000 of these result in the woman ' s death. complications of unsafe abortion are said to account, globally, for approximately 13 % of all maternal mortalities, with regional estimates including 12 % in asia, 25 % in latin america, and 13 % in sub - saharan africa. a 2007 study published in the the lancet found that, although the global rate of abortion declined from 45. 6 million in 1995 to 41. 6 million in 2003, unsafe procedures still accounted for 48 % of all abortions performed in 2003. health education, access to family planning, and improvements in health care during and after abortion have been proposed to address this phenomenon. in the history of abortion, induced abortion has been the source of considerable debate, controversy, and activism. an individual ' s position on the complex ethical, moral, philosophical, biological, and legal issues is often related to his or her value system. opinions of abortion may be best described as being a combination of beliefs on its morality, and beliefs on the responsibility, ethical scope, and proper extent of governmental authorities in public policy. religious ethics also has an influence upon both personal opinion and the greater debate over abortion ( see religion and abortion ). abortion debates, especially pertaining to abortion laws, are often spearheaded by advocacy groups belonging to one of two camps. in the united states, most often those in favor of greater legal restrictions on, or even complete prohibition of abortion, describe themselves as pro - life while those against legal restrictions on abortion describe themselves as pro - choice. both are used to indicate the central principles in arguments for and against abortion : " is the fetus a human being with a fundamental right to life? " for pro - life advocates, and, for those who are pro - choice, " does a woman have the right to choose whether or not to continue a pregnancy? " in both public and private debate, arguments presented in favor of or against abortion focus on either the moral permissibility of an induced abortion, or justification of laws permitting or restricting abortion. arguments on morality and legality tend to collide and combine, complicating the issue at hand. debate also focuses on whether the pregnant woman should have to notify and / or have the consent of others in distinct cases : a minor, her parents ; a legally - married or common - law wife, her husband ; or a pregnant woman, the biological father. in a 2003 gallup poll in the united states, 79 % of male and 67 % of female respondents were in favor of spousal notification ; overall


married or common - law wife, her husband ; or a pregnant woman, the biological father. in a 2003 gallup poll in the united states, 79 % of male and 67 % of female respondents were in favor of spousal notification ; overall support was 72 % with 26 % opposed. a number of opinion polls around the world have explored public opinion regarding the issue of abortion. results have varied from poll to poll, country to country, and region to region, while varying with regard to different aspects of the issue. a may 2005 survey examined attitudes toward abortion in 10 european countries, asking polltakers whether they agreed with the statement, " if a woman doesn ' t want children, she should be allowed to have an abortion ". the highest level of approval was 81 % ( in the czech republic ) ; the lowest was 47 % ( in poland ). in north america, a december 2001 poll surveyed canadian opinion on abortion, asking canadians in what circumstances they believe abortion should be permitted ; 32 % responded that they believe abortion should be legal in all circumstances, 52 % that it should be legal in certain circumstances, and 14 % that it should be legal in no circumstances. a similar poll in january 2006 surveyed people in the united states about u. s. opinion on abortion ; 33 % said that abortion should be " permitted only in cases such as rape, incest or to save the woman ' s life ", 27 % said that abortion should be " permitted in all cases ", 15 % that it should be " permitted, but subject to greater restrictions than it is now ", 17 % said that it should " only be permitted to save the woman ' s life ", and 5 % said that it should " never " be permitted. a november 2005 poll in mexico found that 73. 4 % think abortion should not be legalized while 11. 2 % think it should. of attitudes in south and central america, a december 2003 survey found that 30 % of argentines thought that abortion in argentina should be allowed " regardless of situation ", 47 % that it should be allowed " under some circumstances ", and 23 % that it should not be allowed " regardless of situation ". a march 2007 poll regarding the abortion law in brazil found that 65 % of brazilians believe that it " should not be modified ", 16 % that it should be expanded " to allow abortion in other cases ", 10 % that abortion should be " decriminalized ", and 5 % were " not sure ". a july 2005 poll in colombia


should not be modified ", 16 % that it should be expanded " to allow abortion in other cases ", 10 % that abortion should be " decriminalized ", and 5 % were " not sure ". a july 2005 poll in colombia found that 65. 6 % said they thought that abortion should remain illegal, 26. 9 % that it should be made legal, and 7. 5 % that they were unsure. in early pregnancy, levels of estrogen increase, leading to breast growth in preparation for lactation. the hypothesis proposes that if this process is interrupted by an abortion before full maturity in the third trimester then more relatively vulnerable immature cells could be left than there were prior to the pregnancy, resulting in a greater potential risk of breast cancer. the hypothesis mechanism was first proposed and explored in rat studies conducted in the 1980s. the american cancer society concludes that presently the evidence does not support a causal abortion - breast cancer association, yet some pro - life activists continue to champion a causal link. in the past, pro - life advocates in the united states have sought legal action regarding disclosure of the abortion - breast cancer issue. this brought short - term legal and political intervention culminating with the bush administration changing the national cancer institute ( nci ) fact sheet from concluding no link to a more ambiguous assessment. in february 2003, the nci responded by conducting a workshop with over 100 experts on the issue, which concluded that it was well - established that " abortion is not associated with an increase in breast cancer risk. " though the scientific community has found evidence for the hypothesis lacking, the ongoing promotion of an abortion - breast cancer " link " by pro - life advocates and medical associations is seen by others as merely a part of the current pro - life " woman - centered " strategy against abortion. pro - life groups maintain they are providing legally necessary informed consent ; a concern shared by conservative congressman dr. dave weldon. while early research indicated a correlation between breast cancer and abortion ; the current scientific consensus has solidified with the publication of large prospective cohort studies which find no clear association between abortion and breast cancer. these studies along with all relevant research strive to remove from their results the many confounding factors, such as delayed child bearing ( parity ), which affect breast cancer risk apart from abortion. the abortion - breast cancer hypothesis continues to incite mostly political and some scientific debate. a review by researchers from the university of california, san francisco in jama concluded that data from dozens of medical reports and studies indicate that fetuses


from abortion. the abortion - breast cancer hypothesis continues to incite mostly political and some scientific debate. a review by researchers from the university of california, san francisco in jama concluded that data from dozens of medical reports and studies indicate that fetuses are unlikely to feel pain until the third trimester of pregnancy. there is an emerging consensus among developmental neurobiologists that the establishment of thalamocortical connections ( at about 26 weeks ) is a critical event with regard to fetal perception of pain. because pain can involve sensory, emotional and cognitive factors, it may be " impossible to know " when painful experiences are perceived, even if it is known when thalamocortical connections are established. the suggestion was brought to widespread attention by a 1999 academic paper, the impact of legalized abortion on crime, authored by the economists steven d. levitt and john donohue. they attributed the drop in crime to a reduction in individuals said to have a higher statistical probability of committing crimes : unwanted children, especially those born to mothers who are african - american, impoverished, adolescent, uneducated, and single. the change coincided with what would have been the adolescence, or peak years of potential criminality, of those who had not been born as a result of roe v. wade and similar cases. donohue and levitt ' s study also noted that states which legalized abortion before the rest of the nation experienced the lowering crime rate pattern earlier, and those with higher abortion rates had more pronounced reductions. fellow economists christopher foote and christopher goetz criticized the methodology in the donohue - levitt study, noting a lack of accommodation for statewide yearly variations such as cocaine use, and recalculating based on incidence of crime per capita ; they found no statistically significant results. levitt and donohue responded to this by presenting an adjusted data set which took into account these concerns and reported that the data maintained the statistical significance of their initial paper. such research has been criticized by some as being utilitarian, discriminatory as to race and socioeconomic class, and as promoting eugenics as a solution to crime. levitt states in his book freakonomics that they are neither promoting nor negating any course of action — merely reporting data as economists. before the scientific discovery that human development begins at fertilization, english common law allowed abortions to be performed before " quickening ", the earliest perception of fetal movement by a woman during pregnancy, until both pre - and post - quickening abortions


the scientific discovery that human development begins at fertilization, english common law allowed abortions to be performed before " quickening ", the earliest perception of fetal movement by a woman during pregnancy, until both pre - and post - quickening abortions were criminalized by lord ellenborough ' s act in 1803. in 1861, the british parliament passed the offences against the person act, which continued to outlaw abortion and served as a model for similar prohibitions in some other nations. the soviet union, with legislation in 1920, and iceland, with legislation in 1935, were two of the first countries to generally allow abortion. the second half of the 20th century saw the liberalization of abortion laws in other countries. the abortion act 1967 allowed abortion for limited reasons in the united kingdom. in the 1973 case, roe v. wade, the united states supreme court struck down state laws banning abortion, ruling that such laws violated an implied right to privacy in the united states constitution. the supreme court of canada, similarly, in the case of r. v. morgentaler, discarded its criminal code regarding abortion in 1988, after ruling that such restrictions violated the security of person guaranteed to women under the canadian charter of rights and freedoms. canada later struck down provincial regulations of abortion in the case of r. v. morgentaler ( 1993 ). by contrast, abortion in ireland was affected by the addition of an amendment to the irish constitution in 1983 by popular referendum, recognizing " the right to life of the unborn ". current laws pertaining to abortion are diverse. religious, moral, and cultural sensibilities continue to influence abortion laws throughout the world. the right to life, the right to liberty, the right to security of person, and the right to reproductive health are major issues of human rights that are sometimes used as justification for the existence or absence of laws controlling abortion. many countries in which abortion is legal require that certain criteria be met in order for an abortion to be obtained, often, but not always, using a trimester - based system to regulate the window of legality : other countries, in which abortion is normally illegal, will allow one to be performed in the case of rape, incest, or danger to the pregnant woman ' s life or health. a few nations ban abortion entirely : chile, el salvador, malta, ireland and nicaragua, although in 2006 the chilean government began the free distribution of emergency contraception. in bangladesh, abortion is illegal, but the government has long supported a network of " menstrual regulation


