were mercenaries ), 3, 000 cavalry, and 20 elephants. with pyrros ’ help, the italiotes were able to subdue the ongoing lucanian rebellion. meanwhile, pyrros managed to cut off the samnite line of supply by sending his army north into apulia and messappia instead of south to face off against the samnite army there. later that year, the samnites marched north to face this new adversary, where they were defeated. the samnite army was completely unused to the kind of army pyrros led. they had never even seen elephants before, let alone in battle, and the state - of - the - art epirote forces were more heavily armed than their italiote counterparts. that isn ’ t to say that the samnites didn ’ t take a heavy toll on the epirote army, but by the end of the day the samnite army was scattered to the winds and forced to retreat to their homeland. meddix egnatius and his army regrouped in the north, and made for the mountains. pyrros followed them, and defeated them again at the samnite fortress of amvianud in 275 b. e. ( 282 b. c. ), but he took heavy casualties. the mountainous terrain surrounding the fortress made travel for pyrros ’ war elephants all but a liability, and his slowly approaching army was cumbersome on the uneven ground. while the victory kept the samnites at bay, pyrros reluctantly retreated only after his premier general xerxes indikos convinced him that to continue the invasion north would mean certain defeat. pyrros, upon his return to taras, learned that seleukos had died suddenly a few days earlier, probably from a heart attack. rulership of italion passed to seleukos ’ son, antiochos i of syracuse. antiochos paid pyrros tribute upon his coronation, and asked for his help in sicily to oust the carthaginians. pyrros did this, but left xerxes indikos in italion with an army of 10, 000 should the samnites invade, or, more sinisterly, should the new king become a nuisance to pyrros ’ plans. which he did. it only took pyrros two years to oust the carthaginians from almost the whole of sicily, and in that time antiochos had failed to quell a mercenary


a nuisance to pyrros ’ plans. which he did. it only took pyrros two years to oust the carthaginians from almost the whole of sicily, and in that time antiochos had failed to quell a mercenary rebellion in rhegion as well as failed to defeat the mamertines at nexos. while pyrros was making plans for his final siege of lilybaeum, antiochos was affectively screwing everything up by not only being able to quell a gang of pirates, but by blocking pyrros ’ success in his campaign against the carthaginians. when asked for ships to blockade lilybaeum, antiochos refused, saying his kingdom was under enough strain already. pyrros gave the orders, and xerxes indikos used his army to launch a coup against antiochos, killing the basileus in 273 b. e. ( 280 b. c. ), and declared pyrros as the new basileus of italion and of sicily. with this position of power, pyrros was able to get the ships he needed, and completed his siege of lilybaeum in 272 b. e. ( 279 b. c. ), becoming the first non - punic invader to take the fortress. pyrros made plans for his newly acquired kingdoms to pass to his only son alexandros should pyrros die. peace negotiations between malik bomilcar and pyrros fell through, and pyrros made clear his intent to invade the carthaginian homeland when he ordered the construction of an even larger fleet and began to conscript soldiers from italion and sicily. pyrros ’ prepared to set sail to carthage from syracuse with his fleet of twenty penteres ( quinquerems ), sixty tetreres ( quadreremes ), and one hundred trireres ( triremes ), and one hepteres ( septireme ) as the flagship. each ship had green sails with the many symbols of epirus sewn on : the bull, the horseman, pegasus, the winged woman, and the warrior. as legend has it, he was boarding onto the flagship when one of his generals, a man named perdikkas, came shouting for the king. pyrros stopped what he was doing, and listened as his general relayed a message. perdikkas was sweating like rain, and panting like a dog, but he managed to gasp


perdikkas, came shouting for the king. pyrros stopped what he was doing, and listened as his general relayed a message. perdikkas was sweating like rain, and panting like a dog, but he managed to gasp out the news. pyrros was needed in the east. “ a darkness christened in blood has befallen the homeland. a barbarism without name … ” the shkumbin river in albania see part 2 of this chapter “ the sons of war ” for more details on the mamertines otl seleucus was assassinated a year later, however, the stress of ruling a precarious nation on the edge of the “ civilized ” world undoubtedly had its toll on his health. also mentioned in part 2 of this chapter “ the sons of war ” otl, pyrros had two sons named helenus and ptolemy from two different wives. lanassa, who ittl was married to antiochos, and antigone, who was of the ptolemaic dynasty. ittl pyrrhus is married to europa of macedon. chapter five : to live and die by fire part eleven : barbarians at the gates ( depending on who you ask ) where to begin any conversation about the celtic invasions of 275 b. e. ( 282 b. c. ) is always a difficult task. historical bias has clouded much of the truth from historians for over two thousand years, and even if that were not enough, the ethnic tensions in the region, which continue to this very day, ( and could arguably have some roots in the events following the invasion ) electrify the issue. the following is an attempt to relate the events during, and leading up to the celtic invasions. archaeological evidence suggests that the region of pannonia was integrated into the celto - sphere around the same time that celtic tribes migrated into the padus river valley in northern italia. by the 3rd century b. e. the area was almost completely celticized with many of the native illyrian tribes, weakened by almost constant warring with the greeks, adopting celtic language, culture, and custom, even more of them being ruled by increasingly powerful celto - centric confederacies. the scordisci who seem to have come into existence some time before 303 b. e. ( 310 b. c. ), led by a general named molistomos, invaded and absorbed some of the illyrian tribes further south such as the autariatae


have come into existence some time before 303 b. e. ( 310 b. c. ), led by a general named molistomos, invaded and absorbed some of the illyrian tribes further south such as the autariatae and vassalized some tribes such as the dardanians, triballi, and paeonians. further north, however, in noricum and pannonia, the two dominant tribal entities were the wolcae, near the head of the istros and the boii to their east. the wolcae and the boii each appear to have been large confederacies of several smaller tribes, prime examples being the tectosages ( wolcae ) and the tolistobogii ( boii ). the wolcae and boii seemed to have been allies, considering the coordination the two tribes exhibited in their invasion southward. sources vary as to why the wolcae and boii moved south. suggestions include over - population, economic incentive ( the region was rich in metals, slaves, and trade ), and the rise of the warrior cult. tension between the hellenic world and the keltoi to their north was relatively new, but still existent. in 328 b. e. ( 335 b. c. ), an envoy of representatives from several celtic tribes in the north were sent under the pretense of paying homage to the then ruler of makedonia, alexandros iii. this just so happened to occur during alexandros ’ invasion of thrace, the region previously buffering the two cultures, which both eyed hungrily. it is almost certain that these representatives were sent with the true purpose of assessing the military might of the makedonians and the prowess of their young king. apparently, they were impressed enough to cease their southward push during his reign. but when he died at the battle of issos two years later, the migration continued unabated. the relationship between the makedonians and their neighbors to the north had never been a great one, with almost constant small - scale raiding into thrace by celtic tribes. during the reign of philip iii, the celtic tribes supported rebellions in thrace and moesia. during the makedonian civil war, or kassandrian war, raids intensified, with brief moments of celtic occupation of makedonian lands that were often repelled. kynane managed to placate some of the tribes during her reign, using her connections with the illyrian tribes. but relations


war, raids intensified, with brief moments of celtic occupation of makedonian lands that were often repelled. kynane managed to placate some of the tribes during her reign, using her connections with the illyrian tribes. but relations continued to spiral out of control during philotas ’ and orestes ii ’ s reign. but it was only after orestes ii was assassinated, and his brother pausanias ii came to power did the tribes see their golden opportunity. pausanias ii ’ s reputation as a feeble ruler was well known after his embarrassing defeat at the hands of pyrros of epiros and his incompetence in the wake of the babylonian invasion of syria. add in the fact that the wolcae tectosages had a real grudge against the makedonian basileus after orestes ii publicly insulted an envoy sent by them to pellas ( the night before his assassination, interestingly enough ) : an envoy which was led by the tectosages princess iouinaballa and a druid. a preliminary invasion led by cambaules was the spark that ignited the war. cambaules led an army of some 20, 000 men into thrace, and captured a large area, defeating a small makedonian army, but ousted by pausanias ii ’ s army. cambaules returned to his home among the boii, affirming that more warriors were necessary. and if there was one thing the celts had, it was warriors. the following year, a massive multi - pronged invasion marched down along the istros river and into makedonian held thrace. in all, over 250, 000 warriors invaded, possibly the largest army to ever march on the hellenistic world since the persian wars of the 5th century b. e. cambaules headed this massive army, but he was by no means the only military leader present in the army. leading the prausi, a tribe of the wolcae confederation, was brennos. leading the tectosages was acichorios. bolgios lead the men from the tocri and tolistobogii from the boii confederation. and cerenthios led an army of taurisci. it was between these generals that the army was divided when the celtic invaders decided to “ plunder the multitudes of nations, ” and the top nation on their hit list was makedonia. cerenthios moved eastward into the heart


them with the riches their city had to offer. they swore fealty to the ouolki and forsook their former loyalty to the mapedonnirix, whose head was possessed by iouinaballa acichorignos. since the mapedonnirix had no sons or daughters, there was no one to take his place as king in the mapedonni tradition. mapedonni generals began calling themselves kings in far off lands ruled by the mapedonnirix. fearing the coming might of the ouolki, the mapedonni living in the city they called pellas began to flee by way of the ocean, while others set to panic and began to riot within the walls of the city. when the ouolki arrived, half of the city was empty, and those who remained opened the gates to the ouolki without a struggle. the city paid the greatest tribute of all, and many of the houses left abandoned were filled with the wandering families of the ouolki. the ouolki then sent out two armies from pellas. one was led by brennos, and went west to defeat the botti and the paeoni, while another led by acichoros went east and exacted tribute and fealty from the cities there as far as philippi and the island of thasos. ouolki began to settle these cities and farm the lands abandoned by the craven mapedonni. ” from the ashes of the destructive end of the makedonian empire, the wolkae, or ouolkoi as the greeks later called them, began to settle and took quick control of the region. they ravaged the tribes along the strymonas river, decimating the maedi. they then cut east, and moved down the bardarios river, assaulting paeonian and thracian cities such as stobi, dober, and so on, until they marched into the heart of makedonia. the coming arrival of the celtic migration had caused such fear that many cities simply surrendered to the oncoming army, not even risking the violence. many of the makedonian nobles fled the city of pellas to anatolia ; however, for those who could not escape, it seemed that death drew nearer with everyday. all accounts agree that a few days before the wolkae arrived, a riot broke out in pellas. the remaining nobility in the city insisted that the city man a defense, and hope that they could survive a siege long enough for reinforcements from


