as opening and closing your eyelids, require several muscles working together. igniting the fire : the engines in the muscles when you go to bend your arm, an electrical signal departs from your brain. during its complicated journey, the signal first passes to the spinal column, from where it proceeds at high speed to the organ where the message needs to be delivered. an electrical current moves over the muscle surface. the millions of muscle fibers receive the signal react immediately and “ fire the ignition ” by contracting. these events all take place in the blink of an eye : in as little as one thousandth of a second. in other words, the electrical current moving through the muscles turns the ignition switch in the muscle fibers by moving at a speed of 1 / 1, 000th of a second ( 1 millisecond ). the command reaching the muscles is produced and transported in the nervous system. the muscular system therefore functions under the command of the nervous system, but the way the muscles work together in harmony results from the coordination of the body. the body ’ s communications network an astonishing coordination takes place in our bodies when you move, without your ever being aware of it. as you move your head, notify your location in space through the movement of fluid in components in the inner ear. receptors in the joints respond to different angles of the joint. at this time, nerves in the muscle register the level of muscular contraction ; and the golgi tendons prevent nerve signals reaching the muscles by acting in accordance with the level of contraction. this chain of processes prevents excessive contraction in the muscles. the first condition for coordination is obtaining accurate information. only with accurate information can new analyses be performed. and in order for the muscles to function correctly, there is a magnificent reception network in the body. to carry out a coordinated action, first the location involved in that action must be known. that information comes from the eyes, the balance mechanism in the inner ear, the muscles, the joints and the skin. every second, billions of pieces of information are processed, analyzed, and new decisions taken as a result. millions of receptors located in the body provide information. inside the muscles and joints, billions of micro - receptors provide information at any given moment. messages from these receptors reach the central nervous system, and new instructions are issued to the muscles in accord with the analyses performed there. for a clearer example of this coordination, simply raise your hand. your shoulder has to bend, the biceps muscle must expand and the triceps must contract. muscles between your


new instructions are issued to the muscles in accord with the analyses performed there. for a clearer example of this coordination, simply raise your hand. your shoulder has to bend, the biceps muscle must expand and the triceps must contract. muscles between your elbow and wrist have to turn your arm, and the muscles controlling your fingers have to give your hand the correct shape. at every stage of this action, millions of receptors in the muscles report the status of the muscles to the central control system. a moment later, the center tells the muscles what to do next. you are of course unaware of these chemical and physical reactions taking place at breathtaking speed ; you merely want to raise your hand. nor do you make any special effort in order to speak. you never sit down and calculate what sounds you want to emerge from your mouth, how much your vocal chords need to vibrate and which of the hundreds of muscles in your mouth, tongue and throat need to contract and expand — how many times, in which order and at what level — how much air to take into your lungs, or at what speed and intervals you need to exhale that same air. during the course of the day, you move your arms constantly, yet they never require any maintenance. this would lead to serious faults in any machine, but instead demonstrates the flawless creation in the human body. the nervous system is aware of not just the muscles, but also of the status and functioning of the internal organs. this information too is processed and the necessary measures taken. even while you sleep, your vital organs continue to function, thanks to instructions received from another part of the nervous system — the sub - brain and spinal cord. your heart beats, your lungs work, and you breathe. the body ’ s speed of information - processing is far beyond that of any computer. whatever you do, from the simplest task to the most difficult, your body performs unbelievable calculations. clearly, all this takes place as the result of a creation requiring infinite might. that infinite might belongs to almighty allah, creator of the entire universe.... no, everything in the heavens and earth belongs to him. everything is obedient to him. ( surat al - baqara : 116 ) the harmonious working of the muscles for just a small smile, seventeen separate muscles have to act at the same moment and perform their correct functions. if just one of those 17 muscles fails to function correctly, then the smile will not appear, and furthermore the person ’ s facial expression cannot be interpreted. in


smile, seventeen separate muscles have to act at the same moment and perform their correct functions. if just one of those 17 muscles fails to function correctly, then the smile will not appear, and furthermore the person ’ s facial expression cannot be interpreted. in the human face, there are 28 muscles whose sole task is facial expression. by contracting in various combinations, these muscles can produce thousands of different expressions. the human face has an expression, shaped by the muscles, for every state of mind, such as anger, surprise, comfort, and enjoyment. for you to take one simple step, 54 separate muscles in your feet and back have to work in harmony together. holding a flower or drinking a glass of water is possible thanks to the help of 27 bones and the perfect muscular and nervous systems that direct them. laughing, speaking, eating and opening and closing your eyes all occur through muscles acting in harmony. in your face, 28 muscles s work to produce facial expressions alone. it is of course allah, our lord, who creates this harmony in our bodies. functions such as smiling, speaking, blinking, walking and running may be very familiar, but nonetheless everyone who reads about them must stop once again and think. all the muscles, bones and cells operate independently of the individual. no one has any power to add any new organ. even modern technology can not produce systems similar to those in the human body. for that reason, people must not forget for even a moment that they are indebted to this flawless system in their bodies — in other words, to allah who created it for them — every time they smile, and must give thanks for it. allah has created human beings in a perfect manner. as is revealed in verses he has formed and proportioned them. the human body is one of the proofs of allah ’ s power and infinite knowledge. everyone capable of using his or her reason will clearly see this truth. “ o man! what has deluded you in respect of your noble lord? he who created you and formed you and proportioned you and assembled you in whatever way he willed.... ” ( surat al - infitar : 6 - 8 ) how does muscle contraction take place? a muscle cell can be described as a kind of biological engine that converts chemical energy into force and mechanical work. energy is essential for your every action. the glucose in the blood provides this energy, in the same way that fuel runs a machine, by breaking down glucose into carbon dioxide and water. the energy given off during this process


into force and mechanical work. energy is essential for your every action. the glucose in the blood provides this energy, in the same way that fuel runs a machine, by breaking down glucose into carbon dioxide and water. the energy given off during this process is used by the muscle proteins for contraction. this chemical reaction requires large amounts of oxygen, but this much oxygen is not easy to provide. to overcome this difficulty, the muscles can convert glucose into lactic acid without the help of oxygen. the oxygen they need emerges during the course of this process. there is, of course, a limit to the way we use our muscles. when that limit is exceeded, movement first becomes difficult, then impossible. after muscles contracting for a while, lactic acid accumulates in the muscle tissue, and excessive levels of it lead to muscle tiredness and cramps. oxygen is needed to get rid of the lactic acid in the muscles. that ’ s why you begin breathing rapidly following excessive fatigue. a muscle will not work until lactic acid which leads to fatigue in the muscles, has been removed with the oxygen carried by the blood. when you go to raise your arm, your elbow bends. when you eat, our jaw muscles work. when you walk or run somewhere, your leg muscles go into action — and when they grow fatigued, your muscles immediately take requisite precautions. a great many activities are carried out every second inside your body, without your ever being aware of them, and the microscopic cells in the muscles perform these actions. nitric oxide : the miracle molecule that lets the veins expand three scientists shared the nobel physiology and medicine prize in 1998 for having discovered that the nitric oxide ( no ) molecule, which is secreted in the veins, possesses an expanding property and regulates tension in the vein walls. however, nitric oxide molecules also serve as intermediaries in the expansion of the vein wall. the diagram overleaf will help you acquire a better idea of how this chain of processes is carried out, comparable to the way that the first domino to fall will knock down in turn others lined up behind it. in order for a vein to expand, certain signal - forwarding hormones in the blood first initiate this process by adhering to receptors in the vein membrane. this may be compared to the way that the first domino to fall will in turn knock down any others set out in a line behind it. immediately after the first domino has fallen — in other words, after the signal - forwarding hormone has adhered to receptors in the cell


the way that the first domino to fall will in turn knock down any others set out in a line behind it. immediately after the first domino has fallen — in other words, after the signal - forwarding hormone has adhered to receptors in the cell membrane — the cell understands what it has to do and begins producing nitric oxide. some of the no molecules, which seem to know what they must do from the instant they are produced, head rapidly towards the vein ’ s smooth muscle cells. here, in the second stage, they enter a cell and combine with an enzyme known as gtp. however, a subsequent stage is also necessary in order for the vein to expand. after the nitric oxide has combined with the gtp, another enzyme called cgmp begins to be produced. in order to perform its own role in this chain, this new substance sets myosin into action. the final stage has now been reached. when the myosin goes into operation, the final domino falls and the muscle cells expand. now try and envisage all these stages in your mind. close inspection reveals that the hormones and cells involved in this process act in an apparently conscious manner. the signal - forwarding hormones in the blood go to their appropriate places in the vein membrane, and affect those regions to initiate the process. the same consciousness can be observed in the processes that follow. every stimulus heads to the correct locale to produce the desired result, all in the dark interior of human body, with no error ever made. but how can these cells, hormones and molecules perform such apparently conscious actions? of course consciousness cannot possibly belong to them. yet a cell needs a mind to tell it what to produce and when, to guide the hormones and molecules where to go — in short, to direct the whole process. this infinite intelligence belongs to allah, who creates the cells, hormones and molecules, and inspires in them the knowledge of how they are to behave. 1 - the signal - forwarding hormone adheres to receptors on the vein, after which nitric oxide ( no ) emerges. blinking and load - bearing every one of the hundreds of muscles in the body has unique features such as its length, lifting power, ability to perform sensitive processes, and elasticity. muscles perform a great many different functions, from simple actions such as blinking the eyelids to lifting heavy weights. in their structure, for example, the eye muscles are very different from those in the arms or legs. one feature all muscles have in common, however, is that