blaise pascal ( june 19, 1623 – august 19, 1662 ) was a french mathematician, physicist, and religious philosopher. he was a child prodigy who was educated by his father. pascal ' s earliest work was in the natural and applied sciences where he made important contributions to the construction of mechanical calculators, the study of fluids, and clarified the concepts of pressure and vacuum by generalizing the work of evangelista torricelli. pascal also wrote in defense of the scientific method. pascal was a mathematician of the first order. he helped create two major new areas of research. he wrote a significant treatise on the subject of projective geometry at the age of sixteen, and later corresponded with pierre de fermat on probability theory, strongly influencing the development of modern economics and social science. following a mystical experience in late 1654, he abandoned his scientific work and devoted himself to philosophy and theology. his two most famous works date from this period : the lettres provinciales and the pensees. pascal was in poor health throughout his life and his death came just two months after his 39th birthday. born in clermont, france, blaise pascal lost his mother, antoinette begon, at the age of three. his father, etienne pascal ( 1588 – 1651 ), was a local judge and member of the " noblesse de robe ", who also had an interest in science and mathematics. pascal had two sisters, the younger jacqueline and the elder gilberte. in 1631, after the death of his wife, etienne pascal moved with his children to paris. the newly - arrived family soon hired louise delfault, a maid who eventually became an instrumental member of the family. etienne, who never remarried, decided that he alone would educate his children, for they all showed extraordinary intellectual ability, particularly his son blaise. the young pascal showed an amazing aptitude for mathematics and science. at the age of eleven, he composed a short treatise on the sounds of vibrating bodies, and etienne responded by forbidding his son to further pursue mathematics until the age of fifteen so as not to harm his study of latin and greek. one day, however, etienne found blaise ( now twelve ) writing an independent proof that the sum of the angles of a triangle is equal to two right angles with a piece of coal on a wall. from then on, the boy was allowed to study euclid ; perhaps more importantly, he was allowed to sit in as a silent on - looker at the gatherings of some of the greatest mathematicians and scientists in europe —


coal on a wall. from then on, the boy was allowed to study euclid ; perhaps more importantly, he was allowed to sit in as a silent on - looker at the gatherings of some of the greatest mathematicians and scientists in europe — such as roberval, desargues, mydorge, gassendi, and descartes — in the monastic cell of pere mersenne. particularly of interest to pascal was a work of desargues on conic sections. following desargues ' s thinking, the sixteen - year - old pascal produced, as a means of proof, a short treatise on what was called the " mystic hexagram ", essai pour les coniques ( " essay on conics " ) and sent it — his first serious work of mathematics — to pere mersenne in paris ; it is known still today as pascal ' s theorem. briefly, it can be explained thus : pascal ' s work was so precocious that descartes, when shown the manuscript, refused to believe that the composition was not by the elder pascal. when assured by mersenne that it was, indeed, the product of the son not the father, descartes dismissed it with a sniff : " i do not find it strange that he has offered demonstrations about conics more appropriate than those of the ancients, " adding, " but other matters related to this subject can be proposed that would scarcely occur to a sixteen - year - old child. in france at that time offices and positions could be — and were — bought and sold. in 1631 etienne sold his position as second president of the cour des aides for 65, 665 livres. the money was invested in a government bond which provided if not a lavish then certainly a comfortable income which allowed the pascal family to move to, and enjoy, paris. but in 1638 richelieu, desperate for money to carry on the thirty year war, defaulted on the government ' s bonds. suddenly etienne pascal ' s worth had dropped from nearly 66, 000 livres to less than 7, 300. like so many others, etienne was eventually forced to flee paris because of his opposition to the fiscal policies of cardinal richelieu, leaving his three children in the care of his neighbor madame sainctot, a great beauty with an infamous past who kept one of the most glittering and intellectual salons in all france. it was only when jacqueline performed well in a children ' s play with richelieu in attendance that etienne was


madame sainctot, a great beauty with an infamous past who kept one of the most glittering and intellectual salons in all france. it was only when jacqueline performed well in a children ' s play with richelieu in attendance that etienne was pardoned. in time etienne was back in good graces with the cardinal, and in 1639 had been appointed the king ' s commissioner of taxes in the city of rouen — a city whose tax records, thanks to uprisings, were in utter chaos. in 1642, in an effort to ease his father ' s endless, exhausting calculations, and recalculations, of taxes owed and paid, pascal, not yet nineteen, constructed a mechanical calculator capable of addition and subtraction, called pascal ' s calculator or the pascaline. the musee des arts et metiers in paris and the zwinger museum in dresden, germany, exhibit two of his original mechanical calculators. though these machines are early forerunners to computer engineering, the calculator failed to be a great commercial success. because it was extraordinarily expensive the pascaline became little more than a toy, and status symbol, for the very rich both in france and throughout europe. however, pascal continued to make improvements to his design through the next decade and built fifty machines in total. in addition to the childhood marvels previously mentioned, pascal continued to influence mathematics throughout his life. in 1653, pascal wrote his traite du triangle arithmetique ( " treatise on the arithmetical triangle " ) in which he described a convenient tabular presentation for binomial coefficients, now called pascal ' s triangle. in 1654, prompted by a friend interested in gambling problems, he corresponded with fermat on the subject, and from that collaboration was born the mathematical theory of probabilities. the friend was the chevalier de mere, and the specific problem was that of two players who want to finish a game early and, given the current circumstances of the game, want to divide the stakes fairly, based on the chance each has of winning the game from that point. from this discussion, the notion of expected value was introduced. pascal later ( in the pensees ) used a probabilistic argument, pascal ' s wager, to justify belief in god and a virtuous life. the work done by fermat and pascal into the calculus of probabilities laid important groundwork for leibniz ' s formulation of the infinitesimal calculus. after a religious experience in


justify belief in god and a virtuous life. the work done by fermat and pascal into the calculus of probabilities laid important groundwork for leibniz ' s formulation of the infinitesimal calculus. after a religious experience in 1654, pascal mostly gave up work in mathematics. however, after a sleepless night in 1658, he anonymously offered a prize for the quadrature of a cycloid. solutions were offered by wallis, huygens, wren, and others ; pascal, under the pseudonym amos dettonville, published his own solution. controversy and heated argument followed after pascal announced himself the winner. pascal ' s major contribution to the philosophy of mathematics came with his de l ' esprit geometrique ( " on the geometrical spirit " ), originally written as a preface to a geometry textbook for one of the famous " les petites - ecoles de port - royal " ( " little schools of port - royal " ). the work was unpublished until over a century after his death. here, pascal looked into the issue of discovering truths, arguing that the ideal of such a method would be to found all propositions on already established truths. at the same time, however, he claimed this was impossible because such established truths would require other truths to back them up — first principles, therefore, cannot be reached. based on this, pascal argued that the procedure used in geometry was as perfect as possible, with certain principles assumed and other propositions developed from them. nevertheless, there was no way to know the assumed principles to be true. ' ' pascal also used de l ' esprit geometrique to develop a theory of definition. he distinguished between definitions which are conventional labels defined by the writer and definitions which are within the language and understood by everyone because they naturally designate their referent. the second type would be characteristic of the philosophy of essentialism. pascal claimed that only definitions of the first type were important to science and mathematics, arguing that those fields should adopt the philosophy of formalism as formulated by descartes. in de l ' art de persuader ( " on the art of persuasion " ), pascal looked deeper into geometry ' s axiomatic method, specifically the question of how people come to be convinced of the axioms upon which later conclusions are based. pascal agreed with montaigne that achieving certainty in these axioms and conclusions through human methods is impossible. he asserted that these principles can only be grasped through intuition, and that this fact underscored


the axioms upon which later conclusions are based. pascal agreed with montaigne that achieving certainty in these axioms and conclusions through human methods is impossible. he asserted that these principles can only be grasped through intuition, and that this fact underscored the necessity for submission to god in searching out truths. pascal ' s work in the fields of the study of hydrodynamics and hydrostatics centered on the principles of hydraulic fluids. his inventions include the hydraulic press ( using hydraulic pressure to multiply force ) and the syringe. by 1646, pascal had learned of evangelista torricelli ' s experimentation with barometers. having replicated an experiment which involved placing a tube filled with mercury upside down in a bowl of mercury, pascal questioned what force kept some mercury in the tube and what filled the space above the mercury in the tube. at the time, most scientists contended that, rather than a vacuum, some invisible matter was present. this was based on the aristotelian notion that creation was a thing of substance, whether visible or invisible ; and this substance was forever in motion. furthermore, " everything that is in motion must be moved by something, " aristotle declared. therefore, to the aristotelian trained scientists of pascal ' s time, a vacuum was an impossibility. how so? as proof it was pointed out : following more experimentation in this vein, in 1647 pascal produced experiences nouvelles touchant le vide ( " new experiments with the vacuum " ), which detailed basic rules describing to what degree various liquids could be supported by air pressure. it also provided reasons why it was indeed a vacuum above the column of liquid in a barometer tube. on september 19, 1648, after many months of pascal ' s friendly but insistent prodding, florin perier, husband of pascal ' s elder sister gilberte, was finally to carry out the fact finding mission vital to pascal ' s theory. the account, written by perier, reads : " the weather was chancy last saturday... [ but ] around five o ' clock that morning... the puy - de - dome was visible... so i decided to give it a try. several important people of the city of clermont had asked me to let them know when i would make the ascent... i was delighted to have them with me in this great work... "... at eight o ' clock we met in the gardens of the minim fathers, which has the lowest