. all accounts agree that a few days before the wolkae arrived, a riot broke out in pellas. the remaining nobility in the city insisted that the city man a defense, and hope that they could survive a siege long enough for reinforcements from anatolia. but the fear within the city was too great, and the people within the city determined that if they gave up the city, their lives would be spared. chaos held over the city for two days as the opposing sides vied for control of the city gates, until finally the last of the nobility were had either been captured, died, or fled the city. the gates of pellas opened to the wolkae without a fight on the ninth day of scorpio, 274 b. e. ( 281 b. c. ). the wolkae determined to make pellas their new base of operations, settling the rest of their families there. brennos and acichoros each set out with armies of approximately 60, 000 men and began securing the surrounding area. in anatolia, the satraps and viceroys established independence, seeing that they could no longer rely on makedonia for protection. meanwhile, the boii, who had broken off from the wolkae army, set about ravaging thrace. they defeated and exacted tribute from the tribes along the hebros river, including the bessi, sapaei, and odrysians. here they settled the thracian city of aenus, or poltyobria, and set up a kingdom that the wolkae called bojikika. the boii attempted to take byzantion, but were turned back by an army from bithynia. the bithynian satrap pushed the boii advance long enough to secure the surrounding area, but was defeated near salmydessus by the boii under bolgios with the help of the asti, a thracian ally. to the south, the hellenes braced themselves for the coming onslaught of the galatoi. and they had good reason to. word soon spread that the wolkae chieftain brennos was leading an army of 100, 000 men south. almost half of this army was made of cavalry that used the trimarchisia system, where one cavalry man would be fighting in battle, while two others waited to retrieve his body, replace his horse, or replace him in battle. now, here is where historical bias becomes almost unbearable on both sides, because it is


. “ we march for dodona tomorrow. if the ouolkoi have already sacked delphi, dodona might be next. blood of aspetos! it is a surprise they haven ’ t already. molossians, chaonians, and thesprotians — epirotes! nigh is our hour of greatness! ” in 272 b. e. ( 279 b. c. ) pyrros returned to epiros with the majority of his mercenary army he had intended to use for an invasion of carthage. finding that greece was in complete and utter chaos, he first moved to secure his frontier, and sent an army to protect the temple at dodona. it did not take long for the remaining hellenic polities to call for his help. makedonia was shattered, the aetolian league was left to dust, and thessaly was not only demolished, but was being settled by wolcae. further south, athens and sparta were beginning to break under the pressure, and argos and corinth were on the brink as well. epiros was, it turned out, the only force left with enough strength to ward off the celts. the first thing pyrros did was expressed his claim to the makedonian throne. the argead and aeacid lineages were rather intertwined, and pyrros was the second cousin of alexandros iii, his aunt was kleopatra of epiros, and he was married to pausanias ’ sister europa. it turned out, the only other person with any claim to the vacant makedonian throne was the chieftain of the dardanians ( related to pausanias through his grandmother kynane ), but the dardanians were all but shattered by the celtic invasion, and now paid tribute to the wolcae. pyrros split his army into three prongs, hoping to regain as much ground as possible against the wolcae as possible. xerxes indikos was to take 10, 000 men north to rally the illyrian tribes and flank the wolcae from the northwest. perdikkas was to move south with 7000 infantry and secure acarnania before moving north through locris and to march up the aegean coast once he reached it. pyrros would move east through thessaly, intending to meat up with perdikkas at pagasae. from there they would meat up with xerxes at pellas


and to march up the aegean coast once he reached it. pyrros would move east through thessaly, intending to meat up with perdikkas at pagasae. from there they would meat up with xerxes at pellas. at least that was the plan. xerxes indikos gathered 5000 men from the illyrians north of epiros, including the vassalized parthini and bryges before moving north into the land of the dardanians, who had allied with the wolcae after being spurned by the makedonians. he defeated them in battle, and continued to march north through their land, where he ran into a brief battle with the scordisci who had moved south and absorbed the autariatae about forty years earlier. the former persian king was able to rebuff them before turning his attention southward. xerxes actually refused to commit to a staged battle with any wolcae war bands he encountered, preferring to harass them and goad them into ambush. one such ambush was at the battle of axios where he drew a wolcae army of 20, 000 into a valley and rushed them from the hillside. the tactic worked, leaving the shocked celtic army in disarray with the river at their backs and nowhere to run. the battle gained xerxes a reputation amongst the wolcae as a courageous leader, a man to be respected and feared. everything seemed to go to plan with perdikkas. his army of 7000 infantry, and some 200 cavalry quickly seized control of acarnania, and even absorbed shattered aetolia, where the remnants of their famous cavalry joined his own. most greeks in the region saw the epirote army as a sign of security and safety, giving him little resistance as he passed through and swung north through locris and thessaly. pyrros had, perhaps knowingly, given himself the most difficult task. the land he marched his army through, the pindhos mountains, was largely tribal and difficult to pass through. it was made all the harder by the settling of celts in the region. unlike perdikkas, who ran into no real resistance, and xerxes who used cunning and some amount of trickery to defeat the enemies he ran into, pyrros did not shy from pitched battle in the least. with him were his best soldiers, veterans from across the adriatic some 15, 000 strong. pyrros met a wolc


amount of trickery to defeat the enemies he ran into, pyrros did not shy from pitched battle in the least. with him were his best soldiers, veterans from across the adriatic some 15, 000 strong. pyrros met a wolcae war band at tricca and again at pharsalus where he defeated them both. in both battles, pyrros used his cavalry to protect his flanks and broke the celtic center. while he achieved victory in both encounters, he took heavy casualties to his infantry. he was glad, indeed, to receive the reinforcements from perdikkas at pagasae before sweeping north through thessaly. pyrros rightly assumed that if he could take larissa, the largest city in thessaly, the rest of the region would bow to him. his movement north toward the city was largely undisturbed by celtic war bands with only a rare skirmish here and there. larissa opened its gates to pyrros as a liberator and offered to him 1000 of their finest horsemen, who were famed as some of the best in all of greece. they named him tagus, or king, of thessaly, and swore fealty to pyrros. makedonia was only a short march north from larissa, and pellas was within his grasp … “ it ’ s almost too easy, ” xerxes whispered to himself. time and again, the ouolkoi not only announced their coming, bashing their drums loudly and braying like wolves as they sang into battle, but they were consistent as well. xerxes had yet to witness the full might of the galatoi horde, but it shocked him in a way that such a kingdom as makedonia could have crumbled so quickly to them. and here he was, again, riding quietly on his horse through the wooded backcountry, marching around the main ouolkoi force that seemed to know nothing in the way of stealth. even their scouts were loud and foolish, usually drunk even. at the tail of his army, twenty scouts were tied and gagged by the supply wagons, their eyes cut out and their ears chopped off. “ they are fierce warriors, nonetheless, ” leippada, the leader of his asvaka guard reminded. “ overly confident, yes, but fierce, too. ” “ i just don ’ t understand, ” xerxes stroked the short black hairs on his face. “ everything i have heard of their conquest of


of his asvaka guard reminded. “ overly confident, yes, but fierce, too. ” “ i just don ’ t understand, ” xerxes stroked the short black hairs on his face. “ everything i have heard of their conquest of makedonia would imply that they are cunning as well as powerful — they would need be! how else could they have so swiftly brought this country to its knees? it was flawless. but these war bands we ’ ve run into, these formless rabble that stalk the countryside, they ’ re hardly a challenge. ” not far away, a grouse called out in the brush. the pine forest was quiet except for the sound of marching soldiers, and the distant noises of the ouolkoi raiding party. “ when we make it past them, we turn around and approach from their rear, ” xerxes said. “ put all of their heads on spikes and burn the bodies like the rest when we are through. inform the captains. ” leippada nodded, and turned his horse around. xerxes sighed and prodded his horse forward when he heard an all too familiar hiss and saw an arrow burry into the trunk of a tree not but a hair away from his face. he flinched backwards, and his horse reared up in terror. suddenly, the air was filled with the sound of arrows. xerxes looked back and saw leippada dying on the forest floor with an arrow sticking out of his neck. shouts rose up from his army as they realized they were under attack, taken by surprise, and as the ouolkoi appeared from the shadows of the forest and fell upon them like a hammer. xerxes cursed when he saw that he was beat by his own trick. several things to note right now : dodona is the home of an oracle and a huge center of hellenic religious affairs. it was second only to delphi. aspetos was what the epirotes called achilles, who they worshipped as a diety. also, the molossians, caonians, and thesprotians are the three tribes that make up the kingdom of epirus, which is currently dominated by the molossians. chapter five : to live and die by fire part fourteen : shards of glass with the fall of the makedonian empire in 274 b. e. ( 281 b. c. ) to the wolcae and the boii, the immediate response to what was left of pausanias ii ’ s realm did