many different functions, from simple actions such as blinking the eyelids to lifting heavy weights. in their structure, for example, the eye muscles are very different from those in the arms or legs. one feature all muscles have in common, however, is that they work at a high productivity, in flawless harmony and produce considerable force. the total power of all the muscles in your body is so considerable that if it were possible to employ all the muscles at once, then you would be strong enough to lift a large truck. 75 as we ’ ll consider in detail in the following sections, that every muscle has its own particular attributes shows the existence of a manifest creation. the location of every muscle in just the right place, their ideal sizes, elasticity and capacities are all very different, but cannot be explained in terms of chance. every muscle has been located in just the right place, with just the right features. for example, it would be meaningless for an eye muscle to have the same features as ones in the arm. far from being beneficial, it would be positively damaging for a muscle similar to the heart muscle, which works involuntarily, to be in our leg muscles. indeed, none of these mismatches occur. every muscle is in just the right location, with just the right characteristics. like the other muscles in the body, the eye muscles work in great harmony and are exceedingly efficient. if you want to lift anything, your central nervous system has to know the present length of your arm muscles, their condition and tension, to provide the most appropriate contraction. when your arm has reached the object in question, the central nervous system must halt the contraction while setting into action the muscles of the hand that will take hold of the object. once you have grasped the object, the necessary information for extending your arm must be transmitted to the special sense organs known as muscle marrow. if the chemical mechanism essential for us to perform any action is obstructed for any reason, the end result is paralysis. paralysis means the loss of a muscle ’ s function, due to the incapacity of the nerves leading to it. someone with a paralyzed arm, for instance, is quite unable to move it. the nerve cells extending to the bicep and triceps have lost their function and are unable to forward on instructions from the brain telling these muscles to contract. the arm is thus unable to function, even if it is otherwise healthy. one single nerve cell failing to forward a signal is sufficient for an organ failing to work.


function and are unable to forward on instructions from the brain telling these muscles to contract. the arm is thus unable to function, even if it is otherwise healthy. one single nerve cell failing to forward a signal is sufficient for an organ failing to work. therefore, the lack of just one component of a system will result in its collapse. in addition, as you have seen, there is stage - by - stage flow of information in the working of the muscles. wherever information exists, intelligence is also needed for all the elements in the system to understand and act on the arriving messages. in this case, the muscles act in accordance with the instructions they receive from the spinal cord. in addition, your voluntary muscles work when you want them to — so in order for them to act, the need to know what you are thinking. view in this way, it ’ s clear that the information possessed by the muscles, the system that ensures the links between them, or their ability to obey our thoughts can never come into existence by chance. yet also, muscle cells clearly cannot exhibit intelligence. this system has existed since the first human came into being, and has been working perfectly ever since. the muscles of the first human possessed the same information as will those of every other human who ever comes into the world. that is because allah has created human beings in a perfect proportion. everything we have learned leads us to the glory and superior might of allah. it is allah who made the earth a stable home for you and the sky a dome, and formed you, giving you the best of forms, and provided you with good and wholesome things. that is allah, your lord. blessed be allah, the lord of all the worlds. he is the living – there is no deity but him — so call on him, making your religion sincerely his. praise be to allah, the lord of all the worlds. ( surah ghafir : 64 - 65 ) the reason for ease of movement : flawless harmony muscles in the human body always move in one direction. the bicep, for example, bends the arm, but cannot restore it to its former position. the triceps muscle is therefore needed to straighten the arm out again, to its former position. these muscles have to act consecutively ; otherwise, if one were to start contracting while the other was still functioning, the arm could not move at all. flawless coordination regulates the order in which the muscles in the body act. there is no doubt that the bones are the most important factor in the


, if one were to start contracting while the other was still functioning, the arm could not move at all. flawless coordination regulates the order in which the muscles in the body act. there is no doubt that the bones are the most important factor in the transformation into energy of the power produced in the muscles. as a muscle contracts, it pulls on a bone and enables it to move. opposing muscles are perfectly and securely attached to the bones by ligaments so that they can move in both directions. were it not for the bones, the strength the muscles produce could not be translated into movement. similarly, were it not for the muscles, the bones could not move at all. in order for a human to move, more than 200 bones and 400 muscles must work together in a coordinated manner. the bones are joined to one another to permit the most ideal movement. each muscle has been located in such a way as to allow the bones to move comfortably. obvious creation can be observed in every detail, from the movement permitted the body by these dual systems, to the structure of the tendons joining muscle to bone. bones never separate from one another because they are loosely connected, and muscles are never prevented from moving because the joints between bones are too tight. of course, the bone tissue or the cells that comprise that tissue do not make these decisions. cells and tissues are devoid of consciousness. nor is it possible for this information to be placed inside the cell in any way. there must therefore be some force that installs this information in the cell, that teaches it how to behave — that rules it, in other words. this incomparable knowledge and might belong to allah, who maintains everything under his control. do you not know that allah is he to whom the kingdom of the heavens and the earth belongs and that, besides allah, you have no protector and no helper? ( surat al - baqara : 107 ) the hand : amazing creation when you stir your tea, write or turn these pages, you employ an unbelievable marvel of engineering design. your hands are some of the proofs of allah ’ s creative artistry. closely examine the structure of your hands, and you can see the general lines of this mechanism that fulfills so many functions, from drinking to writing, from opening doors to combing your hair. the hand, with its 27 bones and the muscles and nerves that controls them, is without equal in the living world. the hand owes its mobility to its numerous muscles and tendons, both large and small, and which


a struggling sea the salton sea, one of california ’ s largest lakes and a safe haven for thousands of migratory birds, is suffering a case of severe dehydration. water loss and rising salinity and nutrient concentrations have endangered this saltwater lake in southeastern california. left untreated, the sea ’ s ecosystem could collapse within the next few decades, according to the salton sea authority. the state legislature is currently considering a plan from the california department of water resources that would restore the wetland over the course of 75 years, at a cost of billions of dollars. but with land disputes, uncertain funding, and no one yet designated to implement the plan, migratory birds may have to find a new pit stop. “ the salton sea is a body of water that ’ s there, and it ’ s dying, ” says michael walker, the salton sea program manager for the bureau of reclamation. the salton sea has a reputation for naturally disappearing. in the last 2, 000 years, similar seas have formed and reformed in the salton trough basin at least three times, with several smaller lakes existing in between. the current lake formed when the colorado river breached an irrigation canal in 1905. since then, agricultural runoff has kept the sea full and provided a mixture of nutrients that encouraged wildlife to flourish. the lake is saltier than the pacific ocean, and at 376 square miles, larger than lake tahoe. this desert sea is habitat for marine fish and has become one of the busiest stopovers for birds on the pacific flyway. the sea hosts up to 90 percent of america ' s white pelican population and 40 percent of the threatened yuma clapper rail, according to the salton sea authority ( see our story california strikes a water truce ). but in these drier times, less runoff flows into the sea, the imperial valley transfers more water to san diego and water simply evaporates, concentrating nutrients and raising salinity. at the same time, domestic sewage and industrial waste from places like the new river in mexicali is running into the sea. “ it ’ s a soup of stuff that ’ s not really that great, ” says dale hoffman - floerke, chief of the colorado river and salton sea office for the california department of water resources. the nitrates, phosphates and salt that formerly nourished and fertilized this sea are now reaching concentrations that are killing the wildlife. diseases like avian cholera and type c avian botulism contributed to a


department of water resources. the nitrates, phosphates and salt that formerly nourished and fertilized this sea are now reaching concentrations that are killing the wildlife. diseases like avian cholera and type c avian botulism contributed to a massive die - off of 1, 400 endangered brown pelicans at the salton sea in 1996, a factor that prevented their removal from the endangered species list. and in 1999, more than 7 million tilapia and croaker died from oxygen depletion in the lake. california ' s plan would restructure the sea, reducing its size by nearly 50 percent and creating specialized microhabitats for fish and birds. “ we know the sea is going to shrink, and we ’ re trying to make the best of the situation that ’ s going to happen, ” says hoffman - floerke. early efforts would include a small, 2, 000 - acre saline habitat that would act as the “ seed ” for further restoration and bridge the gap between immediate restoration needs and the long - term objective. the revamped salton sea would consist of a ring of marine habitat separated by a rock barrier from a central brine, or salt, sink. this “ seawater ” habitat would have salinity levels equal to the pacific ocean and house marine fish that would serve primarily as a food source for migratory birds. salt marshes totalling about 62, 000 acres would border the lake at the north and south ends, and act as habitat for birds, shrimp and vegetation. restoration during the 75 years would cost an estimated $ 8. 9 billion to construct and ultimately $ 142 million per year to run and maintain. possible funding sources include federal and state grants, private - public partnerships, park user fees, and the salton sea restoration fund, which currently holds $ 20 million. so far, the california legislature has not allocated funding, and there is no government agency designated to manage the plan. but, says hoffman - floerke, they expect decisions within the year. even if approved, restoration would require collaboration among the federal, tribal and private landowners that share the land around and under the salton sea. the federal government owns 90, 000 acres of the sea, and the bureau of reclamation has proposed its own restoration plan, according to walker, who says it ’ s currently under review by the office of management and budget. the torres martinez desert cahuilla tribe, which also owns land under the sea, worries that shrinking sea levels could expose carcinogenic, polluta