them know when i would make the ascent... i was delighted to have them with me in this great work... "... at eight o ' clock we met in the gardens of the minim fathers, which has the lowest elevation in town.... first i poured sixteen pounds of quicksilver... into a vessel... then took several glass tubes.. each four feet long and hermetically sealed at one end and opened at the other... then placed them in the vessel [ of quicksilver ]... i found the quick silver stood at 26 " and 3½ lines above the quicksilver in the vessel... i repeated the experiment two more times while standing in the same spot... [ they ] produced the same result each time... " i attached one of the tubes to the vessel and marked the height of the quicksilver and... asked father chastin, one of the minim brothers... to watch if any changes should occur through the day... taking the other tube and a portion of the quick silver... i walked to the top of puy - de - dome, about 500 fathoms higher than the monastery, where upon experiment... found that the quicksilver reached a height of only 23 " and 2 lines... i repeated the experiment five times with care... each at different points on the summit... found the same height of quicksilver... in each case... pascal replicated the experiment in paris by carrying a barometer up to the top of the bell tower at the church of saint - jacques - de - la - boucherie, a height of about fifty meters. the mercury dropped two lines. these, and other lesser experiments carried out by pascal, were hailed throughout europe as establishing the principle and value of the barometer. in the face of criticism that some invisible matter must exist in pascal ' s empty space, pascal, in his reply to estienne noel, gave one of the seventeenth century ' s major statements on the scientific method : " in order to show that a hypothesis is evident, it does not suffice that all the phenomena follow from it ; instead, if it leads to something contrary to a single one of the phenomena, that suffices to establish its falsity. " his insistence on the existence of the vacuum also led to conflict with other prominent scientists, including descar


it ; instead, if it leads to something contrary to a single one of the phenomena, that suffices to establish its falsity. " his insistence on the existence of the vacuum also led to conflict with other prominent scientists, including descartes. for after all what is man in nature? a nothing in relation to infinity, all in relation to nothing, a central point between nothing and all and infinitely far from understanding either. the ends of things and their beginnings are impregnably concealed from him in an impenetrable secret. he is equally incapable of seeing the nothingness out of which he was drawn and the infinite in which he is engulfed. biographically, two basic influences led him to his conversion : sickness and jansenism. from as early as his eighteenth year, pascal suffered from a nervous ailment that left him hardly a day without pain. in 1647, a paralytic attack so disabled him that he could not move without crutches. his head ached, his bowels burned, his legs and feet were continually cold, and required wearisome aids to circulate the blood ; he wore stockings steeped in brandy to warm his feet. partly to get better medical treatment, he moved to paris with his sister jacqueline. his health improved, but his nervous system had been permanently damaged. henceforth, he was subject to deepening hypochondria, which affected his character and his philosophy. he became irritable, subject to fits of proud and imperious anger, and seldom smiled. in the winter of 1646, pascal ' s 58 year - old father broke his hip when he slipped and fell on an icy street of rouen ; given the man ' s age and the state of medicine in the 17th century, a broken hip could be a very serious condition, perhaps even fatal. fortunately, at the time, rouen was home to two of the finest doctors in france : monsieur doctor deslandes and monsieur doctor de la bouteillerie. the elder pascal " would not let anyone other than these men attend him... it was a good choice, for the old man survived and was able to walk again... but treatment and rehabilitation took three months, during which time la bouteillerie and deslandes had become household guests. both men were followers of jean guillebert, proponent of a splinter group from the main body of catholic teaching known as jansenism. this still fairly small sect was making surprising inroads into the french catholic


' s estate now gone, the 29 year old pascal was now consigned to genteel poverty. for a while, pascal pursued the life of a bachelor. he showed strong interest in one woman while in auvergne. he referred to her as the " sappho of the countryside. " during this time, pascal wrote discours sur les passions de l ' amour ( " conversation about the passions of love " ) and apparently contemplated marriage — which he was later to describe as " the lowest of the conditions of life permitted to a christian. " jacqueline reproached him for his frivolity and prayed for his reform. during visits to his sister at port - royal in 1654, he displayed contempt for affairs of the world but was not drawn to god. his belief and religious commitment revitalized, pascal visited the older of two convents at port - royal for a two - week retreat in january 1655. for the next four years, he regularly travelled between port - royal and paris. it was at this point immediately after his conversion when he began writing his first major literary work on religion, the provincial letters. beginning in 1656, pascal published his memorable attack on casuistry, a popular ethical method used by catholic thinkers in the early modern period ( especially the jesuits, and in particular antonio escobar ). pascal denounced casuistry as the mere use of complex reasoning to justify moral laxity and all sorts of sins. his method of framing his arguments was clever : the provincial letters pretended to be the report of a parisian to a friend in the provinces on the moral and theological issues then exciting the intellectual and religious circles in the capital. pascal, combining the fervor of a convert with the wit and polish of a man of the world, reached a new level of style in french prose. the 18 - letter series was published between 1656 and 1657 under the pseudonym louis de montalte and incensed louis xiv. the king ordered that the book be shredded and burnt in 1660. in 1661, in the midsts of the formulary controversy, the jansenist school at port - royal was condemned and closed down ; those involved with the school had to sign a 1656 papal bull condemning the teachings of jansen as heretical. the final letter from pascal, in 1657, had defied the pope himself, provoking alexander vii to condemn the letters. but that didn ' t stop all of educated france from reading them. even pope alexander, while publicly opposing them, nonetheless was persuaded by pascal '


, in 1657, had defied the pope himself, provoking alexander vii to condemn the letters. but that didn ' t stop all of educated france from reading them. even pope alexander, while publicly opposing them, nonetheless was persuaded by pascal ' s arguments. he condemned " laxism " in the church and ordered a revision of casuistical texts just a few years later ( 1665 – 66 ). aside from their religious influence, the provincial letters were popular as a literary work. pascal ' s use of humor, mockery, and vicious satire in his arguments made the letters ripe for public consumption, and influenced the prose of later french writers like voltaire and jean - jacques rousseau. wide praise has been given to the provincial letters. voltaire called the letters " the best - written book that has yet appeared in france. " and when bossuet was asked what book he would rather have written had he not written his own, he answered, the provincial letters of pascal. pascal made himself an armorial emblem of an eye surrounded by a crown of thorns, with the inscription scio cui credidi — " i know whom i have believed. " his beliefs renewed, he set his mind to write his final, unfinished testament, the pensees. unfortunately, pascal ' s most influential theological work, referred to posthumously as the pensees ( " thoughts " ), was not completed before his death. it was to have been a sustained and coherent examination and defense of the christian faith, with the original title apologie de la religion chretienne ( " defense of the christian religion " ). what was found upon sifting through his personal items after his death were numerous scraps of paper with isolated thoughts, grouped in a tentative, but telling, order. the first version of the detached notes appeared in print as a book in 1670 titled pensees de m. pascal sur la religion, et sur quelques autres sujets ( " thoughts of m. pascal on religion, and on some other subjects " ) and soon thereafter became a classic. one of the apologie ' s main strategies was to use the contradictory philosophies of skepticism and stoicism, personalized by montaigne on one hand, and epictetus on the other, in order to bring the unbeliever to such despair and confusion that he would embrace god. this strategy was deemed quite hazardous by pierre nicole, antoine arnauld and other friends and scholars of port - royal, who were concerned that these fragment


in order to bring the unbeliever to such despair and confusion that he would embrace god. this strategy was deemed quite hazardous by pierre nicole, antoine arnauld and other friends and scholars of port - royal, who were concerned that these fragmentary " thoughts " might lead to skepticism rather than to piety. henceforth, they concealed the skeptical pieces and modified some of the rest, lest king or church should take offense for at that time the persecution of port - royal had ceased, and the editors were not interested in a renewal of controversy. not until the nineteenth century were the pensees published in their full and authentic text. pascal ' s pensees is widely considered to be a masterpiece, and a landmark in french prose. when commenting on one particular section ( thought # 72 ), sainte - beuve praised it as the finest pages in the french language. will durant, in his 11 - volume, comprehensive the story of civilization series, hailed it as " the most eloquent book in french prose. " in pensees, pascal surveys several philosophical paradoxes : infinity and nothing, faith and reason, soul and matter, death and life, meaning and vanity — seemingly arriving at no definitive conclusions besides humility, ignorance, and grace. rolling these into one he develops pascal ' s wager. t. s. eliot described him during this phase of his life as " a man of the world among ascetics, and an ascetic among men of the world. " pascal ' s ascetic lifestyle derived from a belief that it was natural and necessary for man to suffer. in 1659, pascal, whose health had never been good, fell seriously ill. during his last years, he frequently tried to reject the ministrations of his doctors, saying, " sickness is the natural state of christians. " louis xiv suppressed the jansenist movement at port - royal in 1661. in response, pascal wrote one of his final works, ecrit sur la signature du formulaire ( " writ on the signing of the form " ), exhorting the jansenists not to give in. later that year, his sister jacqueline died, which convinced pascal to cease his polemics on jansenism. pascal ' s last major achievement, returning to his mechanical genius, was inaugurating perhaps the first bus line, moving passengers within paris in a carriage with many seats. in 1662, pascal ' s illness became more violent. aware that his health was fading quickly, he sought a move to the hospital for