of glass with the fall of the makedonian empire in 274 b. e. ( 281 b. c. ) to the wolcae and the boii, the immediate response to what was left of pausanias ii ’ s realm did what any self - respecting makedonian government official would do : made himself king! like a glass windowpane struck by a stone, the realm broke into a series of much smaller kingdoms. lydia : in northwestern anatolia, lydia was centered around the ancient city of sardis. the former satrap philip, a makedonian, founded the kingdom. the satrapy had an ancient history, once being an empire in its own right before the persians invaded. the last persian satrap of lydia was spithradates, who was killed at the battle of granicus in 327 b. e. ( 334 b. c. ). once the satrapy was taken over by alexandros iii, makedonians were put in place of the persian dynasty there. from said dynasty did philip i of lydia descend. philip ’ s realm not only included lydia proper, but also mysia, troad, and aeolis. he took great care during his rule to ensure that the greek city - states along his coastline in aeolis did not revolt or declare independence. to secure the cities, he moved native lydians as well as persian colonists into the aeolian dodecapolis ( kyme, larissae, neonteichnos, temnus, cilla, notion, aegiroessa, pitane, aegae, myrina, gryneion, and smyrna ). bithynia : a small kingdom whose rulers descended from the makedonian general balakros ( who invaded it during the kassandrian war ). the satrap who became king of bithynia was also named balakros. he, however, did not have his ancestors pension for gaining ground, and in fact lost it when the city of heraklea successfully revolted and established independence on the euxeinos pontos. byzantion : the last piece of former makedonian land in europe not overrun by barbarians, the city - state barely escaped a sacking from the boii during their invasion of thrace. heraklea : an independent democracy that rebelled against the bithynians early on. the city is located along the euxeinos pontos. paphlagonia : to the east of bithy


not only did the increasing greek population of egypt strengthen his hold on the country, but also it by extension legitimized the mercenary dynasty to the hellenic world. the black sea, or “ hospitable sea ” all of these cities were built by isidoros, and are fictional otl. chapter five : to live and die by fire part fifteen : the tarnished age of epiros pyrros of epiros, sometimes called pyrros the great by contemporary scholars, is a figure both revered and reviled, a bright flame that leaves a dark shadow in the annals of history. his memoirs and his books on war are considered classic masterpieces and to this day are read in military academies. his philosophies on tactics and strategy influenced great military minds for generations to come. during his lifetime, pyrros was considered the greatest military mind on the face of the earth. but military glory can only take you so far. back home in epiros, the treasury was empty, and the kingdom bankrupt. the costly wars pyrros waged and the mercenaries he used to bolster his armies sapped away at the coffers until there was nothing left. morale was low, and what ’ s worse, pyrros seemed to have ignored these facts to achieve his ends. the destruction of the northern branch of his army in wolcae occupied paeonia was a crushing blow to his over arching strategy, and when word finally reached him and his men, morale plummeted all the more. but as pyrros says in his own memoir titled the struggle for makedon : “ we marched north from thessaly nonetheless, without hindrance. with the troops levied from my newest realm, i discerned i could make up for those lost with xerxes indikos, who i had come to love as a brother. though i mourned his loss, as should a great leader of men and a king such as he be mourned, i determined that the need of hellas was great in this hour of barbaric invasion. the [ ouolkoi ] had emptied the great city of pellas amongst others and settled it with their own. tales spread through out the camp of how the galatoi had dispatched my cousin. as we neared the territory occupied by the ouolkoi, there was some discontent in the troops, but the mutineers were quickly put down. we marched north still, to claim my throne in makedon and


other than xerxes indikos. she forced them down onto their knees, water rushing up between their legs. iouinaballa shouted out across the river to pyrros. pyrros says simply : “ she spat insults in her barbaric tongue. ” however, later accounts written by the wolcae ( who refer to themselves as the ouolki ) give a much more eloquent and poetic account. they say that iouinaballa sang a long poem telling the story of the wolcae, and how they were forced from their homeland due to over population and famine, how they were repeatedly insulted by the greeks who were cowards that won wars not by courage and strength, but by deceit and trickery. while most of the poem is inconsequential, the ending was made famous by its inscription upon a monument built centuries later over iouinaballa ’ s tomb, and by its inclusion in the opera makedonia ’ s climax : “ a sore day! a red day! where the sun rises! death! death! death! ” the wolcae began to shout and howl. pyrros ’ remaining scouts were nowhere to be found, but he didn ’ t need them for him to know that he was out numbered. iouinaballa drew a sword as tall as she, and lifted it into the air, her voice joining the chorus of celts. she inspired such fear and awe that even some of the greeks in pyrros ’ army said she was no mere woman, but athena! one by one, the wolcae princess set about lopping off the heads of her prisoners, saving xerxes indikos for last. when she finally reached him, she bid him stand. xerxes did so. she told xerxes to return to his king, and to make him turn around and never come back. at this, his face turned sickly white, for, apparently, it was the first time someone had called pyrros xerxes ’ king. instead of doing as she bid him, xerxes iii indikos of persia threw himself into the river, and let the chains drag him to the depths. following this dramatic event, the battle of the halkiakmon river broke out. the greeks made camp and waited for the wolcae to cross. pyrros predicted correctly that the celts would be too impatient to simply wait for their victory. they crossed in rafts, which the greek army was


had been largely depopulated by the great wolcae raid of 273 b. e. ), as well as adding orestis, traditionally a makedonian territory, to the epirote frontier. his rule of thessaly was styled much in the same way that he ruled sicily and italion. they were separate kingdoms ruled by the same king : a pyrric empire. but this would only be the start of pyrros ’ consolidation of power in hellas. with only a menagerie of crippled city - states to oppose him, pyrros slowly gnawed away at the lands to his south, adding one region to his empire at a time. sometimes he would simply vassalize a city - state, like he did with corinth, megara, and argos. other times, he would wage war, looting and pillaging as he went to pay for his costly mercenary army, and outright annex territory : examples being elis, locris, euboea, and achaea. he instigated a massive helot revolt in messenia, which further crippled sparta. in 264 b. e. ( 271 b. c. ) he waged a costly war against sparta with the intention of deposing the current kings ( areus i and archidamus iv ) in favor of one of his generals named agesilaus who claimed to be descended from agis iii. both spartan kings were old, but archidamus iv was only recently given kingship. his cousin, ariston ii, had died a year earlier. naturally, pyrros backed his general ’ s ( likely false ) claim to the throne, and so he marched on laconia. though the spartans were dealing with a serious population crisis ( it is estimated that only a few thousand spartans were still alive at the time ), they put up a stiff resistance that pyrros evidently did not expect. the spartans took up guerilla warfare in the hillside, attacking epirote camps in the dead of night, and disappearing without a trace. when finally pyrros arrived at sparta with an army of some 20, 000, he found trenches dug, barricades built, and not only men, but also women and children armed to the teeth. the siege of sparta lasted three months, when finally pyrros called for parlay. his terms were generous : give over the eurypontid king archidamus iv, place agesilaus on the throne, and allow pyr


. the siege of sparta lasted three months, when finally pyrros called for parlay. his terms were generous : give over the eurypontid king archidamus iv, place agesilaus on the throne, and allow pyrros ’ son alexandros to learn the art of war from the spartans. the offer was refused, and the siege continued for another month, when pyrros was forced to call of the siege due to mutiny in his ranks. sparta remained. and sparta saw, perhaps truly for the first time, that it needed to adapt to the changing world around it. in 262 b. e. ( 269 b. c. ) word reached hellas that the wolcae princess iouinaballa was with child. pyrros quickly gathered his forces, and made plans to march once again on the wolcae. but when his army reached pieria, something unexpected happened. the flames licked the night sky like glowing tongues. pyrros cursed beneath his breath. it was those bastard mercenaries again, he knew. he could hear them shouting and screaming like fools. “ i ’ m getting too old for this, ” pyrros thought out loud. indeed, pyrros had just turned fifty this year. maybe it was time to retire to syracuse perhaps and live in the lap of luxury with serving girls feeding him olives as they danced, bear breasted and youthful. it was a nice thought. perhaps this could be his last war, after he rooted up that bitch and cut the vermin from her womb himself. “ agapos, get me my armor. ” there was no response. with a grunt and a curse, pyrros went into his tent, ready to abuse the stupid serving boy. but when he entered through the tent flaps, agapos was dead on the floor. blood glistened in the firelight, and standing over the corpse with sword in hand was — no! it couldn ’ t be! “ thought you were rid of me, didn ’ t you, ” xerxes snarled. in those forsaken woods where the screams of thousands of greek soldiers filled the mountain air, xerxes remembered a lesson he had almost forgotten : survive at any cost. his asvaka guardsmen were first to take action. they drew their single - edged swords, and rode like madmen into the fray. the gallant charge only made a minor dent in the oncoming wave of ouolkoi, and in a matter of minutes,


a thin bed of straw next to what was left of his army. he was glad to see that there were at least a few hundred still alive, but he knew that it wasn ’ t much to be glad for. if they weren ’ t killed outright, they would be sold into slavery. they were all chained by the neck, and bound. “ he ’ s awake! he ’ s awake! ” the survivor next to him said. “ someone get him some water! ” there were some murmurs throughout the army, or what was left of it. they were sitting outside in a field. ouolkoi on horses patrolled the mob. they had those monstrous hounds with them on leashes just long enough to nip at the corralled prisoners. to the south was the main encampment. it didn ’ t look all that different from a greek encampment from afar. “ here, indikos, ” one man gasped as he handed xerxes a small bowl filled with water. “ drink. ” “ we were worried you were going to die, ” another whispered. xerxes took the water and drank it slowly. it tasted foul, and he was certain that there was something solid in there, but it was better than nothing. xerxes looked around at his men. they were all chained, all stripped naked. the man who sat next to him was so covered in bruises he looked like he was from india — he was one of the luckier ones. many men were clutching where their manhood used to be, while others tenderly nursed their hands, still burning from the brand. “ what do we do? ” yet another prisoner asked, clutching at xerxes ’ feet like he was a god. “ what can we do? ” it didn ’ t take much longer for the ouolkoi to hear that xerxes was awake and alive. later that night, there was a commotion on the outskirts of the prisoner mob. three armed ouolkoi callously beat men out of their way, those who were not wise or strong enough to move. the sheer size of the ouolkoi never ceased to impress xerxes, even when they pulled him up by his neck like a pup, and dragged him off. there was some dessent amongst the prisoners, but xerxes reminded them before any more of them got killed to survive. xerxes was dragged through the ouolkoi camp in chains. he knew that he was being heckled