according to walker, who says it ’ s currently under review by the office of management and budget. the torres martinez desert cahuilla tribe, which also owns land under the sea, worries that shrinking sea levels could expose carcinogenic, pollutant - laden dirt that could blow into the air as toxic dust and become the tribe ' s responsibility to clean up. the tribe is also concerned that california ’ s proposed plan would undo its ongoing effort to restore sections of wetland. joe loya, tribal resources manager, fears their suggestions have fallen on deaf ears. “ we were outnumbered, ” he says. the tribe does not have enough money to pay for pollution control of exposed shoreline, and has nowhere to go. “ we can ’ t purchase new tribal land, ” says loya. “ we have no other opportunity than to fight this thing. ” currently, tribal members are trying to open a dialogue with the state legislature. they want to include protections of water levels to prevent shoreline exposure before the plan is approved, but, says loya, “ the clock is ticking. ” while hoffman - floerke acknowledges that the proposed plan does not make everybody happy, she says, it is by no means rigid, and will have to be “ tweaked ” along the way. “ we try to give something to everybody, ” she says. “ it ’ s a beginning. ”


do you have an intense fear for animals, heights, blood, injections, planes? would you rather climb ten flights than to get into a lift? if so, you may be suffering from a phobia. all people have fears or situations they would rather avoid. it is part of everyday life. some people are frightened by job interviews. others are uncomfortable to be home alone at night. most people manage to control their fears and go about their normal activities. but for some people, anxieties and fears are overwhelming and persistent. normal coping mechanisms don ' t work, and the need to avoid the objects or situations that cause anxiety can be so intense that they drastically interfere with daily life. sometimes people may make important career or personal decisions to avoid a phobic situation. others may refuse to go to the doctor for fear of having blood drawn. phobias aren ’ t just extreme fear, they are irrational fear. adults with phobias realise their fears are irrational, but often facing, or even thinking about facing, the feared object or situation brings on a panic attack or severe anxiety. phobias often begin in childhood or adolescence, but many adults find that their lives are impaired by phobic symptoms. many phobias are more common in women, but some ( e. g. fear of blood ) are more common in men. what causes phobias? scientists are learning more about the particular brain regions that are involved in phobic fears. phobias are thought to be caused by a combination of biological factors and life events, much in the way other disorders ( such as diabetes or heart disease ) are influenced by a person ' s genes and lifestyle. categories of phobias phobias are divided into three broad categories : specific phobia ( which used to be called simple or single phobia ), social phobia / social anxiety disorder, and agoraphobia depending on what triggers the fear and how the individual reacts to the dreaded object or situation. a specific phobia is the intense, irrational fear of specific objects or situations that cause terror. specific phobias can be classified into subtypes, namely animal type, natural environment type ( eg storms, heights or water ), blood - injection - injury type ( eg seeing blood or an injury ), situational type ( eg public transportation or enclosed places ) or other type ( if fear is cued by other stimuli ). agoraphobia, which often accompanies panic disorder,


type ( eg seeing blood or an injury ), situational type ( eg public transportation or enclosed places ) or other type ( if fear is cued by other stimuli ). agoraphobia, which often accompanies panic disorder, is a fear of being in any situation that might provoke a panic attack, or from which escape might be difficult if one occurred. social anxiety disorder ( social phobia ) : social anxiety disorder ( social phobia ) is an intense fear of becoming humiliated in social situations ; in other words, of embarrassing yourself in front of others. if you suffer from social anxiety disorder, you tend to think other people are very competent in public and that you are not. small mistakes you make may appear much more serious to you than they really are. blushing may seem painfully embarrassing, and you feel as though all eyes are focused on you. social anxiety disorder should not be confused with shyness. shy people can be very uneasy around others, but they don ' t experience extreme anxiety in anticipating a social situation, and they don ' t necessarily avoid circumstances that make them feel self - conscious. in contrast, people with social anxiety disorder aren ' t necessarily shy. they can be completely at ease with people most of the time, but particular situations such as making a speech can give them intense anxiety. if the object of fear is easy to avoid, people with phobias may not feel the need to seek treatment. when phobias interfere with a person ' s life, treatment can help. successful treatment usually involves cognitive behavioural techniques such as desensitisation or exposure therapy, in which patients are gradually exposed to what frightens them until the fear begins to fade. three - quarters of patients benefit significantly from this type of treatment. relaxation and breathing exercises also help reduce anxiety symptoms. sometimes certain medications may be prescribed to help reduce anxiety symptoms before someone faces a phobic situation. for more information contact the mental health information centre at 0800 600 411. what are these people afraid of? treatment : facing what you fear most ( mental information centre, updated february 2010 )


cystinuria is an inherited disease that causes stones made of the amino acid cysteine to form in the kidneys, bladder, and urethra. inherited means that the disease is passed down from parents to children through a defect in their genes. in order to get cystinuria, a person must inherit the defect from both parents. the defect in the gene causes cysteine to accumulate inside the kidneys — organs that help regulate what goes in and out of your bloodstream. the kidneys have many functions, including reabsorbing essential minerals and proteins back into the body, filtering the blood to remove toxic waste and producing urine so that you can excrete the waste out of the body. instead of going back into the bloodstream, the amino acid cysteine builds up and forms stones. the stones can then get stuck in the kidneys, bladder, and urethra ( the tube that carries urine out of the body ). this can be very painful until the stones pass through urination. very large stones may need to be surgically removed. the stones can recur many times. however, treatments are available to manage pain and to prevent more stones from forming. defects ( mutations ) in the genes called slc3a1 and slc7a9 cause cystinuria. these genes provide the instructions for your body to make a certain transporter protein found in the kidneys. this protein normally controls the reabsorption of certain amino acids. amino acids are formed when the body digests and breaks down proteins. the amino acids are used to perform a wide variety of bodily functions. they are important to your body and are not considered waste. therefore, when they enter the kidneys, the amino acids are normally absorbed back into the bloodstream. in people with cystinuria, their genetic defect interferes with the transporter protein ’ s ability to reabsorb the amino acids. one of the amino acids — cysteine — is not very soluble in urine. if it isn ’ t reabsorbed, it will accumulate inside the kidney and form crystals, or cysteine stones. the rock - hard stones then get stuck in the kidneys, bladder, and urethra. this can be very painful. you are only at risk of getting cystinuria if your parents have the specific defect in their gene that causes the disease. you can only get the disease if you inherit the defect from both of your parents. cystinuria occurs in


. you are only at risk of getting cystinuria if your parents have the specific defect in their gene that causes the disease. you can only get the disease if you inherit the defect from both of your parents. cystinuria occurs in about one in every 10, 000 people around the world ( lin & zieve, 2011 ). although cystinuria is a lifelong condition, symptoms typically first occur in young adults in their twenties and thirties ( biyani & cartledge, 2006 ). the symptoms may include : - blood in the urine - severe pain in the side or the back ( almost always on one side ) - nausea and vomiting - pain near the groin, pelvis, or abdomen cystinuria is asymptomatic ( causing no symptoms ) when there are no stones. however, the symptoms will recur each time stones form in the kidneys. the stones commonly return more than once. cystinuria is usually diagnosed when someone experiences an episode of cysteine stones. a diagnosis is then made by testing the stones to see if they are made out of cysteine. additional diagnostic testing could include : 24 - hour urine collection you will be asked to collect your urine in a cup over the course of an entire day. the urine will then be sent to a laboratory for analysis. this is an x - ray examination of the kidneys, bladder, and urethra — to look for the presence of stones. this method uses a dye in the bloodstream to help see the stones. abdominal computed tomography ( ct ) scan this is an imaging method that uses x - rays to create images of the structures inside the abdomen to look for stones inside the kidneys this is an examination of the urine in a laboratory. this may involve looking at the color and physical appearance of the urine, viewing the urine under a microscope, and conducting chemical tests to detect certain substances, like cysteine. if not treated properly, cystinuria can be extremely painful and may lead to serious complications. these complications include : - kidney or bladder damage from a stone - urinary tract infections - kidney infections - blockage of the ureter, the tube that drains urine from the kidneys to the bladder ( ureteral obstruction ) treatment is aimed at preventing stones from forming. it may include any of the following : increasing water intake drinking large amounts of water is vital to lowering the concentration of cysteine in the urine. according to a 2006 study published in european urology,


treatment is aimed at preventing stones from forming. it may include any of the following : increasing water intake drinking large amounts of water is vital to lowering the concentration of cysteine in the urine. according to a 2006 study published in european urology, hydration alone can prevent the reoccurrence of stones in 30 percent of patients ( biyani & cartledge, 2006 ). reducing salt intake to less than two grams per day has also been shown to be helpful in preventing stone formation ( biyani & cartledge, 2006 ). adjusting ph balance cysteine is more soluble in urine at a higher ph. ph is a measure of how acidic or basic a substance is. alkalinizing agents, such as potassium citrate, will increase the ph of the urine to make cysteine more soluble. some alkalinizing medications can be purchased over the counter ; however, it is strongly recommended that you talk to your doctor before taking any type of supplement. medications known as chelating agents will help to dissolve the cysteine crystals. these drugs work by chemically combining with the cysteine to form a complex that can then dissolve in the urine. examples include d - penicillamine and alpha - mercaptopropionylglycine. d - penicillamine is effective, but it has many side effects. pain medications may also be prescribed to control pain while the stones pass through the bladder and out of the body. if the stones are very large and painful, or block one of the tubes leading from the kidney, they might need to be removed by surgery. there are a few different types of surgeries to break up the stones. these include the following procedures : - extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy ( eswl ) : a procedure that uses shock waves to break up large stones into smaller pieces. however, this procedure is not as effective for cysteine stones compared to other types of kidney stones. - percutaneous nephrostolithotomy ( or nephrolithotomy ) : a procedure that involves passing a special instrument through your skin and into your kidney to take out the stones or break them apart. cystinuria is a life - long condition. however, it can be managed effectively with treatment. the stones themselves appear more commonly in young adults under the age of 40, so they may lessen with age ( lin & zieve, 2011 ). cystinuria does not affect any other parts of


