', allow sunlight to filter in through the mantle ( 6 ). the mantle of the giant clam is completely fused with the exception of two holes ( or ' siphons ' ). the gills are visible through the inhalant siphon, while the exhalent siphon is tube - like and is capable of expelling a large volume of water during spawning, or if the giant clam ’ s shells close suddenly ( 5 ) ( 7 ). - benitier geant. giant clam biology adult giant clams are completely sessile, unable to move from their position on the coral reef. they reproduce by expelling sperm and eggs into the sea ( 6 ), where fertilization occurs. the fertilised eggs quickly enter a swimming stage ( where they are known as trochophores ), before entering a planktonic stage ( 7 ). during this stage, the larvae, ( known as ' veligers ' ), inhabit the open ocean for one week, before settling in the substrate. if a clam is disturbed it will close its shell valves ( 6 ). giant clams have an inhalant siphon, which they use to draw in seawater that is then filtered for planktonic food ( 6 ). the majority of the clam ' s nutrients, however, are obtained by a mutually beneficial relationship with minute algae known as zooxanthellae ( 6 ). these plant - like algae exist in delicate


filtered for planktonic food ( 6 ). the majority of the clam ' s nutrients, however, are obtained by a mutually beneficial relationship with minute algae known as zooxanthellae ( 6 ). these plant - like algae exist in delicate tubules which are extensions of the stomach ( 8 ). the algae gain protection from predation by being associated with such a large organism, while the clam obtains the carbon by - products of photosynthesis ( 9 ). giant clams also provide protection for a species of pea crab ( xanthasia murigera ) ; a single pair will often be found living within the cavity of the clam ( 5 ). top giant clam rangetop giant clam habitat the giant clam inhabits warm tropical waters on reef flats and shallow lagoons to a depth of up to 20 metres ( 6 ). top giant clam statustop giant clam threats giant clams have been extensively harvested for their meat and to supply the aquarium trade with such exotic specimens ( 6 ). unable to sustain this exploitation, populations are now showing signs of decline ; tridacna gigas have not been seen in fiji for over 50 years, primarily as a result of past over - collection for food ( 2 ). top giant clam conservation these clams are listed on appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ), which requires a permit to be granted before giant clams can be exported ( 3 ). there has been considerable success with farming ( 10 ), which may help to alleviate the pressure on wild populations in the long - term. farmed clams may also be used in restocking programmes, where numbers have become severely restricted in the wild. giant clams were reintroduced to tongan waters in 1990 ( 2 ), from quarantined - reared stocks cultured in australia under the australian centre for international agricultural research and james cook university giant clam project ( 11 ). these enormous molluscs have inspired awe for centuries and effective protection measures are vital if they are to be adequately conserved for future generations. top authenticated ( 25 / 02 / 08 ) by dr rick braley, aquasearch lab, aquarium and consultancies, queensland, australia. - simple plants that lack roots, stems and leaves but contain the green pigment chlorophyll. most occur in marine and freshwater habitats. - in this group of aquatic molluscs the soft parts are encased in a shell consisting of two parts known as valves.


roots, stems and leaves but contain the green pigment chlorophyll. most occur in marine and freshwater habitats. - in this group of aquatic molluscs the soft parts are encased in a shell consisting of two parts known as valves. - stage in an animal ’ s lifecycle after it hatches from the egg. larvae are typically very different in appearance to adults ; they are able to feed and move around but usually are unable to reproduce. - in molluscs, a fold of skin that encloses a space known as the mantle cavity, which contains the gills. the mantle is responsible for the secretion of the shell. - a diverse group of invertebrates, mainly marine, that have one or all of the following ; a horny, toothed ribbon in the mouth ( the radula ), a shell covering the upper surface of the body, and a mantle or mantle cavity with a type of gill. includes snails, slugs, shellfish, octopuses and squid. - metabolic process characteristic of plants in which carbon dioxide is broken down, using energy from sunlight absorbed by the green pigment chlorophyll. organic compounds are made and oxygen is given off as a by - product. - aquatic organisms that drift with water movements ; may be either phytoplankton ( plants ), or zooplankton ( animals ). - in molluscs, a tube - like structure through which water passes into or out of the mantle cavity. - the production or depositing of large quantities of eggs in water. - a type of marine larva with several bands of cilia ( hair - like projections ). by moving the cilia, the trochophore can control the direction of its movement. iucn red list ( february, 2008 ) - spalding, m. d., ravilious, c. and green, e. p. ( 2001 ) world atlas of coral reefs. university of california press, berkeley. cites ( august, 2002 ) - wye, k. ( 1991 ) the illustrated encyclopedia of shells. quintet publishing limited, london. - mead and beckett publishing. ( 1984 ) reader ' s digest book of the great barrier reef. reader ' s digest, sydney. animal diversity web - tridacna gigas, giant clam ( august, 2002 ) - braley, r. d. ( 2008 ) pers. comm. - norton, j. h. and jones, g. w. ( 1992 ) the giant clam


