however, that limusaurus inextricabilis is a flawless terrestrial life form with a perfect anatomy. it exhibits no transitional form characteristics. all its limbs and structures are flawless. as we have many times made clear, if darwinists want to produce intermediate fossil evidence, then the life forms they produce must be similar to these : as living things turned, according to darwinism, into ever more imaginary forms, anatomical abnormalities must have arisen. there must have been billions of such monstrous life forms, and we should keep digging up their fossil remains everywhere. but since these do not exist, darwinists despairingly take a bone in a fossil, reshape it and call it transitional fossil. yet the fossils they propose all belong to perfect, immaculate and flawless life forms. as we have also clarified before, there is no question of a transition between terrestrial life forms and birds. the anatomic structures of terrestrial life forms and birds are completely different and any change in this perfect anatomical harmony can only prove fatal. the claim regarding the origin of birds that darwinists have been making for so many years has had new frauds added onto it in the example of limusaurus inextricabilis. darwinists have fantastically attempted to equate the fossil with a bird, decided that the dinosaur should have feathers and then resorted to new tactics when no such thing was encountered in the fossil in question. when no feathers were found, they had no compunction about using such expressions as “ the dinosaur ’ s body may have been covered in feathers. ” the aim here is to launch a dinosaur that lived millions of years in the past as a transitional fossil using speculation and sophistry. ( it also needs to be made clear at this point that the idea of the “ feathered dinosaur ” that darwinists have brought up so many times before is totally fantastical. it has been shown that the structures described as feathers are completely different and that the fossils so heralded are false. ) the recent discovery of other findings that totally demolish all claims regarding the passage from dinosaurs to birds, the realization that dinosaurs had a totally different pelvic bone structure to that of birds, the bone being totally unsuited to flight, and that their totally different femur bones in particular made any such transition completely impossible utterly repudiate the darwinist claim on the subject. in addition, this has been openly admitted by darwinist scientists. this perfectly preserved fossil has been deliberately brought up in an attempt to neutralize this huge darwinist collapse


back to tap water the back to tap water campaign was a joint effort by esac, the environmental proctors, and the environmental club. it grew naturally out of a recycling campaign which was intended to raise awareness of our recycling program and encourage community members to recycle. the analysis of the one week ’ s worth of containers that showed that 40 % of recycled containers were disposable water bottles led to our subsequent efforts to reduce the unnecessary and wasteful use of disposable water bottles, hence, the back to tap water campaign. one week ’ s worth of containers during one week in november 2009, deerfield set up large bins in front of the dining hall to display all the metal, glass, and plastic containers we captured for recycling during one week. at the end of the week, students from the environmental studies classes helped to count and categorize these containers. the result showed that 80 % of the containers recycled were plastic and that 40 % of the containers were disposable water bottles such as dasani® and poland springs® bottled water. it was clear that there was an opportunity to make a meaningful change. blind water taste test to begin to understand the prevalence of bottled water usage, we looked at two things – taste and perceptions. one hundred sixty - eight members of the deerfield academy community participated in the blind water taste test set up in the dining hall during a wednesday walkthrough lunch. participants were given a score card to rank in order of preference four unlabeled pitchers of water. the only information given them was that there was both bottled and tap water among the four. the clear winner was filtered tap water from the dining hall. last in preference was unfiltered tap water, which is the water available in the dorms and water fountains around campus. drinking water survey to explore what barriers might prevent deerfield community members from using our tap water, two student members of esac compiled a list of questions to survey community members. two hundred twenty - one people responded to the questions. key results are highlighted below : how often do you drink bottled water? - rarely to never : 34 % - at least once a day : 32 % - at least once a week : 54 % if you knew that deerfield ’ s unfiltered tap water as safe to drink as bottled water, would you then drink tap water as opposed to bottled water? if faucets with filtered water were present in all dormitories, would you be more likely to give up bottled water


two stories appeared this week with more bad news on climate change. first, a review of 866 papers found that animal and plant species are shifting their ranges northward, while polar species are dying out. the linked article from the post included several paragraphs on the economic implications, in this case ski resorts and power companies. i imagine that they are not the only industries facing challenges. " wild species don ' t care who is in the white house, " parmesan said. " it is very obvious they are desperately trying to move to respond to the changing climate. some are succeeding. but for the ones that are already at the mountaintop or at the poles, there is no place for them to go. they are the ones that are going extinct. " among the most affected species, parmesan said, are highland amphibians in the tropics. she said more than two - thirds of 110 species of harlequin frogs, which occupy mountain cloud forests in central america, have become extinct in the past 35 years. meanwhile, many pest species - - including roaches, fleas, ticks and tree - killing beetles - - are surviving warming winters in increasing numbers. " we are seeing throughout the northern hemisphere that pests are able to have more generations per year, which allows them to increase their numbers without being killed off by cold winter temperatures, " said parmesan. meanwhile, the rate of increase of carbon emissions has risen since 2000. around that year, the annual rate of increase rose from about 1 % to 2. 5 %. the global carbon project, which established those figures, identified two causes. " there has been a change in the trend regarding fossil fuel intensity, which is basically the amount of carbon you need to burn for a given unit of wealth, " explained corinne le quere, a global carbon project member who holds posts at the university of east anglia and the british antarctic survey. " from about 1970 the intensity decreased - we became more efficient at using energy - but we ' ve been getting slightly worse since the year 2000, " she told the bbc news website. " the other trend is that as oil becomes more expensive, we ' re seeing a switch from oil burning to charcoal which is more polluting in terms of carbon. "