, was inaugurating perhaps the first bus line, moving passengers within paris in a carriage with many seats. in 1662, pascal ' s illness became more violent. aware that his health was fading quickly, he sought a move to the hospital for incurable diseases, but his doctors declared that he was too unstable to be carried. in paris on august 18, 1662, pascal went into convulsions and received extreme unction. he died the next morning, his last words being " may god never abandon me, " and was buried in the cemetery of saint - etienne - du - mont. an autopsy performed after his death revealed grave problems with his stomach and other organs of his abdomen, along with damage to his brain. despite the autopsy, the cause of his continual poor health was never precisely determined, though speculation focuses on tuberculosis, stomach cancer, or a combination of the two. the headaches which afflicted pascal are generally attributed to his brain lesion. pascal ' s development of probability theory was his most influential contribution to mathematics. originally applied to gambling, today it is extremely important in economics, especially in actuarial science. john ross writes, " probability theory and the discoveries following it changed the way we regard uncertainty, risk, decision - making, and an individual ' s and society ' s ability to influence the course of future events. however, it should be noted that pascal and fermat, though doing important early work in probability theory, did not develop the field very far. christiaan huygens, learning of the subject from the correspondence of pascal and fermat, wrote the first book on the subject. later figures who continued the development of the theory include abraham de moivre and pierre - simon laplace. in literature, pascal is regarded as one of the most important authors of the french classical period and is read today as one of the greatest masters of french prose. his use of satire and wit influenced later polemicists. the content of his literary work is best remembered for its strong opposition to the rationalism of rene descartes and simultaneous assertion that the main countervailing philosophy, empiricism, was also insufficient for determining major truths. in canada, there is an annual math contest named in his honour. the pascal contest is open to any student in canada who is fourteen years or under and is in grade nine or lower. roberto rossellini directed a filmed biopic ( entitled blaise pascal ) which originally aired on italian television in 1971. pierre arditi starred as pascal


november 1, 2011 living with severe heartburn severe heartburn, also called acid reflux disease, occurs when acid from your stomach regurgitates into your esophagus and essentially leaves you with a burning sensation in your throat and chest and a sour taste in your mouth. heartburn that is severe and chronic is not only painful but it can be dangerous to your health as well. if left untreated or under - treated, severe heartburn can cause ulcers in your stomach and esophagus, a hiatal herrera, damage to the esophagus ’ tissue and can even lead to cancer in the esophagus. living with severe heartburn can be overwhelming at times and can be debilitating as well. the pain and discomfort can prevent you from normal day to day activities and cause sleepless nights. when you are having an episode of severe heartburn, the pain can be very intense and can last for several hours. antacids such as tums or maalox can help alleviate the immediate pain and discomfort but these medicines will not cure heartburn or help to heal the damage it causes. many times, laying down in bed causes the stomach acid to regurgitate and triggers heartburn, especially after a large or spicy meal. placing several pillows under your head to prop you up can help relieve some of the symptoms but will not do anything to actually heal the condition. adjusting your diet can help ward off severe heartburn attacks. eating several smaller meals each day instead of three large meals will help to ward off heartburn attacks. your body can more easily digest smaller meals than a big, heavy meal. cutting down on alcohol, coffee, tea and spicy foods will also help cut down on the amount of severe heartburn attacks and the severity of them. however, no matter how healthy your diet, or how strict you are at cutting out these trigger foods, you will not be able to heal the damage that is done to your stomach and esophagus. adjusting your lifestyle can also help reduce the amount of heartburn attacks you suffer as well as the severity of those attacks. moderate exercise, especially focusing on your core muscles, will build strong healthy tissue and muscles in your stomach and surrounding area. a stronger core will likely reduce the frequency of your heartburn. also, if you are a smoker, quit. there have been numerous studies done on the adverse affects of smoking and heartburn is included. smoking has a direct affect on your stomach regurgitating partially digested food back


total passenger - miles of travel ( pmt ) excludes travel in heavy trucks, by bicycle, by walking, and by boat ( including recreational boat ). pmt in heavy trucks is excluded because such travel is assumed to be incidental to the hauling of freight, the main purpose of this travel. bicycle, pedestrian, and boat travel are excluded because national estimates are not available on an annual basis. the pmt data in this section of the report are from the bureau of transportation statistics ( bts ) publication, national transportation statistics ( nts ). bts compiles these data for nts, primarily using mode - by - mode data derived in various ways by bts and others. for instance, pmt for large air carriers and intercity trains are estimated from ticket sales and trip lengths ; for transit, data are reported by transit authorities. each method used to estimate these data has differing strengths and weaknesses, as discussed in the data source and accuracy statements in appendix c, available at http : / / www. bts. gov /. bts updates nts on a quarterly basis ; the data in this section are the data available when the report was prepared and may not be consistent with data available later in nts or other sources, as noted in the chapter introduction. bts has another set of national pmt, the national household travel survey ( nhts ), last conducted jointly by bts and the federal highway administration in 2001 and 2002. as survey data, they are collected using a single methodology. this provides a coherence and comparability not available with data compiled for nts. however, the survey data are not collected annually, making them unsuitable for year - to - year trend analyses. another difference between nts and nhts data is the extent of their coverage among modes. it can be expected, then, that because of methodological and coverage issues nts and nhts data will differ. in section 4 of this chapter, variables influencing traveling behavior, the report uses data from the 2001 nhts.


the regular debt ceiling limit dance seems to evoke a fairly standard set of behaviors in the two major us political parties : whichever party is out of power ( white house, or congress or both ) threatens not to support raising the debt ceiling. which ever party is in power talks about how irresponsible and dangerous such a move would be. the historical statutory debt ceiling increases ( sourced from table 7. 3 here ; click graph for spreadsheet ) reveal this game has gone on for more than half three quarters of a century. to put this into context, consider the following quote : “ the republican - dominated senate voted tonight by 64 to 34 to raise the government ’ s borrowing authority to more than $ 1 trillion for the first time in history. the vote to raise the debt ceiling, to $ 1, 079 billion, will allow the government to start its new fiscal year thursday with sufficient funds in its coffers to pay its bills... although the routine increase in the debt ceiling was essential to meet government obligations already incurred, the vote is traditionally delayed to the 11th hour, with the minority party accusing the party in power of spendthrift ways. ” ( emphasis added ) that quote may surprise you. it comes from the ny times, sept. 30, 1981, defending president reagan and blaming the democrats in congress for playing games with the debt ceiling. we can skip the usual debate, and go straight to the data. pulling the historical increases in statutory debt authority, the chart below shows what the increase in spending limits has looked like : to give you a sense of the present absurdity, consider the following fairly random survey of past pronouncements on raising the debt ceiling limit from 1939 forward : the milwaukee journal : president roosevelt informed congress monday that there is no present necessity for legislation to increase the legal limitation of $ 45, 000, 000, 000 on the toal public debt, but recommended increase of the present $ 30, 000, 000, 000 limitation on outstanding government bonds. the special message transmitted a letter from treasury secretary morgenthau informing thim that the current balances of the treasury indicate no immediate necessity for advancing the debt ceiling. monday ’ s treasury statement showed that the debt was $ 39, 948, 995, 124 • president urges ending of limit on bonded debt ; asks congress to facilitate borrowing by eliminating $ 30, 000, 000, 000 ( march 21, 1939 ) president roosevelt told congress today that there was no immediate need for raising the $ 45, 000, 000, 000 limitation


of limit on bonded debt ; asks congress to facilitate borrowing by eliminating $ 30, 000, 000, 000 ( march 21, 1939 ) president roosevelt told congress today that there was no immediate need for raising the $ 45, 000, 000, 000 limitation on the public debt. he asked, however, that the $ 30, 000, 000, 000 “ ceiling ” on treasury bond issues be removed. • the debt taboo is lifted ( november 9, 1940 ) the portsmouth times : treasury secretary morgenthau officially opens post - campaign business with an announcement that he is going to ask congress for a public debt limit of either 60 or 65 billion dollars. that is a matter which could not have been discussed conveniently in advance of election day, but must be discussed now. like the skeleton in the closet it can ’ t be kept hidden forever. the gross public debt now stands at $ 44, 140, 689, 112 about three billion more than it was a year ago. the existing legal debt limit is 45 billion dollars ; there is no more leeway for debt increase. the debt has reached its legal ceiling by rising steadily since 1931, when deficit financing began. during the roosevelt administration it has increased 100 per cent – from $ 22, 538, 672, 174 ( june 30, 1933 ) to almost twice the amount. • $ 65, 000, 000, 000 debt limit voted ; senate critics deny it is enough ; higher debt limit is voted by senate ( february 15, 1941 ) the senate approved today, with slight changes, the house bill to raise the national debt limit to $ 65, 000, 000, 000, a ceiling which, according to administration spokesmen, will suffice until june 30, 1942, at least. • boosting the debt ceiling ( may 10, 1944 ) pittsburgh post - gazette : the ease with which house republicans cut the treasury ’ s request for a debt ceiling of 260 billion to 240 billion suggests that 20 billion dollars more or less is not worth fighting over in time of all - out war. accepting the cut without an argument, the treasury spokesman daniel w. bell, just reminded the house ways and means committee that the debt ceiling would have to be raised still again if and when the new limit is reached. with the national debt already standing at approximately 187 billion and slated to reach the 240 billion mark next march, this business of raising the limit by successive jumps instead of taking it off altogether is little more than a psychological gesture. by holding that flexible limit over the administration ’ s head


