a fashion to allow the evolution of totally novel phyla. according to this internalistic view, once you fix all the features of development, they get very rigidly tied together and you can ’ t change it, says rudolf raff, a developmental and evolutionary biologist at indiana university. think of this through the analogy of evolving a machine, explains raff. if you have the parts, you can build a primitive bicycle, with two wheels and pedals, and then you put gears on it. you can put a motor on it and make it a motorcycle, and you can use titanium instead of steel and make it lighter. at each one of these stages you improve the thing, still staying with the basic body plan. and it becomes harder to convert it to something else, because it belongs to a different lineage than some other kind of machine. if you want to improve it, you can make any kind of change you want, but you will still have something like a bicycle, which is different from a four - wheeled vehicle like a car. you would never add a hook and ladder and make a bicycle into a fire truck. by this reasoning, once the panoply of different phyla appeared, they could not change course to form completely different body types. evolution couldn ’ t alter a few features on a crab and create a sea urchin, for example. raff has actually tried to gauge the flexibility of developmental pathways in modern animals, focusing on two species of sea urchin that split from a common ancestor about 10 million years ago. while the species look similar in their adult forms, they go through startlingly different larval stages - - a major developmental change that happened since the two species branched away from each other. one thing that tells us is that you can make really substantial changes in development in a very short period of geologic time. it doesn ’ t take a hundred million years to invent a new way of developing an organism, says raff. but in the end, this developmental divergence didn ’ t amount to much, because the two urchin species retain similar adult forms, suggesting that modern animals do not have unlimited freedom to alter their development. you can build an urchin another way, but you still build an urchin, says raff. back at the beginning of the cambrian, however, such restrictions may not have existed, he says. earth itself may also have played a starring role in the cambrian drama. bergstrom thinks the ocean went through a radical chemical shift at this time that sparked the biological frenzy.


of the cambrian, however, such restrictions may not have existed, he says. earth itself may also have played a starring role in the cambrian drama. bergstrom thinks the ocean went through a radical chemical shift at this time that sparked the biological frenzy. it must have been something in the environment that triggered this event, he says with confidence. when asked to elaborate, bergstrom spins a story about oxygen levels rising right before the cambrian boundary. although today ’ s atmosphere holds 21 percent free oxygen, there was little free oxygen in the air and oceans early in life ’ s history. it began accumulating in the oceans about 3. 8 billion years ago, as shown by the red bands of oxidized, or rusted, iron in seafloor rocks from that time until about 2 billion years ago. as the oceans rusted out, oxygen was now free to accumulate in the environment, reaching levels high enough to support small and simple life - forms. by the time of the ediacara animals in the late precambrian, oxygen levels had increased enough to permit the development of large - bodied organisms. but even the ediacara creatures may have faced oxygen limitations, for these animals were mostly flat sheets, a shape well suited for allowing even scant amounts of gas to reach the innermost cells. eventually, for whatever reason, enough oxygen did accumulate in the environment, says bergstrom, and the increase would have triggered evolution on a grand scale. animals could have developed complex shapes, chased after prey, built exoskeletons and shells ; they could have produced everything that appeared in the cambrian explosion. while this makes for a good story, even bergstrom admits that it may be complete fiction. geologists really do not know when oxygen reached the levels required by complex organisms ; it may have occurred long before the cambrian ’ s start. still, bergstrom believes that something unusual was going on in the cambrian environment. raff wonders whether a biological factor allowed animals to form modern phyla all of a sudden. for instance, some creatures may have developed the ability to scrape algae off rocks, thereby exploiting a whole new food source that would have allowed them to grow larger and more active. if that idea doesn ’ t appeal, raff can rattle off a dozen others that have been suggested over the years by various scientists. perhaps the appearance of the earliest predators forced the evolution of complex body plans with built - in defenses. or maybe an extinction of the precambrian creatures sparked the evolutionary explosion. it may have been


have been suggested over the years by various scientists. perhaps the appearance of the earliest predators forced the evolution of complex body plans with built - in defenses. or maybe an extinction of the precambrian creatures sparked the evolutionary explosion. it may have been that any number of causes could ultimately have done it. it ’ s just that one or the other did, and we don ’ t know which one that was, he says. working backward through history and connecting effects with obscure causes is easy when you have detailed records. the discovery of the chengjiang fossils, for instance, can be traced to the unlikely cause of world war ii, when thousands of chinese academics fled the invading japanese army and set up shop near chengjiang. one geologist wrote a paper about some arthropod shells found on maotian mountain. four decades later a paleontologist came across that paper, and it prompted him to visit the mountain. his name was hou xianguang, and instead of arthropod shells he found the mother lode. but when it comes to reconstructing prehistory in the cambrian, the problem is that scientists see the effect, but they have many causes to choose from - - and not a lot of clues about the correct choice to make. you are looking at a unique event, raff says, so you don ’ t have the ability to replicate it and look at another example. it ’ s like the joke about the first exam in astronomy, where question one goes : define universe, and give two examples. we face the same problem. we don ’ t have another example of the cambrian radiation or anything like it. we have no way of replicating it in the lab. it ’ s removed a half - billion years from us. so it ’ s a tough thing to understand. and that is precisely why chengjiang is so attractive to scientists grappling with these issues. the cambrian problem is currently getting attention from diverse groups of researchers, not just the enclave devoted to studying extinct beasts. it reaches beyond paleontology. it ’ s not just a curiosity, says raff. these animals are not going to end up on exhibit simply as weird - looking things. they really influence the way a lot of people think about the history of life. as he speaks, the work crews in chengjiang are out in force, building a better road up to maotian mountain to replace the old dirt path. near the top of the ridge, sunlight glints off a marble monument covered with engraved script. chinese characters


according to francis maude, open data is the raw material for “ next industrial revolution ”. now you should obviously take everything politicians say with a large pinch of salt ( especially maude ) but despite the political hyperbole, when it comes to data he is onto something. according to wikipedia, which is considerably more reliable than politicians, open data is : “ the idea that certain data should be freely available to everyone to use and republish as they wish, without restrictions from copyright, patents or other mechanisms of control. ” open data is slowly having an impact in the world of science and also in wider society. initiatives like data. gov in the u. s. and data. gov. uk in england, also known as e - government or government 2. 0, have put huge amounts of data in the public domain and there is plenty more data in the pipeline. all of this data makes novel applications possible, like cycling injury maps showing accident black spots, and many others just like it. to discuss the current status of open data in greater manchester there were two events last week : - the open data manchester meetup “ 24 hour data people ” at the the manchester digital laboratory ( “ madlab ” ), which recently made bbc headlines with the diy bio project - the discover open data event at the cornerhouse cinema


james cameron ’ s submersible craft deepsea challenger reemerged from its record - breaking dive into the challenger deep of the mariana trench – the deepest known point in the earth ’ s oceans – today at 2 utc ( 9 p. m. cst on march 25, 2012 ). cameron is a national geographic explorer and filmmaker. he is the first human being to reach the bottom of the 6. 8 - mile - deep ( 11 - kilometer - deep ) undersea trench, traveling in what some call his “ vertical torpedo. ” the mariana trench in the western pacific is an unsusaully deep feature in the ocean floor. challenger deep is a slot - shaped depression within the mariana trench. its bottom is 11. 3 km ( 7 miles ) long and 1. 6 km ( 1 mile ) wide, with gently sloping sides. challenger deep is located at the southern end of the mariana trench. james cameron has become the first human to reach and return solo from the 6. 8 - mile - deep ( 11 - kilometer - deep ) undersea challenger deep in the mariana trench in the western pacific. he descended solo in his craft deepsea challenger. the depth his craft recorded was 10, 898 metres ( 35, 755 ft ) when he touched down.


amplitude modulation synthesis is a type of sound synthesis where the gain of one signal is controlled, or modulated, by the gain of another signal. the signal whose gain is being modulated is called the " carrier ", and the signal responsible for the modulation is called the " modulator ". in classical amplitude modulation, or am synthesis, both the modulator and the carrier are oscillators. however, the carrier can also be another kind of signal, such as an instrument or vocal input. amplitude modulation using a very low frequency modulator is known as tremolo, and the use of one audio signal to amplitude modulate another audio signal is known as ring modulation. simple am synthesis classical am synthesis is created by using one oscillator to modulate the gain of another oscillator. because we are changing the gain of the carrier oscillator from 0 ( no gain ) to 1 ( full gain ), the modulating oscillator must output a signal which changes between 0 and 1. this is most often done at audio frequency rates from 20 hz and up. in this case, the sawtooth waveform of a [ phasor ~ ] is used as the modulator, and the sine waveform of an [ osc ~ ] is the carrier. tremolo is a form of amplitude modulation where the gain of an audio signal is changed at a very slow rate, often at a frequency below the range of hearing ( approximately 20 hz ). this effect is commonly used to alter the sound of organs or electric guitar. since a sine wave is often used for a smooth - sounding tremolo effect, in this patch we have taken the output of an [ osc ~ ], which normally moves between - 1 and 1, and scaled it so that it ' s output is now from 0 to 1. this is known as adding a dc offset to the signal. for more discussion on this, please see the chapter on dc offset. you can also modulate one audio signal with another audio signal ( i. e. a signal which has both positive and negative values ). this effect is called ring modulation. if you have a microphone connected to your computer, try the following patch. the sound of your voice will enter pd through the analog to digital converter [ adc ~ ] object ( the line in from the soundcard ), and be modulated by the sine wave of a [ phasor ~ ] object. notice that there is no sound when only one


