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research paper topics, free example research papers you are welcome to search thousands of free research papers and essays. search for your research paper topic now! research paper topic : teen social issues - 1385 words note : the research paper or essay you see on this page is a free essay, available to anyone. you can use any paper as a sample on how to write research papers or as a source of information. we strongly discourage you to directly copy / paste any essay and turn it in for credit. if your school uses any plagiarism detecting software, you might be caught and accused of plagiarism. if you need a custom term paper, research paper or essay, written from scratch exclusively for you, please, use our paid research papers writing service! teen social issues there are many social problems that teenagers go threw. i think the two most recognized problems are teenage drinking and driving, and teen suicide. these two social behaviors teenagers go threw are two of the leading causes of teenage death in the state of new mexico. alcohol, the most widely used and abused drug among youth, causes serious and potentially life - threatening problems for this population. new mexico holds one of the nation ' s highest dwi ( driving while intoxicated ) rates ( ulibarri, 1999 ). motor vehicle crashes are the leading cause of death for teenagers in new mexico. society must now face several questions, why do teens drink, what are the results of teen drinking and driving, and how can society change this pattern. every year hundreds of teens die in the state new mexico. teen suicide is the fastest growing killer of youth in america and if left unaddressed it will affect are future generations. why do teenagers drink alcohol? peers play the major role in shaping attitudes about alcohol use. prior to this time, television and movies played the most influential role. the attitudes of parents toward alcohol correlated strongly with the attitudes of their children. there are several reasons why teenagers give to drinking alcohol which include recreation, rebellion, relieve depression, fatigue, and boredom. also because they have personal problems at home that make them turn to alcohol. other reasons are a loved one passing away, fighting with parents, divorce, and separation of family. the main factor of teenage drinking is influence from their peers. teenagers in our society are pressured into trying out alcohol for the first time to see how it tastes like. if they give in to their peers they become part of the group, but if they do not they are not accepted into the group. as a result of teens being


are pressured into trying out alcohol for the first time to see how it tastes like. if they give in to their peers they become part of the group, but if they do not they are not accepted into the group. as a result of teens being under the influence of alcohol, they are not aware that once they get behind the wheel they are risking their lives and the lives of other innocent people on the road. teenagers think it ' s cool to drink and drive. they feel nothing will happen to them. a survey concluded, males having higher rates of daily drinking and binge drinking than females, but these difference are diminishing. while white students report the highest levels of drinking, blacks report the lowest, and hispanics fall between the two ( alcohol alert, 1999 ). the causes that lead them to automobile accidents are driver inexperience, driving late at night, having consumed alcohol, speeding, youthful risk, and driving during emotional stress. many programs are being offered to educate teenagers and people on how to prevent alcohol - related accidents. the gentleman that came to talk to us on dwi related accidents had very interesting facts on rio arriba county. i found it vary informative. in rio arriba county there is a dwi course being offered to anyone interested in developing strategies to prevent dwi from occurring by informing teens the dwi penalties, and laws in new mexico, what happens in a dwi arrest and trial, and what the blood alcohol concentration level is. education can help teens become aware of the consequences of drinking and driving. yet effective ways of dealing with teen drinking and driving are formal treatment. teens can be taken to visit a rehabilitation center, which is a process of putting the treatment plan into action. it consist of ( 1 ) education, ( 2 ) group therapy, ( 3 ) life story, ( 4 ) individual therapy, ( 5 ) peer assessment, ( 6 ) recreational therapy, ( 7 ) coping skills and relaxation therapy, ( 8 ) support group attendance, and ( 9 ) spiritually. rio arriba county is one of six communities across the nation to participate in the rapid responses team pilot project, which is designed to study whether a team of experts can work with community members to develop effective ways of reducing underage drinking. the teams are comprised of one expert from each of the following profession : law enforcement, education, prevention, public policy, and strategic planning. every year thousands of teens die in the united states, not from cancer or car accidents, but by their own hand ;


are comprised of one expert from each of the following profession : law enforcement, education, prevention, public policy, and strategic planning. every year thousands of teens die in the united states, not from cancer or car accidents, but by their own hand ; they make the choice that they want to die, and they take their life. suicide is the fastest growing killer of youth in america ( www. yellowribbon. org ), and if left unaddressed, it will help bring about disastrous consequences for the united states. teenage suicide is indeed a great plight in the united states. it is the eighth leading cause of all deaths in the country ; third for persons aged 15 to 24 ( waters and ingressia ). statistics show that more than 13 of every 1000, 000 teenager took their life in 1998, and that number is rising every year. in fact suicide kills teens 3 to 6 times more than homicide. although suicide rates over the past 40 years are relatively stable, the incidence of suicide among 15 - 24 years olds has tripled, while the rate among 15 - 19 year olds has quadrupled ( garner and rosenberg ). the numbers of deaths by teen suicide are rising quickly, and it must be stopped. why is it? those teenagers are committing suicide? there are many factors which lead teenagers today to take their own life. there is the social environmental factor, which suggest that the greater access to firearms has caused a rise in the death of teens. teenagers can easily kill themselves with such deadly weapons as guns. suicide is genetically influenced. it may be the result of an underlying personality or predisposition to mental illness that is inherited. one other cause is the imitative thinking of our youth ( garner and rosenberg ). the two major causes of teen suicide are the homophobic sentiments of the people and struggles within the family unit. struggles and problems within the family are also a big factor of teen suicide. youngsters who commit suicide are somewhat more likely to come from a broken home than are youngsters of the same ethnic group but about half lived with both biological parents at the time of the death. ( www. spanusa. org ). the absence of a strong relationship to parent - child friction and a significant excess of poor parent - child communication also lead to teen suicide. what can be done to cripple the rise in teen suicide? according to the national strategy for prevention of suicide there are three steps in the fight against the problem access, illumination, and methodology. they suggest that access to services and programs dealing with the


can be done to cripple the rise in teen suicide? according to the national strategy for prevention of suicide there are three steps in the fight against the problem access, illumination, and methodology. they suggest that access to services and programs dealing with the issue must be enhanced, the public ' s awareness be broadened or illuminated, and the scientific approach to the problem be continued ( www. afsp. org ). i think that the problem is still not being addressed as it should be. many teenagers are still dying. at least, the government has now recognized that teen suicide is a national problem and measures for it are now in the works. teen suicide is a grave national problem indeed. it has taken the lives of many american youth already. in conclusion society is coming to understand that there is a major social problem with teenagers drinking and driving and teen suicide. in regards to teens drinking and driving, society can change the behavior of teenagers who drink and drive by using community involvement and educating our youth about dire consequences of drinking and driving. we must look towards igniting and mobilizing the passion, energy, imagination, and idealism of our youth to make a real difference. i do hope with future changes in society, the issues of teenage drinking and driving will be addressed and community solutions will be found for our youth. it is our role and responsibility to become involved in our youth because they are our future. teen suicide is a grave national problem indeed. it has taken the lives of many americans youth already. the future of america ' s next generation is at stake. let us take action now before it is too late, before the teen suicide epidemic devours the whole nation. in other words, let ' s deal with the problem. first, let ' s recognize it. then let ' s become aware about it. after that, let ' s take action to diminish it. bibliography bibliograpy american foundation for suicide prevention. www. afsp. org. child and adolescent behavior. letter june 1998. 1 - 2. gardner, sandra and gary b. rosenberg. light for life foundation international. www. yellowribbon. org. today magazine. dec 98, vol. 123 issue 2595, pl, 1 / 9p. waters, henry f. and ingrassia, michele. www. spanusa. org. april 10, 2000 17. lena h. sun, alcohol alert. new york times, march 1999. andrew ulibarri, out of control teens. taos news, 20,