after great suffering and much loss, both of life and property, and many fruitless endeavors to enlist the general government in their behalf, the citizens were driven to desperation and in 1871 an event took place that compelled the general government to take notice of these outrages and to take these indians under her immediate control, viz., what has since been known as the camp grant massacre, april 30, 1871. the circumstances that immediately led up to the onslaught upon these indians may be worthy of a place in these records and they will be related as succinctly as possible. about the month of february, 1871, the band of apache indians known as aravaipa or pinal apaches being short of rations came into what it now know as old camp grant, situated upon the lower san pedro upon the eastern bank about fifteen miles above its point of junction with the gila river, then occupied as a military station, and made a sort of verbal treaty whereby they were to be supplied with rations and were to live in the vicinity of the camp. it was expected by the people, generally, that indian depredations around tucson and san pedro would now cease, but on the contrary, the indians were more active than ever and the trail of the depredators led to the indian camp in the vicinity of old camp grant whenever so this expedition to exterminate, as nearly as possible, this nest of vipers whom the united states government was unwittingly nourishing was in silence organized, the thinking ones well understanding that if it was made at all, it really should be upon those who had them in charge and guarded if any doubts had existed in the minds of any person as to the fact of these indians having been committing the recent depredations, as charged, upon the inhabitants while living under the protection of the united states military authorities at camp grant, it was now set at rest as among the plunder of their was found the dress of murdered mrs. wooster and a pair of long legged moccasins with mr. wooster ' s initials upon them, and identified by sworn testimony, also, seven horses recently taken from the vicinity of tucson and among the rest, one that was identified as belonging to don leopoldo carillo, so recently taken that he had not missed it. this killing of indians made a great commotion in eastern states and general w. t. sherman, then commanding the army, recommended that all the parties engaged in the affair be taken from the territory and tried for their lives


that he had not missed it. this killing of indians made a great commotion in eastern states and general w. t. sherman, then commanding the army, recommended that all the parties engaged in the affair be taken from the territory and tried for their lives. of course general sherman knew nothing of the depredations these indians had been continually making upon the settlers, all this had been sedulously kept from him, and he had nothing to guide him but the one - sided lying reports of lieutenant whitman, who had these indians directly in charge. all the participants in the camp grant affair were finally arrested and tried in our territorial court, judge titus, presiding, and acquitted as no jury at that time in arizona would convict parties for killing indians known to be hostile. this killing of indians at camp grant, whether strictly in accordance with law or not, led to the sending of general george crook here to command and he arrived in the territory in the month of june, 1871. one vincent collier, an agent of the ultraphilanthropists of the east was sent out soon after to try the soothing method upon the hostile indians, but all the visible effects his negotiations seemed to have was to delay the movements of general crook, who finally, with troops and scouts, had to settle the question by punishing the indians until they humbly begged to be allowed to come in upon reservations.


avocado oil is a key component in the fight against free - radical aging and cancer proliferation by john phillip oxygen has been a critical component in the evolution of life on earth, and humans are no exception as the gas has enabled nutrients to be used more efficiently, in turn allowing for the essential generation of energy required for development and growth. while oxygen is a crucial part of life, it is also implicated in the generation of free radicals that promote abnormal cellular destruction, cancer proliferation and advanced aging in humans. many environmental factors such as pollution, cigarette smoke, and radiation turn the oxygen molecules found in mitochondria into free radicals. these unstable molecules destroy the normal molecules that form our cells, such as lipids, proteins, and even dna, by turning them into free radicals. the destructive nature of free radicals is behind the genesis of many chronic diseases including hypertension, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, dementia, and cancer. this knowledge has prompted researchers to investigate the potent antioxidant properties of fruits and vegetables in the fight against these often fatal illnesses. avocado oil protects cellular mitochondria to prevent free radical damage and aging many prior studies designed to investigate the impact of food based antioxidants on human health have been disappointing because most phytonutrients are unable to penetrate the mitochondrial power factories housed in each cell. free radicals continue to damage the delicate mitochondria, causing energy production to stop and the cell to collapse and die. researchers from the federation of american societies for experimental biology ( faseb ) have released the results of a study conducted with avocado oil to determine absorption by the mitochondria and subsequent neutralization of deadly free radicals. avocado oil is highly resistant to oxidation, and has been shown to help neutralize the metabolic effects of iron, a primary cause of cellular oxidation. lead study design author, dr. christian cortez - rojo noted that " avocado oil causes accelerated respiration in mitochondria, which indicates that the use of nutrients for producing energy for cell functions remains effective even in cells attacked by free radicals and that mitochondria can produce little amounts of damaging free radicals. " avocados have been maligned for decades as poor dietary advice about fat consumption has prevailed in modern medical culture. the study concluded that avocado lowers the blood concentration of cholesterol and certain fats that are increased in diabetic patients and that may lead to stroke or heart attack. adding small amounts of avocado to your daily