| location | | galleria dell ' accademia, florence | david is a masterpiece of renaissance sculpture created between 1501 and 1504, by the italian artist michelangelo. it is a 5. 17 - metre ( 17. 0 ft ) marble statue of a standing male nude. the statue represents the biblical hero david, a favoured subject in the art of florence. originally commissioned as one of a series of statues of prophets to be positioned along the roofline of the east end of florence cathedral, the statue was instead placed in a public square, outside the palazzo della signoria, the seat of civic government in florence, where it was unveiled on 8 september 1504. because of the nature of the hero that it represented, it soon came to symbolize the defence of civil liberties embodied in the florentine republic, an independent city - state threatened on all sides by more powerful rival states and by the hegemony of the medici family. the eyes of david, with a warning glare, were turned towards rome. the statue was moved to the accademia gallery in florence in 1873, and later replaced at the original location by a replica. the history of the statue begins before michelangelo ' s work on it from 1501 to 1504. prior to michelangelo ' s involvement, the overseers of the office of works of florence cathedral, consisting mostly of members of the influential woolen cloth guild, the arte della lana, had plans to commission a series of twelve large old testament sculptures for the buttresses of the cathedral of santa maria del fiore. one of those statues had been made by donatello in 1410, a figure of joshua made of terracotta, and a second, also a terracotta, but this time of hercules, was commissioned from the florentine sculptor agostino di duccio in 1463 ; scholars suggest that agostino was working under donatello ' s direction. eager to continue their project, in 1464, the operai contracted agostino to create a sculpture of david. a block of marble was provided, from a quarry in carrara, a town in the apuan alps in northern tuscany. agostino only got as far as beginning to shape the legs, feet and the torso, roughing out some drapery and probably gouging a hole between the legs. his association with the project ceased, for reasons unknown, with the death of donatello in 1466, and ten years later antonio rossellino was commissioned to take up where agostino had left off


gouging a hole between the legs. his association with the project ceased, for reasons unknown, with the death of donatello in 1466, and ten years later antonio rossellino was commissioned to take up where agostino had left off. rossellino ' s contract was terminated soon thereafter, and the block of marble remained neglected for twenty - five years, all the while exposed to the elements in the yard of the cathedral workshop. this was of great concern to the opera authorities, as such a large piece of marble not only was costly but also represented a large amount of labour and difficulty in its transportation to florence. in 1500, an inventory of the cathedral workshops described the piece as " a certain figure of marble called david, badly blocked out and supine. " a year later, documents showed that the operai were determined to find an artist who could take this large piece of marble and turn it into a finished work of art. they ordered the block of stone, which they called the giant, " raised on its feet " so that a master experienced in this kind of work might examine it and express an opinion. though leonardo da vinci and others were consulted, it was michelangelo, only twenty - six years old, who convinced the operai that he deserved the commission. on august 16, 1501, michelangelo was given the official contract to undertake this challenging new task. he began carving the statue early in the morning on monday, september 13, a month after he was awarded the contract. he would work on the massive biblical hero for more than two years. on january 25, 1504, when the sculpture was nearing completion, florentine authorities had to acknowledge there would be little possibility of raising the more than 6 - ton statue to the roof of the cathedral. they convened a committee of 30 florentine citizens that comprised many artists, including leonardo da vinci and sandro botticelli, to decide on an appropriate site for david. while nine different locations for the statue were discussed, the majority of members seem to have been closely split between two sites : one group, led by giuliano da sangallo and supported by leonardo and piero di cosimo, among others, believed that, due to the imperfections in the marble, the sculpture should be placed under the roof of the loggia dei lanzi on piazza della signoria ; the other group thought it should stand at the entrance to the palazzo della signoria, the city ' s town hall. only a rather minor view, supported by bottic


under the roof of the loggia dei lanzi on piazza della signoria ; the other group thought it should stand at the entrance to the palazzo della signoria, the city ' s town hall. only a rather minor view, supported by botticelli, believed that the sculpture should be situated on or near the cathedral. in june 1504, david was installed next to the entrance to the palazzo vecchio, replacing donatello ' s bronze sculpture of judith and holofernes, which embodied a comparable theme of heroic resistance. it took four days to move the statue the half mile from michelangelo ' s workshop into the piazza della signoria. in 1873 the statue of david was removed from the piazza, to protect it from damage, and displayed in the accademia gallery, florence, where it attracts many visitors. a replica was placed in the piazza della signoria in 1910. in 1991, a deranged man attacked the statue with a hammer he had concealed beneath his jacket, in the process damaging the toes of the left foot before being restrained. on 12 november 2010, a fiberglass replica of the david was installed on the roofline of florence cathedral, for one day only. photographs of the installation reveal the statue the way the operai who commissioned the work originally expected it to be seen. in 2010, a dispute over the ownership of david arose when, based on a legal review of historical documents, the italian culture ministry claimed ownership of the statue in opposition to the city of florence, where it has always been located. florence disputes the state claim. the statue at one point contained gold ; the tree stump was gilded in 1504 and there was also a gilt garland on the figure ' s head. these adornments have since been lost. michelangelo ' s david differs from previous representations of the subject in that the biblical hero is not depicted with the head of the slain goliath, as he is in donatello ' s and verrocchio ' s statues. most scholars consider that the work depicts david before his battle with goliath. instead of appearing victorious over a foe much larger than he, david ' s face looks tense and ready for combat. the tendons in his neck stand out tautly ; the muscles between his upper lip and nose are tight ; his brow is furrowed ; and his eyes seem to focus intently on something in the distance. veins bulge out of his lowered right hand, but his body is in a relaxed contrapposto pose, and he carries his sling casually thrown over his


; his brow is furrowed ; and his eyes seem to focus intently on something in the distance. veins bulge out of his lowered right hand, but his body is in a relaxed contrapposto pose, and he carries his sling casually thrown over his left shoulder. the pose is unlike that of any earlier david ; donatello and verrocchio had both represented the hero standing victorious over the head of goliath, and andrea del castagno had shown the boy in mid - swing, even as goliath ' s head rested between his feet, but no earlier florentine artist had omitted the giant altogether. the contrast between his intense expression and his calm pose perhaps suggests that david is represented after he has made the decision to fight goliath but before the battle has actually taken place. the majority of his weight is on his back leg, staying consistent with the renaissance practice of depicting its subjects in recoiled, calm positions, just prior to action. it is a representation of the moment between conscious choice and conscious action. michelangelo ' s david is a renaissance interpretation of a common ancient greek theme of the standing heroic male nude. in the high renaissance, contrapposto poses were thought of as a distinctive feature of antique sculpture. in david, the figure stands with one leg holding its full weight and the other leg relaxed. this classic pose causes the figure ’ s hips and shoulders to rest at opposite angles, giving a slight s - curve to the entire torso. in addition, the head turns to the left while the left arm is raised to his left shoulder with his sling flung down behind his back. michelangelo ’ s david has become one of the most recognized works of renaissance sculpture, becoming a symbol of both strength and youthful human beauty. it was the colossal size of the statue that impressed michelangelo ' s contemporaries, however. vasari described it as " certainly a miracle that of michelangelo, to restore to life one who was dead, " and then listed every ancient colossal statue he had ever seen, concluding that michelangelo ' s work excelled " all ancient and modern statues, whether greek or latin, that have ever existed. " the proportions of the david are atypical of michelangelo ' s work ; the figure has an unusually large head and hands ( particularly apparent in the right hand ). these enlargements may be due to the fact that the statue was originally intended to be placed on the cathedral roofline, where the important parts of the sculpture would necessarily be accentuated in order to be visible from below. the statue is


. these enlargements may be due to the fact that the statue was originally intended to be placed on the cathedral roofline, where the important parts of the sculpture would necessarily be accentuated in order to be visible from below. the statue is unusually slender ( front to back ) in comparison to its height. this may be the result of the work that had been done on the block before michelangelo began carving it. it is possible that the david was conceived as a political statue before michelangelo began to work on it. certainly david the giant - killer had long been seen as a political figure in florence, and images of the biblical hero already carried political implications there. donatello ' s bronze david, made for the medici family, perhaps c. 1440, had been appropriated by the signoria in 1494, when the medici were exiled from florence, and the statue was installed in the courtyard of the palazzo della signoria, where it stood for the republican government of the city. by placing michelangelo ' s statue in the same general location, the florentine authorities ensured that david would be seen as a political parallel as well as an artistic response to that earlier work. in 1991 the foot of the statue was damaged by a deranged man with a hammer. the samples obtained from that incident allowed scientists to determine that the marble used was obtained from the fantiscritti quarries in miseglia, the central of three small valleys in carrara. the marble in question contains many microscopic holes that cause it to deteriorate faster than other marbles. because of the marble ' s degradation, from 2003 to 2004 the statue was given its first major cleaning since 1843. some experts opposed the use of water to clean the statue, fearing further deterioration. under the direction of dr. franca falleti, senior restorers monica eichmann and cinzia parnigoni undertook the job of restoring the statue. in 2008, plans were proposed to insulate the statue from the vibration of tourists ' footsteps at florence ' s galleria dell ' accademia, to prevent damage to the marble. the statue has been reproduced many times. the plaster cast of david at the victoria and albert museum has a detachable plaster fig leaf which is displayed nearby. the fig leaf was created in response to queen victoria ' s shock upon first viewing the statue ' s nudity, and was hung on the figure prior to royal visits, using two strategically placed hooks. by the 20th century, michelangelo ' s david had become iconic shorthand for " culture