in response to the demonstrated health hazards of tobacco smoking, health care facilities are increasingly implementing policies that ban smoking on their premises. persons with psychiatric illnesses are about twice as likely to smoke cigarettes as the general population ( 1 ), and the prevalence of smoking among persons with schizophrenia is reported to be three or four times higher than in the general population ( 2, 3 ). alcohol and drug abuse are also strongly associated with a high rate of smoking, with prevalence estimates ranging from 71 percent to 100 percent ( 4, 5, 6 ). thus persons with psychiatric or substance use disorders are particularly affected by smoking bans. a concern has been raised that policies that address the risks of smoking in the general population may deter smokers who are mentally ill or substance dependent from obtaining services. we conducted a critical review of the literature to assess the strength of the empirical evidence supporting this concern about smoking bans in psychiatric populations. we reviewed the literature on the association between smoking and psychiatric disorders. we then focused on the studies of the impact of smoking bans and attempted to draw policy implications. we used major health care databases to conduct the search : medline ( 1997 to 2001 ), cinahl ( 1990 to 2001 ), psycinfo ( 1990 to 2001 ), best evidence / ebm reviews ( 1991 to 2002 ), healthstar ( 1996 to 2001 ), the cochrane database of systematic reviews ( 2001 ), and embase ( 1990 to 2002 ). in addition, legal trac ( 1990 to 2002 ), bioethicsline ( 1973 to 2001 ), philosopher ' s index ( 1980 to 2002 ), and dissertation abstracts ( 1990 to 2002 ) were searched. some articles were drawn from the reference lists of previous articles, and unpublished empirical studies were located through a web search. major search terms included smoking, smoking cessation, nicotine, health policy, hospital policy, smoke - free policy, psychiatric disorders, mental disorders, and substance use disorders. several of the articles on the impact of nonsmoking policies in psychiatric settings and the treatment of smoking in this population were reviews or discussion papers or were based on anecdotal evidence. these papers ( a total of 17 ) were excluded. smoking and psychiatric disorders investigations of the association between tobacco smoking and psychiatric disorders can be categorized into four areas of interest : smoking as self - medication, nicotine and vulnerability to mental illness, smoking and medication, and the impact of forced nicotine withdrawal. smoking as self - medication both neurobiological and psychosocial factors reinforce the use of


areas of interest : smoking as self - medication, nicotine and vulnerability to mental illness, smoking and medication, and the impact of forced nicotine withdrawal. smoking as self - medication both neurobiological and psychosocial factors reinforce the use of nicotine in psychiatric populations. nicotine is thought to interact with a number of neurotransmitter systems : serotonin, dopamine, glutamate, acetylcholine, and norepinephrine ( 3, 7 ). there is growing evidence that nicotine functions to normalize two different physiological dysfunctions in schizophrenia, auditory sensory gating ( 8, 9 ) and abnormal smooth - pursuit eye movements ( 7 ). in addition, the dopaminergic and glutaminic alterations created by nicotine are thought to improve negative symptoms ( 10 ). the link between smoking and depression has been attributed to the use of nicotine for alleviating dysphoric moods ( 11, 12 ). smokers who have a history of depression are more vulnerable to developing depression during nicotine withdrawal, and the withdrawal syndrome is more severe among these persons ( 7, 13 ). a strong correlation between nicotine use and other substance abuse also exists. among all persons with a psychiatric diagnosis, those who abuse alcohol have the highest rates of smoking, in terms of having ever smoked ( 13 ). in a study of nicotine dependence and abstinence in schizophrenia, ziedonis and colleagues ( 10 ) found that smokers had significantly higher rates of alcohol and drug abuse than nonsmokers and that heavy smokers had the highest rates of both alcohol and drug use disorders. the subjective calming effect of nicotine is also thought to be particularly reinforcing for persons with psychiatric illness ( 14 ). it has been suggested that smoking reduces social inhibition and isolation and that it may provide an outlet for the expression of dependency needs among persons with schizophrenia ( 10, 14 ). van dongen ( 14 ) found that for many people with persistent mental illness, smoking is a major part of their daily routine and is considered to provide some structure to a day with few activities. moreover, smoking has long been considered an integral part of the psychiatric culture, and there exists an ingrained belief that persons with mental illness are not able or willing to quit smoking. as a result, this population has been largely excluded from the greater societal movement toward minimizing smoking, and health professionals who work with persons who have mental illness have taken a passive stance in talking to


illness are not able or willing to quit smoking. as a result, this population has been largely excluded from the greater societal movement toward minimizing smoking, and health professionals who work with persons who have mental illness have taken a passive stance in talking to their patients about quitting smoking. nicotine and vulnerability to mental illness a few studies suggest that nicotine may increase one ' s vulnerability to mental illness. ziedonis and colleagues ( 10 ) found that the onset of schizophrenia is significantly earlier among those who smoke. another study reported that persons who smoke daily have an elevated risk of first - time occurrence of panic attack ( 15 ). smoking has also been found to increase the risk of certain anxiety disorders during late adolescence and early adulthood ( 16 ). other evidence suggests that smoking is associated with an elevated risk of depression ( 1, 17, 18 ). finally, there is evidence that smokers are more vulnerable to other forms of substance abuse, with nicotine acting as a " gateway " drug ( 4, 19 ). smoking cigarettes can reduce the blood concentrations of a number of psychiatric medications ( 3, 20, 21, 22 ). plasma neuroleptic concentrations can be up to 50 percent lower among heavy smokers, because smoking induces higher enzymatic activity, which accelerates the metabolism of these medications ( 3, 21, 22 ). thus patients who smoke tend to receive significantly higher doses of neuroleptics ( 10, 23, 24, 25 ). there is no evidence that specifically links the metabolism of neuroleptic medications to nicotine ; rather, it is believed that the effect is produced by the tar in cigarettes ( 10 ). it is interesting that patients who are taking conventional antipsychotics are likely to smoke more, whereas patients who are taking atypical antipsychotics, such as clozapine, tend to smoke less ( 3 ). some studies have found that patients with schizophrenia who smoke have fewer parkinsonian symptoms than those who do not smoke ( 23, 26 ), which suggests that smoking has a protective effect on dopamine systems ( 25 ). other research has shown higher rates of tardive dyskinesia among patients with schizophrenia who smoke ( 1, 27 ). however, the findings related to both parkinsonism and tardive dyskinesia are mixed and inconclusive. in a study by linnoila and associates ( 20 ), smoking was associated with low plasma amitriptyline and nortriptyline concentrations, although there have been