. there was some dessent amongst the prisoners, but xerxes reminded them before any more of them got killed to survive. xerxes was dragged through the ouolkoi camp in chains. he knew that he was being heckled and laughed at, though he didn ’ t understand the ouolkoi language. xerxes reflected quietly about how remarkable it was that despite the superficial differences between people of different cultures and lands, they were all essentially the same. a harsh tug at his neck made him stumble. that gave his captors a good laugh. they seemed to be repeating the same word over and over : “ maruvassorix ”. xerxes had no idea what it meant specifically, but he knew that they were calling him it. with another tug, a shove, and one last muttered, “ maruvassorix, ” he was forced into a massive tent and brought to his knees. his captors forced him to stare at the floor. he did so, but they hit him anyway. an argument broke out. he couldn ’ t see who was saying what, let alone listen to what they were saying, but he could tell that the three men who brought him here were getting angry. somewhere before him were the voices of two elderly men, and a woman. the argument was getting heated. a sword was drawn. xerxes could feel the cold steal pressed against the back of his neck. “ sistat! ” he heard the woman command. xerxes closed his eyes, and waited for the blade to fall upon his neck, but it never came. the sword was sheethed, and with what sounded like some very nasty words, the three men left the tent. xerxes waited for something to happen. “ you may stand, ” the woman said in thickly accented koine. “ it is not fit for a king to be brought so low. ” xerxes stood, and looked up. the tent was lavishly decorated. a fire burned in its center, where some of those massive dogs laid. the ground was covered in skins : bear, wolf, deer, beever, and sheep. standing before him was the princess he had seen all those years ago in pellas. she was still as bright and fierce as he remembered her. behind her were two older men. they were frail, and had thick bronze bands placed above their brows. “ i am iouinaballa, the daughter of acichorios who is king of the ouolki


fierce as he remembered her. behind her were two older men. they were frail, and had thick bronze bands placed above their brows. “ i am iouinaballa, the daughter of acichorios who is king of the ouolki. ” “ i know who you are, ” xerxes croaked. the shackles around his neck made speech somewhat difficult. “ i was there the day orestes basileus of makedonia was murdered. ” “ we did not murder him, ” one of the men behind her intoned. “ i know, ” xerxes said. “ those men who brought you to me, ” iouinaballa said, “ they wanted the honor of presenting your head to me. but there is no honor in taking the head of a naked man who rules over a rabble of captured slaves. i know, too, who you are. you are the one they call kwerkez. you once ruled a land in the far east. ” xerxes ignored the fact that she couldn ’ t pronounce his name. he probably couldn ’ t pronounce hers either. “ i am he. ” “ uinom, ” she said over her shoulder. a moment later, a servant appeared carrying two chalices filled with wine. “ drink. it is good. ” xerxes did drink, and it was indeed quite good. “ the king whose other army you led, ” iouinaballa spoke slowly, as if she was taking great care to say the right words. “ perosh, he is marching from the south. ” “ pyrros leads an army from the south, yes. ” “ he does not come to save you, though, ” she said. “ he knows of your defeat, but he does not come to save you. ” “ he comes for makedonia. ” “ he comes for his own pride. ” “ perhaps, ” xerxes agreed. pyrros was somewhat egotistical. “ but if he knew that i lived, he would come for my recovery. ” “ no, he won ’ t. ” iouinaballa said. “ and i will prove it to you. ” the water was freezing cold. it felt like needles were stabbing at every inch of his skin. he hoped this would work. he squirmed and shifted as the river pulled him under. then he felt it ; the chains slipped off. iouinaballa had kept her word and spared


like needles were stabbing at every inch of his skin. he hoped this would work. he squirmed and shifted as the river pulled him under. then he felt it ; the chains slipped off. iouinaballa had kept her word and spared his life, but let ’ s see if pyrros held up his end of the bargain. desperate, xerxes swam downriver with the current. the violence was raging all around. everytime he came up for air, all he heard was battle, and all he saw was carnage … but no dispatches from the hellenic forces ever came after him. indeed, he saw the cavalry run right by the rivers edge, but they were giving chase, and not one of the horsemen stopped to search for xerxes. hours later, when xerxes finally gave up, he pulled himself onto a pebbled bank. he was shivering violently with the cold. he was well outside the battle, but he could smell the death in the water as human remains began to flow downstream. he heard soft footsteps, and a warm hand on his shoulder. “ i am sorry, ” iouinaballa whispered. “ i truly am. ” “ thought i was dead, didn ’ t you, ” xerxes snarled. “ thought you ’ d never have to worry about ordering a king of kings again, did you? ” “ xerxes, calm down, ” pyrros said. “ pick up your sword, ” xerxes said. “ if there is anything i have learned in my time with the ouolkoi, it is that a king deserves at least that much before he dies. ” “ they saw me, ” xerxes said. “ and now your fears have been realized, haven ’ t they? ” “ i don ’ t know what — “ “ pick up your sword! ” julius caesar described gallic hounds as something similar to what we would identify as an irish wolfhound. since there seems to be some evidence for the volcae having bred large hounds, i figured they would probably be of similar stock. roughly, “ high king of the slaves ” druids, contrary to modern imaginations, wore crowns instead of cloaks. chapter five : to live and die by fire part seventeen : the barfight “ so, long story short, we don ’ t know exactly how pyrros died, ” aedono said between sips of wine. “ i mean, it seems pretty likely that he was just killed by the


seventeen : the barfight “ so, long story short, we don ’ t know exactly how pyrros died, ” aedono said between sips of wine. “ i mean, it seems pretty likely that he was just killed by the mob in that last mutiny, but who knows! ” “ i thought xerxes indikos killed him? ” naomiash said. in the dim light of the bar, her face still looked intently interested. in the rear of the establishment, a crew of traveling musicians from muskokia blasted loud and excited rythms. the bar was filled with people who had come to see them, but also to drink and smoke. aedono was, frankly, really fucking surprised that he and his exotic date were even able to hold a conversation in this place, let alone one about ancient history. “ that ’ s just an old legend. ” aedono didn ’ t want to sound condescending, but he knew somehow, someway, he was going to end up sounding like it. “ about a hundred years after his death, some historian wrote that the army had mutinied because the ghost of xerxes was seen walking through the camp, and that he has murdered pyrros out of some twisted kind of revenge for not saving him, or something. but, the historian also said that the ouolki prince born about a year later was xerxes ’ son, and … come on! i mean it ’ s really cool sounding, and it makes for awesome books and drama and stuff, but … ” “ i know what you are saying, ” naomiash said. at that moment, one of the musicians stepped forward, and began to strum a strange stringed instrument slowly. it was a hard, yet lazy tune that repeated twice. then suddenly, as if out of no where, a fast, excited, beautiful roll of notes played, and suddenly quite possibly the best song aedono had ever heard began at full blast. the musicians fingers slid and plucked and moved up and down the neck of his intstument with a grace unseen by any in the venue before. the singer came forward, and with a drawling, lazy accent sang : “ clean as a whistle, smelling like a rose. she got no dirty little fingers, blood shot eyes are gone! tell me i ’ m wrong! twice as hard, as it was the first time i said goodbye! and no one ever want to know, love ain ’ t funny. crime


. she got no dirty little fingers, blood shot eyes are gone! tell me i ’ m wrong! twice as hard, as it was the first time i said goodbye! and no one ever want to know, love ain ’ t funny. crime in the wink of an eye! ” “ i really like these musicians! ” she said excitedly. “ where are they from again? ” “ i think they said they were from muskokia, ” aedono said, transfixed. “ that … that ’ s amazing. i ’ ve never heard anything like it! ” the band really was something different. the drummer was a massive man with skin the color of clay, his hair long and black. blue tattoos swirled up and down his muscled arms that beat drums with thin wooden sticks at a fast, excited pace. there were three men playing stringed instruments. one was clearly of libyan origin, and plucked at an instrument with three fingers. the other two must have been of celtican heritage, because they, like the drummer, had the blue tattoos swirling along their skin. the singer aedono couldn ’ t put his finger on where he was from, however ; he had the coloration of one of his celtican bandmates, but he lacked the tattoos and sang with a strange accent that drawled and dropped certain letters while drawing out others for no particular reason. his hair was long and wavy, and around his neck hung a gold necklace. when the song ended, the bar fell silent for a moment, but a moment only. then a roar of applause filled the room, and aedono was sure to join it. “ that was awesome! ” aedono shouted above the applause. the night went on, and more and more aedono felt like he and naomiash were connecting somehow. he wasn ’ t used to having a girl like her pay so much attention to him, but he by no means complained. he made his way over to the bar to get another round of drinks for them : this time he was thinking qanabos tea. he was feeling good, pretty damn buzzed, but all that went out the window when he heard the voice behind him : “ fuck, what ’ s the grico doing here? ” favion ignatie. that jackass. aedono felt someone grab his shoulder, and sure enough, it was favion. “ what the fuck are you doing here, grico? ” maybe it was the drinking, maybe it was the music, maybe it


that jackass. aedono felt someone grab his shoulder, and sure enough, it was favion. “ what the fuck are you doing here, grico? ” maybe it was the drinking, maybe it was the music, maybe it was the fact that aedono was almost positive he was going to fuck the hottest woman he ’ d ever seen tonight, but somehow aedono said something he never thought he ’ d say : “ fuck off, favion, and let me drink! ” the fist came faster than he ’ d expected it to. he was reeling, he could see stars. “ the fuck did you just stay, grico! ” favion was on him fast. aedono was too busy getting beat up that he didn ’ t notice that the music stopped. he looked up, and saw someone grab favion ’ s arm. it was the singer, towering over favion. “ you don ’ t like gricos? ” “ fuck, who does? ” favion said, drunk. “ my wife ’ s a grico, ” the singer said. “ and as a matter of fact, my mother was one, too. ” and for the first time, aedono saw favion actually look scared. before aedono could even blink, the bar was a riot of violence. he couldn ’ t help but smile through his busted lip as he saw favion and some of his friends who had come to support him get their asses handed to them by the musicians. aedono rushed back to naomiash at their table. “ what is going on? ymanyel meziach! what happened to your lip? ” “ we need to get out of here now, ” aedono said, smiling despite the gravity of the situation. “ the city guard will be here soon. ” “ my place? ” she said, taking his hand. i refuse to believe that a universe can possibly exist where some genius did not write the song “ twice as hard ”. it is simply impossible, it ’ s so damn good. here ' s the song african, that is. before the roman general africanus took over africa, it was known as libya. essentially, this guy is black. marijuana tea, which was actually a drink favored by the carthaginians the weighted scales : a world of an aborted rome apparently it ' s the best ancient tl of 2011. oh baby!