to queen victoria ' s shock upon first viewing the statue ' s nudity, and was hung on the figure prior to royal visits, using two strategically placed hooks. by the 20th century, michelangelo ' s david had become iconic shorthand for " culture ". david has been endlessly reproduced, in plaster and imitation marble fibreglass, signifying an attempt to lend an atmosphere of culture even in some unlikely settings, such as beach resorts, gambling casinos and model railroads. | michelangelo ' s david, smarthistory | - goffen, rona, renaissance rivals : michelangelo, leonardo, raphael, titian, new haven : yale university press, 2002. - hall, james, michelangelo and the invention of the human body new york : farrar, straus and giroux, 2005. - hartt, frederick, michelangelo : the complete sculpture, new york : abrams, 1982. - hibbard, howard. michelangelo, new york : harper & row, 1974. - hirst michael, “ michelangelo in florence : david in 1503 and hercules in 1506, ” the burlington magazine, 142 ( 2000 ) : 487 – 492. - hughes, anthony, michelangelo, london : phaidon, 1997. - pope - hennessy, john, italian high renaissance and baroque sculpture. london : phaidon, 1996. - levine, saul, " the location of michelangelo ' s david : the meeting of january 25, 1504, the art bulletin, 56 ( 1974 ) : 31 – 49 - seymour, charles, jr. michelangelo ' s david : a search for identity ( mellon studies in the humanities ), pittsburgh : university of pittsburgh press, 1967. - vasari, giorgio, lives of the artists ( penguin books ), “ life of michelangelo ”, pp. 325 – 442. - the height of the david was recorded incorrectly and the mistake proliferated through many art history publications. the accurate height was only determined in 1998 - 1999 when a team from stanford university went to florence to try out a project on digitally imaging large 3d objects by photographing sculptures by michelangelo and found that the sculpture was taller than any of the sources had indicated. see and - see, for example, donatello ' s 2 versions of david ; verrocchio ' s bronze david ; domenico ghirlandaio ' s painting of david ; and bartolomeo bellano ' s bronze david. - this theory was first proposed by saul levine " the location of michelangelo ' s david : the meeting of january 25, 1504


david ; domenico ghirlandaio ' s painting of david ; and bartolomeo bellano ' s bronze david. - this theory was first proposed by saul levine " the location of michelangelo ' s david : the meeting of january 25, 1504, the art bulletin 56 ( 1974 ) : 31 – 49. see also j. huston mcculloch, david : a new perspective, ( 2007 ) accessed 13 - 02 - 2010 - the genesis of david was discussed in seymour 1967. - charles seymour, jr. " homo magnus et albus : the quattrocento background for michelangelo ' s david of 1501 - 04, " stil und uberlieferung in der kunst des abendlandes, berlin, 1967, ii, 96 - 105. - seymour, 100 - 101. - giovanni gaye, carteggio inedito d ' artisti del sec. xiv, xv, xvi, florence : 1839 - 40, 2 : 454 and charles seymour, michelangelo ' s david : a search for identity, pittsburgh : pittsburgh university press, 1967, 134 – 137, doc. 34. - gaetano milanesi, le lettere di michelangelo buonarroti pubblicati coi ricordi ed i contratti artistici, florence, 1875, 620 - 623 : "... the consuls of the arte della lana and the lords overseers being met overseers, have chosen as sculptor to the said cathedral the worthy master, michelangelo, the son of lodovico buonarrotti, a citizen of florence, to the end that he may make, finish and bring to perfection the male figure known as the giant, nine braccia in height, already blocked out in marble by maestro agostino grande, of florence, and badly blocked ; and now stored in the workshops of the cathedral. the work shall be completed within the period and term of two years next ensuing, beginning from the first day of september next ensuing, with a salary and payment together in joint assembly within the hall of the said of six broad florins of gold in gold for every month. and for all other works that shall be required about the said building ( edificium ) the said overseers bind themselves to supply and provide both men and scaffolding from their office and all else that may be necessary. when the said work and the said male figure of marble shall be finished, then the consuls and overseers who shall at that time be in authority shall judge whether it merits


and scaffolding from their office and all else that may be necessary. when the said work and the said male figure of marble shall be finished, then the consuls and overseers who shall at that time be in authority shall judge whether it merits a higher reward, being guided therein by the dictates of their own consciences. " - the statue has not been weighed, but an estimate of its weight was circulated in 2004, when the statue was cleaned. see a cbs news report of 8 march 2004. - the minutes of the meeting were published in giovanni gaye, carteggio inedito d ' artisti del sec. xiv, xv, xvi, florence, 1839 – 40, 2 : 454 – 463. for an english translation of the document, see seymour, michelangelo ' s david, 140 - 155 and for an analysis, see saul levine, " the location of michelangelo ' s david : the meeting of january 25, 1504, art bulletin 56 ( 1974 ) : 31 - 49 ; n. randolph parks, " the placement of michelangelo ' s david : a review of the documents, " art bulletin, 57 ( 1975 ) 560 - 570 ; and rona goffen, renaissance rivals : michelangelo, leonardo, raphael, titian, new haven, 2002, 123 – 127. - gilded details were added to the statue later that summer : a victory wreath, his sling and tree - stump support, a grape - leaf belt. goffen 130. - " a man the police described as deranged broke part of a toe with a hammer, saying a 16th century venetian painter ' s model ordered him to do so. " cowell, alan. " michelangelo ' s david is damaged ". new york times, 1991 - 09 - 15. retrieved on 2008 - 05 - 23. - povoledo, elisabetta ( august 31, 2010 ). " who owns michelangelo ’ s ‘ david ’? ". the new york times. retrieved 2010 - 09 - 01. - pisa, nick ( august 16, 2010 ). " florence vs italy : michelangelo ' s david at centre of ownership row ". the daily telegraph ( london ). retrieved 2010 - 09 - 01. - art in renaissance italy. - howard hibbard, michelangelo, new york : harper & row, 1974, 59 - 61 ; anthony hughes, michelangelo, london : phaidon, 1997, 74. - giorgio vasari, le vite de ' piu eccellenti pittori, sc


michelangelo, new york : harper & row, 1974, 59 - 61 ; anthony hughes, michelangelo, london : phaidon, 1997, 74. - giorgio vasari, le vite de ' piu eccellenti pittori, scultori e architettori nelle redazioni del 1550 e 1568, ed. rosanna bettarini and paola barocchi, florence, 1966 - 87, 6 : 21. - levine, 45 - 46. - andrew butterfield, " new evidence for the iconography of david in quattrocento florence, i tatti studies, 8 ( 1995 ) : 115 - 133. - " michelangelo and medicine " journal of the royal society of medicine - eric scigliano. " inglorious restorations. destroying old masterpieces in order to save them. " harper ' s magazine. august 2005, 61 – 68. - michelangelo ' s david ' may crack '. bbc news, 2008 - 09 - 19. retrieved on 2008 - 09 - 19. - " david ' s fig leaf ". victoria and albert museum. retrieved 2007 - 05 - 29. - a. synnott, pink flamingoes : symbols and symbolism in yard art, 1990. - " you need not travel to florence to see michelangelo ' s david. you can see it well enough for educational purposes in reproduction, " asserted e. b. feldman in 1973 ( feldman, " the teacher as model critic ", journal of aesthetic education, 1973 ). - that " typical examples of kitsch include fridge magnets showing michelangelo ’ s david. " is reported even in the british medical journal ( j launer, " medical kitsch ", bmj, 2000 ) - leibold, cheryl. " the historic cast collection at the pennsylvania academy of the fine arts ". retrieved 11 march 2013. - " michelangelo ' s david ". smarthistory at khan academy. retrieved march 18, 2013. | wikimedia commons has media related to : michelangelo ' s david | - david : a new perspective, j. huston mcculloch - michelangelo buonarroti : david, art and the bible - the digital michelangelo project, stanford university - models of wax and clay used by michelangelo in making his sculpture and paintings - the museums of florence - the david of michelangelo read in another language this page is available in 48 languages - bahasa indonesia - norsk bokmal - simple english - српски / srpski - tieng


anatolian weights and measures ottoman units of length the fundamental unit of length in the ottoman empire was the arsın. three types of arsın were used : the mimari arsın ( architect ' s arsın ), the carsı arsın ( market arsın ) and the endaze. the mimari arsın was 75. 8 cm, longer than the other two, and so named because it was used for measuring land and buildings. it was also known as the bina arsını ( building arsın ). one twenty - fourth of an architect ' s arsın was called a parmak, one twelfth of a parmak a hat, and one twelfth of a hat a nokta. in other words one architect ' s arsın equalled 24 parmak, 288 hat and 3456 nokta respectively. the metric equivalents of these units are as follows : 1 architect ' s arsın = 75. 8 cm 1 parmak = 3. 158 cm 1 hat = 0. 263 cm 1 nokta = 0. 0219 cm arsın measuring rods were made of boxwood, ebony, ivory, iron or steel, and graduated in parmak. for excavation purposes, another unit of length called the kadem, half of the architect ' s arsın and equivalent to 12 parmak, was used. the kulac ( fathom ) was used for excavations, boring wells, and measuring water depth. one kulac was equivalent to 2. 5 architect ' s arsın, and 100 kulac was equivalent to 2500 architect ' s arsın, or a mil ( mile ), while one fersah ( league ) was equivalent to 3 mil or 7500 architect ' s arsın. a fersah was approximately the distance covered in an hour by a person walking at ordinary speed. four fersah was known as a berit or menzil, and two berit as a merhale. introduction of the metric system the process of introducing the metric system began during the reign of sultan abdulaziz with an imperial edict and statute dated 20 cemaziyelahir h 1286 ( 1869 ). under this statute the metre was accepted as the unit of length, and named the zira - ı a ' sari ( decimal zira ) to encourage public acceptance by use of the accustomed term zira ( an alternative term for arsın ). at the same time


was accepted as the unit of length, and named the zira - ı a ' sari ( decimal zira ) to encourage public acceptance by use of the accustomed term zira ( an alternative term for arsın ). at the same time the are ( 100 square metres ) became the unit of land area ; the cubic decimetre, named osr - i zira kup ( tenth of a zira cubed ) and the litre units of volume ; and the dirhem - i a ' sari ( decimal dirhem ) or gram the unit of weight. under articles 2 and 7 of the new law a standard zira - i a ' sari rule and a standard kilogram weight were to be manufactured from platinum and kept in the imperial treasury. the new law was to go into effect for official transactions in march h 1287, but the general public could continue to use both old and new measures together until march h 1290, when use of the old measures would be prohibited. these initiatives during the reign of sultan abdulaziz failed to bring the new metric system into widespread general use, and another statute was passed by sultan abdulhamid ii in 1881. from 1883 metric weights began to be stamped. however, in 1895 the country reverted to use of the dirhem, and the metric system was not finally and irrevocably instituted until the measurements act was promulgated on 26 march 1931 after the establishment of the turkish republic.