new parents often ask what color i think the baby ’ s eyes are going to be. i never answer this question until the child is at least 1 year old ; i mean, what if the parents believe me and use my answer to make major life decisions? when we talk about eye color, we ’ re really talking about the appearance of the iris, the muscular ring around the pupil that controls how much light enters the eye. after all, the pupil will always be black, except in flash photos, and the whites ( sclera ) should stay pretty much white, although jaundice may turn them yellow and inflammation may make them look pink or red. gray or blue eyes at birth iris color, just like hair and skin color, depends on a protein called melanin. we have specialized cells in our bodies called melanocytes whose job it is to go around secreting melanin where it ’ s needed, including in the iris. when your baby is born his eyes will be gray or blue, as melanocytes respond to light, and he has spent his whole life in the dark. eye color changes over time over time, if melanocytes only secrete a little melanin, your baby will have blue eyes. if they secrete a bit more, his eyes will look green or hazel. when melanocytes get really busy, eyes look brown ( the most common eye color ), and in some cases they may appear very dark indeed. because it takes about a year for melanocytes to finish their work it can be a dicey business calling eye color before the baby ’ s first birthday. the color change does slow down some after the first 6 months of life, but there can be plenty of change left at that point. eye color is a genetic property, but it ’ s not quite as cut - and - dried as you might have learned in biology class. - two blue - eyed parents are very likely to have a blue - eyed child, but it won ’ t happen every single time. - two brown - eyed parents are likely ( but not guaranteed ) to have a child with brown eyes. - if you notice one of the grandparents has blue eyes, the chances of having a blue - eyed baby go up a bit. - if one parent has brown eyes and the other has blue eyes, odds are about even on eye color. - if your child has one brown eye and one blue eye, bring it to your doctor ’ s attention ; he probably has a rare genetic condition called wa


parent has brown eyes and the other has blue eyes, odds are about even on eye color. - if your child has one brown eye and one blue eye, bring it to your doctor ’ s attention ; he probably has a rare genetic condition called waardenburg syndrome. parents also often note that their newborns ’ eyes appear to cross from time to time. for the first 6 months of life this can be normal. to begin with, to look at something the brain has to know where to point the eyes. for the first 2 to 4 weeks of life vision is not accurate enough for the baby ’ s eyes to find a target a lot of the time. parents often feel like their newborns are looking past them rather than at them, because they are. by the fourth week of life, however, your baby will focus on your face if you ’ re cradling him. most visual development occurs in the brain, not in the eyes themselves. one of the greatest challenges for the developing brain is to coordinate visual signals from one side to the other. nerve signals from the eyes travel through optic nerves and split off to both sides of the brain. to make sense of those signals, the 2 sides of the brain have to cooperate, comparing information and coordinating eye movement in the desired direction. until age 2 months you may notice your infant will follow your face or a toy a little way, then lose it as it crosses from one side to the other. by 2 months, however, he should be able to track from right to left and back again. the next big visual milestone occurs at 6 months of age. by this time the 2 sides of the brain are on good terms with each other. until this point the eyes track together as long as they both have something to look at, but if one is deprived of input ( from being covered by a hat, for example ), it might drift off in its own direction. by 6 months of age the eyes should continue looking the same direction even if one of them is covered temporarily. we test this in the clinic by covering 1 eye for 3 seconds, then suddenly uncovering it and looking to see if it ’ s still tracking with the opposite eye. we call this test the cover - uncover test. sometimes the shape of a child ’ s face makes it look as though the eyes are crossed even when they are not. a child with a broad nasal bridge may appear to have an inward - looking eye, when in fact he ’ s just looking off to the side. you can check this


face makes it look as though the eyes are crossed even when they are not. a child with a broad nasal bridge may appear to have an inward - looking eye, when in fact he ’ s just looking off to the side. you can check this by watching the light reflection in your child ’ s eyes from a window or lamp ; if it falls in the same place on each eye, the eyes are working together. even with office screening, however, we don ’ t always catch an eye that tends to deviate. deviations occur more often when the child is tired. if you ever notice that your 6 - month - old or older child has an eye that doesn ’ t always look the same way as its partner, alert his doctor. it ’ s critical that an eye specialist ( ophthalmologist ) examine the child. what some people call a lazy eye ( amblyopia ) may be a sign that one eye doesn ’ t see as clearly as the other. when the brain is forced to make 1 picture from 2 very different inputs, it starts to ignore the signals from the worse eye. over time this process becomes irreversible, leading to partial blindness in the weaker eye. in most cases, you should address the problem before the child turns 3 to ensure he ’ ll grow up with normal depth perception. treatments for amblyopia vary based on the cause and severity of the condition. some children require glasses or patches that force the brain to pay attention to signals from the weaker eye. other kids need surgery to shorten or lengthen certain muscles that control eye movement.


“ my husband likes to tease me by calling my parenting style the ‘ lazy parent ’ s method ’ for raising a child, ” writes one mother. “ i like to just wait for my son to move on to the next stage of development and then follow his lead. he toilet - trained himself when he was four because he wanted to — not because i decided it was time. ” such a relaxed attitude toward toilet training has grown somewhat more common in this country in recent years, though many parents continue to report surprised reactions from others who learn that their preschool - age children are still in diapers. your older child — age three and a half and up — may not be potty - trained for a variety of reasons. you may have decided to delay training until your child expressed an interest. you may have attempted toilet training at an earlier time, only to give up when you met with resistance. your child may have been fully trained but then regressed when a new sibling arrived or another major change occurred, causing him never to return to his toilet - using routine. or your toddler or preschooler may have experienced physical or developmental challenges that interfered with bladder or bowel control. if your child has recently tried and failed to master the toilet - training process, or has never responded to your attempts to begin, it ’ s a good idea to schedule a checkup with his pediatrician before beginning training at this time. an examination can identify such common, treatable obstacles to toilet training as a bladder infection or bowel problems. your pediatrician can also explain how to compensate for physical or mental disabilities or developmental challenges. whether a physical or other problem is confirmed or ruled out, a visit to the pediatrician will give you a better understanding of how to work with your child and will help you and your child proceed with greater confidence. toilet training a healthy older child can offer some advantages over training a toddler. preschoolers ’ improved ability to visualize a goal and achieve it, increased skill at communicating any confusion, anxiety, or resentment they may feel, and greater awareness of other children ’ s behavior all work together to promote a smoother and faster transition. yet these same developments can also present new challenges. a child ’ s ability to act on his own spurs resistance to a parent ’ s directions. a preschooler ’ s improved verbal skills allow him to argue and negotiate. his awareness of other children ’ s behavior may backfire if he feels ashamed of his continued diaper use. the simple force of long habit can also make it more difficult


case study highlights dangers of ‘ second impact syndrome ’ after taking a hard hit to the head during a football game, an indiana high school student suffered severe headaches for the next three days. following a head ct scan that was normal, his doctor told him to wait to go back on the field until he felt better. but the boy returned to practice, where he suffered a devastating brain injury called second impact syndrome. more than six years later, cody lehe, now 23, is mostly wheelchair - bound and struggles with diminished mental capacity. yet he ’ s fortunate to be alive : second impact syndrome is fatal in about 85 percent of cases. “ it ’ s a unique syndrome of brain injury that appears in high school and younger athletes when they have a mild concussion, and then have a second head impact before they ’ re over the symptoms of their first impact. this leads to massive brain swelling almost immediately, ” said dr. michael turner, a neurosurgeon at goodman campbell brain and spine at the indiana university school of medicine, and co - author of a new report on cody ’ s case, published jan. 1 in the journal of neurosurgery : pediatrics. the case study illustrates why it ’ s so important to prevent a second impact and give a young brain the chance to rest and recover, another expert said. “ second impact syndrome is a very rare phenomenon. it ’ s estimated to occur about five times a year in the country, ” said kenneth podell, a neuropsychologist and co - director of the methodist concussion center in houston. “ what makes this [ study ] unique : they ’ re the first ones to actually have a ct scan after the first hit. what they were able to show is that the first ct scan was read as normal, ” said podell, who also is a team consultant for the houston texans, of the nfl. “ after the first concussion there was no evidence of any significant injury. and then following the second one is when they ran into all of the problems. ” during the friday night game, cody told a teammate the first hit was the hardest he had ever taken and his head hurt and he felt dazed. but he downplayed symptoms to his parents, coaches and trainer. “ i think he was telling them what he was telling us, ” his mother, becky, said. “ in those days, to have a concussion, if you weren ’ t vomiting or wanting to go to sleep or have blurred vision or all that kind of stuff, then