medical culture. the study concluded that avocado lowers the blood concentration of cholesterol and certain fats that are increased in diabetic patients and that may lead to stroke or heart attack. adding small amounts of avocado to your daily diet can provide excellent antioxidant support to protect mitochondria from early decline and protect against chronic diseases of aging. sources for this article include : http : / / www. sciencedaily. com / releases / 2012 / 04 / 120422162217. htmhttp : / / www. eurekalert. org / pub _ releases / 2012 - 04 / foas - aot041712. phphttp : / / www. medicalnewstoday. com / releases / 244436. phpabout the author : john phillip is a health researcher and author who writes regularly on the cutting edge use of diet, lifestyle modifications and targeted supplementation to enhance and improve the quality and length of life. john is the author of ' your healthy weight loss plan ', a comprehensive ebook explaining how to use diet, exercise, mind and targeted supplementation to achieve your weight loss goal. visit my optimal health resource http : / / myoptimalhealthresource. blogspot. com / to continue reading the latest health news updates, and to download your free 48 page copy of ' your healthy weight loss plan '.


injections to kick - start tissue repair by jane e. brody published : august 7, 2007 new york times the human body is held together by a network of connective tissues that are highly vulnerable to injury — through exercise, accidents and even the normal lifting, pulling and pushing of daily life. few of us, for example, get through life without spraining an ankle. and as many sadly know, once an ankle is badly sprained, it may be sprained again and again. that often happens as well with other body parts : shoulders, wrists, neck, back, jaw, feet, even fingers and toes, all of which are subject to arthritic changes after an injury. the risk of reinjury rises when the ligaments that hold bone to bone, or the tendons that connect bone to muscle, fail to heal completely. and such failure is apparently very common. over time, and with multiple injuries, this incomplete healing can result in lax connective tissues that cannot fully support a joint. dr. k. dean reeves, clinical associate professor of physical medicine and rehabilitation at the university of kansas medical center, likens the damage to a partly shredded rope that lacks the strength of an intact one, and to stretched putty that will not return to its former length. dr. reeves is one of several hundred physicians and osteopaths who specialize in a therapeutic technique called prolotherapy, an alternative medicine method to promote connective tissue repair even years after the damage occurred. the technique received an endorsement of sorts from the mayo clinic. in its april 2005 health letter, the clinic stated that when chronic ligament or tendon pain fails to respond to more conservative treatments like physical therapy and prescribed exercises, “ prolotherapy may be helpful. ” and when surgery is the only remaining option to relieve chronic pain, prolotherapy is a much less invasive and expensive technique that may be worth a try — if you can find an experienced and skilled practitioner. what is prolotherapy? prolotherapy involves a series of injections designed to produce inflammation in the injured tissue. to appreciate the value of such a seemingly counterproductive measure, you need to know something about connective tissue and how the body normally repairs it. when tissues are injured, inflammation is a common natural response. it stimulates substances carried in blood that produce growth factors in the injured area to promote healing. ligaments, tendons and cartilage have very poor blood supplies, which can result in incomplete


tissues are injured, inflammation is a common natural response. it stimulates substances carried in blood that produce growth factors in the injured area to promote healing. ligaments, tendons and cartilage have very poor blood supplies, which can result in incomplete healing. the healing process can also be impeded when injuries are treated with anti - inflammatory medications like ibuprofen or naprosyn, or prescribed nonsteroidal anti - inflammatory drugs ( nsaids ) to relieve pain and swelling. unlike injections of corticosteroids, which also suppress inflammation and provide only temporary relief for a chronic condition, prolotherapy injections given over the course of several months are meant to provide a permanent benefit. in effect, prolotherapy tricks the body into initiating a healing response. the technique reactivates the healing process by injecting a mildly irritating substance — commonly a somewhat concentrated sugar solution along with the painkiller lidocaine — into the injured area to stimulate a temporary low - grade inflammation. in some cases, growth factors themselves may be injected. with growth factors in place at the site of inflammation, new tissue is said to be produced that strengthens lax or unstable ligaments and tendons. the technique may even support damaged or degenerated cartilage, which normally does not repair itself, by strengthening the fibrous connective tissues that stabilize the area. practitioners cite experiments in laboratory animals that demonstrated tissue growth in ligaments and tendons stimulated by prolotherapy injections. two animal studies also showed healing of cartilage defects. prolotherapy cannot correct mechanical problems like spinal stenosis, in which two bones pinch a nerve, nor does it reverse arthritic changes. but it may reduce or even eliminate the discomfort associated with arthritis by tightening the connective tissues that support an arthritic joint. a leader in the field, dr. donna alderman, an osteopathic physician who is medical director of the hemwall family medical centers in california, published two long articles on prolotherapy this year in the magazine practical pain management. she wrote that “ prolotherapy has been used in the united states for musculoskeletal pain since the 1930s, ” that it has been endorsed by former surgeon general c. everett koop, and that it is increasingly being used to treat injuries in professional athletes. prolotherapy is also now the subject of a controlled clinical trial sponsored by the national center for complementary and alternative medicine