| | a wikibookian believes this page should be split into smaller pages with a narrower subtopic. you can help by splitting this big page into smaller ones. please make sure to follow the naming policy. dividing books into smaller sections can provide more focus and allow each one to do one thing well, which benefits everyone. learning involves many activities : managing your time, taking notes, reading books, listening to lectures, memorizing, having discussions, and writing tests. we ' ll cover each of these activities individually, and teach you to do them more effectively. feel free to learn the sections in any order that makes sense to you ; however given that this is a text, we suggest that you start with the reading textbooks section. before you begin studying anything, there are some basic ground rules to follow : - desire to learn the material. if you are not motivated, you won ' t learn. - review the material regularly to reinforce your knowledge of the subject. - apply the knowledge. if you don ' t use it, you ' ll forget it sooner. - introspect regularly. set aside a specific time each week where you examine your actions for that week. take the time to learn from your mistakes and your successes. these instructions are distilled from the studying tips offered by dale carnegie in the introduction of each of his books. managing your time managing your time effectively is an important part of studying. one of the important things in time management is to do whatever works for you. one common mistake is to try to create an overly restrictive schedule which doesn ' t work, and then feel very guilty that it doesn ' t work. telling yourself that scheduling just doesn ' t work for you is another common mistake. the following list will guide you through time management. - schedule - have a regular study time and place each day - this helps put you in study mode. it ' s what pavlov did with his dogs. ( " good doggy. now study! study... " ) - prioritize - make a list of what you have to do and list it in order of importance. schedule the important stuff first. - plan your sessions - do the difficult stuff first. that way, by the time you can barely add 1 to 1, that ' s all you have left to do. - prepare - get everything you ' ll need together before you start studying. - take breaks - don ' t study longer than 50 minutes at a stretch. use the other ten for a run around the block


' s all you have left to do. - prepare - get everything you ' ll need together before you start studying. - take breaks - don ' t study longer than 50 minutes at a stretch. use the other ten for a run around the block, or eat a snack. hmm... maybe run around the block after the snack. taking a 5 - minute hot shower is another excellent solution. - avoid getting stuck - if you can ' t figure something out, skip it, and get help later. skipping everything is not allowed. - divide and conquer - break your projects up into smaller bits, and complete those bits one by one. - set milestones - set yourself some milestones. you can also set rewards for reaching those milestones. - reward yourself - the reward can be small, like treating yourself to some ice cream, or larger, like buying that new outfit you ' ve had your eye on. rewards also don ' t have to cost money, like going to play some basketball with some friends at the park. enjoy yourself when you pass a milestone, stick to your reward plans to make them more worth reaching. - use your time wisely - use the days for tough activities like studying, and evenings for easier stuff like reviewing. on second thought, better schedule the latter during the day as well. - review regularly - we have said this before. it ' s important. better read it again. - say " no! " to distractions - no matter how attractive they are unless, of course, it ' s on the schedule. ( " proclaiming my everlasting love : tuesday 16 : 25 to 16 : 30 " ) taking notes - note : there is already a note _ taking page on wikibooks. note taking is vital when reading textbooks and listening to lectures. note taking serves a number of purposes. the least important reason is to have material for review. the real reason for note taking is to get the material to stick in your brain. by taking notes, you are actively engaging your brain in the process. and it helps keep you awake. - get the keys - make notes of key words, phrases and concepts. - summarize - make summaries of the keys. - restate - use your own words when writing down the keys. this causes you to think about them. - review - always review. review always. always. review. get it? now read that again. these instructions are derived from the cornell study method. you can find more information about the cornell notes


keys. this causes you to think about them. - review - always review. review always. always. review. get it? now read that again. these instructions are derived from the cornell study method. you can find more information about the cornell notes format here. - don ' t try to substitute a tape recorder or prepared lecture notes for note taking. remember that making a record of the lecture is the least important reason for taking notes. - don ' t try to copy the lecture word for word. instead try to summarize the major points. this causes you to listen actively. - talk to yourself in your notes. note what is interesting, what is boring, what makes sense, and what doesn ' t. - summarize what you have learned. some people highlight the most important sentence on each page. ( highlighting nearly every sentence on a page is a clear sign that you don ' t understand it. ) others keep scratch paper, and jot down a summary of every chapter - a few sentences noting the topic of that chapter and the three most important things about that topic. - draw diagrams in your notes, label them, and color them, if you want. diagrams related to the lecture are what is useful. unrelated diagrams are merely doodles. - visually organize points into groups. use outlines, brackets, lists, arrows, stars, boxes, circles, and others. - use color pens or highlighters to mark the different parts of concepts, such as key term, definition, examples, person, place or time, etc. annotation system if you are annotating a text, for example, a scientific article, try creating an annotating code. the system i use is to : - circle words or ideas i do not understand or have never seen - put a bracket around things i wish to highlight - underline things i especially wish to highlight - put an angle bracket next to things i disagree with - put an arrow next to things i find remarkable or interesting ( scientific articles ) play around with this. let the system evolve to suit your needs. see if colors are of any use ; i personally prefer not to switch pens so i stick to blue ( to contrast against the black text ) there are several techniques that universities advocate for studying textbooks. most of them have the same basic structure though. - preview - quickly skim over the chapter you are studying to get an overview of the material. read headings, sub - headings, bold words, and other words that are emphasized. - ask - constantly


have the same basic structure though. - preview - quickly skim over the chapter you are studying to get an overview of the material. read headings, sub - headings, bold words, and other words that are emphasized. - ask - constantly ask yourself questions about the headings and keywords. changing headings and keywords into questions, using who, what, where, when, and why. - read - read the first section, answering the questions you asked earlier. note any unexpected information as well. ( think about if your questions were on target and what you need to know. compare what you are reading with what is discussed in class. ) - record - take notes of your answers, of important keywords, and of important concepts. more about this in taking notes - relate - relate each section to the preceding and following sections. relate information to your previous knowledge and experience. - recite - cover your answers and notes, and recite them from heart. - repeat - repeat the ask - recite sequence for each section in the chapter. - practice - do any practice questions and exercises in the material. - review - review all your notes, and try to recite the important concepts from heart. the above is an amalgamation of the sq5r, the parcer study techniques, and plan, do, review. the concept at the heart of these techniques is active reading. the idea is that instead of passively reading a textbook and not really paying attention, you have to actively engage your mind in the act of reading, thereby improving comprehension and retaining efficiency. the more you involve your mind in the reading, the better you ' ll remember. ( really helpful ) tips - if there are words you don ' t understand, look them up in a dictionary or textbook related to the concept. math / science tips - instead of merely " reading " sample problems, look for errors in the author ' s work. as you read each sentence or step, verify for yourself it is completely correct, and is a logical next step or conclusion. - copy a sample problem to another sheet of paper, then see if you can solve it yourself without looking at the textbook ' s solution ( unless you get stuck ). this makes the best use of sample problems, as students who " understood the lecture " or " read the chapter " often have difficulty doing their first problems using this new - found knowledge. - reading a page of a math / science textbook this way may take anywhere from 20 minutes to several hours, but will probably reduce your


the lecture " or " read the chapter " often have difficulty doing their first problems using this new - found knowledge. - reading a page of a math / science textbook this way may take anywhere from 20 minutes to several hours, but will probably reduce your eventual study time for a quiz or test by an even greater amount. - understanding the main ideas of a topic does not mean you will be able to solve problems involving the topic. spend more time solving problems than you do reading or listening. listening to lectures - prepare - before you go to a lecture, be sure you ' ve read any assigned reading particularly the concerning text in your study book. go to class a little early and review the key points of the reading. - be on time. instructors often dislike having students walk in mid - way through a lecture, and you will have missed material. some instructors intentionally base their lecture on statements made in the first few minutes to force students to be on time. some faculty also give key information ( such as test dates ) at the beginning of class. - take notes - always take copious notes. see taking notes for tips. - ask questions - if you don ' t get something, ask. when you ask, state what you understood the teacher to be saying, then ask whether you got it right or not. in this way, the teacher will be able to detect what exactly you don ' t understand and clarify it for you. - think ahead of the teacher - what are the implications of the things they are telling you? teachers like to steer their lecture on a subject towards the next topic in order to make a smooth transition, and thinking about the implications may give you a head start on understanding that next topic. - ( see also a similar discussion at intelligence intensification / memory techniques ) memorization is a serious bottle neck when studying. this bottle neck compromises one ' s efficiency, as it takes longer to remember new information. memorizing lists of information is easy - once you have the techniques down. if you don ' t use techniques, forget it! if you don ' t want to invest time into learning techniques, forget it! for subjects based on logic, such as physics, mathematics, and physiology, the best way to memorize facts is to learn a few basic facts and then learn the logic required to derive further information from those facts. once you work through the logic a few times, you will remember the conclusions. these then become new " basic facts " upon which you can base further logic to remember more facts.