telling them what he was telling us, ” his mother, becky, said. “ in those days, to have a concussion, if you weren ’ t vomiting or wanting to go to sleep or have blurred vision or all that kind of stuff, then you didn ’ t have a concussion. he didn ’ t have any of those symptoms ; other than the headache, everything else was ok. and he told them, ‘ i just need to go home and lie down and i ’ ll be all right. ” the intermittent headaches, however, were bad enough that he finally asked to see a doctor. “ the doctor did say, ‘ your scan is fine, but anytime you have a headache like that you probably shouldn ’ t play, ’ ” becky recalled. “ it was the first week of sectionals, and we won the first round. [ cody ] was the captain, so he said, ‘ i ’ m not going to stay on the sidelines. i ’ ve had headaches like this before. and if the scan says i ’ m fine, i ’ m playing. ’ ” the follow - up injury occurred during tuesday afternoon practice. “ the second hit, which was very, very minor ; we ’ re even reluctant to call it a ‘ hit ’ because it was a really light practice, and they weren ’ t even in full pads, ” becky said. “ it was just kind of shoulder brushing and he was down. ” turner said, “ after his second impact, he says, ‘ i really feel bad, ’ and went to the side and said, ‘ i can ’ t feel my legs, ’ and collapsed. that quote is incredibly common in most of the case reports of this. ” during cody ’ s hospitalization, he had complications including kidney failure, sepsis and pneumonia. it was 98 days before he came home. today cody has a great sense of humor but struggles in other ways, becky said. “ his memory is terrible. his long - term is still there — if he met you once, he remembers you — but the short - term is really bad and it ’ s really hard to build on things when you can ’ t remember what you did 10 to 15 minutes ago. ” cody has worked his way up to six minutes on a treadmill, and can stand up and walk, but he needs someone by his side because his balance is poor. from this case, turner said, other parents “ can take away that this concussion stuff is serious — it ’ s not malingering.


from the forum on intellectual property in the february 2009 issue of perspectives on history the new world of publishing and new directions in intellectual property for the past 15 years or so, historians have largely been the observers as new technologies have precipitated a crisis in copyright. this crisis is best understood by putting copyright into historical perspective. the electronic communications revolution and open access to scholarship english copyright law developed in response to a great technological revolution — the development of the printing press, and a great cultural revolution — the growth of literacy. these revolutions led to a struggle over the control of the value that could be secured from the transmission of information, ideas, and art in print. the struggle was resolved in law from the 1660s to 1710, a time in which progressive forces that opposed monopoly and favored the dynamic use of property — what we now refer to as entrepreneurship — were stronger than conservative, static property interests in the english political system. 1 thus the statute of anne — the english copyright act of 1710 — rejected the claims of publishers and printers to a permanent monopoly over literary productions, instead vesting rights in authors and limiting those rights to relatively short term. 2 these antimonopolistic, pro - entrepreneurial forces have predominated in american society through most of our history, and consequently the american law of copyright continued on the path set by the statute of anne. like other elements of american law, copyright law has accepted the “ creative destruction ” of existing property values in order to promote continuing economic, and especially technological, development. 3 our laws did not enable canal companies from frustrating the establishment of railroads, for example, or railroads from stopping the construction of interstate highways. we permit the free incorporation of new businesses ; the law does not enable existing businesses to protect themselves against competition by preventing their incorporation or by requiring that new businesses obtain the permission of established ones to enter the field or locality. in copyright law, we do not permit copyright in ideas but only in how ideas are expressed ; we limit the term during which copyright protects those expressions ; and we create exceptions to the rights that copyright law secures copyright owners. indeed, the u. s. constitution itself specifies that the purpose of copyright is to promote knowledge in the arts and sciences. 4 copyright law and its doctrines have developed in the course of an essentially print regime, accommodating what now appear to be relatively minor technological advances like recordings and motion pictures by analogizing them to print. most important, the law of copyright, with very few exceptions, applies the same rules to all communication of creative


print regime, accommodating what now appear to be relatively minor technological advances like recordings and motion pictures by analogizing them to print. most important, the law of copyright, with very few exceptions, applies the same rules to all communication of creative productions, whether scientific, artistic, academic, for purposes of entertainment, or anything else. copyright law enables creators and those who distribute their work to profit from its value by giving them exclusive control over its distribution for a period of time. the value of copyrighted work comes from the ability to demand payment from those wishing to reproduce and circulate it, and the law is designed to sustain that right against infringement. 5 however, we are now witnessing another great technological revolution affecting the distribution of information, ideas, and art. the potential impact of this revolution on the way we circulate knowledge is incalculable. it makes possible different ways of securing value from the communication of information from those embodied in the present system and in the law sustaining that system. these alternatives grow out of the new stress on interactivity, which characterizes what analysts call the web 2. 0. it posits “ open access ” to the information on the web. think of “ googling ” for a chinese restaurant in washington. the names, addresses, telephone numbers, and web sites of a bunch of eateries appear on your screen. or you can go to mapquest and ask for chinese restaurants near a specific address. again a bunch of names come up. click on these and you get menus, prices, formal reviews, reviews by john and jane doe. you get advertisements for similar restaurants. reviewers mention similar restaurants, with hot links to them, and you get similar information. you can link on the chef ’ s name, or you can google her. you can copy the information and send it to a friend. the providers of all this information either do it out of the pleasure it brings them or, as in the case of google, they make money from associated advertising, much as commercial broadcast television provides content freely to viewers. unless the law interferes, something similar is going to happen with scholarship. indeed, it is already happening. 6 you will google a subject or the title of an article or book you ’ ve heard about. up it comes. along with the book or article appear comments and responses by readers, some of them expert and some not. enterprising folks have put up links to similar articles and books. alongside these links are advertisements for newly published books in the area,


comes. along with the book or article appear comments and responses by readers, some of them expert and some not. enterprising folks have put up links to similar articles and books. alongside these links are advertisements for newly published books in the area, or for educational software, or computer deals, or special vacations for educators, or whatever else might be of interest to someone who had searched for the original article. you can consult the part of the book you are interested in by clicking on the relevant chapters. you can scan chapters and articles through keyword searches. the footnotes of the article or e - book are hotlinked, and if they aren ’ t, you can google the titles. you can forward the url to a colleague so that she can read the same item ; you can copy the text and forward it. the rewards to the authors will not be royalties on book sales, which for most academics are paltry for books and nonexistent for articles. the reward will be the promotions, salary rises, and opportunities that come with being widely known for contributions to knowledge made ever more widely available under the new regime. besides checking with scholars in your field, the promotion and tenure committee will look at the number of hits on your e - publications, the comments surrounding them, the number of times they are cited. the browsers and bundlers who make these postings accessible will secure revenue through advertising and making their search engines available to businesses. obviously, this would be a complete revolution with tremendous implications for the role, if any, of publishers, journals, editors, the referee system, book - length publications, tenure evaluations — just about everything with which we are familiar. open access is very attractive to producers and disseminators of knowledge. it is spreading rapidly in several of the sciences, where it is made easier by the fact that authors pay to have their articles published. physics has long been the leader in establishing open access to research. the directory of open access journals lists 47 open - access journals in physics and 13 in astronomy. 7 but other scientific disciplines are catching up. the public library of science publishes seven significant open - access scientific and medical journals. 8 biomed central, chemistry central, and physmath central publish over 100 open - access journals in their fields. 9 many scientific journals become “ open source ” after six months, relying on scientists ’ need for the most up - to - the - moment information to keep subscriptions up. they are agreeing to allow contributors to place their manuscripts in


in their fields. 9 many scientific journals become “ open source ” after six months, relying on scientists ’ need for the most up - to - the - moment information to keep subscriptions up. they are agreeing to allow contributors to place their manuscripts in online archives — in many cases before they appear in print, in others as they appear in print, and in some after a brief delay. these archives are sponsored by the researchers ’ home institutions or by organizations in their field. 10 the hard sciences are ahead of the social sciences, and europeans are ahead of americans in the push towards open access. many science funding and research institutions of europe — virtually all the major players in france and germany — have signed on to the 2003 berlin declaration on open access to knowledge in the sciences and humanities. 11 but the movement is beginning to spread to the american social sciences and humanities disciplines. the social science research network ( ssrn ) is a growing online archive of social science and law papers and articles, many of them freely accessible. 12 the ssrn ’ s legal research network allows users to subscribe to scores of law - school research paper series, nearly all on an open - access basis. 13 the ssrn has optimistically organized a new humanities research network within its general ssrn rubric. 14 a few humanities journals are cautiously beginning to follow the science journals ’ example. perspectives on history is an open - source periodical, and the american historical review makes its articles, but not other content, freely available, one of the few humanities journals to do so. 15 of course, people can also self - publish on their own web sites, or create a blog that may include formal papers, or post papers with the ssrn ’ s humanities research network or on other online repositories established by one ’ s academic institution or professional colleagues. the internet revolution and copyright law the problem is that an open - source regime is not necessarily the best one for artistic productions and entertainment, requiring a complete rethinking of how media companies earn money. even in the area of scholarship, it posits a business model at odds with the one that now predominates. institutions that grew out of the print regime find this new model alien, disconcerting, and even threatening. it suggests an unknown world to institutions such as historical societies that depend on journal subscriptions, editors, and all of us who are used to being evaluated and rewarded according to our success in appearing in print. these institutions prefer the traditional regime, which is based on the ability of copyright owners