and tardive dyskinesia are mixed and inconclusive. in a study by linnoila and associates ( 20 ), smoking was associated with low plasma amitriptyline and nortriptyline concentrations, although there have been contradictory findings. impact of forced nicotine withdrawal forced nicotine withdrawal is associated with significant risks for psychiatric patients. nicotine withdrawal produces physiological, behavioral, and subjective changes that present similarly to positive and negative psychiatric symptoms, side effects of medications, and alcohol or drug withdrawal ( 28 ). thus there is a risk of misinterpretation and exacerbation of symptoms when psychiatric patients cease smoking ( 25, 29, 30 ). people with schizophrenia or a history of depression or anxiety report more severe withdrawal symptoms than do persons without these disorders ( 31 ). smoking cessation can also precipitate a relapse of depression among smokers who have a history of depression and can increase anxiety for some patients ( 28 ). because smoking increases the metabolism of neuroleptic medications, forced smoking cessation may alter the blood concentrations of various psychiatric medications and may result in dangerously high drug concentrations and problematic side effects ( 32 ). empirical studies of smoking ban policies policies that ban smoking in inpatient psychiatric or addiction settings are either " total, " which means that no smoking is allowed within the facility or on passes, or " partial, " which means that smoking is allowed in the facility or on passes. our literature search yielded seven investigations of the impact of total bans in inpatient psychiatric settings, listed in t1, and seven on the impact of partial bans, which are listed in t2 ( 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49 ). in addition, three investigations examined the impact of bans in outpatient waiting rooms or day hospital programs ; these studies are also listed in t2. we retrieved two studies of total bans and three of partial bans in addiction settings. the impact was assessed either through chart reviews or through structured questionnaires, and the behavioral indicators included the use of restraints or seclusion, the occurrence of assault or injury, the number of calls to security, discharges against medical advice or elopements, medication changes, and records of illicit smoking in patients ' rooms. the ward atmosphere scale and the overt aggression scale were the most common instruments used. however, published studies have not been consistent in the


discharges against medical advice or elopements, medication changes, and records of illicit smoking in patients ' rooms. the ward atmosphere scale and the overt aggression scale were the most common instruments used. however, published studies have not been consistent in the use of behavioral indicators, and some studies collected no objective data. thus the use of meta - analytic methods was precluded by the lack of uniform dependent variables across studies. the number of studies that used similar outcome measures was too small for their effect sizes to be reliably estimated. in contrast with studies in psychiatric settings, the five studies on the impact of smoking bans in addiction settings focused mostly on the smokers ' interest in quitting before and after the ban rather than on behavioral disorders and management issues arising from the policy. joseph and colleagues ( 50 ), in two consecutive studies of total bans in residential programs, found an increase in the proportion of smokers who were interested in quitting after the ban ( from 24 percent to 61 percent ) and in the proportion of those who actually abstained from smoking ( 41 percent after the ban compared with 9 percent before the ban ). no adverse effect on drug or alcohol treatment was noted ( 51 ). regarding partial bans, a survey of 19 program directors reported fewer complaints than anticipated, but nicotine treatment was not fully integrated into most programs ( 52 ). in another study, staff support for an emphasis on smoking cessation declined after the policy was implemented ( 53 ). kempf and stanley ( 54 ) compared two adolescent residential units, one with a total ban on smoking and one with a partial ban, and found no difference between the two units in rates of in initial rejection of the program or in dropout rates, with heavy smokers more likely to drop out from either unit. the preponderance of evidence from the reviewed literature suggests that policies that ban smoking have no major long - standing untoward effects in terms of the behavioral indicators of unrest or noncompliance. one study found no association between scores on the fagerstrom tolerance questionnaire ( ftq ) or the nicotine withdrawal checklist ( nwc ) and subjective anxiety ( 33 ), whereas another study found a negative association between ftq scores and compliance with a nonsmoking policy ( 34 ). indeed, the amount of support for the policies among patients and staff may actually be higher after the ban. however, these self - reports contrast with the results of three studies that showed that smoking resumed immediately after discharge or that motivation to quit was lower


. indeed, the amount of support for the policies among patients and staff may actually be higher after the ban. however, these self - reports contrast with the results of three studies that showed that smoking resumed immediately after discharge or that motivation to quit was lower among patients whose smoking was restricted. we found a discrepancy between studies that showed a significant interaction between smoking and psychiatric disorders and the fact that only four of the 17 studies reported behavioral consequences of smoking bans. explanations may be found in the relatively crude indicators of behavioral unrest or noncompliance that have been used to study the impact of nonsmoking policies. forced nicotine withdrawal may not always translate into aggressive behavior, need for restraint, or other forms of noncompliance. also, administrative bias in favor of a nonsmoking policy may mean that fewer untoward effects are reported. although policies that ban smoking satisfy a public health agenda during residential treatment, they appear to have little or no effect on the goal of smoking cessation. despite self - reported increases in support for smoking bans after implementation of the policy, resumption of smoking after discharge is highly prevalent and immediate. motivation for quitting smoking may even decline if a restrictive smoking policy is insensitive to the progression of the stages of change that are required before a person can quit smoking. a growing body of literature shows that, in general, smoking cessation strategies result in outcomes among psychiatric patients that are not very different from those in the general population ( 55, 56 ). relatively brief interventions can increase the number of persons who quit smoking. minimal training that can encourage health professionals to be sensitive and to be prepared to address patients ' concerns about quitting is a cost - effective investment. smoking cessation strategies, which can range from supportive counseling to pharmacotherapy, should be an inherent component of nonsmoking policies. total bans and outdoor bans raise ethical issues in terms of balancing the rights of nonsmokers against those of smokers. arguments center around the extent of the threat presented by outdoor, second - hand smoke. although chronic and cumulative exposure to indoor smoking — for example, living with a smoker or working in a smoking environment — creates a definite hazard, the risk associated with fleeting outdoor exposure is much more controversial and does not justify a lack of flexibility. the support for outdoor bans may be based more on the demand for an aesthetically pleasing environment for nonsmokers and the need for health care facilities to model healthier lifestyle practices for their clients ( 57,


does not justify a lack of flexibility. the support for outdoor bans may be based more on the demand for an aesthetically pleasing environment for nonsmokers and the need for health care facilities to model healthier lifestyle practices for their clients ( 57, 58 ). this study was limited in that a meta - analysis could not be conducted. our conclusions about the impact of smoking bans on patients ' behavior are largely qualitative given that a majority of studies did not show large untoward reactions. the lack of uniform measures of outcome is not surprising given that most studies used retrospective designs. more studies with prospective designs are needed to verify our conclusions. as nonsmoking policies evolve with changes in social awareness and acceptance of tobacco smoking, flexibility is recommended in order to protect nonsmokers while promoting a therapeutic agenda for smokers. the significant interactive effects between smoking and psychiatric disorders pose particular challenges to smoking cessation that must be addressed. the authors are affiliated with the foothills hospital addiction centre, calgary regional health authority, 1403 twenty - ninth street, n. w., calgary, alberta t2n 2t9 canada ( e - mail, email @ example. com ). dr. el - guebaly and dr. currie are also affiliated with the department of psychiatry at the university of calgary. studies on the effects of total nonsmoking policies in psychiatric and addiction treatment settings studies on the effects of partial nonsmoking policies in psychiatric and addiction treatment settings