and then learn the logic required to derive further information from those facts. once you work through the logic a few times, you will remember the conclusions. these then become new " basic facts " upon which you can base further logic to remember more facts. for instance, if you want to memorize the starling equation for the movement of fluid between blood vessels and surrounding tissue, remember that there is fluid pressure on both sides of the vessel wall and protein on both sides of the vessel wall. then remember that protein tends to draw water to itself by osmosis, while pressure tends to push water away. then just add the four opposing forces together, making the forces that tend to make water leave the blood vessel positive and the opposite forces negative. for less logical subjects, such as history, biochemistry, and law, involving seemingly random groupings of ideas into lists, the following techniques may be more helpful. if you must memorize a list of words or sentences, you can take the first letter of each and come up with a logical sentence involving words beginning with the same letters. for instance, to remember the order of the planets, the mnemonic sentence " my very educated mother just served us nothing " is helpful... if you remember the names of the planets, and that mercury is first, then it is easy to remember the order is " mercury, venus, earth, mars, jupiter, saturn, uranus, neptune. " the fact that the mnemonic sentence is naturally set to music aids in remembering it, as the human brain remembers music more readily than speech. most vital are the list techniques. you start with a list of logically related persons, places, or things you can enumerate without much thought and without leaving out anything. then you associate each of these to an item in the new list of facts to be memorized. to recall the new list, recall the old list and then the attached items. here are several familiar lists one could use : - body list - attach items to body parts, from nose to toes for example - number list - associate the shapes of numbers with items in the new list ( 2 - swan, 9 - snake, for example ) - loci - method - associate each item with a point along a familiar walk, such as your route from your bed to your kitchen sink. the most significant difference between these three is the number of items you can attach to them. the body list is very limited, you have only one body, unless one considers attaching items to a pet


your route from your bed to your kitchen sink. the most significant difference between these three is the number of items you can attach to them. the body list is very limited, you have only one body, unless one considers attaching items to a pet ' s body or a friend ' s body as well. number lists are difficult to produce with more than 20 items, and difficult to learn. it ' s difficult to multiply them, like attaching a tire, a ball, and an egg to 0. the problem here comes when trying to assign multiple lists and getting the correct mnemonics for each list and number. the loci - method might be the most powerful method. you can find items everywhere in your familiar surrounding. you can have an unlimited number of loci - lists around, your home, your university, working place, the city, your favorite bar, disco, school. if you travel to a hotel, you can create your list there, after having become familiar with it. you can create your own virtual worlds ( if they ' re consistent ) or use the scenery of a first person shooter if you ' re familiar enough with it. " honey - tongue " cicero used this technique thousands of years ago to memorize his famous " spontaneous " speeches ; other great thinkers did likewise. memory experts use it to memorize 400 numbers in a row. it was usual for academics in previous centuries to have lists of several thousands of items, before even going to university. all this needs intense practice. having discussions one fact about learning material is that it is often a collective effort. study groups can help you greatly when you get stuck or want to discuss the material you learned. it can also land you dates. especially the french study group. ( " ho - ho - ho, par le vous, mon ami! je t ' aime, s ' il vous plait! " ). there are several ways in which study groups could go about discussing the material. - quiz - it ' s common to have people quiz each other on the material to check retention and comprehension. ( " ho - ho - ho, mon ami! telephone nombre, s ' il vous plait? " ) - debate - this is when the group goes through a part of the material and then argue about it from various angles and propose alternatives. ( " non telephone? merde! uh... adresse s ' il vous plait? " ) - school - one person is assigned the lesson


of the material and then argue about it from various angles and propose alternatives. ( " non telephone? merde! uh... adresse s ' il vous plait? " ) - school - one person is assigned the lesson and has to teach the rest then. the others can question this person on the content. ( " jamais, cochon? i don ' t understand, could you explain that in english? " ) the last method has several caveats - this method only works if everybody gets to play roles of both teacher and student. also, be sure to pick someone that knows more than the rest do about that section. an effective technique is to have the material divided between the group members, and to have each study his section especially well before doing the school thing. before the test - before you take the test, make sure that you know as much as you can about the test. what is the format? what are the likely questions? what is the grading policy? - if there is a sample test available, it is an essential resource. when possible, you should practice sample tests until you pass one ( by your standards ) on the first try. - if you are unfamiliar with the test location, visit it beforehand. - get a good night ' s sleep. eat breakfast in the morning. - don ' t think about bad situations, because it will make you more troubled in your test. at the start of the test - in a timed test, put your watch next to your test. it makes it easier to glance at the time without disturbing your train of thought. - look over the entire test before you start any work. this will give you some ideas about what sections to do and what sections not to work on. do the easy questions first. keep in mind that in standardized tests the easy questions are usually the first ones. - read the instructions. often teachers provide guidance about the best way to take the test in the instructions ( point values, time suggestions ). this information is there for a reason, use it to your best advantage. during the test - don ' t spend too much time on one question. read the question thoroughly and slowly. make sure to read all answer options even if one seems ' obvious '. there might be a better answer. - write neatly. this makes it easier on the instructor grading the test, which is always to your benefit. however, you may need to resort to scribbling in certain areas for long answers you are unsure of, as the grade


better answer. - write neatly. this makes it easier on the instructor grading the test, which is always to your benefit. however, you may need to resort to scribbling in certain areas for long answers you are unsure of, as the grader is highly unlikely to read the entire answer and will probably skip that part. - if you get stuck, mark the question for review and go on to the next question. subsequent questions may prompt your memory with an answer. after completing all questions, come back and review all questions. during the review you can complete all questions marked for review. - if you are starting to freeze, close your eyes, take a deep breath, and pause for a moment. this will help you to relax and get back on track. - on multiple choice questions you do not know the answer to, work to eliminate any choices that are incorrect, then choose from the remaining choices. - after completing the entire test, go back to the beginning and review your answers. research shows that 70 % of all changed answers go from wrong to right. near the end of the test - unless you know that points will be taken off for wrong answers, leave nothing blank. even if you are wildly guessing, you might get lucky. - even with an essay question, write what you know. a partial answer tells the teacher what you still need to learn, and may result in points ( remember any points are better than none ). - before you turn the test in, make sure that you have your name on the test. - on standardized forms, make sure that all the pencil marks are nice and dark and in the ovals. - on multiple choice questions that are not on standardized forms, make sure your intended answer is clear, and that you followed the teacher ' s guidance about how to write the answer properly. when you get your test back - do a quick check to make sure that the numbers were added correctly and that there are no obvious mistakes in grading. in general, it is not worth the effort to challenge a grade unless there is an obvious and unarguable flaw. - if you have questions about why something is wrong, ask the instructor. you should not go to your instructor to get points back on the test, but to gain a better understanding of the material and to be better prepared for future tests. - use the test as a study guide. focus on both what you got right and what you got wrong. writing term papers in helping your teen - age student, dr. marvin cohn says that


material and to be better prepared for future tests. - use the test as a study guide. focus on both what you got right and what you got wrong. writing term papers in helping your teen - age student, dr. marvin cohn says that students often leap prematurely into a topic and engage in hasty, laborious note - taking that does not contribute to the finished paper. sampling a variety of books and taking time to think about possible research projects should come before writing, he says. it is clearly best to know, before deciding on a topic, that ample sources are available for a given topic. while surveying available sources, the student should take note of which sources seem useful and also which ones do not. that prevents the student from looking at undesirable sources twice. a book that seems interesting should be noted by its title, author, location, and some description – a paragraph about one of its chapters, for example. when there is more than one book available on the same subject, the student might compare the books on the basis of some common feature. for example, with a set of george washington biographies the student can compare the accounts of washington ’ s winter at valley forge. much can be learned about a book by reading less than one of its pages – for example, how well the author makes points, organizes material, and uses language clearly. as a rule, it is best for the student, early in the project, to find one especially good source and rely on that as a guide throughout. the reading can be described in terms of three activities, which students generally undertake in the following order. 1. overview – getting a general idea of a subject by reading encyclopedia articles or by skimming through books, especially books that deal with the subject in a general way 2. study – reading books and articles the way students read their textbooks, using not just introductory texts but ones that deal with specific aspects of the topic 3. fact - finding – searching for details, answers to questions that have been raised by the research taking notes in the student ’ s own words is protection from accidental plagiarism. also, rephrasing is good because it makes the student think about the text. copying quotations from authors is the exception to the rule. it is agreed that the paper should have no more quotations than are necessary, but that does not mean, necessarily, that notes should not have many quotations. as the collection of notes increases, it ’ s natural, says dr. cohn, for the student to start writing