endorsed by former surgeon general c. everett koop, and that it is increasingly being used to treat injuries in professional athletes. prolotherapy is also now the subject of a controlled clinical trial sponsored by the national center for complementary and alternative medicine, part of the national institutes of health. since prolotherapy is a nonsurgical technique, patients who are now facing surgery because all else has failed might consider trying it before having an operation. unlike many drugs and surgery, prolotherapy has minimal side effects when performed by an experienced practitioner who uses sterile techniques. patients may experience bruising and a temporary increase in pain in the injected area because of the induced inflammation. rare risks include infection, headache, nerve irritation or allergic reaction. does it help? there have been dozens of studies purporting to show benefits of prolotherapy for people with chronic pain as well as those with sports injuries. among scientifically designed controlled studies, most showed a significant improvement in the patients ’ level of pain and ability to move the painful joint. according to dr. alderman, in a study of people with chronic low back pain resulting from injured ligaments in the sacroiliac joint, biopsies done three months after treatment showed a 60 percent increase in the diameter of connective tissue. the patients reported a decrease in pain and an increased range of motion. in studies of knee injuries, patients with ligament laxity and instability experienced a tightening of those ligaments, including the often disabling anterior cruciate ligament in the center of the knee, dr. reeves showed in a double - blind study. other studies showed a significant improvement in the symptoms of arthritis in the knee one to three years after prolotherapy injections. dr. alderman cautions that prolotherapy is appropriate only for patients with musculoskeletal pain who do not have underlying conditions that would interfere with healing and who are willing to receive painful injections in an effort to recover. a state - by - state listing of prolotherapy practitioners can be found at www. getprolo. com. beware of practitioners who make rash promises, fail to take a full medical history and to tell you about the technique and its side effects, or who work in a disorderly or unclean facility.


nasa began observing a dust storm on the planet mars on november 10, 2012. martian dust storms are the largest such storms in our solar system. over the century that astronomers have monitored them through telescopes – and now via spacecraft – these periodic storms have been know to rage for months and grow to cover the entire planet mars. this one, however, appeared to be dissipating by early december, 2012. dust storms on mars sometimes start in the months before mars is closest to the sun, as it soon will be. mars will reach perihelion – its closest point to the sun – in january 2013. each martian year lasts about two earth years. regional dust storms expanded and affected vast areas of mars in 2001 and 2007, but not between those years and not since 2007. the image above is a mosaic taken by a spacecraft in orbit around mars, the wonderful mars reconnaissance orbiter, on november 18, 2012. small white arrows outline the area in mars ’ southern hemisphere where the 2012 martian dust storm was building. the storm was not far from two mars rovers, opportunity and curiosity. at that time, rich zurek, chief mars scientist at nasa ’ s jet propulsion laboratory, pasadena, california said : this is now a regional dust storm. it has covered a fairly extensive region with its dust haze, and it is in a part of the planet where some regional storms in the past have grown into global dust hazes. for the first time since the viking missions of the 1970s, we are studying a regional dust storm both from orbit and with a weather station on the surface. that weather station on mars comes from the mars rover curiosity, which landed on mars on august 5, 2012. nasa says curiosity ’ s weather station detected atmospheric changes related to the storm. for example, its sensors measured decreased air pressure and a slight rise in overnight low temperature. in fact, dust storms on mars are known to raise the air temperature of the planet, sometimes globally. the opportunity rover on mars – that stalwart vehicle that has been tooling around on the red planet since 2004 and is now near the endeavour crater on mars – does not have a weather station. opporunity was within 837 miles ( 1, 347 kilometers ) of the storm on november 21, nasa said, and did observe a slight drop in atmospheric clarity from its location. if the storm had taken over the entire planet and clouded over the sky, it would have impacted opportunity most heavily, because that rover relies on the sun for energy. the rover ’ s energy


children must be prepared as they transition from early intervention to school based programs, from elementary to middle school programs, and from middle school to high school programs. one of the biggest transitions is preparing students to move from high school to work, college, or technical school. students must have transition plans established to help prepare them for the time when they graduate from high school and transition into the work force or further educational settings. a coordinated team effort involving parents and educators is necessary for construction of an effective transition plan, and for successful transition to occur. make sure you also take a look at our transition resources - click here. the individuals with disabilities act requires that beginning as early as age 14, the iep team must establish a transition statement based on the student ' s course work and educational goals. when the student becomes 16 years of age, the iep team must develop a transition statement that includes a description of interagency involvement and necessary services. the student with a combination of vision and hearing loss may need extra time to prepare for transition to adult life. it is important for parent and teachers to consider the student ' s educational as well as vocational goals early, so that everyone is headed in the same direction. independence is a key factor in achieving success in adult life. it is therefore necessary to consider the student ' s ability to travel independently and communicate. a student may require an interpreter as he journeys to college, or he may require special accommodations at a work site. identifying these needs and appropriate supports should be part of the transition process.