standing at approximately 187 billion and slated to reach the 240 billion mark next march, this business of raising the limit by successive jumps instead of taking it off altogether is little more than a psychological gesture. by holding that flexible limit over the administration ’ s head, perhaps some congressmen feel that they will exert pressure on some officials to hold down expenditures. but since those officials know as well as the congressmen that the debt limit is going up and up until the war is won, maybe this economy gesture is intended only for public consumption. • senators favor debt limit cut ( april 24, 1946 ) st. petersburg times : the first step to cut back the limit of what the federal government might owe, from its historic high of $ 300, 000, 000, 000 was taken yesterday by the senate finance committee. the committee voted to reduce the public debt limit to $ 275, 000, 000, 000. its unanimous action forecast congressional approval for the first reduction in the debt ceiling, pushed upward steadily during the war years. • increasing national debt limit now seems inevitable ( september 2, 1953 ) the spencer daily reporter : it will be the end of september before eisenhower administration leaders will know whether they must call a special session of congress this fall to increase the national debt limit. if sept. 15 income tax payments are high – if new loan offering are fully subscribed – if the administration ’ s expense can be cut further – and if no new world crisis develops requiring a large new outlay of cash – then and only then will it be possible to say that no special session of congress will be necessary. the lewiston daily sun : the house voted 226 - 56 today to continue for another year the “ temporary ” 281 billion dollar limit on the national debt. the senate is expected to act by thursday : without congressional action, the limit would fall back then to 275 billion. democrats got in some additional cracks at the administration on its handling of government finances before the extension sailed through on the 170 vote margin in the house. • the federal debt ceiling ( july 26, 1958 ) “ a specter that has been putting in an appearance more or less regularly every year now since 1953 is again back to haunt the administration. that is the problem of keeping the public dept within the dept ceiling – a problem that will be additionally complicated in the present fiscal year at least by the prospect of a very substantial budget deficit. the dept ceiling is a comparatively new instrument of fiscal control in this country. in 1938, with the dept then standing at what many regarded as the dangerously high


additionally complicated in the present fiscal year at least by the prospect of a very substantial budget deficit. the dept ceiling is a comparatively new instrument of fiscal control in this country. in 1938, with the dept then standing at what many regarded as the dangerously high level of $ 37 billion, congress acted to discourage future reckless spending by setting a limit on the debt of $ 45 billion. during the ensuing eight years, most of which were marked by war or preparation for war, congress had little choice but to revise this limited ceiling upward when such action was requested by the president. the ceiling was lifted five times in that period, until it reached $ 300 billion in 1945. a year later it was revised downward for the first time to its present level of $ 275 billion. ” • $ 308 billion debt ceiling is approved ( june 15, 1962 ) the pittsburgh press : the house has approved president kennedy ’ s request to raise the national debt ceiling to a record 308 billion dollars after rejecting a republican effort to trim the hike. the vote on final approval late yesterday was 210 to 192, an 18 - vote margin. asked whether republicans were justified in charging the pentagon had tried to “ black mail ” them into supporting the bill, president kennedy said he hoped everyone understood the possible effects of failing to raise the limit. • another june rite : raising debt limit ( june 10, 1966 ) eugene register – guard : raising the national debt limit has become a june rite in congress. this year the only doubt about it is whether the ceiling will be boosted by $ 2 billion or $ 4 billion. congress already has approved the projects and voted the appropriation that will call for today ’ s federal debt to rise – as it has been doing year after year. the united states treasury says it needs a $ 332 billion limit to give it elbow room to maneuver and be sure of paying its bills. the house says $ 330 billion is enough. the senate will discuss the question next week. • us seeks loans to pay its bills ( january 31, 1967 ) pittsburgh post - gazette : secretary of the treasury henry h. fowler told congress today that the government would be unable to pay all its bill if the ceiling on the national debt was not lifted within 30 days. fowler ran into republican hostility in day - long testimony before the house ways and means committee — not on the need to raise the limit but on the government ’ s debt and budget accounting methods as well as related matters. fowler asked that the ceiling be raised by $ 7 billion to $ 337 billion to cover the period until june 30


means committee — not on the need to raise the limit but on the government ’ s debt and budget accounting methods as well as related matters. fowler asked that the ceiling be raised by $ 7 billion to $ 337 billion to cover the period until june 30. further legislation covering the period after june 30 will be needed later he said. • u. s. raises ceiling on national debt ( april 3, 1979 ) the montreal gazette : the u. s. house of representatives passed legislation yesterday extending the government ’ s borrowing authority and preventing the u. s. from defaulting on its debts for the first in its history. the vote to accept senate amendments and to send the legislation to the white house was 209 - 165. it came after the house rejected, 216 - 160, a republican - led attempt to tack on a strong amendment calling for a balanced federal budget. the house vote came after u. s. treasury secretary michael blumenthal claimed in a letter that the treasury was on the verge of a default and that retired persons would be hit first. about $ 8 billion in social security cheques already had been mailed to 35 million americans, blumenthal said, and there would be no funds to cover them if the house failed to act. in addition, he said, the treasury would not be able to pay civil service retirement benefits, veterans benefits and railroad retirement benefits due for collection today. • congress asked to hike debt ceiling ( may 26, 1970 ) palm beach post : the nixon administration asked congress yesterday for an $ 18 billion increase in the national debt ceiling primarily because the slumping economy is producing lower than expected federal income. the administration asked congress for an $ 418 billion increase in both the permanent ceiling no at $ 365 billion and in the temporary ceiling of $ 377 billion the government is operation under this fiscal year. treasury secretary david m kennedy and budget director robert p mayo told the ilouse ways and means committee the increase was needed to cover a $ 1. 8 billion deficit this fiscal year and $ 1. 3 billion deficit in fiscal 1971 • senate may meet tomorrow on debt limit, election reform ( dec 1, 1973 ) the miami news : the federal government ’ s debt is $ 63 billion over the legal limit and the senate is preparing for its first sunday session in 112 years – all because of a tangle created by an election reform measure. despite the government ’ s technical violation, officials said bonds and other government debts could be paid off over the next few days out of about $ 4. 5 billion in cash on hand.


– all because of a tangle created by an election reform measure. despite the government ’ s technical violation, officials said bonds and other government debts could be paid off over the next few days out of about $ 4. 5 billion in cash on hand. • congress adopts new debt ceiling ; ford gets bill to increase limit to $ 595 billion ( november 14, 1975 ) after a partisan dispute and a last - minute appeal by speaker carl albert, the house of representatives narrowly approved today a bill increasing the government ’ s debt limit. • rise in debt limit approved in house ( oct 5, 1977 ) youngstown vindicator : concerns about the government being unable to borrow more money can be set aside. the ceiling on the national debt will be raised. but a congressional stalemate over raising the debt caused some uneasy moments at the treasury department. the government also had to do some juggling of the books to hold its auction of short term treasury bills to investors on monday. the loan from the federal reserve pushed the national debt almost to its limit, teaching $ 699. 96 billions dollars. continues after jump • reagan signs increase in federal debt ceiling ( october 1, 1981 ) president reagan tonight signed legislation raising the government ’ s borrowing authority above $ 1 trillion for the first time. mr. reagan signed the law without comment at 8 : 15 p. m., assuring that the government would have enough money to pay its bills at the start of the 1982 fiscal year, which begins tomorrow. • senate defeats bill to increase debt ceiling ( november 1, 1983 ) the senate, in an extraordinary and unexpected move, defeated a bill late tonight to raise the nation ’ s debt limit, leaving the treasury without the authority to borrow. the defeat, with both republicans and democrats voting against the bill, came on a vote of 56 to 39 just after 11 : 30 p. m. although there is no immediate threat of shutting down the government, the senate defeat left unclear whether the senate would be able to approve an increase in the ceiling in time to prevent a serious disruption. twenty - five republicans joined 31 democrats in voting against the bill. twenty - eight republicans and 11 democrats voted for it. the defeat was seen by some republicans and democrats as a way to put enough pressure on the white house and the congress to get both to agree on some major measures to reduce the projected federal budget deficits through spending reductions, tax increases or both. • time bomb in the debt ceiling ( may 04, 1987 ) there is a time bomb in the national debt ceiling


congress to get both to agree on some major measures to reduce the projected federal budget deficits through spending reductions, tax increases or both. • time bomb in the debt ceiling ( may 04, 1987 ) there is a time bomb in the national debt ceiling, set to go off at midnight may 15. if a new and higher ceiling has not been set, or the current ceiling extended, government borrowing must stop and the united states will slide quickly into default. unthinkable, but that ’ s how congress wired the debt limit law last october. each year congress goes down to the deadline, then lifts the ceiling. but the game is trickier this year, and could have more serious consequences. congress threatens yet another crisis to rattle already - worried financial markets. what ’ s needed instead is a simple bill to raise the ceiling, with dispatch and no strings. the ceiling is a sham. it has no effect on the debt. deficits create debt ; the reagan deficits have more than doubled the national debt, to $ 2. 25 trillion, ceilings notwithstanding. each time government borrowing gets close, the ceiling is raised – but not without costly eleventh - hour shenanigans that force the treasury into devious financing. • reagan urges a rise in debt ceiling ( may 12, 1987 ) warning of dire financial consequences, the white house urged congress today to raise the national debt ceiling before the government runs out of authority to borrow money this friday. ” we cannot overestimate the effect of such a dereliction of duty, ” marlin fitzwater, the president ’ s spokesman, said. but a number of conservative republicans refuse to heed the administration, and white house legislative strategists say they do not have the votes to assure passage of such a measure. periodic ritual : the fight to raise the debt ceiling is a periodic ritual on capitol hill, and every battle is surrounded by predictions of fiscal ruin. accordingly, there is deep skepticism that the government will ever be allowed to run out of money and stop paying its bills. • debt limit increase is sought ( october 19, 1989 ) “ the treasury department has formally notified congress that it would like to have an increase in the national debt ceiling in place by oct. 24 to permit planning for treasury bond auctions and avoid a default on government obligations when the current ceiling expires on oct. 31. some house democrats fear that the administration is trying to create an artificial need for a short - term increase of the debt ceiling, to which senate supporters of a capital gains tax cut could