american college of sports medicine honors brett wong ' s research as nation ' s best eugene, ore. - - brett wong is on a mission to help uncover the mechanism that regulates our ability to withstand heat stress. the goal is to help improve survival rates among those who suffer the most during heat waves : the elderly and people with conditions such as diabetes and heart disease. the award - winning university of oregon doctoral degree student ' s research is the first to identify histamine receptors as contributing to increased blood flow during heat stress. skin blood flow is a key factor in compensating for exposure to prolonged heat waves. " these are the same receptors that are involved in seasonal allergies for which people take antihistamines, " says wong, who is the lead author on an article describing his findings in the november issue of the journal of physiology. co - authors are brad w. wilkins, research associate, and christopher minson, assistant professor of human physiology and co - director of the uo exercise and environmental physiology laboratories. theirs is the first study designed to examine a potential role for histamine receptors in skin blood flow in humans. they tested the h1 and h2 histamine receptors and found that only the h1 receptor was involved in skin blood flow changes. the national institutes of health ( heart, lung and blood institute ) funded the study. " many deaths in the midwest have been associated with an inability to increase skin blood flow and regulate body temperature, " wong says. " if we can understand the basic science behind increasing skin blood flow in healthy young individuals, we ' ll be able to help at - risk populations. " led by wong, the uo research team outfitted 11 human subjects in water - perfused suits and increased their core body temperature to about 100 degrees fahrenheit. he threaded four hollow microfibers into the skin on their forearms and used microdialysis to target doses of nitric oxide or two types of antihistamines. laser - doppler flowmetry ( ldf ) was used to monitor changes in skin blood flow during heat stress. " i personally don ' t like needles but it ' s a very powerful technique to study skin blood flow, " says wong, who knows firsthand what the subjects will experience, having tested the technique on himself. a water - perfused suit is designed to tightly control skin temperature. the subjects wore a plastic coverall over the water - perfused suit, and the feet were wrapped in towels and plastic bags to


, having tested the technique on himself. a water - perfused suit is designed to tightly control skin temperature. the subjects wore a plastic coverall over the water - perfused suit, and the feet were wrapped in towels and plastic bags to minimize heat loss. current evidence suggests that sweating and increased skin blood flow ( cutaneous active vasodilation ) is mediated by the co - release of a neurotransmitter with acetylcholine from cholinergic nerves in the skin. however, the precise mechanism of action, and even the neurotransmitter itself, is unknown. earlier this year, wong ' s previous work in this area won the top national award for student research from the american college of sports medicine. the prize is given annually to only one student in the united states whose research is considered to be the most outstanding in the country. originally from sierra madre, calif., wong earned a bachelor ' s degree from the university of california at davis. his master ' s degree is from the uo, and he expects to complete his doctoral degree in summer 2005. he plans to continue his research and eventually to teach in a university setting. source : eurekalert & otherslast reviewed : by john m. grohol, psy. d. on 21 feb 2009 published on psychcentral. com. all rights reserved. i do not think there is any other quality so essential to success of any kind as the quality of perseverance. it overcomes almost everything, even nature. - - john d. rockefeller


the basics of game development – for programmers this talk is an overview of what exactly is involved in game development – from the point of view of a programmer. these are the major components of game development. a game platform is the hardware - software combination on which a game runs. these are the major game platforms : - console ( e. g. xbox 360, wii, ps2 / ps3 ). - pc ( windows, mac ) - mobile ( iphone, others ) - web browser based - arcade machines ( i. e. the dedicated game play machines you see in video - games parlours in malls ) the platform makes a big difference to the kind of games you can build. for example, consider the consoles. here the hardware is fixed. this is good because a game is a very optimized piece of software. so the more you know about the hardware, the more you can optimize, and the better will be your gameplay. ( compare with a pc game where it can be played on pcs with vastly different hardware capabilities. then you end up programming to the minimum requirements, which is sub - optimal for the higher end pcs. ) game development team a game development team consists of the following roles : - artists – 2d / 3d artists and animators - game designers – level designers, gameplay designers, ui designers - programmers – graphics, gameplay, ai engine, physics, networking, ui, tools - audio – sound effects creators, music composers - testers ( pune has a lot of game testing companies ) - special mention : the crossovers – technical artists, team leads, tester - producer, etc. not all kinds of games require all these roles. a “ big ” game is a huge production, pretty much like a movie, and will hence need all these roles. smaller games can do with fewer. interesting points : the physics engine in a game is a piece of software in a game which essentially enforces the laws of physics ( as they exist in the game world ). when you throw an object, how it flies through space is determined by the physics engine. when you fall, what happens to you, how much you get hurt ; if you kick a door, will it break. such things are determined by the physics engine. networking is needed in online games. specially, an mmorpg ( massively multiplayer online role - playing game ) has hundreds of thousands of people playing simultaneously, and the various players are interacting with the game system, and with each other. all of this networking has to be


games. specially, an mmorpg ( massively multiplayer online role - playing game ) has hundreds of thousands of people playing simultaneously, and the various players are interacting with the game system, and with each other. all of this networking has to be managed at the game servers ( which are in the cloud ) and the game clients ( which are installed on the users pc / console ). there are two broad phases of game development. first there is “ content creation ”. this includes things like creating the characters, animations, levels etc. this happens offline, before the game is “ released ”. the tools used are maya / max, photoshop, sound creation tools, and game design tools. the other big chunk of program in a game software is the “ runtime ”. this is the server and the engine which interacts with the user and renders each frame of the game, and controls the game play. the fundamental difference between animation and graphics in games and anywhere else is the “ realtime ” nature of the rendering. when doing animation / graphics for a movie, everything is computed beforehand, and it is simply displayed / rendered at runtime. however, with a game, this is not true. you need to keep gathering input from the user ( for example, the current position of the user ), and change the animation appropriately. so, the animation needs to be auto - created at runtime based on the inputs, and this needs to happen at 30 + frames per second. going below 30 + frames per second is just not permissible – the game will not feel smooth. hence, the only thing you can compromise on is the quality / resolution of the graphics. hence, in terms of pure graphical output, a pre - rendered video is always going to have better possibilities than what is possible in a game. in any case, in most games, lots and lots of optimization happens to be able to render high quality graphics at 30 + fps, using the best possible software and hardware combination. thus, most games will try to use the graphics cards of the hardware to the fullest extent possible. all modern graphics cards are programmable in the sense that common graphics operations ( like shaders ) can be offloaded to the graphics card. the game engine will have sophisticated software that pushes as much work as possible to the graphics card. the game runtime is broken up into two big parts. first there is the basic engine, which can be thought of as a framework for building games, and has building blocks like rendering