such as historical societies that depend on journal subscriptions, editors, and all of us who are used to being evaluated and rewarded according to our success in appearing in print. these institutions prefer the traditional regime, which is based on the ability of copyright owners to restrict access to their productions and to control their distribution. instead of the open - access restaurant - posting analogy described above, this, current regime encourages closed, or “ toll ” access — what we still often find when we google an article : a citation and short snippet, followed by the offer to download upon payment of $ 7. 95. companies like hein online have grown up to bundle access to scholarly journals, and ambitious university presses are managing journal subscriptions and printing and then placing their own bundles of journals online. to avoid the irritation of having to pay every time one downloads an article, copyright owners license free access to libraries and subscribers for a fee, which reduces their own administrative costs as well. if you looked at the licenses closely, you might be surprised at the tight and confusing restrictions they place upon downloading and copying. for example, ohio state university ’ s license with lexisnexis academic obligates students and faculty to use lexisnexis ’ s downloading and printing commands ( rather than microsoft ’ s copy - and - paste commands ) to download “ insubstantial portions ” of any file and to print them out. except for legal and patent materials, ohio state ’ s license permits users to retain downloaded material for no more than 90 days. while users can make copies from authorized printouts, the terms seem to preclude them from making electronic copies directly from the downloaded files. 16 the purpose of the confusing language must be to prevent people from downloading material from lexisnexis and distributing it widely on the internet. that activity would undermine the value of lexisnexis ’ s service. to understand the present situation in copyright, imagine the reaction of monks and monasteries as print technology was spreading around the western world. what was the print revolution going to do to their beautiful hand - painted, handwritten productions? what would happen to their status as repositories of knowledge? who would care about the accomplishments of a particularly fine illustrator and penman? now, imagine they had been able to turn to an existing body of law that secured their right to produce and circulate knowledge and prohibit duplication by mere machine. this time we do have a dense, pre - existing body of law that was designed to establish


they had been able to turn to an existing body of law that secured their right to produce and circulate knowledge and prohibit duplication by mere machine. this time we do have a dense, pre - existing body of law that was designed to establish order after the previous communications revolution. it is based entirely on creating a traditional property right — a right that enables owners to restrict access to their property and to profit from it by charging for access — either by sale or by license. this system may be appropriate, and perhaps even necessary, to encourage artistic and entertainment production. but it is probably not appropriate for the encouragement of knowledge. toll access really does limit the potential for the dissemination and production of knowledge inherent in the internet revolution. the question is, what direction will the law take? will the law be adapted to accommodate the technological revolution? or will the law be utilized to contain it and channel it to enable powerful media interests to make money from it in the traditional way, the one that they are most comfortable with, which may maximize profits at the expense of the great potential of the new technology? perhaps we need an entirely new regime to govern the internet media. or perhaps we need different rules for different kinds of creative expressions — those designed mainly to entertain or disseminate the arts as distinct from those designed to produce and disseminate knowledge. at present, copyright owners are working desperately to force the internet revolution into the channels established by traditional copyright law. they are driven by the fear that the entire structure of copyright is being undermined by the technological revolution in communications — which it is. from their perspective, they are under siege by pirates intent on stealing their property. a representative of paramount pictures characterizes proposals to modify copyright law to take account of the technological revolution in communications as “ because it is easy to steal, it should no longer be illegal to steal. ” 17 copyright owners demand that the government protect them against the thieves. but there is another side to these demands. if media companies are successful in securing greater copyright protection, they can reap the economic benefits of the revolution. if they are not, then the creators of new technologies will reap the benefits. thus viacom sues google and youtube for failing to do enough to prevent copyright infringement online. 18 does it want google to force infringers off the internet? does it want google and youtube to help media companies collect royalties from kids who post clips on their youtube sites? probably not. more likely it wants google and youtube to pay media companies a royalty or a percentage of


infringers off the internet? does it want google and youtube to help media companies collect royalties from kids who post clips on their youtube sites? probably not. more likely it wants google and youtube to pay media companies a royalty or a percentage of their receipts, much like media companies unsuccessfully sought to force sony to do when it developed video tape - recording technology. 19 google, with its amazing technological expertise, is devising ways to prevent users from posting infringing material on youtube. the effect would be to force the media companies to figure out a way to collect royalties from those internet users who were willing to pay them. not surprisingly, the media companies insist that google ’ s remedy is not satisfactory. 20 these media giants have immense influence. copyright owners are responding vigorously to the threat that the internet revolution presents to their ability to profit from their property in the traditional way. in a conservative age, which exalts traditional property rights and is indifferent to the dangers of monopoly, they have met with great success in all the branches of the national government, which has exclusive say over copyright. they have managed to extend the term of copyright protection to seventy years beyond the death of the creator, and the supreme court has rejected arguments that such an extension exceeds the limited time the constitution envisions in order to promote creativity. 21 the digital millennium copyright protection act bars circumvention of technological protection measures ; the librarian of congress, authorized to define fair - use exceptions, has interpreted them very narrowly. 22 congress has significantly increased the minimum statutory damages for copyright infringement. 23 the supreme court has taken a hard line against file - sharing technologies. 24 their counter - attack is eroding the rights of users and consumers. if continued, it will significantly damage the interests of scholars as researchers and teachers, and will impose added expenses on our institutions of learning. the problem for historians is that we are largely observers. the professional associations representing scholars and librarians do their best, but those seeking legislation that helps them exploit the internet, those going to court to shape the law in their interests, are behemoths like disney and viacom. the law that emerges from the clash of these titans will affect us profoundly as teachers, researchers, and authors, but the interests of education and scholarship are dwarfed in the legislative struggle and not represented in court except through little - notice briefs we submit as friends of the court or insofar as our interests coincide with one of the parties. can revolutions go backwards? can law counteract the natural consequences of so


in the legislative struggle and not represented in court except through little - notice briefs we submit as friends of the court or insofar as our interests coincide with one of the parties. can revolutions go backwards? can law counteract the natural consequences of so powerful a movement as the internet revolution? we will see. and the shape of historical scholarship and teaching in the future will be determined by the result. michael les benedict, who is an emeritus professor of history at ohio state university, is the aha ’ s parliamentarian. 1. ronan deazley, on the origin of the right to copy : charting the movement of copyright law in eighteenth - century britain ( 1695 – 1775 ) ( oxford and portland : hart publishing, 2004 ) ; lyman ray patterson, copyright in historical perspective ( nashville : vanderbilt university press, 1968 ) ; mark rose, authors and owners : the invention of copyright ( cambridge : harvard university press, 1993 ). 3. “ creative destruction ” is a standard concept of economics, originating in joseph a. schempeter ’ s classic the process of creative destruction in capitalism, socialism and democracy ( new york : harper and bros., 1942 ). 4. “ the congress shall have power... to promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries. ” u. s. constitution, art. i, sec. 8. 5. note that it is the right to distribute one ’ s work that is exclusive, not the right to sell it. if one purchases a copy of a work, one can resell it, lend it, or give it away without the permission of the creator or those to whom she has delegated her copyright. 6. see john willinsky, the access principle : the case for open access to research and scholarship ( cambridge : mit press, 2005 ). fittingly, mit has given open access to this book, mitpress. mit. edu / catalog / item / ebook. asp? ttype = 2 & tid = 10611, accessed may 23, 2008. see also neil jacobs, ed., open access : key strategic, technical and economic aspects ( oxford : chandos, 2006 ). one can find a wealth of information and insights about open access and scholarship simply by googling “ open access. ” 7. directory of open access journals, www. doaj. org / doaj? func = subject & cpid = 48, accessed may 23,


of information and insights about open access and scholarship simply by googling “ open access. ” 7. directory of open access journals, www. doaj. org / doaj? func = subject & cpid = 48, accessed may 23, 2008. see heather morrison, “ open access in physics and chemistry, or, a tale of two disciplines, ” presented at mcgill library school, eprints. rclis. org / archive / 00007948, accessed may 23, 2008. 8. public library of science, www. plos. org. 10. the open archives initiative, www. openarchives. org, which is working towards common online archival protocols, lists 883 online archives, mainly european, that have registered with it. registered data providers, open archives initiative, www. openarchives. org / register / browsesites, accessed may 23, 2008. anna k. hood lists ten american and one canadian university open - access repositories. hood, open access resources : september 2007 ( washington, d. c. : association of research libraries, 2007 ), 118 – 30. the presentation by heather morrison cited in note 7 above is posted on e - lis, an open - access archive for library and information science, http : / / eprints. rclis. org, one example of an open - access disciplinary archive. 11. 2003 berlin declaration on open access to knowledge in the sciences and humanities, www. zim. mpg. de / openaccess - berlin / berlindeclaration. html. 12 social science research network, www. ssrn. com. 13 legal scholarship network research paper series, www. ssrn. com / lsn / index. html, accessed may 23, 2008. 14 ssrn announces new humanities research network ( hrn ), www. ssrn. com / update / crn / crnann / anna001. html, accessed may 23, 2008. at present the history component consists of only 23 accepted articles or research papers in ancient history taken from the ssrn ’ s old classics research network. ssrn abstract databases search result, history, http : / / papers. ssrn. com / sol3 / jeljour _ results. cfm? form _ name = journalbrowse & journal _ id = 997655, accessed may 23, 2008. most are posted on an open - access basis. 16 terms & conditions of use for the


why? the plants that produce the electricity used in a hybrid must burn oil, coal, or use a nuclear reaction to provide it. cng comes from the ground and is easier to drill for than oil, so does not impact the earth as much during extraction. a cng vehicle ’ s carbon footprints is the size of an ant ’ s next to a hybrid ’ s. the civic natural gas vehicle is the cleanest - running internal combustion engine ever certified by the environmental protection agency. what about fuel economy you may ask. how about a honda civic that offers 38 mpg and 240 miles between fill ups? not bad at all. then there is the time it takes to refuel. minutes for a cng civic. how many hours for your plug - in hybrid or ev? hours, isn ’ t it? now the other shoe falls. there is a decided lack of infrastructure for the cng civic. refueling stations are rare, even more rare than commercial recharge stations for electric vehicles. a cng refueling point costs more to install than a traditional gas station, as well. the federal government is considering offering companies incentives and funds to develop cng infrastructure. the end goal of some investors is to see cng points next to traditional gas pumps, just like diesel is today. the honda civic cng was introduced in 1998. honda has sold few vehicles to the general public, but has enjoyed limited success with municipal fleets. the car was awarded the 2012 green car of the year award. hopefully, the added attention will hep to bring the vehicle more into the mainstream.