government obligations when the current ceiling expires on oct. 31. some house democrats fear that the administration is trying to create an artificial need for a short - term increase of the debt ceiling, to which senate supporters of a capital gains tax cut could attach their proposal. ” • u. s. sales contingent on new debt ceiling ( october 8, 1990 ) treasury financings this holiday - shortened week are confined to tomorrow ’ s auction of three - and six - month bills and wednesday ’ s auction of seven - year notes. on thursday, the resolution funding corporation, the agency established to raise money to finance the savings and loan bailout, will auction 30 - year bonds. these auctions, however, are contingent on a new debt - ceiling increase being enacted. the rate for a three - month bill on friday was 7. 04 percent and for a six - month bill it was 7. 08 percent. by late in the day the outstanding seven - year note was trading at a price to yield 8. 50 percent. • debt ceiling impasse dampens bond prices ( november 11, 1995 ) discussing the possibility of a government default, mr. gamba said, “ i believe that the repercussions would far exceed anyone ’ s estimation. ” but, he added : “ i don ’ t believe the government would allow that to take place. it ’ s really hard to say how the market would react, because it ’ s never happened. ” carroll j. delaney, director of research at stires, o ’ donnell & company, called the impasse between congress and the administration macho theatrics that were being played to the hilt. still, he saw a potential for both a “ loss of credibility and a significant decline in prices. ” mr. delaney said that the “ procrastination and posturing is negative for both the markets and national image in the long run. ” he added that if “ the treasury pulls out all stops to insure timely payment on principal and interest, ” there will be a short - term, temporary effect of uninvested cash looking for a home. “ president clinton on monday vetoed two bills intended to keep the government in business as he and republican leaders exchanged accusations of partisan irresponsibility and much of the government prepared to shut down later today. a last - ditch effort to reach agreement ended shortly before midnight without any progress between mr. clinton and republican leaders. while bob dole of kansas, the senate majority leader, called the 90 - minute session “ constructive


prepared to shut down later today. a last - ditch effort to reach agreement ended shortly before midnight without any progress between mr. clinton and republican leaders. while bob dole of kansas, the senate majority leader, called the 90 - minute session “ constructive, ” he said, “ we went around and around, but we don ’ t have an agreement. ” senator thomas a. daschle of south dakota, the democratic leader, was even more emphatic, saying, “ no progress was made. ” while other republicans will meet with administration officials later today, the failure to agree meant that about 800, 000 federal workers will be furloughed after reporting to work this morning. ” speaker newt gingrich promised today to avoid more uncertainty about the nation ’ s borrowing during the impasse on the federal budget, saying, “ we will find a way to take care of the debt ceiling. ” mr. gingrich, a georgia republican, made the comment at a news conference here and left immediately for the next stop on a 10 - day fund - raising tour for republicans. the nation ’ s debt reached the statutory limit of $ 4. 9 trillion on nov. 15, and since then treasury secretary robert e. rubin has avoided defaulting on bonds by borrowing from government pension funds, a practice that does not count against the debt ceiling. • g. o. p. strategy on debt ceiling ( march 1, 2002 ) republican leaders in the house told the bush administration that they did not have enough votes to increase the legal limit on the national debt and urged the white house to attach the measure to another piece of popular legislation, possibly a supplemental military appropriations bill. the administration has asked congress to raise the debt limit by $ 750 billion, to $ 6. 7 trillion, by the end of march, when the government is likely to breach the limit. richard w. stevenson • bush seeks increase in national debt limit ( december 25, 2002 ) the bush administration asked congress today to approve another increase in the limit on national debt, saying it will run out of the authority to borrow money by late february. the deputy treasury secretary, kenneth w. dam, in a letter to the house speaker, j. dennis hastert, cited the cost of combating terrorism and the economic slowdown for the government ’ s growing indebtedness. the federal government, which enjoyed a budget surplus as recently as two years ago, had a shortfall of $ 157 billion this year and is expected to have a larger one in 2003. congress raised


for the government ’ s growing indebtedness. the federal government, which enjoyed a budget surplus as recently as two years ago, had a shortfall of $ 157 billion this year and is expected to have a larger one in 2003. congress raised the government ’ s debt limit in july by $ 450 billion, to a total of $ 6. 4 trillion, but administration officials predicted even then that they would need to raise the limit again by some time next year. • as u. s. debt ceiling is reached, bush administration seeks to raise it once again ( october 15, 2004 ) less than a day after president bush implied that senator john kerry lacked ” fiscal sanity, ” the bush administration said on thursday that the federal government had hit the debt ceiling set by congress and would have to borrow from the civil service retirement system until after the elections. federal operations are unlikely to be affected because congress is certain to raise the debt limit in a lame - duck session in november. congressional republicans had wanted to avoid an embarrassing vote to raise the debt ceiling just a few weeks before election day. since mr. bush took office in january 2001, the federal debt has increased about 40 percent, or $ 2. 1 trillion, to $ 7. 4 trillion. congress has raised the debt ceiling three times in three years, raising it most recently by $ 984 billion in may 2003. • senate approves budget, breaking spending limits ( march 16, 2006 ) the senate narrowly approved a $ 2. 8 trillion election - year budget thursday that broke spending limits only hours after it increased federal borrowing power to avert a government default. the budget decision at the end of a marathon day of voting followed a separate 52 - to - 48 senate vote to increase the federal debt limit by $ 781 billion, bringing the debt ceiling to nearly $ 9 trillion. the move left democrats attacking president bush and congressional republicans for piling up record debt in their years in power. • bush signs sweeping housing bill ( july 30, 2008 ) president george w. bush signed into law on wednesday a huge package of housing legislation that included broad authority for the treasury department to safeguard the nation ’ s two largest mortgage finance companies and a plan to help hundreds of thousands of troubled borrowers avoid losing their homes. the law authorizes the treasury to rescue the mortgage finance giants, fannie mae and freddie mac, should they verge on collapse, potentially by spending tens of billions in federal monies. together, the companies own or guarantee nearly half of the nation ’ s $ 12 trillion in mortgages


how to perform a breast self - examination ( bse ) what is a breast self - examination ( bse )? breast self - examination ( bse ) is a procedure a woman can do to physically and visually examine her breasts and underarm areas for changes. it has not been shown that bses alone can accurately determine the presence of breast cancer. the u. s. preventive services task force has found evidence that suggests bses do not lower the risk for death from breast cancer. therefore, if you choose to do bse, it should not be used in place of, but in addition to, clinical breast examination ( performed by a health care provider every three years for women in their 20s and 30s, and every year for women ages 40 and older ) and mammography. when should bse be done? by doing bse regularly, you get to know how your breasts normally feel and look so that you are able to detect any changes more easily. women can begin practicing breast self - examination at about age 20 and continue the practice throughout their lives — even during pregnancy and after menopause. breast self - examination ( bse ) can be performed every month. become familiar with how your breasts usually look and feel so that you may notice any change from what is normal for you. - if you still menstruate, the best time to do bse is when your breasts are least likely to be tender or swollen, such as a few days after your period ends. - if you no longer menstruate, pick a certain day — such as the first day of each month — to remind yourself to do bse. - if you are taking hormones, talk with your physician about when to do bse. changes to look for : check with your physician if you find any change in your breast ( s ) that causes you concern. changes in your breasts may include : - development of a lump - a discharge other than breast milk - swelling of the breast - skin irritation or dimpling - nipple abnormalities ( such as pain, redness, scaliness, turning inward ) how to do bse 1. stand in front of a mirror that is large enough for you to see your breasts clearly. check each breast for anything unusual. check the skin for puckering, dimpling, or scaliness. look for a discharge from the nipples. 2. watching closely in the mirror, clasp your hands behind your head and press your hands forward. 3. next, press your hands firmly on your hips and


, too. - wedges. starting at the outer edge of the breast, move your fingers toward the nipple and back to the edge. check your whole breast, covering one small wedge - shaped section at a time. be sure to check the underarm area and the upper chest. the american cancer society recommends using three different levels of pressure to examine your breasts : - light pressure — to examine the tissue closest to the skin - medium pressure — to feel a little deeper - firm pressure — to feel deeper tissue closer to the chest wall 6. some women repeat step 5 in the shower. your fingers will glide easily over soapy skin, so you can focus on feeling for changes underneath. what if you find a lump? one of the most frightening moments for a woman is if she sees or feels something different or unusual while performing breast self - examination. one of the most important reasons to do regular breast self - examination is so that you know what is normal for your breasts. if you find a lump, it is important not to panic. if you discover lumpiness in one breast or feel something " different " in the tissue, or you feel a definite lump, there may be valid reason for concern and it is important to contact a physician. sometimes, the lumpiness may be due to menstrual changes ; but, if you have nipple discharge or skin changes such as dimpling or puckering, your physician may want to see you right away. it is natural to be frightened when discovering a lump, but do not let the prospect of cancer keep you from taking action. remember that most breast lumps are benign ( not cancer ). click here to view the online resources of breast health