software that pushes as much work as possible to the graphics card. the game runtime is broken up into two big parts. first there is the basic engine, which can be thought of as a framework for building games, and has building blocks like rendering, animation, physics, networking, sound. another major feature of an engine is that it allows easy creation of different kinds of games, characters, levels, and general purpose scripting. thus, the idea is that there is a generic game engine which is not necessarily tied to any specific game, and on top of this, various different games can be built by the game designers. typically, the same game engine will be re - used by a company to build and release many different games. a game engine will typically come with “ game creation tools ” which are separate pieces of software which allow you to “ author ” games. typical workflow : an artist uses tools like maya / photoshop to create the basic content, and the level designer of a game will use the game engine tools to import the basic content into the game. you might create a character in maya, examples of game engines : cryengine ( crysis, far cry, aion : tower of eternity ), unreal engine ( unreal tournament, unreal3, gears of war. http : / / udk. com is available free for non - commercial use ), source engine ( half life, counter strike source ), unity, torque ( casual / web - based gaming ). components of a game engine - graphics renderer : all the computer graphics calculations ( including ray tracing, lighting, refraction, reflection, etc ). crysis ( the game ) looks very good because the cryengine graphics engine is very good. - animation system : define how your characters move. this includes defining the walk cycle ( i. e. one full step of the character walking, which is looped to show a walking character ). - scene graph : a level in a game is a huge 3d ( or 2d ) space, with lots of things – characters, objects, lights. all of these need to be defined and instantiated. these need to be held in memory while the game is playing. knowing what objects are where, and keeping track of them in memory is the job of a scene graph. the renderer shows you the view of what is currently visible to you, while the scene graph keeps track of everything that is “ nearby ”, and is the one who calculates what is and is not visible (


the job of a scene graph. the renderer shows you the view of what is currently visible to you, while the scene graph keeps track of everything that is “ nearby ”, and is the one who calculates what is and is not visible ( and should hence be sent to the renderer ). - physics : as described earlier, the physics of the game world. when things are thrown, what is their trajectory. if something hits something else, how much doe it bounce. compute the mass, the force, the acceleration, and apply the newton ’ s laws ( or another set of laws, if the game world has different physics than our own ). - networking : this most programmers should be familiar with. - ai : this is what actually defines how different characters ( the computer controlled ones ) behave and react. note that you ’ re not always trying to create reality, or “ human ” behavior. all you want is a fun experience – not necessarily realistic. - audio : sound effects, and voice - overs. - ui : the interface for the game. including inputs, options, etc. - scripting : while the basic engine is programmed in c + +, for defining what happens in a game, a low - level programming language like c + + or java is not an ideal language to define the “ gameplay. ” for this, a scripting language like lua, or python is used. or, like unreal engine, the engine might have its own scripting language. compiling a game takes a long time ( more than half an hour for a big game ), so you definitely don ’ t want to write your game logic in a compiled language and require a full compilation every time you make a minor change. who would be interested in game development if you want to make a career in game development, these are some things to think about : - you need to be interested in games, and should have some knowledge of games. that will make work more interesting - you should have played, and analyzed a variety of games – that way you know and understand what are the different possibilities out there - you should like working in a team. a game development team can be 100s of people, all working together to produce a single game. and if you ’ re not really a team player, you will not be able to function properly. - good communication skills. a game development team has people from many different teams, with different backgrounds, and if you ’ re not good at communication, especially written communication, you might run into


team player, you will not be able to function properly. - good communication skills. a game development team has people from many different teams, with different backgrounds, and if you ’ re not good at communication, especially written communication, you might run into problems. once you ’ ve become a game programmer, you ’ ll find yourself using these skills a lot : - linear algebra : matrix operators, vectors, quaternions - co - ordinate systems ( remember your geometry? ) - trigonometry – basics, like 10th / 12th std. level - laws of physics ( laws of motion, angular velocity / momentum etc ). - c / c + +.. net, c # for tools. scripting languages ( python, lua ). - object - oriented programming. - writing optimized code but here is the biggest reason why you should get into game development : - game development is at the cutting edge of technology. all the latest and best technology is used in games first, and only slowly and later does it trickle down into other fields of programming. game development is the f1 - racing of programming. lookup these links for some further interesting reading for games. - xna : http : / / rbwhitaker. wikidot. com / xna - tutorials /, http : / / riemers. net / eng / tutorials / xnacsharp. php - for c + + : directx : http : / / directxtutorial. com, ogl : http : / / nene. gamedev. net - pygame – http : / / pygame. org / - gamedev : http : / / gamedev. net / reference / - gamasutra : http : / / gamasutra. com / category / programming /


it for radio engineers ipv6 is coming based on current usage levels, it is anticipated that the current blocks of available addresses under the current system, also called ipv4, will be exhausted in approximately three years. to head this off, a new proposal is in the final stages of approval. known as ipv6, it will probably provide the most benefit to broadcasters and multicasters, due to enhancements to how ip handles audio and video streams. the major improvement ipv6 provides is its ability to serve 3. 4 × 1038 addresses using 128 - bit addressing contrasted to the measly 4 billion currently supported by ipv4 using 32 - bit addressing. in theory, ipv6 will provide enough addresses for every person on the planet and still have room to grow almost infinitely. routing ipv6 data will be made simpler due to the elimination of the nat protocol since each device will have a unique address and address translation will no longer be necessary. the virtually limitless availability of unique ip addresses opens up the possibility of a wide variety of devices, not just pcs or printers. it is expected that even common items, such as appliances or automobiles, can now have their own ip addresses. there are interesting possibilities for our industry as well. imagine transmitters, processing equipment and other peripheral equipment all having ip addresses that could be interconnected from anywhere in the world. take this a step further and consider a transmitter that takes all of its control and audio streaming information through an ethernet connection connected to a remote control and audio processor in a different state. do you see where this could go? ipv6 addresses are 128 bits long. there are 64 bits for the network address and 64 bits for the host address. the host address is derived from the unique mac address given to the network interface device. optionally, they can also be generated sequentially. in practice, the ipv6 address is written in a hexadecimal formal consisting of eight groups with four hex digits. ipv6 is ideal for streaming because the protocol defines three specific types of addresses : unicast — basically point - to - point, typical of most applications. multicast — one - to - many recipients. anycast — a variation of multicast, only delivered to a single node than routed to other nodes until it reaches the recipient ( s ). a detailed discussion of ipv6 would fill volumes, but you need to be aware that many governments and large organizations are starting the transition process. newer equipment might be software upgradeable but


routed to other nodes until it reaches the recipient ( s ). a detailed discussion of ipv6 would fill volumes, but you need to be aware that many governments and large organizations are starting the transition process. newer equipment might be software upgradeable but some will need to be changed. start identifying compatibility issues now. many manufacturers have information on their websites. be aware that only windows vista and mac os x 10. 3 and above have native support for ipv6. when it comes to establishing a hard connection between one or more points, ip tunneling is the ultimate tool. why should you care about tunneling? consider for example that you are trying to set up a remote broadcast in another county, state or country. using a dedicated ip address might create problems with latency or possible loss of connection. utilizing an ip tunnel would establish a dedicated virtual connection between the remote user and host, similar to any local device and typically with improved performance. the concept of tunneling is based on a process that packages the primary ip packet inside another packet. the purpose of the outer packet is to create a virtual physical connection between two networks that encapsulates the real data packet. like everything in the it world, there is a protocol ( or set of protocols ) that make implementation possible. there are two primary protocols that can be used to create an ip tunnel : point - to - point tunneling protocol ( pptp ) may seem familiar from back in the days of dial - up connections. originally developed by cisco and later licensed to microsoft, this became a standard communications protocol to be included standard with later versions of ms windows and as such, became a popular protocol with dial - up hosting providers. pptp requires two separate connections — one connection maintains the data path using another protocol called generic routing encapsulation ( gre ). gre manages the encapsulation process and subsequently strips the encapsulation at the other end. the second connection is used to initiate and maintain the gre session. layer 2 tunneling protocol ( l2tp ) is a newer and more feature - packed version created from a combination of pptp and another old protocol called layer 2 forwarding ( l2f ). the use of layer 2 here is deceiving in that it actually operates at the application layer ( layer 5 ). it works by encapsulating the packet, payload ( original data ) and header within a udp ( universal data protocol ) datagram. datagrams are basically a package containing a short message. for example