our amazing new london parish records collection gives you a unique opportunity to see records going back further than 1837 — right back to the reign of henry viii, which is when formal birth, marriage and death certificates were introduced. anglican churches have kept records of all baptisms, marriages and deaths in their parishes since 1538. although some of the earliest records haven ’ t survived, those from the 17th century onwards are in remarkably good order. you ’ ll find the baptism records really helpful in your research, because they date back to before it became law to record a birth. so even without a birth certificate, if you discover when a child was baptised you can find out the parents ' names and where they lived. with these names you can start tracing their parents and the generations before them. by following the paper trail back over the centuries, you might be amazed to discover london roots deep into the past. for more information on parish records outside of london, click here. with over 15 million entries, the unique london parish records are part of the london historical records collection, presented in partnership with london metropolitan archives. only available online at ancestry. co. uk, you can now research registers for baptisms and burials from 1812 onwards, and marriages after 1754, by forename, surname, locality and type of event. the parish records for london being added to ancestry. co. uk include the bishops ' transcripts. these are duplicate copies of entries made in the baptism, marriage and burial registers in the parishes. they were copied from the original registers by churchwardens once a year and sent to the bishop ' s registry. the collection will include the bishops ' transcripts for the counties of surrey, middlesex, ( excluding the city of london ) and those parishes in kent that later became part of the county of london. bishops ' transcripts for marriages cease, on the whole, after civil registration was introduced in july 1837. bishops ' transcripts for baptisms and burials cease at various dates between the 1830s and 1900. the 19th century was often a tough time for the poorest in society. however, they had had access to some form of relief since elizabethan times with the aid of the poor laws. these individuals were eligible to receive help such as monetary relief and other daily necessities such as food, clothing and work — usually administered via the dreaded workhouses, which were governed by parish guardians. the records you ’ ll find include registers of creed, school, apprentices, servants, children, and inmates, among others. the collection spans more than


foot pain in the " ball of your foot, " that area between your arch and the toes, is generally called metatarsalgia ( met ' - a - tar - sal ' - gee - a ). the pain usually centers on one or more of the five bones ( metatarsals ) in this area under the toes. causes of foot pain sometimes, the foot pain is caused by a callus that forms on the bottom of your foot. a callus is a build - up of skin that forms in response to excessive pressure over the bone. normally, a callus is not painful, but the build - up of skin can increase the pressure and eventually make walking difficult. shoes that don ' t fit properly because they are too tight or too loose can cause foot pain. tight shoes squeeze the foot and increase pressure ; loose shoes let the foot slide and rub, creating friction. pain on the underside of the foot may indicate a torn ligament or inflammation of the joint. your orthopedic surgeon can do some simple tests to assess joint stability. treating foot pain most of the time, practical measures can help ease foot pain. your doctor may recommend that you use a shoe insert ( arch support ) as a kind of shock absorber, or that you wear a different kind of shoe. sometimes, simply buying shoes that fit properly can solve the problem. shoes should have a wide toe box that doesn ' t cramp your toes. heels should never be higher than 2 - 1 / 4 " high. soaking your feet to soften calluses, then removing some of the dead skin with a pumice stone or callus file will also ease pressure. occasionally, surgery may be necessary to remove a bony prominence or correct a deformity. this material was codeveloped by the american academy of orthopaedic surgeons


lasers at stonehenge editor mike pitts from ms gwenda smith sir : how should i go about ordering a back copy of ba? here in rural vermont we have the remains of a copperas works ( ' the forgotten chemical revolution ', august 2002 ) that was started up in 1809 at the time of the trade embargo preceding the war of 1812. it became one of the country ' s leading producers and ran until 1882 or so, by which time copperas [ a chemical used as a dye fixative ] was available as a by - product of the steel industry. the site is in the process of being wiped out by the us environmental protection agency in the name of a cleanup, much to the distress of those of us who feel it is an important national historic site. us federal regulations evidently require that a certain amount of ferrous sulphate be added to flour at the mill as a way of combating anaemia. in meetings about our copperas, i used to ask the audience whether they had eaten their copperas for the day, which seemed to get their attention, given that it is currently associated with environmental ' pollution '. back issues of ' british archaeology ' ( though several are sold out ) can be obtained from the subscription address on page 3. from mr quentin hawkins sir : dr alex woolf ( letters, july ) argues that while britain ' s population has been increasing since late prehistory, the number of prehistoric people from whom we are descended is small, because in a traditional society one quarter of the population do not have children who survive to adulthood. if 25 per cent of each generation have no children, if we go back 20 generations to tudor times, just three people in every 1, 000 would be the ancestors of people alive today. from the time of the norman conquest, just two people in every 100, 000 could be our ancestors. could this be true? no, probably not. a simple formula of 0. 75 raised to the power of so many generations makes sense only if the 75 percent of people in each generation who have children have just one per couple. yet we know that large families were commonplace in times past. if we assume that the 25 per cent of people in each generation who do not have children have siblings who do have children, which may not be far from the truth, then we can infer that quite a high proportion of the prehistoric population of britain may have been our ancestors. from mr keith horsfield sir : the so - called plotting board shown in your photograph ( '


may not be far from the truth, then we can infer that quite a high proportion of the prehistoric population of britain may have been our ancestors. from mr keith horsfield sir : the so - called plotting board shown in your photograph ( ' the mary rose ', july ) is a chess board. a grid of squares has been crudely scratched on the end of a wood plank. the size is right for a square board of 8x8, but it is not possible to be sure of this because of decay. alternate diagonals have been indented by a punch to make the classic chequerboard pattern. the associated navigation tools, dividers and protractor, are beautifully made precision instruments, and to suggest that these were used on such a crude board is at least an insult to the craftsmen who made them. that no chessmen were found is no surprise, as the board was obviously made in an emergency and would have been used with men made from whatever materials were available, perhaps paper or parchment. may i suggest the mary rose trust asks three archaeologists who play chess to review this interesting artefact, and convey their opinions to your excellent journal? perhaps a game between the two camps would settle this? challengers, chess - playing amateur or professional archaeologists or historians, should send their written case for the board ( maximum 300 words ) to the editor. he will make up the competition rules, and if there is sufficient interest will select the match venue and ' british archaeology ' will announce the result. from mr ron wilcox sir : the re - enactments at the end of the recent channel 5 film ' stonehenge ' were pure imaginative hokum. do the public not deserve better archaeology programmes than those currently on offer, almost all poorly researched and poorly put together, which present archaeology as a study in which common sense is not a necessary qualification? from mr brian robinson sir : as an interested layman, i should like to make some observations after reading james symonds ' excellent article ( ' beyond the industrial revolution ', september ). i have dabbled for some years in my family history, most of it centred on the bolton area in lancashire. parish registers generally exist back to tudor times, and whilst a valuable resource for family historians and genealogists are under - rated for more serious study. marriage registers in the 18th century generally bore the signatures of the happy couples. their grandchildren in the same parishes did not sign, but only made their mark. clearly in the simpler days children had time to be


are under - rated for more serious study. marriage registers in the 18th century generally bore the signatures of the happy couples. their grandchildren in the same parishes did not sign, but only made their mark. clearly in the simpler days children had time to be taught the basics of the three ' r ' s, no doubt by the parish clergy, but with the changes in society those children had to labour for the family. literacy only returned with the late 19th century education acts. in my family ' s case marriage registers and early censuses show ' miner ' was prevalent where before ' weaver ' had been. from mr mark ryan sir : the caption for the picture of the little london works in symonds ' excellent article states the depiction is 19th century. judging from the motor vehicles clearly shown i would perhaps place the drawing ' s date to nearer 1920? keep up the good work. anna badgcock, excavator of the little london works, comments that the illustration is from an undated promotional publication, in which the artist may have attempted a retrospective view : trains and cars seem from different eras. from mr chris harvey sir : reading symonds ' article reminded me of a conversation at a european aerospace bearing meeting in paris. i helped restore and run the crofton beam pumping engines on the kennet and avon canal, where we pointed out that watt ' s contribution to steam power was the separate condenser and the ( subsequent? ) application of steam rather than atmospheric pressure to the top of the piston. i explained this to the leader of the french delegation who had not heard of newcomen, but who said " ah yes, like papa papin! ". i ' m ashamed to say i hadn ' t heard of papin! how quickly did the change in powering most ' industrial ' activities by water ( and wind ) to steam occur? just because steam - powered mills become possible doesn ' t mean they instantly take over. the premises of the 18th century frenchay iron company, for example, became a flock mill and latterly a sheet - metal ducting fabricators and a vehicle spraying enterprise. there were about 30 mill sites along the bristol frome and its tributaries. i ' ve heard the frome called ' a stroppy little river ', but even so the horsepower that could have been extracted by each mill must have been limited. ever larger steam engines, and presumably economies of scale, meant more machines and more people employed in any one mill. equally, i ' m sure the smaller ' old