02 may 2010 posted in u please help us keep this glossary of technical terms up to date by sending us your criticism, comments or suggestions. meaning of url – “ uniform resource locator ”, is a string of characters used to represent and identify a page of information on the world wide web that is used by an web browser such as netscape or internet explorer to find http, ftp, telnet, gopher and other resources on the internet. the first part of the address lets you know what protocol to use. if you were told to visit the url " ftp : / / ftp. download. com / readme. txt ", you would be using the file transfer protocol ( ftp ) to download the file " readme. txt " from a remote computer. if the url was " http : / / 10. 0. 0. 1 / faq. html ", you would be using hypertext transfer protocol to read the document " faq. html " on the web. the second part of the address specifies the domain name or the ip address or the where the resource is located. in the above example, ftp was used to retrieve a document called " readme. txt " from a computer or server that has the domain name " download. com ". sometimes a domain name is not registered for an ip address. in that case you would need to memorize a computer ' s ip address. in the second example, http was used to locate a document called " faq. html " from a computer whose internet protocol address is 10. 0. 0. 1. it is much easier to remember a domain name rather than an ip address when typing out urls. the concept of a url was introduced in late 1990. at that time, it was called a hypertext name or document name.


food security is a major issue in tamil nadu with prices running at an all time high. climate change affects the region resulting in drought, poor soils, water depletion. farmers need advice, support and information on the latest technological advances to help them cultivate the best crops from the land and to raise healthy animals. we have helped to set up 87 self - help groups, providing training and support for all kinds of organic farming. food growing, animal husbandry and tree planting are the most common. loans are also available to those establishing income generation programmes. our farm science centre, krish vigyan kendra, has been at the forefront of economic development for farm workers since 1996. the centre ’ s purpose is to assess the different local and international technologies on offer, and promote any that have sustainable advantages. it is essential that these technologies are affordable for the farming communities. the centre is then involved in the refinement of these technologies and local demonstration in order to reach the highest number of farmers in the most effective manner, we rely on its highly effective group approach. farmers ’ groups are formed in villages, and the leaders are called for monthly technical discussion meetings followed by scientific diagnostic field visits and technology demonstrations. through participatory methods the problems of the farmers are identified, and solutions are discussed with the farmers, in kvk staff meetings, and with leading experts. the feasible solutions that are identified through kvk collaboration with farmers and experts are taken to the farmer ’ s field for farm trials, demonstrations, and skills training sessions.


article, book resources thanksgiving recommended books - grades : prek – k, 1 – 2, 3 – 5, 6 – 8 the following titles for grades k - 8 are available in the teacher store at scholastic. com. 1621 : a new look at thanksgiving by catherine o ' neill grace and margaret m. bruchac. photographs by cotton coulson and sisse brimberg ( grades 3 - 5 ) in october of 2000, plimoth plantation cooperated with the wampanoag community to stage an historically accurate reenactment of the 1621 harvest celebration. 1621 : a new look at thanksgiving exposes the myth that this event was the " first thanksgiving " and is the basis for the thanksgiving holiday that is celebrated today. this exciting book describes the actual events that took place during the three days that the wampanoag people and the colonists came together. the first thanksgiving by linda hayward ( grades prek - 1 ) give young readers the familiar story behind our tradition of thanksgiving day, detailed in this easy - to - read history storybook. the pilgrims ' journey, the trials they endure while at sea, and all of their amazing adventures are conveyed with vibrant illustrations and simple words for utmost comprehension. pilgrims ' first thanksgiving by ann mcgovern ( grades prek - 1 ) full - color illustrations bring to life this historically accurate account of how the children of plymouth colony helped contribute to the first thanksgiving celebration. clifford ' s thanksgiving visit by norman bridwell ( grades prek - 2 ) what child wouldn ' t like to have a pet as special as clifford the big red dog? in this adventure, clifford experiences an unusual thanksgiving journey, ending with an appreciation of overcoming difficulties, celebrating tradition, and spending time with family. squanto ' s journey : the story of the first thanksgiving by joseph bruchac ( grades k - 3 ) travel back to 1620 as an english ship called the mayflower lands on the shores inhabited by the pokanoket people. as squanto welcomes the newcomers and teaches them how to survive in the rugged land they called plymouth, young readers are treated to a story ending with the two peoples feasting together in the spirit of peace and brotherhood. by barbara cohen ( grades k - 3 ) molly nears her first thanksgiving in america and her classmates giggle at her yiddish accent and make fun of her unfamiliar ways. now her mother embarrasses her with a doll that looks more russian than pilgrim. will molly discover something to be thankful for? gracias, el pa


america and her classmates giggle at her yiddish accent and make fun of her unfamiliar ways. now her mother embarrasses her with a doll that looks more russian than pilgrim. will molly discover something to be thankful for? gracias, el pavo de thanksgiving by joy crowley ( grades prek - 2 ) in this warm holiday story, a young puerto rican boy saves the life of his pet turkey with help from his close - knit new york city family and neighborhood. beginning spanish vocabulary is woven into the text, giving young readers a unique thanksgiving story experience. if you were at the first thanksgiving by anne kamma ( grades 1 - 4 ) told from a child ' s perspective and illustrated in full color, this book brings the first thanksgiving to life. details about daily life put young readers into the middle of the action. if you sailed on the mayflower in 1620 by ann mcgovern ( grades 1 - 4 ) answer children ' s questions about the pilgrims with an enlightening thanksgiving story. with the beautiful illustrations, young readers can imagine being right on the ship, waiting to arrive in a new land. as a part of the if you series, this book helps bring history to life and nurture imagination. the journal of jasper jonathan pierce : a pilgrim boy, plymouth, 1620 by ann rinaldi ( grades 4 - 8 ) by promising seven years of labor to a fellow traveler, jasper earns passage aboard the mayflower and closes the door on his troubled past. his account of the arduous ocean crossing and first year in the new world shows young readers his physical and spiritual growth as he learns the strengths and weaknesses in himself, his puritan people, and his native american neighbors. see all our thanksgiving resources in the teacher store.


let ' s learn about weather! - grades : 1 – 2 - unit plan : - observe weather. - listen to weather stories. - recognize different kinds of weather. - write about weather. - large paper cloud for brainstorming words - observation notebook for each students - cloudy with a chance of meatballs by judi barrett, available in the teacher store - what will the weather be like today? by paul rogers, available in the teacher store - weather words and what they mean by gail gibbons, available in the teacher store - who cares about the weather? by melvin berger, natalie lunis set up and prepare - cut out and post a large paper cloud. - make observation notebooks for each student. i use several sheets of paper that have a few lines for writing on the bottom and space for drawing a picture on the top. add a cover sheet with a cloud. the students can write " weather " in the cloud. step 1 : read cloudy with a chance of meatballs by judi barrett. step 2 : brainstorm words students may want to use when writing about weather. these can be written on the large paper cloud. step 3 : have the students write a new page in the style of cloudy with a chance of meatballs. bind the pages into a book. step 1 : read what will the weather be like today? by paul rogers and weather words and what they mean by gail gibbons. step 2 : discuss types of weather. add weather words to the word cloud. step 3 : have the students draw the weather they see outside the classroom in their observation notebook and write words or sentences that describe it. step 1 : read who cares about the weather? by melvin berger and natalie lunis. step 2 : have the students write and illustrate a page for the class ' own book, who cares about the weather? bind the pages into a book. learn more about plants and play plant games with these fun web sites. - dan ' s wild weather page http : / / www. wildwildweather. com / tell someone at home three facts about weather. tomorrow, be ready to share what you said with your table partner. ( the next day, the teacher will walk around the classroom listening to what students are sharing and make comments. then the students will be asked to share with a different partner and listen to what that person said to someone at home. ) - was there enough time? - were the students successful or frustrated observing the weather? - were the students able to combine weather elements such as cold " and


rings around the sun | tweet | rings around the sun whenever both sun and clouds are in the sky, be sure to look up - - you may behold rings, arcs, and other marvels! oct. 24, 2002 : it was just after lunch on sept. 25th when i stepped out onto the rear deck of my home in ohio. what a gorgeous autumn afternoon. the pale blue sky was streaked with wispy white cirrus clouds. the sun was high and bright. i glanced up.... the sun was surrounded by an extraordinarily bright, rainbow - colored halo. flanking it both left and right were two brilliant, comet - shaped rainbow - colored sun dogs or mock suns ( technically known as parhelia from greek words meaning " beside the sun " ). wow! above : this scene, recorded in finland by pekka parviainen using a wide - angle lens, is similar to the one author trudy e. bell saw in ohio last month. a football - shaped " circumscribed halo " surrounds the sun. a fainter " parhelic circle " rings the horizon. " i had never seen anything so huge and so perfectly circular, " says bell. i dashed to the front yard, which has a better view of the sky, and began turning to see how far the " comet tails " of the sun dogs reached. i turned 360o, accidentally unbalancing myself and falling onto the grass. " that ' s the complete parhelic circle! " i exclaimed aloud to the empty street. all that morning i had been stepping outside hourly to look up, because i knew that thin cirrus clouds plus bright sunlight almost guaranteed seeing something wonderful. cirrus clouds are made of millions of hexagonal ice crystals 3 to 6 miles up in the troposphere where jet airplanes fly - - each crystal acting as a tiny prism refracting ( bending ) the sun ' s light and throwing it elsewhere into the sky. because the upper troposphere is almost always below freezing, ice - crystal displays can be seen year - round ( i ' ve seen weak sundogs even in july ). but truly good displays in the united states are most common in the fall, winter, and spring when the northern jet stream descends southward, drawing down arctic air masses with their treasure - trove of jewel - like ice prisms. left : wispy high - altitude clouds like these harbor ice crystals that cause sun halos. credit :