application layer ( layer 5 ). it works by encapsulating the packet, payload ( original data ) and header within a udp ( universal data protocol ) datagram. datagrams are basically a package containing a short message. for example, a series of datagrams form the basis for streaming audio and video technologies. the current version is l2tpv3 which provides improved performance and compatibly with other transport services. one more protocol you should know is called ipsec, which is short for ip security. this is typically used in conjunction with a tunneling protocol, particularly l2tp as a means to provide secure authentication and encryption services. when the two protocols are used together the protocol is called l2tp / ipsec. in practice, the tunneling process begins by establishing the virtual connection between the client and host systems. the implementation of creating the vpn is typically done through software and / or hardware applications. a popular example of ip tunneling is the virtual private network ( vpn ), which provides remote users the ability to gain access to their internal network ( intranet ) and network resources ( printers, etc. ) as if they were connected in their offices. the remote user initiates a typical vpn session with a software client that requires you log in with your username, password, etc. the host end of the vpn manages the task of accepting requests to establish the connection and verifying the user login and security information. once the user information has been accepted the tunneled connected is established and remains connected until either the user ( or administrator ) chooses to stop it or the host system has provisions to drop the connection when not in use for a preset amount of time. while tunneling provides a better experience for the remote user, it also offers a much higher level of security for the host network since the connection can ' t be established without going through some level of security check. creating a tunneled connection is easy or cheap ( even free ) with the use of software applications easily downloaded from the web. some of the more popular ones include zebedee, nest and barracuda. a web search for “ ip tunneling software ” will direct you to these and a host of other solutions you can use to create your own custom ip tunnel. most of these also have detailed user guides to help you achieve your goal and make a handy addition to your new toolbox. mcnamara is president of applied wireless, cape coral, fl. acceptable use policy blog comments powered by dis


tweet of the day : information density and selecting planks for story scaffolding at some point in the creation of your speculative fiction universe you have to decide what are the outer limits of the powers, abilities or magic that make or are used in the universe. some common limits are ( following last week talk on checklists ) are as follows : - no teleportation / instant communications - no bringing people back from the dead - no rearranging of matter at will ( including creating food / water out of thin air ) - no time travel ( unless your story calls for such a thing ) the reason for these limitations is simple : once introduced into the universe they derail any story. lets take time travel for example. if you can travel in time at will, you can prevent almost anything from happening based on your fore knowledge or create more problems in a series of time loops / paradoxes that never end. if you can bring people back from the dead, then a major source of tension in any story is removed and life is cheapened accordingly. there is also the matter of consistency. many times an author will rely on one of these “ limit breaks ” ( very common on long runners and comic books ) when they find themselves stuck and just as quickly never use it again. it happened in star trek : the next generation with distressing regularity. the crew found themselves with a life and death situation and only five minutes in the episode to solve it. somebody pulled a brilliant piece of technobabble with some sort of countdown to add to the tension and voila, the problem, she is solved and never again in the seven year of the show will the same solution be used, even if came to the same problem. why? because that would remove the tension. so out goes continuity and in comes massive writer ’ s amnesia. on a television show. recorded on video / film cameras. or, the opposite happens ( as it also happened in the same show ). any problem that the crew came across they would, i don ’ t know, use the transporter to solve it. which led the audience to smack themselves in the face with the question, “ why didn ’ t they do that in the first five minutes of the episode? ” say goodbye to suspension of disbelief. it was nice knowing you. in order to avoid this sort of problem, i suggest you set these limits first, before you do anything else, if for no other reason than if you find yourself pushing against them, you will tread carefully near the


study shows pollution levels in some kitchens are higher than city centre hotspots a study by the university of sheffield has found that the air we breathe inside our own homes can have pollutant levels three times higher than the outdoor environment, in city centres and along busy roads. researchers from the university ’ s faculty of engineering measured air quality inside and outside three residential buildings with different types of energy use ( gas vs. electric cookers ). they found that nitrogen dioxide ( no2 ) levels in the kitchen of the city centre flat with a gas cooker were three times higher than the concentrations measured outside the property and well above those recommended in uk indoor air quality guidance1. these findings are published in the journal of indoor and built environment. " we spend 90 per cent of our time indoors and work hard to make our homes warm, secure and comfortable, but we rarely think about the pollution we might be breathing in, " said professor vida sharifi, who led the research. " energy is just one source of indoor pollution, but it is a significant one. and as we make our homes more airtight to reduce heating costs, we are likely to be exposed to higher levels of indoor pollution, with potential impacts on our health. " the study, funded by the engineering and physical sciences research council ( epsrc intrawise consortium ), compared a rural house with two flats, one in sheffield city centre and the other in an urban location next to a busy road. the rural house had an electric cooker while both flats used gas appliances. samples were taken outside and inside the properties, from each kitchen, over a four week period. the researchers, professor sharifi, professor jim swithenbank and dr karen finney, focused on pollutants known to have a detrimental health impact, particularly on the elderly and people with respiratory or cardiovascular problems. these included carbon monoxide ( co ), nitrogen dioxide ( no2 ), volatile organic compounds ( vocs ) and solid particles small enough to penetrate into the lungs ( 2. 5 microns in size or smaller, known as pm2. 5 ). the average particle concentrations measured by the research team in the kitchens of both flats with gas cookers were higher than the levels set by the government as its objective for outdoor air quality in both london and england2. there are currently no set guidelines for safe levels of particles in the home. professor sharifi said : " concerns about air quality tend to focus on what we breathe in outdoors, but as we spend most of our time indoors, we


and england2. there are currently no set guidelines for safe levels of particles in the home. professor sharifi said : " concerns about air quality tend to focus on what we breathe in outdoors, but as we spend most of our time indoors, we need to understand more about air pollution in our homes. there is very little data on emission rates from different appliances or acceptable standards on indoor pollutants. " although ours was just a small study, it highlights the need for more research to determine the impact of changing housing and lifestyles on our indoor air quality. " 1guidance on the effects on health of indoor air pollutants, december 2004, committee on the medical effects of air pollutants, department of health department of health guidance ( p43 ) 2uk outdoor air quality standard for particles measured as pm10 is 50 μg / m3 ( 24 - hour average concentration ) and air quality objectives are 23 and 20 μg / m3 ( annual average concentration ) for london and other locations in england respectively. ( comeap guidance as above, point 43 on p19 ) c. tan, k. n. finney, q. chen, n. v. russell, v. n. sharifi and swithenbank, j. ( 2012 ) experimental investigation of indoor air pollutants in residential buildings, is published by indoor and built environment. professor vida sharifi is head of the energy and environmental engineering research group in the university of sheffield ’ s faculty of engineering and the director of the sheffield university waste incineration centre for research ( suwic ). the university of sheffield ’ s faculty of engineering the faculty of engineering at the university of sheffield - the 2011 times higher education ’ s university of the year - is one of the largest in the uk. its seven departments include over 4, 000 students and 900 staff and have research - related income worth more than £50m per annum from government, industry and charity sources. the 2008 research assessment exercise ( rae ) confirmed that two thirds of the research carried out was either internationally excellent or internationally leading. the faculty of engineering has a long tradition of working with industry including rolls - royce, network rail and siemens. its industrial successes are exemplified by the award - winning advanced manufacturing research centre ( amrc ) and the new £25 million nuclear advanced manufacturing research centre ( namrc ). the faculty of engineering is set to ensure students continue to benefit from world - class labs and teaching space through the provision of the university ' s new engineering graduate school. this brand new building