have no more quotations than are necessary, but that does not mean, necessarily, that notes should not have many quotations. as the collection of notes increases, it ’ s natural, says dr. cohn, for the student to start writing observations in the form of sentences and perhaps paragraphs. as reading and note - taking continues, a set of main points may occur to the student, in which case they should be jotted down. perhaps later they will be written in a different order. the list is the origin of the outline. its writing may be compared with the growth of a young tree. from the main points are derived two or more lesser points, and from the lesser points two or more details, and so on. the general rule that a new task should not be started with immediately after finishing one applies here. it is best to stop writing after finishing work on an outline. more recent books on study mention the mind map ( below ). a student might make one of these these informal diagrams to help in developing ideas. they can be useful as a method of studying information on a topic before outlining. a paper is only a series of paragraphs, and learning how to write a paragraph well adds much to the quality of a writer ’ s work. in english writing, most paragraphs begin with a sentence that has the paragraph ’ s main idea. occasionally, a paragraph ’ s main idea is found in its final sentence. the main idea of the paragraph is supported by its other sentences. the simple rule of not writing sentences or paragraphs that are too long makes the paper more readable, and the writer should know when to divide lengthy sentences and paragraphs into smaller ones. unless it is needed, a technical or unusual word should be replaced with a common word, or at least explained in the writing. the research and writing process the research project cannot be divided into a series of clearly - defined steps. there is overlap. in a student ’ s survey of possible resources, there is some note - taking, if only to identify books and articles. note - taking often gives way to students writing observations of their own, perhaps in writing sentences or paragraphs. with the increase of material comes a need to organize it as an outline, or to develop ideas by making a mind map, before starting on an outline. the outline begins as a simple list of main points. outlines can be written different ways, consisting of phrases, sentences, or connected sentences. whereas some will write a first draft based on a fairly informal outline


mind map, before starting on an outline. the outline begins as a simple list of main points. outlines can be written different ways, consisting of phrases, sentences, or connected sentences. whereas some will write a first draft based on a fairly informal outline, others with keep adding details to the outline until is basically the first draft. in writing the first draft, some will write parts quickly, without much attention to spelling and grammar, and slow down at other parts to write finished prose. others will use formal language from start to finish. with all papers, it is best to re - read the work carefully and spot all errors, no matter how small. when the paper is graded, little errors add up. a traditional method of proofreading is to put the paper away for a few days, then read it with “ new eyes. ” an exercise for the beginner in how to double your child ’ s grades in school, author eugene schwartz presents an exercise intended to make the transition from writing short essays to writing a first term paper less frustrating. instead of the usual bibliography, he suggests working with no more than two or three easily - read books. when the student becomes familiar with them, the student answers a series of questions, including the question of which ideas should be the main points to be made, and also which points should be excluded from the brief paper. students are advised to begin the paper by making an especially good point and to write a good final sentence, these established before work on the first draft. the exercise consists of eight questions. alternative techniques study technologies each person has a certain learning style, which can only be discovered through experience. a mix of new technologies can enhance your learning experience. here are some avenues to explore : text to speech if you are studying a text that is available as a text file or on the internet, you can probably convert it into a spoken - word presentation at little or no cost. but don ' t just listen to it - - for best results, read and listen at the same time. a multi sensory experience has more impact. also, listening to spoken text while reading it deals with a little - known problem of modern readers, who tend to skim and skip even while they think they are reading. the text - to - speech programs that can be found on sites such as download. com ( search with key words " text " and " speech " ) have come a long way from the emotionless computerized voices of yesterday. text aloud is the name of one such program among many. an


be found on sites such as download. com ( search with key words " text " and " speech " ) have come a long way from the emotionless computerized voices of yesterday. text aloud is the name of one such program among many. an open source text to speech program can be found here. mind mapping many schools have tried to teach students outlining skills. the ability to " write down the bones " of a body of knowledge was thought to be a key to understanding it. with the advent of personal computers, elaborate outlining programs were released which tried to minimize the drudgery involved, but the outlining fad faded out. ( a very simple, useful, and inexpensive software outlining program is vault, available for evaluation here ) a very easy - to - use free open - source java - based mind mapping style application is freemind. it is important when you first learn about mind mapping to practice determining keywords, one per link in your mind map. see the difference in taking notes. for the more artistically impaired or lazy, the mindjet corporation has created " mind manager " which uses the same techniques you may have seen in organization charts to help map out ideas with graphic components. this very useful program is also beyond the budgets of many, but an evaluation copy is available here. some school districts have become quite smitten with mind - mapping technology. portions of the los angeles unified school district have standardized on inspiration. an alternate version, kidspiration, is designed for lower elementary grades. evaluation copies are available at inspiration. com. speech to text you can take your lecture notes and convert them into typed text with dragon naturallyspeaking, which translates your speech into typing. this is the best speech - to - text program currently available ; its main rival, ibm ' s viavoice, has fallen by the wayside. naturallyspeaking comes in various versions ; the most useful is naturallyspeaking professional, which is quite expensive, but allows you to create macros, and thus fire off a series of complicated instructions with just a word or two. most users settle for naturallyspeaking preferred, the much cheaper but still useful version. more details are available here. independent study often getting ahead in school involves independent study of subjects related to your coursework. while this may be intimidating to most of us who have been trained to rely on a teacher ' s guidance, the benefits of engaging in independent scholarship are well worth the effort. benefits of independent scholarship include : - more individualized content -


coursework. while this may be intimidating to most of us who have been trained to rely on a teacher ' s guidance, the benefits of engaging in independent scholarship are well worth the effort. benefits of independent scholarship include : - more individualized content - quicker and more efficient coverage of the material - improving of study skills overall - self - directed study helps you to discover your personal learning style - the skills gained from independent study can be applied to your other coursework. these skills include time management, organization, research and writing skills, and engaging creatively with the material. - can help you explore your interests, and might even lead to a change in major - concepts from one course area can be used to think creatively about others, such as psychology, anthropology, sociology ; can be studied as an interdisciplinary major the only downside to independent study is that you may not receive official credit for your work. if this is an issue for you, you can choose to study towards a certain test that will advance your academic career. however, know that most professors would be thrilled to have people in their classes who have read widely concerning the subject matter, and have something original to contribute to class discussions. so many students are just there because they have to get a degree to get a job, and the professors will be impressed that you studied subjects on your own just for learning ' s sake. you can also receive credit for independent study from the clep, or college level examination program. check with your school to see what their policy on clep is. self - directed study involves a dramatic paradigm shift wherein one is responsible for one ' s own learning. it is a great test of one ' s will power and determination, and depends on your attitude toward the subject and towards learning in general. in ordinary school learning is seen as building up the major concept from smaller ideas. for example, one learns how to do individual tasks in algebra and then comes later to the realization of the nature of the overall idea of algebra. self - directed learning demands the opposite, that you first grasp the main idea of the subject area you wish to study and then fill in all the blanks. it is a skill that takes time to develop. see also - school skills provides study skills articles and tools. - study skills checklist from virginia tech. - academic learning strategy videos from dartmouth provide skills training. - guide to study skills from trustyguides - harry d. kitson ( 1921 ). how to use your mind a psychology of study : being a manual for the


from virginia tech. - academic learning strategy videos from dartmouth provide skills training. - guide to study skills from trustyguides - harry d. kitson ( 1921 ). how to use your mind a psychology of study : being a manual for the use of students and teachers in the administration of supervised study ebook # 10674 of project gutenberg - mcmurry, frank m. ( frank morton ), ( 1909 ) how to study and teaching how to studyebook # 6109 of project gutenberg - http : / / readinggenius. com / study _ skills _ for _ students. html - ideas about more effective study skills - wikipedia : method of loci if you are taking a comprehensive general course such as european culture, or anatomy and physiology, or anything with a lot of different kinds of facts to learn, a useful tool is to buy a set of highlighters. use one color only for definitions, another color for locations and dates ( a date is a location in time ), another color for processes, and so on. you can get matching colored post - it notes and write the facts on them and associate them with places in your house ( such as on the bathroom mirror, closet door ) and read the post - it aloud as you go past. be sure to keep the post - it note colors consistent with your highlighter color scheme!


| benjamin helm bristow | | 30th united states secretary of the treasury | june 4, 1874 – june 20, 1876 | president | | ulysses s. grant | | preceded by | | william a. richardson | | succeeded by | | lot m. morrill | | 1st solicitor general of the united states | | president | | ulysses s. grant | | succeeded by | | samuel f. phillips | june 20, 1832 | elkton, kentucky, u. s. | died | | june 22, 1896 new york city, u. s. | political party | | whig, republican | | alma mater | | jefferson college | | allegiance | | united states of america | | service / branch | | united states army | | years of service | | 1861 - 1863 | | battles / wars | | american civil war benjamin helm bristow ( june 20, 1832 – june 22, 1896 ) was an american lawyer and republican party politician who served as the first solicitor general of the united states and as a u. s. treasury secretary. as the united states first solicitor general, bristow aided president ulysses s. grant and attorney general amos t. akerman vigorous and thorough prosecution and destruction of the ku klux klan in the reconstructed south. sol. gen. bristow advocated african american citizens in kentucky be allowed to testify in a white man ' s court case and that education was for all races to be paid for by public funding. as secretary of the treasury, bristow promoted gold standard currency and thoroughly prosecuted and shut down the notorious whiskey ring, a tax evasion scheme that depleted that national treasury. as a strong reformer, secretary bristow was one of the most popular grant cabinet members among other reformers in the nation. secretary bristow was also behind the resumption of specie act of 1875, that helped stabalize the economy during the panic of 1873. a native of kentucky, bristow was the son of a prominent whig unionist and attorney. having graduated jefferson college in pennsylvania in 1851, bristow studied law and passed the bar in 1853, working as an attorney until the outbreak of the american civil war in 1861. fighting for the union, bristow served in the army during the american civil war and was promoted to colonel. wounded at the battle of shiloh, bristow recuperated and would be promoted to lieutenant colonel. in 1863, bristow was elected kentucky state senator serving only one term. at the end of the civil war, br