even so the horsepower that could have been extracted by each mill must have been limited. ever larger steam engines, and presumably economies of scale, meant more machines and more people employed in any one mill. equally, i ' m sure the smaller ' old technology ' water mills in some industries would have tried to carry on by finding niche markets of more specialised products - stressing quality, for example. that the late victorian empire could be administered, raw materials used ( some would say exploited ) and goods sold back to colonies, must be bound up with the development of ways to turn heat ( fire ) into mechanical energy to power factories, ships, trains and later road vehicles and aeroplanes. the romans and other earlier empires seemed to reach a growth limit, and i wonder whether a lack of speed in communications ( in spite of good roman roads! ) and the inability to derive power from other than muscles, water and wind had anything to do with it. we now have a sort of global ' empire ' in that technology can penetrate to every corner ( not that everyone enjoys a fair share ). the many inventors of the external and internal combustion engines, from hero through christiaan huygens, papin, newcomen, watt, otto, diesel, parsons to frank whittle have a lot to do with that. several wrote to say that creswell crags ( east derbs / west notts ) are not, of course, in the peak district ( mainly north derbs ) ( ba september ). we welcome letters from readers. they may be emailed to mike pitts the editor at firstname. lastname @ example. org or faxed to 01904 671384. they may be edited. cba web : jan / feb 2005


obesity is having too much body fat. children who are obese weigh more than what is healthy for their body type. obesity increases your child ’ s risk of poor health and major illness, including : being overweight can also cause your child to be self - conscious about his looks or be teased or bullied. overweight children are at increased risk for depression and substance abuse. sometimes the pressure from parents and other adults to lose weight causes children to react too strongly. they may think too much about weight and set the stage for an eating disorder. another problem is that overweight children often become overweight adults. there are several things that can cause obesity. putting on too much weight is the first sign that your child may be at risk for obesity. you may notice that your child ' s clothing is getting too tight. as your child gains weight, he or she may have symptoms caused by obesity. these symptoms include : obesity increases the risk that your child will have health problems as an adult, such as gallbladder, heart, or liver disease. your healthcare provider will ask about your child ’ s symptoms and examine your child. he will ask about your child ’ s medical history, eating habits, and exercise habits. your child may have blood tests to check for hormone problems. your healthcare provider will check your child ' s height and weight against the standard growth charts. the body mass index, or bmi, for children is used for ages 2 through 20. these growth charts, one for boys and one for girls, help to check weight through the growing years. bmi most accurately shows whether your child is underweight, normal, or overweight. your child ' s bmi is compared with that of thousands of children of the same age. this comparison will show what percentile of bmi your child is in. overweight is greater than the 85 % of bmi for your child ' s age. obese is usually defined as greater than 95 % of bmi for your child ' s age. your healthcare provider can tell you if your child has an increased risk of health problems because of weight. your provider can also help find a weight - loss program that works for your child. treatment for obesity will include lifestyle changes. dietitians and healthcare providers can help you design a safe, healthy, effective weight loss program for your child. in general, a healthy eating plan for weight loss is one that : exercise is a very important part of a successful weight - loss program. almost any activity that involves mild to moderate exert


safe, healthy, effective weight loss program for your child. in general, a healthy eating plan for weight loss is one that : exercise is a very important part of a successful weight - loss program. almost any activity that involves mild to moderate exertion is good. your child may choose to walk, jog, swim, cycle, or do aerobics. walking is a great way for almost everyone to get more exercise. using a pedometer can be fun and motivating. a pedometer is a device that attaches to clothing and tracks how many steps your child takes in a day. strength training will make your child ’ s muscles stronger and able to work longer without getting tired. strength training, or weight training, means doing exercises that build muscle strength. to build muscle your child can lift free weights, use weight machines, use resistance bands, or use his bodyweight, such as doing push - ups, pull - ups, or sit - ups. check with your child ' s healthcare provider before your child starts a strength training program. ask your healthcare provider what kinds and amounts of exercise might be right for your child. some children eat as a way to cope with emotional problems. if your child has trouble with stress, depression, or anxiety, the healthcare provider may refer your child to a therapist. your child needs to learn how to deal with emotional problems to succeed with a weight - loss program. if hormone imbalances are contributing to excess weight, your provider may prescribe medicine to treat the imbalance. claims have been made that certain herbal and dietary products help with weight loss. many of these claims are not true. some supplements can have serious side effects. talk to your healthcare provider before you allow your child to use them. parents often do not think that their child is overweight. even if they know their child is heavier than other children, parents may think that the child will simply grow out of it. however, if a child is overweight, it is often due to unhealthy eating and exercise habits. those habits are not likely to change unless parents take action. making healthy lifestyle changes as a family helps everyone. make one or two changes at a time and let children adjust. making big changes in diet or lifestyle is not easy. sometimes just eliminating sweetened drinks and starting an exercise program will be enough to help your child lose weight. some tips to help your child :


armenian dram sign after proclamation of independence armenia put into circulation own national currency – armenian dram ( armenian : դրամ ; code : amd ), the usage of which revealed the necessity for a monetary sign. as the result of common business practice and the unique pattern of armenian letters the shape of the sign and its variations appeared in the business scratches. since that time and until the official endorsement of the sign a number of artists and businessmen developed and offered various shapes for it. now armenian dram sign ( symbol ) is present in the armenian standard for the national characters and symbols and in the armenian computer fonts. heritage of mashtots there is a strong belief that the shape of dram sign ( symbol ) is a direct projection of the armenian alphabet – the brilliant work of mesrop mashtots. it is not hard to notice the clean - cut geometry of armenian letters, so did the author of the sign when studied the alphabet. later he became a proponent for the hypothesis, which states that the prototype of the armenian alphabet is a variety of combinations of resembling curves and horizontal elements. subsequently these horizontal elements played a key role in the sign development. date of creation apparently, the sign was emerged on 7 september 1995. this date refers to the specific page in the preserved scratches for cash flow of a start - up company. since that date the sign together with the dollar sign is constantly present in cash flow records ( euro was not in circulation yet ), and no evidences for earlier dates are tendered by anybody yet. the objective of the sign is to symbolize the armenian national currency and come in handy wherever a graphical symbol for the currency would be in demand, for instance in : financial documents, price - lists and tags, currency exchange displays, computer fonts, correspondence, etc. at the time of the sign ’ s development were outlined the definite fundamental criteria for it, namely the sign has : - to denote the armenian national currency by graphical means ; - to recall the outlines of armenian letters ; - to include the elements typical for the foreign monetary symbols ; - to be easily reproduced with a few strokes ; - to be enough plain for its identification and memorizing. present to republic the exceptional chance to present the sign to republic of armenia became real in connection with celebration of the 1700th anniversary of christianity proclamation in armenia as state religion in 2001. the sign ' s proposal has been presented to the president of the republic of armenia, at that date mr. r. kocharyan. together with this gift a


celebration of the 1700th anniversary of christianity proclamation in armenia as state religion in 2001. the sign ' s proposal has been presented to the president of the republic of armenia, at that date mr. r. kocharyan. together with this gift a special letter with congratulation on the anniversary has been sent to the catholicos of all armenians garegin ii. the council of the central bank of armenia handling the proposal announced the contest, entertained the offer among the other proposals and approved it together with the similar one. cba panel ordinance declared to " accept the designs of dram symbol presented by k. komendaryan and r. arutchyan ". then the symbol has been passed to the state organizations for the official processing and standardization. to the right are the designs for dram sign submitted to cba contest by an artist r. arutchyan and an architect v. phenesyan respectively. the proposal by r. arutchyan cognates with euro sign shape and the proposal by v. phenesyan is based on the first letter of armenian word ( money, pronounced as " phokh " ). placement on dram bill since year 2003 the original shape of the sign is present on the reverse side of 10, 000 armenian dram bill. the bill ’ s other issuances took place in 2006 and 2008. in 2011 the sign has been placed on the 1000 dram bill. placement on dram coin since year 2008 the original shape of the sign is present on the reverse side of 5, 000 armenian dram commemorative coin. the graphics of the symbol is based on the shape of the first letter of armenian word " դրամ " ( money, pronounced as " dram " ). the transformation of the letter toward the monetary symbol is done in accordance with the graphics of the range of foreign monetary signs. as a result, the sign combines its armenian origin with the two strokes present in the majority of other monetary symbols. the meaning of those two strokes is being revealed by the author ’ s in his lectures. copyright and national attributes to ensure protection of authorship the author has sent requests to armenian national standards institute in 1997 and copyright bureau of library of us congress in 2001. however, the article 6 of law on copyright and neighboring rights adopted by the national assembly of armenia on 8 december 1999 and revised on 15 june 2006, assert that state emblems and signs are not considered as objects for copyright. hence, the dram symbol may be referred to national attributes, the


and neighboring rights adopted by the national assembly of armenia on 8 december 1999 and revised on 15 june 2006, assert that state emblems and signs are not considered as objects for copyright. hence, the dram symbol may be referred to national attributes, the mandatory items of which are flag, national seal, anthem and money. there are the international and republican standards pertinent to money and its symbols : - iso 4217, codes for the representation of currencies and funds – defines the format of three - letter abbreviation for world monetary instruments. to armenian dram in it was assigned code amd. - arm. stand. 34. 001 - 2006, character sets and keyboards – defines armenian characters encoding and keyboard layouts. the code for the sign is 91 and shorthand is ‘ armdram ’. - unicode 6. 1 and iso / iec 10646, joint standardization for coding multilingual text. in 2007 armenian national institute for standardization, measurements and metrology made an amendment to the сharacter sets and keyboards table and enacted to replace the collocation “ dram sign ” by the graphics of the symbol. on 15 june 2011, the unicode technical committee ( utc ) accepted the dram sign for inclusion in the future versions of the unicode standard and assigned a code for the sign - u + 058f ( ). in 2012 the sign was finally adopted in the armenian block of iso and unicode international standards. variations of design upon creation of sign ’ s original shape a number of designs for it were developed to conform to the most popular font styles and their derivatives ( italic, bold ). in 2001 the designs together with the original shape were gifted to the republic as templates for the national font sets. below are presented three main templates, however, now there is a variety of the sigh shapes in the armenian computer fonts. in 2008 under the auspices of ministry of culture of armenia and microsoft - armenia in national book chamber of armenia took place " granshan 2008 " competition for the complete set of armenian letters and characters, for which were developed styles for the sign among the other characters and symbols. the sign ’ s official presentations have been conducted by the author at the central bank of armenia and at the first historical congress of armenian technologies armtech 2007 in san - francisco, north to silicon valley. also, in order to promulgate it the author arranged lectures at american corners of yerevan and gyumri, and armenian state university of economics in yerevan and yeghegnadzor, crrc