eh. net is owned and operated by the economic history association with the support of other sponsoring organizations. the national recovery administration barbara alexander, charles river associates this article outlines the history of the national recovery administration, one of the most important and controversial agencies in roosevelt ' s new deal. it discusses the agency ' s " codes of fair competition " under which antitrust law exemptions could be granted in exchange for adoption of minimum wages, problems some industries encountered in their subsequent attempts to fix prices under the codes, and the macroeconomic effects of the program. the early new deal suspension of antitrust law under the national recovery administration ( nra ) is surely one of the oddest episodes in american economic history. in its two - year life, the nra oversaw the development of so - called " codes of fair competition " covering the larger part of the business landscape. 1 the nra generally is thought to have represented a political exchange whereby business gave up some of its rights over employees in exchange for permission to form cartels. 2 typically, labor is taken to have gotten the better part of the bargain ; the union movement having extended its new powers after the supreme court abolished the nra in 1935, while the business community faced a newly aggressive ftc by the end of the 1930s. while this characterization may be true in broad outline, close examination of the nra reveals that matters may be somewhat more complicated than is suggested by the interpretation of the program as a win for labor contrasted with a missed opportunity for business. recent evaluations of the nra have wended their way back to themes sounded during the early nineteen thirties, in particular, interrelationships between the so - called " trade practice " or cartelization provisions of the program and the grant of enhanced bargaining power to trade unions. 3 on the microeconomic side, allowing unions to bargain for industry - wide wages may have facilitated cartelization in some industries. meanwhile, macroeconomists have suggested that the act and its progeny, especially labor measures such as the national labor relations act may bear more responsibility for the length and severity of the great depression than has been recognized heretofore. 4 if this thesis holds up to closer scrutiny, the era may come to be seen as a primary example of the potential macroeconomic costs of shifts in political and economic power. kickoff campaign and blanket codes the nra began operations in a burst of " ballyhoo " during the summer of 1933. 5 the agency was formed upon passage of the national industrial recovery act ( nira ) in


in political and economic power. kickoff campaign and blanket codes the nra began operations in a burst of " ballyhoo " during the summer of 1933. 5 the agency was formed upon passage of the national industrial recovery act ( nira ) in mid - june. a kick - off campaign of parades and press events succeeded in getting over 2 million employers to sign a preliminary " blanket code " known as the " president ' s re - employment agreement. " signatories of the pra pledged to pay minimum wages ranging from around $ 12 to $ 15 per 40 - hour week, depending on size of town. some 16 million workers were covered, out of a non - farm labor force of some 25 million. " share - the - work " provisions called for limits of 35 to 40 hours per week for most employees. 6 over the next year and a half, the blanket code was superseded by over 500 codes negotiated for individual industries. the nira provided that : " upon the application to the president by one or more trade or industrial associations or groups, the president may approve a code or codes of fair competition for the trade or industry. " 7 the carrot held out to induce participation was enticing : " any code... and any action complying with the provisions thereof... shall be exempt from the provisions of the antitrust laws of the united states. " 8 representatives of trade associations overran washington, and by the time the nra was abolished, hundreds of codes covering over three - quarters of private, non - farm employment had been approved. 9 code signatories were supposed to be allowed to use the nra " blue eagle " as a symbol that " we do our part " only as long as they remained in compliance with code provisions. 10 almost 80 percent of the codes had provisions that were directed at establishment of price floors. 11 the act did not specifically authorize businesses to fix prices, and indeed it specified that "... codes are not designed to promote monopolies. " 12 however, it is an understatement to say that there was never any consensus among firms, industries and nra officials as to precisely what was to be allowed as part of an acceptable code. arguments about exactly what the nira allowed, and how the nra should implement the act began during its drafting and continued unabated throughout its life. the arguments extended from the level of general principles to the smallest details of policy, unsurprising given the complete dependence of appropriate regulatory design on precise regulatory


nra should implement the act began during its drafting and continued unabated throughout its life. the arguments extended from the level of general principles to the smallest details of policy, unsurprising given the complete dependence of appropriate regulatory design on precise regulatory objectives, which here were embroiled in dispute from start to finish. to choose just one out of many examples of such disputes : there was a debate within the nra as to whether " code authorities " ( industry governing bodies ) should be allowed to use industry - wide or " representative " cost data to define a price floor based on " lowest reasonable cost. " most economists would understand this type of rule as a device that would facilitate monopoly pricing. however, a charitable interpretation of the views of administration proponents is that they had some sort of " soft competition " in mind. that is, they wished to develop and allow the use of mechanisms that would extend to more fragmented industries a type of peaceful coexistence more commonly associated with oligopoly. those nra supporters of the representative - cost - based price floor imagined that a range of prices would emerge if such a floor were to be set, whereas detractors believed that " the minimum would become the maximum, " that is, the floor would simply be a cartel price, constraining competition across all firms in an industry. 13 while a rule allowing emergency price floors based on " lowest reasonable cost " was eventually approved, there was no coherent nra program behind it. 14 indeed, the nra and code authorities often operated at cross - purposes. at the same time that some officials of the nra arguably took actions to promote softened competition, some in industry tried to implement measures more likely to support hard - core cartels, even when they thereby reduced the chance of soft competition should collusion fail. for example, with the partial support of the nra, many code authorities moved to standardize products, shutting off product differentiation as an arena of potential rivalry, in spite of its role as one of the strongest mechanisms that might soften price competition. 15 of course if one is looking to run a naked price - fixing scheme, it is helpful to eliminate product differentiation as an avenue for cost - raising, profit - eroding rivalry. an industry push for standardization can thus be seen as a way of supporting hard - core cartelization, while less enthusiasm on the part of some administration officials may have reflected an understanding, however intuitive, that socially more desirable soft competition required that avenues for product differentiation be left open. national recovery