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saturday 15 june giant otter ( pteronura brasiliensis ) giant otter fact file - find out more - print factsheet giant otter description the giant otter, known through much of its range as the ' river wolf ', is one of south america ' s top carnivores and is the largest of the otter species in terms of total length. the muscular, sinuous body is covered with velvety, brown fur, which is dense and water - repellent. a patch of cream colouring is present on the throat and chin, the pattern of which is unique to each individual from birth. the giant otter has short legs and large webbed feet which, along with the wing - like tail, allow the otter to move quickly through the water. the movement of prey is detected by the large eyes and sensitive whiskers ( 2 ) ( 4 ). - loutre geante du bresil. - arirai, lobito de cola ancha, lobo de rio, lobo de rio grande, lobo del rio, lobo gargantilla. - male length : 1. 5 - 1. 8 m ( 2 ) - female length : 1. 5 - 1. 7 m ( 2 ) - male weight : 26 - 32 kg ( 2 ) - female weight : 22 - 26 kg ( 2 ) giant otter biology the giant otter generally lives in family groups of three to ten individuals, composed of a monogamous, breeding pair and their offspring born during previous years ( 2 ) ( 6 ). these groups rest, play, travel, fish and sleep together. members of the group use communal latrines where they rub their faeces and urine into the earth with their paws, in order to advertise the group ' s residency ( 2 ) ( 6 ). breeding can take place throughout the year, although most young are born during the dry season. litter size varies from one to six cubs, following a 64 to 72 day gestation ( 7 ). the new cubs are cared for by both the adults and older siblings. at two to three weeks the cubs are put in the water by the female, and at three to four months the cubs begin hunting and travelling with the family. the young are weaned at six months, and are efficient hunters by the age of ten months, although they remain with the family group for at least another year ; sexual maturity is attained at age 2. 5 years, after which many young adults disperse ( 2 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 )


and are efficient hunters by the age of ten months, although they remain with the family group for at least another year ; sexual maturity is attained at age 2. 5 years, after which many young adults disperse ( 2 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ). the giant otter is diurnal. although highly adapted to its amphibious lifestyle, and despite its clumsy appearance on land, giant otters may travel several hundreds of metres between areas of water ( 2 ) ( 6 ). the diet is composed almost exclusively of fish, but it is also known to eat caimans, anacondas, other snakes and even the occasional turtle ( 2 ) ( 6 ). top giant otter range this species is endemic to south america ( except chile ), east of the andes mountain chain. currently, it is almost or completely absent from argentina and uruguay ( 4 ), and very rare in paraguay. the giant otter is seen within the orinoco, amazon and la plata river systems ( 5 ). top giant otter habitat key factors influencing giant otter habitat preference are the presence of non - floodable banks with vegetation cover and easy access to hunting areas with an abundance of vulnerable prey in relatively shallow waters ( 2 ). top giant otter statustop giant otter threats up until the late 1970s the giant otter was excessively hunted for its valuable fur ( 2 ) ( 5 ) ( 8 ), with its naturally curious disposition making it a particularly easy target. the fur trade is less of a threat today thanks to protective legislation, but illegal killing does still occur, often due to perceived conflict with fishermen. some cubs are taken from the wild to be kept as pets ( 4 ), and usually die in the hands of inexperienced caretakers. habitat loss and fragmentation, and pollution are currently the major threats to the survival of the giant otter, with the areas in which they live being destroyed and degraded by mining, logging, and damming ( 2 ) ( 6 ) ( 8 ). top giant otter conservation the giant otter is protected through much of its range and is listed on appendix i of the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ), which effectively bans international trade ( 3 ). in 1990, the iucn developed an action plan for the conservation of otter species. it recommended a number of conservation measures for the giant otter, including continuing studies on the ecology and requirements of this remarkable species, improving the management of existing protected areas in which it occurs, and stricter regulations to prevent the escape of toxic waste from factories, human settlements and agriculture into the surrounding rivers and wetlands