- francisco, north to silicon valley. also, in order to promulgate it the author arranged lectures at american corners of yerevan and gyumri, and armenian state university of economics in yerevan and yeghegnadzor, crrc office, dilijan college and armenian national lyceem after anania shirakatsy. besides, he created this and other similar articles and conducted a presentation at the public library after a. isahakyan, yerevan. in connection with celebration of the 15th anniversary of armenian dram in november 2008 the central bank of armenia issued a commemorative coin with the sign on the reverse side just against noah ’ s arch on the national coat of arms on obverse. the same year the sign was widely populated in a number of local periodicals in 2011 dram sign appeared on the renewed official site of cba and in the design of its new visitors center. - ↑ mouraviev, serge ( сергеи муравьев ). the mystery of mesrop mashtots, “ literaturnaya armenia ” # 2, yerevan, 1985 - ↑ armenian dram sign establishing act, the council of central bank of armenia, act # 25 october 9, 2001 - ↑ http : / / www. unicode. org / charts / pdf / unicode - 6. 1 / - ↑ komendaryan, ken ( karen ), the history of dram, dollar, euro monetary symbols, lectures - ↑ the interview with karen komendaryan, the newspaper of union of banks of armenia # 4, november, 2008 - ↑ komendaryan, ken ( karen ) graphical symbol for armenian dram, “ bazis ”, first armenian economics magazine # 8 - 9, october - november, yerevan 2008 - ↑ arzumanyan, karen symbol for armenian money, delovoy express ”, armenian business newspaper, # 43, 21 - 28 november yerevan 2008 - ↑ zakharyan, violetta, valjuntarizm, “ yerevan ” magazine, # 12, december ethnopress armenia - russia - usa 2008 - ↑ a monument to currency, “ yerevan ” magazine, # 12, december 2008 - ↑ aloyan, anna, “ economics ” economic, public, cultural analytic magazine # 3 ( 9 ), winter 2008 - 2009 - ↑ graphical sign for armenian dram, “ tntesaget ” official newspaper of armenian state university of economics, # 9 ( 641 ), november 2008 - ↑ ' “ tnt


cultural analytic magazine # 3 ( 9 ), winter 2008 - 2009 - ↑ graphical sign for armenian dram, “ tntesaget ” official newspaper of armenian state university of economics, # 9 ( 641 ), november 2008 - ↑ ' “ tntesaget ” official newspaper of armenian state university of economics, # 4 ( 645 ), april 2009 - ↑ dramcode, “ newmag ” magazine, # 27, november 2011 saint mesrop mashtots, the creator of armenian alphabet http : / / en. wikipedia. org / wiki / saint _ mesrob central bank of armenia http : / / www. cba. am union of banks of armenia http : / / www. uba. am 15th anniversary commemorative coin http : / / www. cba. am / cba _ site / currency / 15dram. html? _ _ locale = en lecture on dram, dollar, euro monetary symbols in armenian, american corner, yerevan lecture on dram, dollar, euro monetary symbols in english, american corner, gyumri lecture on dram, dollar, euro monetary symbols in armenian, crrc - armenia ( caucasus research resource centers ), yerevan dram sign, wikipedia — free encyclopedia today is wednesday, june 19, 2013


just as dark - skinned bunch grapes contain significant quantities of resveratrol, so do some berries. studies have shown that not only does this compound protect grapes from fungal diseases, it also reduces risk of cardiovascular disease and shows anticancer activity. researchers took samples of blueberries, cranberries, huckleberries, and related plants representing 5 families and 10 species of vaccinium fruitalong with muscadine grapesto assay for resveratrol. several fruit samples contained varying amounts of the compound. concentration in the grapes was higher in the skin and seeds than in the juice or pulp. the data will be helpful in increasing resveratrol in berry and grape agnes rimando, usda - ars products utilization research unit, oxford, mississippi ; phone ( 662 ) chemoprotectant broccoli in the offing? broccoli florets and young seedlings are rich sources of glucoraphanin and its breakdown product sulforaphane, which helps protect mammals against cancer. sulforaphane induces mammalian detoxification enzyme activity and inhibits early tumor growth in rodent models. little is known about variations of these two compounds in broccoli varieties. now usda scientists in cooperation with the johns hopkins university school of medicine, baltimore, maryland, have screened 71 usda broccoli varieties and 5 commercial hybrids for glucoraphanin and their potential to induce mammalian detoxification enzymes. using information from this work, breeders may exploit genetic variation to produce new broccoli varieties with enhanced chemoprotective response against cancer. mark farnham, usda - ars u. s. vegetable laboratory, charleston, south carolina ; phone ( 843 ) 556 - 0840. a chinese leaf beetle, diorhabda elongata. | beetles sock it to saltcedar the first biological control agents to be set loose against invasive saltcedar, tamarix spp., are chinese leaf beetles, diorhabda elongata. the 10 - to 30 - foot trees infest over a million acres along western waterways, displacing native plants and wildlife, increasing soil salinity, diverting natural streamflow, and increasing the frequency of wildfires. | since july 1999, caged beetles have been carefully monitored at 10 locations in 6 western states. now, their postrelease activity will be closely followed to ensure their establishment and evaluate their impact, population growth, and safety. the researchers want to protect native


july 1999, caged beetles have been carefully monitored at 10 locations in 6 western states. now, their postrelease activity will be closely followed to ensure their establishment and evaluate their impact, population growth, and safety. the researchers want to protect native species in the release areas and to facilitate revegetation with native plants. the project operates in conjunction with more than 30 federal, state, and local agencies ; universities ; and private organizations. a $ 3 million grant in 2000 from usda ' s initiative for future agriculture and food systems supports work on a complex of invasive weeds, c. jack deloach, usda - ars grassland, soil, and water research laboratory, temple, texas ; phone ( 254 ) 770 - 6531 ; raymond i. carruthers, usda - ars exotic and invasive weeds research unit, albany, california ; phone ( 510 ) | helping plants tell when they ' re small, pencil - sized thermometers mounted on posts in a field can signal plant thirst. they record the temperature and length of time that nearby plants have been too hot. that information can be transmitted by cellular telephones to a web site for farmers, homeowners, turf operators, or orchardists to use in deciding when to water their plants or lawns. or the devices can be put on " automatic " to trigger irrigations. refined over 13 years, the bioticbiologically identified optimal temperature interactive consolesystem capitalizes on the finding that plants grow best only within a narrow temperature range that varies by species. now being tested on a variety of crops in several states, biotic is patented and available for commercial licensing. james r. mahan, usda - ars plant stress and germplasm development research unit, lubbock, texas ; phone ( 806 ) 749 - 5560. elders : eat protein for strong bones dietary protein may be as important as ample calcium and vitamin d in maintaining strong bones in the elderly. research with 70 - to 90 - year - old men and women showed that those with the highest protein intakes lost less bone over a 4 - year period than those consuming half as much or less. the study used data from 615 participants in the framingham ( massachusetts ) osteoporosis study to examine the relationship between subjects ' protein intakes and changes in bone mineral density after 4 years. researchers accounted for all factors known to increase bone - loss risk. volunteers with the lowest daily protein intakes lost significantly more bone than those with the highest intakes


scientists are well aware of the health risks that asbestos poses by now. they have demonstrated a clear link between asbestos exposure and the three major diseases associated with exposure : asbestosis, lung cancer and mesothelioma. 60 countries have banned the use of asbestos at all. in the united states, where there is no complete ban on asbestos, 10, 000 people die each year from asbestos - caused diseases. an asbestos attorney may be able to obtain compensation for your injuries and suffering if asbestos exposure has harmed you. where you can find asbestos today despite bans in many developed countries, companies continue to use asbestos. in the united states, for instance, the environmental protection agency ( epa ) permits consumer products to contain trace amounts of asbestos. the epa allows trace amounts of asbestos fibers in drinking water and workplace air. other products where consumers might find asbestos include : - roof coatings - flooring felt - disc brake pads - asbestos - cement products like corrugated sheets, flat sheets, pipes and shingles - brake blocks - drum brake linings - automatic transmission components asbestos also remains in products that pre - date asbestos bans and concerns. many homes and buildings that construction companies built before the 1970s may contain asbestos in their attic and wall insulation. if you suspect your home may contain asbestos, several tips to follow are : - avoid damaging or disturbing the asbestos material - have asbestos professionals examine, test and eventually remove or repair the areas where asbestos may be - avoid doing even minor repairs yourself - do not track asbestos ( the fibers are almost always invisible to the naked eye ) throughout the house the asbestos lobby remains powerful a group of international journalists discovered that asbestos lobby groups have spent almost $ 100 million since the mid 1980s to continue the sale and use of asbestos - containing products. these groups contribute money and resources to researchers who publish scientific journal articles supporting the continued use of asbestos. while asbestos use may be winding down in developed countries, it is unfortunate that the lobby groups have targeted developing countries. for example, even though canada does not use much asbestos itself, it exported 168, 000 tons of asbestos in 2009, most of which went to india. countries like mexico, china, russia, and brazil continue to use asbestos widely. the world health organization estimates that 125 million people continue to encounter asbestos in the workplace. according to the united nations, 100, 000 workers worldwide die each year from asbestos exposure. by 2030, some experts estimate five to ten million total deaths worldwide as a result of asbestos. asbestos use is never safe. if you or a loved one suffers from