these days, home pcs are a desirable target for attackers. most of these systems run microsoft windows and often are not properly patched or secured behind a firewall, leaving them vulnerable to attack. in addition to these direct attacks, indirect attacks against programs the victim uses are steadily increasing. examples of these indirect attacks include malicious html - files that exploit vulnerabilities in microsoft ' s internet explorer or attacks using malware in peer - to - peer networks. especially machines with broadband connection that are always on are a valuable target for attackers. as broadband connections increase, so to do the number of potential victims of attacks. crackers benefit from this situation and use it for their own advantage. with automated techniques they scan specific network ranges of the internet searching for vulnerable systems with known weaknesses. attackers often target class b networks ( / 16 in cidr notation ) or smaller net - ranges. once these attackers have compromised a machine, they install a so called irc bot - also called zombie or drone - on it. internet relay chat ( irc ) is a form of real - time communication over the internet. it is mainly designed for group ( one - to - many ) communication in discussion forums called channels, but also allows one - to - one communication. more information about irc can be found on wikipedia. we have identified many different versions of irc - based bots ( in the following we use the term bot ) with varying degrees of sophistication and implemented commands, but all have something in common. the bot joins a specific irc channel on an irc server and waits there for further commands. this allows an attacker to remotely control this bot and use it for fun and also for profit. attackers even go a step further and bring different bots together. such a structure, consisting of many compromised machines which can be managed from an irc channel, is called a botnet. irc is not the best solution since the communication between bots and their controllers is rather bloated, a simpler communication protocol would suffice. but irc offers several advantages : irc servers are freely available and are easy to set up, and many attackers have years of irc communication experience. due to their immense size - botnets can consist of several ten thousand compromised machines - botnets pose serious threats. distributed denial - of - service ( ddos ) attacks are one such threat. even a relatively small botnet with only 1000 bots can cause a great deal of damage. these 1000 bots have a combined bandwidth ( 1000


or irc channel name and password. this information allows us to connect to the botnet and observe all the commands issued by the attacker. at times we are even able to monitor their communication and thus learn more about their motives and social behavior. in addition, we give some statistics on the quantitative information we have learned through monitoring of more than one hundred botnets during the last few months. several examples of captured activities by attackers substantiate our presentation. for this research, a honeynet of only three machines was used. one dial - in host within the network of the german isp t - online, one dial - in within the network of the german isp netcologne and one machine deployed at rwth aachen university. the hosts in the network of the university runs an unpatched version of windows 2000 and is located behind a honeywall. the dial - in hosts run a newly developed software called mwcollectd2, designed to capture malware. we monitor the botnet activity with our own irc client called drone. both are discussed in greater detail later in this paper. almost all bots use a tiny collection of exploits to spread further. since the bots are constantly attempting to compromise more machines, they generate noticeable traffic within a network. normally bots try to exploit well - known vulnerabilities. beside from the ports used for resource sharing as listed above, bots often use vulnerability - specific ports. examples of these ports include : the vulnerabilities behind some of these exploits can be found with the help of a search on microsoft ' s security bulletins ( sample ) :


1476 - 1541 conqistador of the incasby rit nosotro first published : : 2003 born in1476, in a small city, trujillo spain. he was the spanish conqueror and governor of peru ( 1532 - 1541 ). pizarro was raised in poverty and never learned to read and write. during the 1520s pizarro led two expeditions down the west coast of south america then he saw the golden ornaments worn by native americans of the inca empire of peru so he decided to go back. pizarro raised an army and returned to peru in 1532. the incas welcomed their visitors, and called them gods. after this, pizarro betrayed them. he conquered the incas, and captured atahualpa, the inca leader. the emperor offered to fill a large room with gold, and two smaller rooms with silver, in exchange for his release. pizarro agreed. couriers came from all parts of the empire to fill the rooms with this treasure. after collecting his fortune, pizarro broke his word and had atahualpa executed on august 29, 1533. pizarro ruled peru for almost a decade, and continued to take advantage of the natives, then was murdered in his palace in lima in 1541.


movement 1 : allegro movement 2 : andante movement 3 : allegretto : theme and variations i – vi the piano trio in g major k496 is the first of these mature trios, one of a pair written in 1786 ( the other being the trio in b flat k502, see ). mozart had been living in vienna for five years and was beginning to enjoy some real success, for the first and only time in his career. the marriage of figaro was premiered in may 1786, and was increasingly acclaimed as its run continued. in march he had completed two of his greatest piano concertos, k488 in a major and k491 in c minor. this g major piano trio followed in july. the solo piano introduces the opening theme, which is almost operatic in its fluid decoration. at first, only the violin joins in the dialogue, with the cello fulfilling its traditional role as the bass instrument. but the middle section begins dramatically with all instruments fortissimo, and then quietly the cello leads off the discussion, suddenly taking its place as the equal of piano and violin — a moment that must have been startling to mozart ’ s contemporaries. the andante begins, like the first movement, with an elegantly decorated theme. but the movement that unfolds has unexpected depth and complexity, with sudden modulations and, in the middle section, contrapuntal interweavings that remind us of mozart ’ s love of j s bach and handel. the finale is a set of variations on a rather stately gavotte. the first three variations proceed innocently, but the fourth variation, in the minor, interrupts the calm with an extraordinary change of tone, the violin reiterating a drone - like motif, the cello repeating a sombre bass line below, and the piano weaving more counterpoint above. the fifth variation is an adagio, which seems almost to take us back to the slow movement. the final variation brings a return to the gavotte tempo with flamboyant piano arpeggios, and all seems set for a brilliant ending. but the strange drone motif and counterpoint from the fourth variation return, and only just in time mozart pulls the music back to a cheerful conclusion. from notes by robert philip © 2007


c6n sea practice and biodiversity jo treweek, ses, uk helen byron, imperial college london, uk dave le maitre, csir environmentek, south africa key issues to be addressed biodiversity supports many livelihoods and provides essential goods and services to millions of people. however, its values are often under - emphasised in development planning. the first world summit on environment and development in rio de janeiro ( 1992 ) emphasised the importance of biodiversity as the basis of our very existence, to be used wisely and sustainably and conserved for current and future generations. the main threats to biodiversity globally are associated with human activities causing habitat loss or damage. these threats need to be carefully managed if significant, irreversible losses of biodiversity are to be avoided. the convention on biological diversity ( cbd ) requires parties to integrate as far as possible and as appropriate the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity into relevant sectoral or cross - sectoral plans and programmes. the cbd also, along with the ramsar convention and the convention on migratory species, recognises sea as an important mechanism for building biodiversity into development planning to promote its conservation and sustainable use. sea can help to : • build biodiversity objectives into plans • identify biodiversity - friendly alternatives • identify and manage cumulative threats • plan effective mitigation strategies to ensure no net loss of biodiversity • put in place monitoring programmes to provide necessary biodiversity data • strengthen biodiversity partnerships and information networks this session will draw on experience and examples of sea practice from different countries to review the extent to which biodiversity issues are addressed. the session will explore important biodiversity considerations and principles that should be adopted to ensure good practice in sea. emerging international guidance on sea and biodiversity will be discussed and experiences presented at the conference will contribute to its further development.


organisation of french forces in mediterranean theatre ( capture of corsica and elba excluded ) french high command soon after the move of general de gaulle from london to africa the parties of de gaulle ( president of the comite nationale de la france combattane ) and giraud ( civil and military commandant en chef en afrique francaise ) combined together on 3 june 1943 to set up a new provisional french government : le comite francais de la liberation natuionale. in a decree dated 22 june the committee arrogated to itself the general control of the french war effort on land sea and air. * the organisation, supply and administration of the * the original is very vague : ' le comite … assure le direction generale de l ' effort francais dans la guerre. il dispose de l ' ensemble des forces terrestres, navales et aeriennes. ' french armed forces was entrusted to a permanent military committee, headed jointly by de gaulle and giraud. ( the remainder of the cttee was to consist of the three cos and a secretarait. ) the planning of operations was to ber carried out by the two cs - in - c in conjunction with the allied command. this system of a dual presidency and a dual command ( giraud being responsible for forces in north and west africa and de gaulle for all other, including the french resistance ) was obviously the product of circumstances and could not continue for long. the capture of corsica, which was staged by giraud virtually without the knowledge of the national cttee, brought matters to a head. early in october 1943, at the instigation of de gaulle, government and command were re - organised to curtail the independence of the military. de gaulle became sole president of the c. f. l. n. le comte de la defense nationale, headed by a civil minister, was set up to administer the armed forces and command all those not allocated to the command of the c - in - c ( giraud ) by the c. f. l. n. giraud now used the tital of ' commandant en chef des forces francaises ' ( previously it had been cenc des forces francaises en afrique du nord et an a. o. f. ) a further shift of power came in december 1943 when de gaulle was granted the powers formerly allotteed to the french president in time of war. finally on 4 april 1944 the c. f. l. n. ordered that de gaulle as president, was to became