be seen as a way of supporting hard - core cartelization, while less enthusiasm on the part of some administration officials may have reflected an understanding, however intuitive, that socially more desirable soft competition required that avenues for product differentiation be left open. national recovery review board according to some critical observers then and later, the codes did lead to an unsurprising sort of " golden age " of cartelization. the national recovery review board, led by an outraged clarence darrow ( of scopes " monkey trial " fame ) concluded in may of 1934 that " in certain industries monopolistic practices existed. " 16 while there are legitimate examples of every variety of cartelization occurring under the nra, many contemporaneous and subsequent assessments of darrow ' s work dismiss the board ' s " analysis " as hopelessly biased. thus although its conclusions are interesting as a matter of political economy, it is far from clear that the board carried out any dispassionate inventory of conditions across industries, much less a real weighing of evidence. 17 in contrast to darrow ' s perspective, other commentators focus on the " compliance crisis " that erupted within a few months of passage of the nira. 18 many industries were faced with " chiselers " who refused to respect code pricing rules. firms that attempted to uphold code prices in the face of defection lost both market share and respect for the nra. nra state compliance offices had recorded over 30, 000 " trade practice " complaints by early 1935. 19 however, the compliance program was characterized by " a marked timidity on the part of nra enforcement officials. " 20 this timidity was fatal to the program, since monopoly pricing can easily be more damaging than is the most bare - knuckled competition to a firm that attempts it without parallel action from its competitors. nra hesitancy came about as a result of doubts about whether a vigorous enforcement effort would withstand constitutional challenge, a not - unrelated lack of support from the department of justice, public antipathy for enforcement actions aimed at forcing sellers to charge higher prices, and unabating internal nra disputes about the advisability of the price - fixing core of the trade practice program. 21 consequently, by mid - 1934, firms disinclined to respect code pricing rules were ignoring them. by that point then, contrary to the initial expectations of many code signatories, the new antitrust regime represented only permission to form voluntary cartelization agreements, not the advent of government - enforced cartels. even


code pricing rules were ignoring them. by that point then, contrary to the initial expectations of many code signatories, the new antitrust regime represented only permission to form voluntary cartelization agreements, not the advent of government - enforced cartels. even there, participants had to be discreet, so as not to run afoul of the antimonopoly language of the act. it is still far from clear how much market power was conferred by the nra ' s loosening of antitrust constraints. of course, modern observers of the alternating successes and failures of cartels such as opec will not be surprised that the nra program led to mixed results. in the absence of government enforcement, the program simply amounted to de facto legalization of self - enforcing cartels. with respect to the ease of collusion, economic theory is clear only on the point that self - enforceability is an open question ; self - interest may lead to either breakdown of agreements or success at sustaining them. conflicts between large and small firms some part of the difficulties encountered by nra cartels may have had roots in a progressive mandate to offer special protection to the " little guy. " the nira had specified that acceptable codes of fair competition must not " eliminate or oppress small enterprises, " 22 and that " any organization availing itself of the benefits of this title shall be truly representative of the trade or industry... any organization violating... shall cease to be entitled to the benefits of this title. " 23 majority rule provisions were exceedingly common in codes, and were most likely a reflection of this statutory mandate. the concern for small enterprise had strong progressive roots. 24 justice brandeis ' s well - known antipathy for large - scale enterprise and concentration of economic power reflected a widespread and long - standing debate about the legitimate goals of the american experiment. in addition to evaluating monopolization under the codes, the darrow board had been charged with assessing the impact of the nra on small business. its conclusion was that " in certain industries small enterprises were oppressed. " again however, as with his review of monopolization, darrow may have seen only what he was predisposed to see. a number of nra " code histories " detail conflicts within industries in which small, higher - cost producers sought to use majority rule provisions to support pricing at levels above those desired by larger, lower - cost producers. in the absence of effective enforcement from the government, such prices were doomed to break down, triggering repeated price wars


small, higher - cost producers sought to use majority rule provisions to support pricing at levels above those desired by larger, lower - cost producers. in the absence of effective enforcement from the government, such prices were doomed to break down, triggering repeated price wars in some industries. 25 by 1935, there was understandable bitterness about what many businesses viewed as the lost promise of the nra. undoubtedly, the bitterness was exacerbated by the fact that the nra wanted higher wages while failing to deliver the tools needed for effective cartelization. however, it is not entirely clear that everyone in the business community felt that the labor provisions of the act were undesirable. 26 labor and employment issues by their nature, market economies give rise to surplus - eroding rivalry among those who would be better off collectively if they could only act in concert. nra codes of fair competition, specifying agreements on pricing and terms of employment, arose from a perceived confluence of interests among representatives of " business, " " labor, " and " the public " in muting that rivalry. many proponents of the nira held that competitive pressures on business had led to downward pressure on wages, which in turn caused low consumption, leading to greater pressure on business, and so on. allowing workers to organize and bargain collectively, while their employers pledged to one another not to sell below cost, was identified as a way to arrest harmful deflationary forces. knowledge that one ' s rivals would also be forced to pay " code wages " had some potential for aiding cartel survival. thus the rationale for nra wage supports at the microeconomic level potentially dovetailed with the macroeconomic theory by which higher wages were held to support higher consumption and, in turn, higher prices. labor provisions of the nira appeared in section 7 : "... employees shall have the right to organize and bargain collectively through representatives of their own choosing... employers shall comply with the maximum hours of labor, minimum rates of pay, and other conditions of employment... " 27 each " code of fair competition " had to include labor provisions acceptable to the national recovery administration, developed during a process of negotiations, hearings, and review. thus in order to obtain the shield against antitrust prosecution for their " trade practices " offered by an approved code, significant concessions to workers had to be made. the nra is generally judged to have been a success for labor and a miserable failure for business. however, evaluation is complicated to the extent that labor could not have achieved gains with