1. 1 this specification covers acsr twisted pair conductor ( acsr / tp ) for use as overhead electric conductors ( see notes 1and 2 ). note 1 - - the conductor is fabricated from two component conductors of the same size twisted around each other. this conductor is identified by the code name of the component acsr conductor followed by " / tp " or the size and type of the component acsr conductor followed by " / tp ". note 2 - - there are registered trademark symbols that are also used to identify the twisted pair notation. consult cable manufacturers for additional details. 1. 2 the values stated in inch - pound or si units are to be regarded separately as standard. each system shall be used independently of the other. combining values from the two systems may result in nonconformance with the specification. for conductor sizes designated by awg or kcmil, the requirements in si units have been numerically converted from corresponding values stated or derived in inch - pound units. for conductor sizes designated by si units only, the requirements are stated or derived in si units. 1. 2. 1 for density, resistivity and temperature, the values stated in si units are to be regarded as standard. 2. referenced documents ( purchase separately ) the documents listed below are referenced within the subject standard but are not provided as part of the standard. b232 / b232m specification for concentric - lay - stranded aluminum conductors, coated - steel reinforced ( acsr ) aeolian vibration ; aluminum ; aluminum conductor ; ascr ; electrical conductors ; galloping ; overhead conductors ; steel - reinforced conductors ; stranded aluminum conductors ; tp ; twisted pair ; ; acsr twisted - pair ( acsr / tp ) conductor ; aeolian vibration ; aluminum electrical conductors - - specifications ; overhead conductors ; steel reinforced stranded aluminum conductors ; stranded aluminum electrical conductors - - specifications ics number code 29. 060. 01 ( electrical wires and cables in general ) astm international is a member of crossref. citing astm standards [ back to top ]


the following is taken from a speech astm president james a. thomas delivered at the national institute of standards and technology ’ s centennial symposium, standards in the global economy : past, present, and future, in gaithersburg, md., on march 7. this year we celebrate a momentous occasionthe centennial anniversary of the national institute of standards and technology. i have been asked to speak about the standards partnership that exists between nist and astm and how that partnership has produced standards for the public benefit. without doubt, this is a fact. but the history we share has much more to teach us than the fact that we have been able to produce standards together. governments and private citizens produce standards together all over the world. it is, rather, how we did it that is of note. the partnership we are celebrating today is a microcosm, a snapshot of this country ’ s history. it is the story of what set us apart from the rest of the world, the story of how a government and its citizens came to share a common purpose and achieve a common goal in an atmosphere of equanimity and balance. this partnership is a model for governments and private institutions everywhere, a model in which we can take pride, one that has proven, time and again, what great strides in progress can be made when public and private institutions are willing to abandon traditional roles and old ideas. our partnership has refuted the idea that public and private institutions are destined to be defined by authority and mutual mistrust. a century ago at the turn of the last century, when astm and nist came on to the american scene, we were a nation on the move. literally. we were building the great railroads. steel producers worked night and day to fill the ever - increasing demands of the burgeoning railroad system, making the united states the most prolific steel producer in the world. in the midst of this unprecedented boom, we hit a wall : train derailments. broken rails, broken wheels, and broken flanges and axles began to take a terrible toll on american lives and the american economy. desperate railroad companies began to import their rails from great britain. in 1898, 70 members of a new association, the american chapter of the international association for testing materials, met in philadelphia to discuss the prospects of organizing committees of companies and customers to develop testing methods for iron, steel, and other materials. three years later, the u. s. congress chartered the first physical science laboratory of the federal government, the


, met in philadelphia to discuss the prospects of organizing committees of companies and customers to develop testing methods for iron, steel, and other materials. three years later, the u. s. congress chartered the first physical science laboratory of the federal government, the national bureau of standards. by 1912, nbs was performing materials research on the iron and steel constituents of the railroad industry, research that advanced and enhanced the specifications that had been developed by the steel companies and the railroad companies in what was now astm. american railroads began to be reliable and safe again ; and a unique partnership had been forged. almost 100 years later, this partnership is stronger than ever. when we consulted astm ’ s membership roster last week, we counted 194 nist scientists among its ranks. nist ’ s annual report to omb reported that in the period october 1998 to september 1999, nist scientists held 572 astm committee memberships, an astonishing number that far surpassed any like number related to any other private standards developing organization. at a time when there is a general government agency decline in participation in standards activities, these statistics represent the commitment of nist to our partnership, and to the work of producing standards for public benefit. while this number is important, we can only use it to measure units of activity. there is no method yet devised, however, whereby we can measure the talent and dedication nist scientists bring to the work of astm. to our nist technical partners therefore, i can only extend my deepest gratitude and thanks. it was during dr. louis m. branscomb ’ s term as nist director, in the 1970s, that nbs made some very important decisions, decisions that more clearly articulated the relationship between us, decisions that brought all of us into a more enlightened age. it was during this time that nbs shifted many of its voluntary standards program activities to private sector organizations, opting not to compete, but to supplement private sector programs. it was also during the ’ 70s that nbs decided to become more active in voluntary standardization activities at the policy level, a decision astm welcomed wholeheartedly. soon thereafter, nbs was represented on astm ’ s board of directors. some of you will remember names like john hoffman, karl willenbrock, emmanuel horowitz, and bill andrus, all distinguished nist scientists and administrators, all astm board members. dr. branscomb ’ s foresight changed both our institutions and deepened our relationship in a very meaningful way. the immediate past director


horowitz, and bill andrus, all distinguished nist scientists and administrators, all astm board members. dr. branscomb ’ s foresight changed both our institutions and deepened our relationship in a very meaningful way. the immediate past director of nist, raymond kammer, is also a former member of the astm board of directors. his service, not only to astm, but to our entire community, came at a time when standards development was coming to be recognized by policy makers and industrial leaders as a critical element in the globalization of industry and international trade. we had no national standards strategy to help us cope with our changing world. at an american national standards institute board meeting, ray challenged us to develop one. ray ’ s instincts, insights, and guidance have been invaluable to astm, and his involvement with the voluntary standards system in this country is very deeply appreciated. in 1993, during my first full year as president of astm, i had the pleasure of partnering with a nist scientist named nancy trahey. at that time, she was chairman of the astm board, and the second woman in astm ’ s history ever to be elected to the chair. she was an outstanding chair and remains a great friend. astm was the clear beneficiary of her steady, skilful leadership. nist members have brought to our process everything from measurement infrastructures and basic research to “ the management of the battlefields for economic competitiveness, ” to quote ray kammer. dr. belinda collins, whose hard work and dedication i wish also to acknowledge, has been a partner who has shouldered some of the heaviest burdens and most difficult challenges of our day, not the least of which was the development of the national standards strategy. time will not permit me to describe the range and depth of our partnership, which goes far beyond the development of standards, but i will mention three outstanding collaborative efforts : these collaborations are all success stories whose implications and effects have been felt worldwide. nist and astm have shared in the outreach to developing countries, co - hosting delegations from around the world. astm ’ s washington representative, helen delaney, became the nist standards attache to the u. s. mission to the european union. astm has appeared before congressional committees and testified time and again in support of funding for nistan act of partnership we will repeat whenever given the opportunity. together we have supported the implementation of the omb circular a - 119 and the national technology transfer and advancement


##tm has appeared before congressional committees and testified time and again in support of funding for nistan act of partnership we will repeat whenever given the opportunity. together we have supported the implementation of the omb circular a - 119 and the national technology transfer and advancement act, instruments that have brought us closer together, that have enhanced and strengthened our partnership. accomplishing our missiongood standards no other country in the world, even the most democratized, has a standards infrastructure that is built on our concept of government / private sector partnership. our system has often made it difficult for us to fit into a world where standards systems are characterized more by legislative or authoritative involvement than by an equal partnership where government is part of the process. however, one has only to look around to see what this partnership for the public benefit has produced : standards that have seen us successfully through two world wars, that have restored and sustained our environment, that reflect unhampered invention and innovation, and that make our products household names around the globestandards of inimitable quality and relevance. our standards are the measurement of unprecedented prosperity, levels of health and safety, and a quality of life that is unparalleled anywhere. our standards are the irrefutable result of our way of life, and our partnership. and so, on this important day, at the dawn of your second century, i bring you astm ’ s best wishes. when our railroads needed us, we were there. we set our sights on their survival and success ; and the public benefited. our country benefited. the goal we set out to achieve 100 years agoto promulgate valid and accurate standards, standards that would promote trade, increase the quality of life for our citizens, and measure the best of who we are as a nationis as valid and viable as it was then. may it continue as the basis of our partnership for the next 100 years. james a. thomas president, astm international copyright 2001, astm international


trees do need carbon dioxide, but an excess of carbon dioxide thickens the layer of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, meaning less of the heat radiating from the earth can escape into space. it works like a car parked in the sun ; the sun ' s energy streams through the glass windows, heating up all the mass of the car ' s interior ( seats, dash, etc. ), and then the heat radiating from all this mass warms the air in the car. very little of the heat can escape because the windows and doors are closed. if you left your windows open, the car would be much cooler when you returned. the upper atmosphere acts like a permeable tinted window. it deflects a lot of the sun ' s energy into space, which prevents the earth from overheating. it also allows radiant heat to escape, thereby regulating the earth ' s temperature within a viable range. more trees would actually help, but because of other limiting factors, such as soil nutrients, planting more trees would require returning some cleared land - - maybe a lot - - to forest. much of the world has been deforested, and deforestation continues at a tremendous pace, partly because of greed and partly because of increased population pressure. it ' s unlikely we can control either of these any time soon. actually the scientists involved admitted that all the leaked emails were authentic.