to colonel. wounded at the battle of shiloh, bristow recuperated and would be promoted to lieutenant colonel. in 1863, bristow was elected kentucky state senator serving only one term. at the end of the civil war, bristow was appointed assistant to the u. s. district attorney serving in the louisville area, in 1866, bristow was appointed u. s. district attorney serving in the louisville area. in 1870, bristow was appointed the united states first u. s. solicitor general, who aided the u. s. attorney general by arguing cases before the u. s. supreme court. in 1874, bristow was appointed u. s. secretary of the treasury by president ulysses s. grant. in june 1876, due to friction over bristow ' s zealous prosecution of the whiskey ring and rumor that bristow was interested in running for the u. s. presidency, bristow resigned from president grant ' s cabinet. during the presidential election of 1876, bristow made an unsuccessful attempt at gaining the republican presidential ticket, running as a republican reformer ; the republicans, however, chose rutherford b. hayes. after the 1876 presidential election, bristow returned to private practice in new york forming a successful law practice in 1878, often arguing cases before the u. s. supreme court until his death in 1896. early life born in elkton, kentucky, bristow was the son of francis bristow, a whig member of congress in 1854 - 1855 and 1859 - 1861. he graduated at jefferson college, washington, pennsylvania, in 1851, studied law under his father, and was admitted to the kentucky bar in 1853. marriage and kentucky law practice american civil war at the beginning of the civil war in 1861, bristow joined the union army. on september 21, 1861 he was appointed lieutenant colonel of the 25th kentucky infantry. in april 1862, he was severely wounded by an exploding shell at the battle of shiloh in tennessee and temporarily forced to retire from field duty in order to recover from his injury. after his recuperation, lt. col. bristow returned to field service during the summer of 1862 and helped recruit the 8th kentucky cavalry. on september 8, 1862 bristow was commissioned lieutenant colonel over the 8th kentucky cavalry. lt. col. bristow assumed command of the 8th kentucky cavalry in january, 1863 after col. james m. shackleford, the previous commander, was promoted brigadier general. on april 1,


commissioned lieutenant colonel over the 8th kentucky cavalry. lt. col. bristow assumed command of the 8th kentucky cavalry in january, 1863 after col. james m. shackleford, the previous commander, was promoted brigadier general. on april 1, 1863 lt. col. bristow was promoted to colonel and continued his command over the 8th kentucky cavalry. in july, 1863 col. bristow and the kentucky 8th cavalry assisted in the capture of john hunt morgan during his july 1863 raid through indiana and ohio. kentucky state senator on september 23, 1863 col. bristow, was honorably discharged from service in the union army ; having been elected kentucky state senator by christian county. bristow had not known he had been elected and served one term as state senator until 1865, having resigned office. senator bristow supported all union war effort legislation, the presidential election of abraham lincoln in 1864, and the passage of the thirteenth amendment that outlawed slavery. u. s. district attorney in 1865, bristow was appointed assistant to the united states attorney. in 1866, bristow was appointed district attorney for the louisville, kentucky district. as district attorney, he was renowned for his vigor in enforcing the 1866 u. s. civil rights act. bristow served as district attorney until 1870 and spent a few months practicing law in partnership with future united states supreme court justice john harlan. first u. s. solicitor general prosecuted ku klux klan in 1870, congress created the u. s. department of justice, in part, to aid in the enforcement of u. s. congressional reconstrution laws and u. s. constitutional amendments. on october 4, 1870, bristow was appointed the first incumbent u. s. solicitor general by president ulysses s. grant and served until november 12, 1872 having resigned the office. sol. gen. bristow and u. s. attorney general amos akerman prosecuted thousands of klan ' s men that resulted in a brief two year quiet period during the turbulent reconstruction era in the south. in 1873 president grant nominated him attorney general of the united states in case then attorney general george h. williams was confirmed as chief justice of the united states, a contingency which did not arise. kentucky civil rights and education speech in 1871, sol. gen. bristow traveled to his native kentucky state and in a speech advocated african american civil rights. bristow advocated that blacks be given the right to testify in juries. at this time kentucky law forbid the 225,


1871, sol. gen. bristow traveled to his native kentucky state and in a speech advocated african american civil rights. bristow advocated that blacks be given the right to testify in juries. at this time kentucky law forbid the 225, 000 black u. s. citizens from testifying in any civil or criminal case involving a white man. he stated the kentucky law that denied african americans the right to testify in a white man ' s case had roots in slavery and was a " monstrous and grievous wrong to both races. " sol. gen. bristow stated that the ku klux klan act and the previous civil rights acts passed by the u. s. congress were designed to protect the " humblest citizens " from lawbreakers. bristow stated he would, " tax the rich man ' s property to educate his poor neighbor ' s child ", and he would " tax the white man ' s property to educate the black man ' s child. " sol. gen. bristow advocated free universal education and all property in kentucky be taxed to pay for schools. secretary of the treasury internal reforms made on june 3, 1874 president grant appointed bristow secretary of the treasury after william a. richardson was removed in light of the sanborn incident. as treasury secretary, he initiated a much - needed internal reorganization of the treasury department, dismissing the second - comptroller for inefficiency, shaking up the detective force, and consolidating collection districts in the customs and internal revenue services. prosecuted whiskey ring corruption he prosecuted the so - called " whiskey ring, " which was headquartered in st. louis, and which, beginning in 1870 or 1871, had defrauded the federal government out of a large part of its rightful revenue from the distillation of whiskey. distillers and revenue officers in st. louis, milwaukee, cincinnati and other cities were implicated, and the illicit gains, which in st. louis alone probably amounted to more than $ 2, 500, 000 in the six years ( 1870 – 1876 ) were divided between the distillers and the revenue officers, who levied assessments on distillers ostensibly for a republican campaign fund to be used in furthering ulysses s. grant ' s re - election. prominent among the ring ' s alleged accomplices at washington, d. c. was orville e. babcock, private secretary to president grant, whose personal friendship for babcock led him to indiscreet interference in


election. prominent among the ring ' s alleged accomplices at washington, d. c. was orville e. babcock, private secretary to president grant, whose personal friendship for babcock led him to indiscreet interference in the prosecution. through bristow ' s efforts more than 200 men were indicted, a number of whom were convicted, but after some months ' imprisonment were pardoned. largely owing to friction between himself and the president, bristow resigned his portfolio in june 1876 ; as secretary of the treasury he advocated the resumption of specie payments and at least a partial retirement of " greenbacks " ; and he was also an advocate of civil service reform. presidential run, new york attorney, and death bristow was a prominent reforming candidate for the republican presidential nomination in 1876 ( see u. s. presidential election, 1876 ). he was defeated at the republican convention ; rutherford b. hayes having received the nomination. during the 1876 republican presidential convention, stalwart members of the republican party, friends of president grant, believed bristow had been disloyal to grant during the whiskey ring prosecutions, by going after babcock. rumor spread that bristow had prosecuted the whiskey ring in an attempt to gain the 1876 presidential republican nomination. bristow, however, proved to be a loyal statesman and had desired to keep president grant and the nation from scandal. when sec. bristow testified in front of a congressional committee on the whiskey ring, he would not give any specific information regarding his conversations with president grant, having claimed executive privilege. bristow was upset over not winning the republican presidential nomination and over the rumor he had been disloyal to president grant. bristow retired from politics, never again to run for political office. after 1878 he practiced law in new york city and on october 16 he established the law partnership of bristow, peet, burnett, & opdyke. bristow was a prominent leader of the eastern bar and was elected the second president of the american bar association in 1879. having remained an advocate of civil service reform, bristow was vice president of the civil service reform association. bristow often ably argued in front of the u. s. supreme court. in 1896, bristow suffered appendicitis and died at his home on june 22, 1896. see also further reading - encyclopedia of kentucky. new york city, new york : somerset publishers. 1987. pp. 125


. supreme court. in 1896, bristow suffered appendicitis and died at his home on june 22, 1896. see also further reading - encyclopedia of kentucky. new york city, new york : somerset publishers. 1987. pp. 125 – 127. isbn 0 - 403 - 09981 - 1. - webb, ross a., benjamin helm bristow, border state politician, university press of kentucky ( 1969 ). - this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain : chisholm, hugh, ed. ( 1911 ). " bristow, benjamin helm ". encyclopædia britannica ( 11th ed. ). cambridge university press. this work in turn cites : - willcox, david, memorial of benjamin helm bristow, cambridge, mass., privately printed, 1897. - whiskey frauds, 44th congress, 1st session, mis. doc. no. 186. - mcdonald, john, secrets of the great whiskey ring, chicago, 1880. a book by one concerned and to be considered in that light : john mcdonald was supervisor of internal revenue at st louis for nearly six years. - department of justice, benjamin bristow - find a grave ( jul 03, 2003 ), benjamin helm bristow - memorial of benjamin helm bristow ( 1897 ), pp. 9 - 10 - new york times ( june 16, 1876 ), nomination of benjamin h. bristow - memormorial of benjamin helm bristow ( 1897 ), p. 10 - media related to benjamin bristow at wikimedia commons | new title | | solicitor general of the united states samuel f. phillips william a. richardson | u. s. secretary of the treasury served under : ulysses s. grant lot m. morrill