by an approved code, significant concessions to workers had to be made. the nra is generally judged to have been a success for labor and a miserable failure for business. however, evaluation is complicated to the extent that labor could not have achieved gains with respect to collective bargaining rights over wages and working conditions, had those rights not been more or less willingly granted by employers operating under the belief that stabilization of labor costs would facilitate cartelization. the labor provisions may have indeed helped some industries as well as helping workers, and for firms in such industries, the nra cannot have been judged a failure. moreover, while some businesses may have found the act beneficial, because labor cost stability or freedom to negotiate with rivals enhanced their ability to cooperate on price, it is not entirely obvious that workers as a class gained as much as is sometimes contended. the nra did help solidify new and important norms regarding child labor, maximum hours, and other conditions of employment ; it will never be known if the same progress could have been made had not industry been more or less hornswoggled into giving ground, using the antitrust laws as bait. whatever the long - term effects of the nra on worker welfare, the short - term gains for labor associated with higher wages were questionable. while those workers who managed to stay employed throughout the nineteen thirties benefited from higher wages, to the extent that workers were also consumers, and often unemployed consumers at that, or even potential entrepreneurs, they may have been better off without the nra. the issue is far from settled. ben bernanke and martin parkinson examine the economic growth that occurred during the new deal in spite of higher wages and suggest " part of the answer may be that the higher wages ' paid for themselves ' through increased productivity of labor. probably more important, though, is the observation that with imperfectly competitive product markets, output depends on aggregate demand as well as the real wage. maybe herbert hoover and henry ford were right : higher real wages may have paid for themselves in the broader sense that their positive effect on aggregate demand compensated for their tendency to raise cost. " 28 however, christina romer establishes a close connection between nra programs and the failure of wages and prices to adjust to high unemployment levels. in her view, " by preventing the large negative deviations of output from trend in the mid - 1930s from exerting deflationary pressure, [ the nra ] prevented the economy ' s self - correction mechanism from working. " 29 aftermath of supreme court ' s ruling in schecter


deviations of output from trend in the mid - 1930s from exerting deflationary pressure, [ the nra ] prevented the economy ' s self - correction mechanism from working. " 29 aftermath of supreme court ' s ruling in schecter case the supreme court struck down the nra on may 27, 1935 ; the case was a dispute over violations of labor provisions of the " live poultry code " allegedly perpetrated by the schecter poultry corporation. the court held the code to be invalid on grounds of " attempted delegation of legislative power and the attempted regulation of intrastate transactions which affect interstate commerce only indirectly. " 30 there were to be no more grand bargains between business and labor under the new deal. riven by divergent agendas rooted in industry - and firm - specific technology and demand, " business " was never able to speak with even the tenuous degree of unity achieved by workers. following the abortive attempt to get the government to enforce cartels, firms and industries went their own ways, using a variety of strategies to enhance their situations. a number of sectors did succeed in getting passage of " little nras " with mechanisms tailored to mute competition in their particular circumstances. these mechanisms included the robinson - patman act, aimed at strengthening traditional retailers against the ability of chain stores to buy at lower prices, the guffey acts, in which high cost bituminous coal operators and coal miners sought protection from the competition of lower cost operators, and the motor carrier act in which high cost incumbent truckers obtained protection against new entrants. 31 on - going macroeconomic analysis suggests that the general public interest may have been poorly served by the experiment of the nra. like many macroeconomic theories, the validity of the underconsumption scenario that was put forth in support of the program depended on the strength and timing of the operation of its various mechanisms. increasingly it appears that the nra set off inflationary forces thought by some to be desirable at the time, but that in fact had depressing effects on demand for labor and on output. pure monopolistic deadweight losses probably were less important than higher wage costs ( although there has not been any close examination of inefficiencies that may have resulted from the nra ' s attempt to protect small higher - cost producers ). the strength of any mitigating effects on aggregate demand remains to be established. 1 leverett lyon, p. homan, l. lorwin, g. terborgh, c. dearing