spring when the northern jet stream descends southward, drawing down arctic air masses with their treasure - trove of jewel - like ice prisms. left : wispy high - altitude clouds like these harbor ice crystals that cause sun halos. credit : pekka parviainen just then, my neighbor cindy backed her van out of her drive. i called to her and pointed upward. she stepped out of her idling van and looked up. her eyes widened and her jaw dropped. " was this predicted? " she asked eagerly. " did people know this was going to happen? how do you find out when to look? " no, i explained, atmospheric displays cannot be predicted the way astronomers can pinpoint the dates and times of meteor showers and eclipses. sighting such a light show is more akin to spotting an unusual migratory south american bird in ohio : knowing generally the right weather conditions and time of year, you simply must trust to luck. not only that, but every ice - crystal display is as different as every pattern seen through a kaleidoscope - - and for similar reasons. displays in the daylit sky depend on the tilt of the ice crystals in the air and the altitude of the sun. they depend on whether the ice crystals are flat plates or long pencils. they depend on the crystals ' size ( at least 0. 1 millimeter across ) and optical quality. crystals too tiny or imperfect can ' t act as prisms. but if the crystals are of exceptional gem - like quality, the entire dome of the daytime sky may be festooned with exotic halos, loops, arcs, and crosses - - or the full parhelic circle now glowing overhead in silent glory! " and to think, " cindy remarked, climbing back into her van, " i wouldn ' t have noticed any of this if you hadn ' t gotten me just to look up! " after she drove off, i pondered her questions and comment. although i ' ve been an avid amateur astronomer and lover of the nighttime sky since 1965, only in the last five years have i also become a devotee of the daytime sky. during that time, my experience has revealed that even supposedly rare atmospheric - optics displays are more common than meteorology books imply - - plainly visible to anyone who simply thinks to tilt back the head. now that i ' ve cultivated the simple habit of looking up a dozen times a day, i ' ve found scarcely a week passes without some reward - - be it solar halos, sun dogs, crep


simply thinks to tilt back the head. now that i ' ve cultivated the simple habit of looking up a dozen times a day, i ' ve found scarcely a week passes without some reward - - be it solar halos, sun dogs, crepuscular rays ( shafts of sunbeams and shadows from behind puffy cumulus clouds ), circumzenithal arcs ( a rainbow - colored " ice bow " arc half - encircling the zenith ), sun pillars, ora now, the complete parhelic circle. yes, the daytime sky abounds with unexpected gifts, which can be yours for taking a moment - - just to look up! editor ' s note : ice crystals in earth ' s atmosphere cause not only rings around the sun, but also rings around the moon, moondogs and even venus pillars. if you spot a sun pillar or halo not long before sunset, be alert for rings and pillars around objects in the night sky a few hours later. more information sun halos, pillars and sundogs can happen during any season. " the icy crystals that cause them form in high altitude clouds 5 km or so above earth ' s surface where it is always freezing, " says bruce wielicki, an atmospheric scientist at nasa ' s langley research center. right : cirrus clouds and hexagonal ice crystals. [ more ] polar halos : complex ice - crystal displays are especially common in the arctic and antarctic, even being produced by the full moon during the months - long winter night! here ' s a description of one seen by robert peary on his last voyage toward the north pole : " on the evening of november 11, there was a brilliant paraselene, two distinct halos and eight false moons being visible in the southern sky. this phenomenon is not unusual in the arctic, and is caused by the frost crystals in the air. on this particular occasion the inner halo had a false moon at its zenith, another at its nadir, and one each at the right and left. outside was another halo, with four other moons. " - robert e. peary, the north pole : its discovery in 1909 under the auspices of the peary arctic club, 1910 ; dover publications, 1986, pp. 175 - 176. more references : trudy e. bell " skyscapes, " league of american bicyclists magazine, 37 ( 3 ) : 12 - 15 ( summer ) - - photos of different common ice - crystal, water - drop


a chemistry teacher could... | inspire students to explore chemistry by challenging them to create an effective, eco - friendly cleaning solution. | | teach students the scientific method, including how to make observations, collect and record data, and draw conclusions. | | use fun kitchen projects, like making ice cream, to demonstrate what a chemical reaction is. | | lead a field trip to a local pharmaceutical company to help students understand how chemistry impacts their lives. | key facts & information | overview | | when you hear the word chemicals, you might think of laboratories and scientists in white coats ; but actually, chemicals are all around you, as well as inside of you. everything in the world is made up of chemicals, also known as matter, or stuff that takes up space. chemistry is the study of matter — what it is made of, how it behaves, its structure and properties, and how it changes during chemical reactions. chemistry teachers are the people who help students understand this physical world, from the reactions within our own bodies to how soaps and detergents work and why egg proteins can keep a cookie from crumbling. they prepare the next generation of scientists and engineers, including all healthcare professionals. they also help also students develop scientific literacy. | | key requirements | | enthusiasm for science and chemistry, patience, a positive attitude, observant, with a desire to work with young students and outstanding communication skills | | minimum degree | | bachelor ' s degree | | subjects to study in high school | | biology, chemistry, physics, geometry, algebra, pre - calculus, english ; if available, foreign language | | projected job growth ( 2010 - 2020 ) | | more slowly than average ( 3 % to 6 % ) in demand! | training, other qualifications the traditional route to becoming a public school teacher involves completing a bachelor ' s degree from a teacher education program and then obtaining a license. however, most states now offer alternative routes to licensure for those who have a college degree in other fields. private school teachers do not have to be licensed, but might still need a bachelor ' s degree. education and training typically, a bachelor ' s degree in chemistry, and certification to teach in high school, sometimes referred to as a single - subject certification, is necessary for teaching chemistry. these two requisites, as well as a semester of student - teaching, are usually completed simultaneously. licensing is required by all states to teach in the public school system ; however, it is not needed for private schools. because requirements vary


chemistry. these two requisites, as well as a semester of student - teaching, are usually completed simultaneously. licensing is required by all states to teach in the public school system ; however, it is not needed for private schools. because requirements vary, contact the board of education within the state in which you want to teach. in addition to being knowledgeable about chemistry and science, teachers must have the ability to communicate, inspire trust and confidence, and motivate students, as well as to understand the students ' educational and emotional needs. additional skills necessary for success as a chemistry teacher are creative thinking, problem solving, and strong time - management skills. high school chemistry teachers must have excellent classroom management skills and be able to facilitate learning amongst a wide range of learners. the ability to multi - task is essential. teachers must be able to recognize and respond to individual and cultural differences in students, and employ different teaching methods that will result in higher student achievement. they should be organized, dependable, patient, and creative. teachers also must be able to work cooperatively and communicate effectively with other teachers, support staff, parents, and members of the community. private schools associated with religious institutions desire candidates who share the values that are important to the institution. nature of the work watch this video of chemistry teacher dr. lew davis who believes that a little bit of theatrics combined with chemistry demonstrations helps students start asking questions and get excited about chemistry. see how he becomes his alter ego dr. death and engages students with his chemistry show. a chemistry teacher presents concepts that are related to chemistry to high school students in public or private schools. the majority of a chemistry teacher ' s time is spent with students in the classroom, with a smaller percentage spent in planning periods and meetings with other staff and parents. the duties of a chemistry teacher include creating lesson plans ; preparing and delivering lectures ; creating and supervising laboratory activities for students ; evaluating student performance ; maintaining classroom records ; meeting with parents, teachers, and other professionals ; and participating in campus events. they may use a variety of teaching techniques, including the use of textbooks, white boards, technology integration, and hands - on materials. depending upon the expectations of the employing school, additional research, supervisory, or organizational duties might also be required of a chemistry teacher. chemistry teachers are generally expected to participate in ongoing professional development and to stay informed about developments in their field. seeing students develop new skills and gain an appreciation for knowledge and learning can be very rewarding. however, teaching can be frustrating when one


teacher. chemistry teachers are generally expected to participate in ongoing professional development and to stay informed about developments in their field. seeing students develop new skills and gain an appreciation for knowledge and learning can be very rewarding. however, teaching can be frustrating when one is dealing with unmotivated or disrespectful students. occasionally, teachers must cope with unruly behavior and violence in the schools. teachers might experience stress when dealing with large classes, heavy workloads, or old schools that are run down and lack modern amenities. accountability standards also might increase stress levels, with teachers expected to produce students who are able to exhibit a satisfactory performance on standardized tests in core subjects. many teachers, particularly in public schools, also are frustrated by the lack of control they have over what they are required to teach. teachers in private schools generally enjoy smaller class sizes and more control over establishing the curriculum, and setting standards for performance and discipline. their students also tend to be more motivated, since private schools can be selective in their admissions processes. teachers are sometimes isolated from their colleagues because they work alone in a classroom of students. however, some schools allow teachers to work in teams and with mentors, to enhance their professional development. many teachers work more than 40 hours a week, including school duties performed outside the classroom. most teachers work the traditional 10 - month school year, with a 2 - month vacation during the summer. during the vacation break, those on the 10 - month schedule might teach in summer sessions, take other jobs, travel, or pursue personal interests. many enroll in college courses or workshops to continue their education. teachers in districts with a year - round schedule typically work 8 weeks, are on vacation for 1 week, and have a 5 - week midwinter break. most states have tenure laws that prevent public school teachers from being fired without just cause and due process. teachers may obtain tenure after they have satisfactorily completed a probationary period of teaching, normally three years. tenure does not absolutely guarantee a job, but it does provide some security. on the job - establish and enforce rules for behavior and procedures for maintaining order among students. - instruct through lectures, discussions, and demonstrations in one or more subjects, such as english, mathematics, or social studies. - establish clear objectives for all lessons, units, and projects and communicate those objectives to students. - prepare, administer, and grade tests and assignments to evaluate students ' progress. - prepare materials and classrooms for class activities. - adapt teaching methods and instructional materials