john weiss ( 28 june 1818 - 9 march 1879 ) was an american author and clergyman, as well as a noted abolitionist. weiss was born in boston. his father, a german jew, was a barber in worcester. he graduated at harvard in 1837 and at the harvard divinity school in 1843, studying abroad in between. he then preached at watertown, but withdrew on account of his anti - slavery opinions. he was pastor at new bedford, massachusetts, for a short time, resigning on account of the failure of his health. after several years of study and travel he resumed his pastorate in the unitarian church at watertown in 1859, remaining there until 1870. on the issue of slavery, the reverend john weiss was an outspoken abolitionist. he was an advocate of woman ' s rights, a rationalist in religion, and a disciple of the transcendental philosophy. he delivered courses of lectures on “ greek religious ideas, ” “ humor in shakespeare, ” and “ shakespeare ' s women. ” of his lectures on greek religious ideas, octavius b. frothingham said : “ they were the keenest interpretation of the ancient myths, the most profound, luminous, and sympathetic, i have met with. ” he is the author of many reviews, sermons, and magazine articles on literary, biographical, social, and political questions. he also wrote : - life and correspondence of theodore parker ( 2 vols., new york, 1864 ) - american religion ( 1871 ) he edited and translated : external links


| | this article needs additional citations for verification. ( january 2011 ) | sandringham house is a country house on 8, 000 hectares ( 20, 000 acres ) of land near the village of sandringham in norfolk, england. the house is privately owned by the british royal family and is located on the royal sandringham estate, which lies within the norfolk coast area of outstanding natural beauty. history and current site the site has been occupied since the elizabethan era, and, in 1771, architect cornish henley cleared the site to build sandringham hall. the hall was modified during the 19th century by charles spencer cowper, a stepson of lord palmerston, who added an elaborate porch and conservatory, designed by architect samuel sanders teulon. in 1862, the hall was purchased by queen victoria at the request of the prince of wales ( the future edward vii ) as a home for himself and his new bride, alexandra. however, in 1865, two years after moving in, the prince found the hall ' s size insufficient for his needs, and he commissioned a. j. humbert to raze the hall and create a larger building. the resulting red - brick house was completed in late 1870 in a mix of styles. this section incorporated the galleried entrance hall which is used by the royal family for entertaining and family occasions. a new wing was later added to one end of the house in a more traditional style, incorporating a ball room. it was ahead of its time in other ways, with gas lighting, flushing water closets, and an early form of shower. one part of the house was destroyed in a fire during the preparations for prince albert edward ' s 50th birthday in 1891, and later rebuilt. sandringham house has been the private home of four generations of the british royal family. the main features of the new building were bay windows, which helped lighten the interior. despite the size of sandringham and the spaciousness of the main rooms, the living quarters were quite cramped. edward and alexandra ' s sons, prince albert victor and prince george, for example, had very small bedrooms. the spacious grounds, however, provided room for queen alexandra ' s menagerie of horses, dogs, cats, and other animals. the atmosphere was far different from at home, especially when their father was about. the kennels were a particular delight to the children. in addition to stables for royal horses in 1886 a racing pigeon loft was constructed for birds given to the duke of york by king leopold of


from at home, especially when their father was about. the kennels were a particular delight to the children. in addition to stables for royal horses in 1886 a racing pigeon loft was constructed for birds given to the duke of york by king leopold of belgium and one or more lofts for royal pigeons have been maintained ever since. since the death of edward vii, sandringham has been a popular holiday retreat for successive members of the royal family. since king george vi died in 1952 at sandringham, queen elizabeth ii ' s custom has been to spend the anniversary of her father ' s death and her own accession privately with her family at the house, and use it as her official base until february. it is an excellent location for shooting and is used for royal shooting parties. such was edward vii ' s fondness for hunting on the estate, he ordered all the clocks to be set half an hour ahead of gmt to increase the amount of evening daylight available for hunting. this tradition of sandringham time was kept on the estate from 1901 until 1936 when the new king edward viii showed he was " a new broom " by sweeping the custom away. along with balmoral castle, sandringham house is the private property of the british royal family and not part of the crown estate. their succession became an issue in 1936, when edward viii abdicated as king. being legacies edward had inherited from his father, george v, the estates did not automatically pass to his younger brother george vi ; the new king had to purchase the house from him. queen alexandra, her sons prince albert victor, duke of clarence and avondale, and george v, and grandson george vi all died at sandringham. king olav v of norway, a grandson of king edward vii, was born at sandringham. york cottage and appleton house | this section does not cite any references or sources. ( january 2012 ) | the estate is also home to york cottage, built by edward vii soon after he moved in ; york cottage was also a favourite of george v. anmer hall on the grounds is a georgian house that was at one point the country home of the duke of kent. when prince carl, the future king haakon vii of norway, and princess maud were married in july 1896, appleton house was a wedding gift to them from the bride ’ s parents, the prince and princess of wales. the gift was intended to provide the newly married couple with a place to stay whenever they visited england. the prince of wales wrote to his danish


appleton house was a wedding gift to them from the bride ’ s parents, the prince and princess of wales. the gift was intended to provide the newly married couple with a place to stay whenever they visited england. the prince of wales wrote to his danish brother - in - law, crown prince frederik of denmark, “ i have given maud and charles a small house, their own country retreat – about one mile from here – they will always have a pied - a - terre when they come over to england. i know they will appreciate this very much. ” a few months before the wedding the couple went to the adjacent sandringham to view their wedding gift. “ i saw my new house. it is quite lovely, ” prince carl wrote in a letter. queen maud came to love the house. in 1899 she wrote in a letter, " our little house is a perfect paradise, it all seems like a dream, that we are here at last, that it is so beautiful and light, every single room is so clean and fresh. " their son, the future king olav v of norway, was born in 1903 at sandringham. appleton house was on 2½ floors and was built of brick. it had four sitting rooms on the ground floor and the same on the first floor, together with rooms for servants, 20 rooms in total. the house had a conservatory and was centrally heated. the property stood alone, surrounded by forested parkland in flitcham, norfolk, adjacent to sandringham. the open, rolling character of the surrounding landscape inspired outdoor pursuits on horseback or by bicycle. it was also full of good subjects for queen maud, who was a keen amateur photographer. around the house the prince of wales had laid out a garden, designed in accordance with the tastes of the day. here there were round, oval, triangular and square beds of roses and rhododendrons. there were extensive lawns and tall hedges of yew and box, with paths between them. queen maud enjoyed taking walks along these paths. “ her albums contain many photographs that show her wandering alone along these paths – clad in a full - length, white dress, her parasol lifted high. ” in 1938, two days after queen maud ’ s interment, her husband, king haakon wrote to king george vi and informed him that the time had come to return appleton house to the british royal family. the queen had had the property as long as she had wanted, just as the prince of wales had said she could


king haakon wrote to king george vi and informed him that the time had come to return appleton house to the british royal family. the queen had had the property as long as she had wanted, just as the prince of wales had said she could when she was given it in 1896. appleton house no longer exists. for many years the house stood unused. its last known inhabitants were king george vi and queen elizabeth, who lived in the house during a visit to norfolk during world war ii ( 1939 – 1945 ). a 1968 newspaper article with the headline “ the queen ’ s empty house ” reported that a large anti - air raid structure had been constructed around the property during world war ii and that this was unattractive and expensive to remove. since it would have been costly to restore the property to a habitable state, appleton house was torn down in july 1984. public access the house was first opened to the public in 1977, and there is a museum with displays of royal life and estate history. about 600 acres ( 240 ha ) are a country park, open to the public. in january 2012, a body was found on the grounds of sandringham ; it was later identified as that of alisa dmitrijeva, a 17 - year - old latvian girl who lived in wisbech, who was last seen alive on 31 august 2011 in king ' s lynn. see also - " about sandringham estate ". the sandringham estate. retrieved 2010 - 06 - 27. - " history : sandringham official website ". - " official website : royal kennels ". - " royal family website : sandringham house ". - " anmer hall website ". - " police : body found on queen ' s estate was missing 17 - year - old ". cnn. 8 january 2012. retrieved 2012 - 01 - 08. - sandringham estate body named as alisa dmitrijeva | wikimedia commons has media related to : sandringham house | - website of the sandringham estate - the royal residences – sandringham house from englishmonarchs. co. uk


in software development, a test suite, less commonly known as a validation suite, is a collection of test cases that are intended to be used to test a software program to show that it has some specified set of behaviours. a test suite often contains detailed instructions or goals for each collection of test cases and information on the system configuration to be used during testing. a group of test cases may also contain prerequisite states or steps, and descriptions of the following tests. occasionally, test suites are used to group similar test cases together. a system might have a smoke test suite that consists only of smoke tests or a test suite for some specific functionality in the system. it may also contain all tests and signify if a test should be used as a smoke test or for some specific functionality. in model - based testing, one distinguishes between abstract test suites, which are collections of abstract test cases derived from a high - level model of the system under test and executable test suites, which are derived from abstract test suites by providing the concrete, lower - level details needed execute this suite by a program. an abstract test suite cannot be directly used on the actual system under test ( sut ) because abstract test cases remain at a high abstraction level and lack concrete details about the sut and its environment. an executable test suite works on a sufficiently detailed level to correctly communicate with the sut and a test harness is usually present to interface the executable test suite with the sut. a test suite for a primality testing subroutine might consist of a list of numbers and their primality ( prime or composite ), along with a testing subroutine. the testing subroutine would supply each number in the list to the primality tester, and verify that the result of each test is correct. see also - hakim kahlouche, cesar viho, and massimo zendri, " an industrial experiment in automatic generation of executable test suites for a cache coherency protocol ", proc. international workshop on testing of communicating systems ( iwtcs ' 98 ), tomsk, russia, september 1998. | this software engineering - related article is a stub. you can help wikipedia by expanding it. |