of power came in december 1943 when de gaulle was granted the powers formerly allotteed to the french president in time of war. finally on 4 april 1944 the c. f. l. n. ordered that de gaulle as president, was to became chief of the armed forces ( chef des armees ) and was to have the final authority on all matters concerning the composition, organisation and employment of these forces. he was to be assisted by the cttee of national defence, of which the cos ( le chef d ' etat - major de la defense nationale ) was to be lieut - gen. marie emile bethouart. the post of c - in - c ceased to exist and giraud went into voluntary retirement. thenforward s. a. c., general wilson, dealt with general de gaulle and his representatives. on the french side, most of the correspodence seems to have been carried out by general bethouart. at the anfa conference in january 1943, the allied governments decided that a comprehensive programme for the re - equipment of the french army should be started immediately. the material was to come from the americans and giraud obtained their promise for a swift rearmament of an army of about 300, 000 men. with this he hoped to equip 12 american style divisions ( including three armed ), plus the necessary army and corps troops., for the build - up of this force the french were allocated 25, 000 ship tons per months. a french general went to washington to act as a link with the amn war dept and in north africa, at the orders of general eisenhower, a joint rearmament cttee was quickly set up. the chairman of the cttee was an american officer, the other members were drawn from the u. s. army and navy and the british navy, and it included five french officers. the french target force was in fact established as 11 divisions and was later reduced to 8 and 4 groupes ( regts ) of tabors. ( see p. 5 for further details. ) these formations were almost totally equipped by the amns, noy only as regards arms and equipment but everything necessary for life in the field. use also was made of amn training facilities. the rearmament programme was intended by the c. c. s. to cover only the french expeditionary force. the equipment of troops meant solely for local security remained the responsibility of the french themselves. organisation of french forces although the following information will probably not be of direct use, it


by the c. c. s. to cover only the french expeditionary force. the equipment of troops meant solely for local security remained the responsibility of the french themselves. organisation of french forces although the following information will probably not be of direct use, it may be helpful to have some knowledge of ( i ) the organisation of the french army in the mediterranean theatre and ( ii ) the quality and character of their native troops : - base units at casablanca, oran, algiers, bizerta, ajaccio. for the reception and assembly of equipment and supplies, and forwarding of the same. working for the f. e. f. and sovereignty troops. in may 1944 about 13, 300 men. territorial troops ( force territoriales * ) hqs of the different territories ; schools, hospitals etc. no combat * armee territoriale, armee de territoire, force territoriales refer to sovereignty troops or territorial organisations as a whole. ' regions ' of n. and w. africa were sub - divided into ' divisions territoriales ' which was a land area and not a fighting formation. another possible source of confusion is the title ' xix army corps '. in time of peace algiers was the home station of this corps, all others were in metropolitan france. the corps fought in tunisia but its formations were afterwards absorbed into the expeditionary force and for a while the hq ceased to exist. it was later revived again at algiers. troops except for a sort of gendarmerie, but largely an administrative and supporting service for the f. e. f. and the sov. troops. in may 1944 about 45, 250 in n. africa and over 4, 400 in w. africa. sovereignty troops ( troupes de souverainete ) all combat troops which remained permanently on home territory. the regt was the largest grouping. arms, supplied by the french, were obsolescent. duties consisted of internal security, prison guard, defence of the coast and frontiers, * * air defence. * * the defence of n. africa had originally been shared between the british, french and u. s. armies. after 5 us army left morocco the necessary forces were provided by the french although some british divs were available until jan 1944. ; after a meeting at afhq in june 1944 was agreed that the ground defence of n. africa ( tunisia, algeria, french morocco and the defence of the spanish moroccan border ) should become entirely a french responsibility. the protection of allied dumps and installations remained the concern of allied


c - in - c, issued an order laying down the organisation of the f. e. f. as from 12 november. it was divided into four parts ( as this o. b. was largely theoretical, it is not worth quoting formations by name ) : - the first part of juin ' s force, which for the winter of 1943 / 4 made up the c. e. f. in italy, began to embark at oran and bizerta on 19 november. the men div was not as yet included in it and the spahi bde never appeared. the corps indeed possessed only two main formations : 2e dim brigadier dody, which began to disembark at naples towards the end of nov., and 3e dia major - general de monsabert which arrived about a month later. the whole force, including the support troops given above, number 65, 000 men, 2, 500 animals and 12, 000 vehicles. * * a detailed ob is given in afhq 2391 / 2 op cit. to giave an idea of the strength of french formations : 2 dim = 15, 283 men and 2, 432 vehicles 3 dia ( swollen by over 1, 000 commandos ) = 15, 283 men and 2, 432 vehicles each div included on regt of spahis, three regts of tirailleurs, three bns of 12x105mm guns and bn of 12 x155mm guns. juin, with his cos, brigadier marcel carpentier reached naples on 24 nov, but did not take up command at the front until 3 jan 1944. in order to ease relations with the americans he chose to retain the title of c. e. f. ( corps expeditionaire francaise ) for his force, ahe himself used the title ' commandant le c. e. f. ' juin indicates that this was a matter of delicacy - he himself being a full general of a year ' s standing and clark only a temporary lieut - general, but he may also have considered the fact that he possessed only a corps hq ( according to a memo of the j. r. c. ) and had command of only two divs. reorganisation of feb 1944 early in 1944 the french recognised that they could re - equip 11 divs and provide them with the necessary supporting troops. the revised programme which the j. r. c. drew up in feb ran as follows : - vol i juin p. 237 &


french recognised that they could re - equip 11 divs and provide them with the necessary supporting troops. the revised programme which the j. r. c. drew up in feb ran as follows : - vol i juin p. 237 & afhq 2391 / 2 ( troop list 1 fec 8. 11. 43 juin p. 244 juin i p. 257 juin i p. 254 juin i p. 248 afhq 1090 / 13 1. 12. 43 de gaulle p. 267 ( decree of 7. 1. 44 ) afhq 2391 / 2 ( j. r. c. 15. 2. 44 & afhq memo 29. 2. 44 ) ; afhq 1090 / 13 ( cfnd decree of 1. 7. 44 ) and afhq 1090 / 13 ( fr. obs of inf and armd divs 20. 1. 44 ) & afhq 2391 / 2 ( memo 29. 4. 44 ) ( reorganisation of feb 1944 cont. ) all these hq had been organised and all but one equipped in feb 1944. ( these included a mechanized cavalry recce sqn ) mtn div : ( combined inf and mtn div ; pack arty ) : ( roughly the same an amn three bn type. mechanized cavalry recce sqn included light tanks ) * translated as shock bn. almost 600 men. c. e. f. order of battle for summer offensive, 11. 5. 44 | 1re dmi ( brosset ) | 2e dim ( dody ) | 3e dia ( de monsabert ) | 4e dmm ( seves ) | trois groupes de tabors | | estimated strength close on 10, 000 to form a ' corps de these formations were backed by supporting arms and services with an establishment strength of 54, 289, which includesthe 10, 000 goums given above. * establishment figures are taken from a return of 21 july in afhq 1093 / 3 : situation des effectives des forces expeditionnaires francaises. actual strengths at this date are also given. c. e. f. after the fall of rome for the pursuit to the arno general juin, who took command of his sector on 11 june, had organised ' un corps de poursuite ' under the orders of general de larminat. this included 3e dia ( de monsabert ) and 1re dmi ( brosset


, who took command of his sector on 11 june, had organised ' un corps de poursuite ' under the orders of general de larminat. this included 3e dia ( de monsabert ) and 1re dmi ( brosset ) 2e dim and 4e dmm were grouped nw of rome ready to follow. de larminat ' s appointment was probably a personal one and need not imply that another hq had arrived. general de gaulle had for some time been urging that a second corps hq should be sent to italy in order to gain battle expereince before ' anvil '. afhq had no objection to the attachement of individuals but felt that there were not sufficient french troops in italy to justify a second hq. when the amn official history comes out it will presumably clear up this point. as the ' anvil ' troopss began to assemble near naples juin ' s troops were successively reduced. he handed over his command to the britisih on 22 july and soon after left italy. he had, as general beaumon - nesbitt wrote, commanded the corps ' with great personal distinction ', being ' invaraibly good - humoured, never ruffled and always accessible. ' he had made the best of impressions on all allied commanders with whom he had come into contact. the qualities which juin himself demanded in a leader, and this perhaps shows another side to his character, were ' le rayonnement et le gout de risque. ' planning for ' anvil ' the decision that a major assault should be made in the south of france had been taken by the ccs at the sextant conference in november 1943. the original outline plan was completed by the jps of afhq before the end of the year and just before eisenhower gave up his command of the medn theatre to general wilson. apart from the area of landing it was not materially altered. the plan envisaged an assault landing of two, and if resources allowed, three divs ; five divs to be ashore by d + 5 or a total of 125, 000 men. the force would be built up to ten divs of 450, 000 men ( reckoning roughly 14, 000 men per div ; the remainder would be supporting arms and services. ) in april it was decided that d day for the operation would be roughly ten weeks after the first div began to refit. hq force 163 ( us 7 army ) opened on 12 jan 1944 in bouzarea