£25 million nuclear advanced manufacturing research centre ( namrc ). the faculty of engineering is set to ensure students continue to benefit from world - class labs and teaching space through the provision of the university ' s new engineering graduate school. this brand new building, which will become the centre of the faculty´s postgraduate research and postgraduate teaching activities, will be sited on the corner of broad lane and newcastle street. it will form the first stage in a 15 year plan to improve and extend the existing estate in a bid to provide students with the best possible facilities while improving their student experience. the engineering and physical sciences research council ( epsrc ) the engineering and physical sciences research council ( epsrc ) is the uk ’ s main agency for funding research in engineering and physical sciences. epsrc invests around £800m a year in research and postgraduate training, to help the nation handle the next generation of technological change. the areas covered range from information technology to structural engineering, and mathematics to materials science. this research forms the basis for future economic development in the uk and improvements for everyone ’ s health, lifestyle and culture. epsrc works alongside other research councils with responsibility for other areas of research. the research councils work collectively on issues of common concern via research councils uk. for further information please contact : acting media relations manager the university of sheffield 0114 222 5339


here is a sixteenth - century spanish description : the people of this land are well made, rather tall than short. they are swarthy as leopards ( see below ), of good manners and gestures, for the greater part very skillful, robust, and tireless, and at the same time the most moderate men known. they are very warlike and face death with the greatest resolution. both leopards and jaguars are not usually dark ( swarthy ), the writer must therefore be referring to those that are melanistic ( completely black or very dark ), they are known as black panthers. alonso de zorita wrote of the mexicans : these people are by nature very long - suffering, and nothing will excite or anger them. they are very obedient and teachable. the more noble they are, the more humility they display. this description suggests a meek and spineless people, very different from the aztecs of popular imagination who are forever shedding blood on either the altar or the battlefield. the contradiction, however, is more apparent than real. on the one hand the mexicans showed what parry has called ' a very high degree of social docility - the willing submergence of the individual in the personality of the tribe ', but against this must be set a streak of personal individualism with a tendency towards violence and extremism. in a military state like tennochtitlan physical bravery was taken for granted, and death in battle was something to look forward to. as a mexican poet put it : there is nothing like death in war, nothing like the flowery death so precious to him who gives life : far off i see it : my heart yearns for it! the aztec were a nahuatl - speaking people who in the 15th and early 16th centuries ruled a large empire in what is now central and southern mexico. the aztec are so called from aztlan ( “ white land ” ), an allusion to their place of origin, probably in northern mexico. they were also called the tenochca, from an eponymous ancestor, tenoch, and the mexica, probably from metzliapan ( moon lake ), the mystical name for lake texcoco. from “ tenochca ” was derived the name of their great city, tenochtitlan ; and from “ mexica ” came the name for the city that superseded the aztec capital and the surrounding valley. this name was applied later to the whole mexican nation. the aztec referred to themselves as


of their great city, tenochtitlan ; and from “ mexica ” came the name for the city that superseded the aztec capital and the surrounding valley. this name was applied later to the whole mexican nation. the aztec referred to themselves as culhua - mexica, to link themselves with colhuacan, the sacred city of the toltec, and in their belief, the center of the most civilized people of the valley of mexico. the origin of the aztec people is uncertain, but elements of their own tradition suggest that they were a tribe of hunters and gatherers on the northern mexican plateau before their appearance in mesoamerica in perhaps the 12th century. aztlan, however, may be legendary. it is possible that their migration southward was part of a general movement of peoples that followed, or perhaps helped trigger, the collapse of the toltec civilization. aztec culture is generally grouped with the cultural complex known as the nahuas, because of the common language they shared. according to legend, the various groups who were to become the aztecs came from the north into the anahuac valley around lake texcoco. | the nahua peoples are supposed to have originated in what is now the southwestern united states and northwestern mexico. they split off from the other uto - aztecan peoples and migrated into central mexico at some point around 500 a. d. they settled in and around the basin of mexico and spread to become the dominant people in central mexico. some important mesoamerican civilizations were of nahua ethnicity, for example, the toltec and aztec cultures, as well as the tepaneca, acolhua, tlaxcaltec, xochimilca, and many more. | in the legend, the ancestors of the aztec came from a place in the north called aztlan, the last of seven nahuatlacas ( nahuatl speaking tribes from tlaca ( man ), to make the journey southward. the aztec were said to be guided by their god huitzilopochtli, meaning " left - handed hummingbird ". when they arrived at an island in lake texcoco, they saw an eagle eating a snake while perched on a nopal cactus, a vision that fulfilled a prophecy telling them that they should found their new home on that spot. the aztec built their city of tenochtitlan on that site, building a great artificial island, which today is the center of mexico city. this legendary vision is pictured on the


prophecy telling them that they should found their new home on that spot. the aztec built their city of tenochtitlan on that site, building a great artificial island, which today is the center of mexico city. this legendary vision is pictured on the mexican flag. according to legend, when the aztec arrived in the anahuac valley around lake texcoco, they were considered by the other groups as the least civilized of all, but the aztec decided to learn, and they took all that they could from other peoples, especially from the ancient toltec ( whom they seem to have partially confused with the more ancient civilization of teotihuacan ). to the aztec, the toltecs were the originators of all culture ; " toltecayotl " was a synonym for culture. aztec legends identify the toltecs and the cult of quetzalcoatl with the mythical city of tolan, which they also seem to have miss - identified ; it too was also of the more ancient teotihuacan. quetzalcoatl is derived from the olmec feathered serpent because the aztec adopted and combined several traditions with their own earlier traditions, they had several creation myths ; one of these describes four great ages preceding the present world, each of which ended in a catastrophe. our age – nahui - ollin, the fifth age, or fifth creation – escaped destruction due to the sacrifice of a god ( nanahuatl, " full of sores ", the smallest and humblest of the gods ) who was transformed into the sun. this myth is associated with the ancient city of teotihuacan, which was already abandoned and destroyed when the aztec arrived. another myth describes the earth as a creation of the twin gods tezcatlipoca and quetzalcoatl. tezcatlipoca lost his foot in the process of creating the world and all representations of this god show him without a foot and with a bone exposed. quetzalcoatl is also called " white tezcatlipoca ". after the fall of tula ( toltec city ), in the 12th century a. d., in the valley of mexico and surrounding area, there were several city states of nahua - speaking people : cholula, huexotzingo, tlaxcala, atzcapotzalco, chalco, culhuacan, xochimilco, tlacopan, etc. none of them was powerful enough to


: cholula, huexotzingo, tlaxcala, atzcapotzalco, chalco, culhuacan, xochimilco, tlacopan, etc. none of them was powerful enough to dominate the other cities, all of them were proud of their toltec heritage. aztec chronicles describe this time as a golden age, when music was established, people learned arts and craft from surviving toltecs, and rulers held poetry contests in place of wars. in the 13th and 14th centuries, around the lake texcoco area in the anahuac valley, the most powerful of these city - states were culhuacan to the south, and azcapotzalco to the west. their rule extended over all the area around lake texcoco. as a result, when the mexica ( aztecs ) arrived in the anahuac valley as a semi - nomadic tribe, they had nowhere to go. they established themselves temporarily in chapultepec, but this was under the rule of azcapotzalco, the city of the " tepaneca ", and they were soon expelled. they then went to the zone dominated by culhuacan and, in 1299, the ruler cocoxtli gave them permission to settle in tizapan, a rocky place where no one wanted to live. they began to acquire as much culture as they could from culhuacan : they took and married culhuacan women, so that those women could teach their children. | the anahuac valley = the valley of mexico : it is a highlands plateau in central mexico roughly coterminous with the present - day distrito federal and the eastern half of the state of mexico. surrounded by mountains and volcanoes, the valley of mexico was a centre for several pre - columbian civilizations, including teotihuacan, the toltec, and the aztec. the ancient aztec term anahuac ( land between the waters ) and the phrase basin of mexico are both used at times to refer to the valley of mexico. | in 1323, they asked the new ruler of culhuacan “ achicometl ”, for his daughter in order to make her the goddess yaocihuatl. achicometl unknowingly complied with their request : the mexica sacrificed her. the people of culhuacan were horrified and expelled the mexica. forced to flee culhuacan : in 1325 they


azcapotzalco. at the time the armies met again, nezahualcoyotl reclaimed texcoco and decided to conquer acolhuacan, enteering from the north while the tenochca and tlacopan allies coming from azcapotzalco attacked from the south. the two armies simultaneously attacked the north and south of acolhuacan until they gained dominance of the city ' s main square. after their victory, the coalition began a series of attacks to isolated tepanec posts throughout the territory of texcoco. the defeat of the tepanecs, and the end of the kingdom of azcapotzalco, gave rise to the aztec " triple alliance " between texcoco, tenochtitlan and tlacopan, that came to dominate the valley of mexico, and then extended its power beyond. tenochtitlan gradually became the dominant power in the alliance. nezahualcoyotl, was finally crowned tlatoani of texcoco in 1431. | texcoco, not to be confused with the lake : was a major acolhua city - state in the central mexican plateau. it was situated on the eastern bank of lake texcoco in the valley of mexico, to the northeast of the aztec capital, tenochtitlan. pre - columbian texcoco is most noted for its membership in the aztec triple alliance. at the time of the spanish conquest of mexico, it was one of the largest and most prestigious cities in central mexico, second only to the aztec capital, tenochtitlan. | itzcoatl ' s nephew motecuhzoma i inherited the throne in 1449 a. d, and expanded the realm. his son axayacatl ( 1469 ) added the surrounding kingdom of tlatelolco. his sister was married to the tlatoani of tlatelolco, but as a pretext for war, he declared that she was mistreated. he went on to conquer matlazinca and the cities of tollocan, ocuillan, and mallinalco. he was defeated by the tarascans in tzintzuntzan ( the first great defeat the aztecs had ever suffered ), but recovered and took control of the huasteca region, conquering the mixtecs and zapotecs. in 1481 a. d, axayacatl ' s son tizoc ruled briefly, but he was considered weak, so possibly he


took control of the huasteca region, conquering the mixtecs and zapotecs. in 1481 a. d, axayacatl ' s son tizoc ruled briefly, but he was considered weak, so possibly he was poisoned, and he was replaced by his younger brother ahuitzol who had reorganized the army. the empire was at its largest during his reign. his successor was motecuhzoma xocoyotzin ( better known as moctezuma ii ), who was tlatoani when the spaniards arrived in 1519. the society traditionally was divided into two social classes ; the macehualli ( people ) or peasantry and the pilli or nobility. nobility was not originally hereditary, although the sons of pillis had access to better resources and education, so it was easier for them to become pillis. eventually though, this class system took on the aspects of a hereditary system. the aztec military had a core of full time professional warriors. an aztec became a pilli through his abilities in war. only those that had taken prisoners could become full - time warriors, and eventually the honors and spoils of war would make them pillis. once an aztec warrior had captured 4 or 5 captives, he would be called tequiua and could attain a rank of eagle or jaguar knight, sometimes translated as " captain ", eventually he could reach the rank of tlacateccatl or tlachochcalli. to be elected as tlatoani, one was required to have taken about 17 captives in war. when aztec boys attained adult age, they stopped cutting their hair until they took their first captive ; sometimes two or three youths united to get their first captive ; then they would be called iyac. if after a certain time, usually three combats, they could not gain a captive, they became macehualli ( common folk ) ; it was shameful to be a warrior with long hair, indicating lack of captives ; one would prefer to be a macehualli. the abundance of tributes led to the emergence and rise of a third class that was not part of the traditional aztec society : pochtecas or traders. their activities were not only commercial : they also were an effective intelligence gathering force. they were scorned by the warriors, who nonetheless sent to them their spoils of war in exchange for blankets, feathers, slaves, and other presents. the aztec empire is not completely like the empires of european history. like most european


force. they were scorned by the warriors, who nonetheless sent to them their spoils of war in exchange for blankets, feathers, slaves, and other presents. the aztec empire is not completely like the empires of european history. like most european empires, it was ethnically very diverse, but unlike most european empires, it was more a system of tribute than a single system of government. arnold toynbee in war and civilization analogizes it to the assyrian empire in this respect. although cities under aztec rule seem to have paid heavy tributes, excavations in the aztec - ruled provinces show a steady increase in the welfare of common people after they were conquered. this was probably due to an increase of trade, thanks to better roads and communications. only the upper classes seem to have suffered economically, and only at first. there appears to have been trade even in things that could be produced locally : love of novelty may have been a factor. the most important official of tenochtitlan government is often called the aztec emperor. the nahuatl title, huey tlatoani ( plural huey tlatoque ), translates roughly as " great speaker " ; the tlatoque ( " speakers " ) were an upper class. this office gradually took on more power with the rise of tenochtitlan. by the time of auitzotl " emperor " is an appropriate analogy, although as in the holy roman empire, the title was not hereditary. most of the aztec empire was forged by one man, tlacaelel ( nahuatl for " manly heart " ), who lived from 1397 to 1487. although he was offered the opportunity to be tlatoani, he preferred to stay behind the throne. nephew of tlatoani itzcoatl, and brother of chimalpopoca and motecuhzoma ilhuicamina, his title was " cihuacoatl " ( in honor of the goddess, roughly equivalent to " counselor " ), but as reported in the ramirez codex, " what tlacaellel ordered, was as soon done ". he gave the aztec government a new structure, he ordered the burning of most aztec books ( his explanation being that they were full of lies ) and he rewrote their history. tlacaelel thus created a new history for the aztecs. he also created the institution of ritual war ( flowery war ) as a way to maintain trained warriors, and supply the necessary people for sacrifices to keep the sun moving