to protect small higher - cost producers ). the strength of any mitigating effects on aggregate demand remains to be established. 1 leverett lyon, p. homan, l. lorwin, g. terborgh, c. dearing, l. marshall, the national recovery administration : an analysis and appraisal, washington : brooking institution, 1935, p. 313, footnote 9. 2 see, for example, charles frederick roos, nra economic planning, colorado springs : cowles commission, 1935, p. 343. 3see, for example, colin gordon, new deals : business, labor, and politics in america, 1920 - 1935, new york : cambridge university press, 1993, especially chapter 5. 4christina d. romer, " why did prices rise in the 1930s? " journal of economic history 59, no. 1 ( 1999 ) : 167 - 199 ; michael weinstein, recovery and redistribution under the nira, amsterdam : north holland, 1980, and harold l. cole and lee e. ohanian, " new deal policies and the persistence of the great depression, " working paper 597, federal reserve bank of minneapolis, february 2001. but also see " unemployment, inflation and wages in the american depression : are there lessons for europe? " ben bernanke and martin parkinson, american economic review : papers and proceedings 79, no. 2 ( 1989 ) : 210 - 214. 5 see, for example, donald brand, corporatism and the rule of law : a study of the national recovery administration, ithaca : cornell university press, 1988, p. 94. 6 see, for example, roos, op. cit., pp. 77, 92. 7 section 3 ( a ) of the national industrial recovery act, reprinted at p. 478 of roos, op. cit. 8 section 5 of the national industrial recovery act, reprinted at p. 483 of roos, op. cit. note though, that the legal status of actions taken during the nra era was never clear ; roos points out that "... president roosevelt signed an executive order on january 20, 1934, providing that any complainant of monopolistic practices... could press it before the federal trade commission or request the assistance of the department of justice. and, on the same date, donald richberg issued a supplementary statement which said that the provisions of the anti - trust laws were still in effect and that the nra would not tolerate


federal trade commission or request the assistance of the department of justice. and, on the same date, donald richberg issued a supplementary statement which said that the provisions of the anti - trust laws were still in effect and that the nra would not tolerate monopolistic practices. " ( roos, op. cit. p. 376. ) 9 lyon, op. cit., p. 307, cited at p. 52 in lee and ohanian, op cit. 10 roos, op. cit., p. 75 ; and blackwell smith, my imprint on the sands of time : the life of a new dealer, vantage press, new york, p. 109. 11 lyon, op. cit., p. 570. 12 section 3 ( a ) ( 2 ) of the national industrial recovery act, op. cit. 13 roos, op. cit., at pp. 254 - 259. charles roos comments that " leon henderson and blackwell smith, in particular, became intrigued with a notion that competition could be set up within limits and that in this way wide price variations tending to demoralize an industry could be prevented. " 14 lyon, et al., op. cit., p. 605. 15 smith, assistant counsel of the nra ( per roos, op cit., p. 254 ), has the following to say about standardization : one of the more controversial subjects, which we didn ' t get into too deeply, except to draw guidelines, was standardization. " smith goes on to discuss the obvious need to standardize rail track gauges, plumbing fittings, and the like, but concludes, " industry on the whole wanted more standardization than we could go with. " ( blackwell smith, op. cit., pp. 106 - 7. ) one must not go overboard looking for coherence among the various positions espoused by nra administrators ; along these lines it is worth remembering smith ' s statement some 60 years later : " business ' s reaction to my policy [ smith was speaking generally here of his collective proposals ] to some extent was hostile. they wished that the codes were not as strict as i wanted them to be. also, there was criticism from the liberal / labor side to the effect that the codes were more in favor of business than they should have been. i said, ' we are guided by a squealometer. we tune policy until the squeals are the same pitch from both


liberal / labor side to the effect that the codes were more in favor of business than they should have been. i said, ' we are guided by a squealometer. we tune policy until the squeals are the same pitch from both sides. ' " ( smith, op. cit. p. 108. ) 16 quoted at p 378 of roos, op. cit. 17 brand, op. cit. at pp. 159 - 60 cites in agreement extremely critical conclusions by roos ( op. cit. at p. 409 ) and arthur schlesinger, the age of roosevelt : the coming of the new deal, boston : houghton mifflin, 1959, p. 133. 18 roos acknowledges a breakdown by spring of 1934 : " by march, 1934 something was urgently needed to encourage industry to observe code provisions ; business support for the nra had decreased materially and serious compliance difficulties had arisen. " ( roos, op. cit., at p. 318. ) brand dates the start of the compliance crisis much earlier, in the fall of 1933. ( brand, op. cit., p. 103. ) 19 lyon, op. cit., p. 264. 20 lyon, op. cit., p. 268. 21 lyon, op. cit., pp. 268 - 272. see also peter h. irons, the new deal lawyers, princeton : princeton university press, 1982. 22 section 3 ( a ) ( 2 ) of the national industrial recovery act, op. cit. 23 section 6 ( b ) of the national industrial recovery act, op. cit. 24 brand, op. cit. 25 barbara alexander and gary d. libecap, " the effect of cost heterogeneity in the success and failure of the new deal ' s agricultural and industrial programs, " explorations in economic history, 37 ( 2000 ), pp. 370 - 400. 26 gordon, op. cit. 27 section 7 of the national industrial recovery act, reprinted at pp. 484 - 5 of roos, op. cit. 28 bernanke and parkinson, op. cit., p. 214. 29 romer, op. cit., p. 197. 30 supreme court of the united states, nos. 854 and 864, october term, 1934, ( decision issued may 27, 1935 ). reprinted in roos, op. cit


signs and symptoms - bright red, spurting blood = arterial bleed. - dark red, flowing blood = venous bleed. - slow, oozing blood = capillary bleed. - bleeding from the nose, ears, or mouth may be due to head injury. - internal bleeding signs - abdominal bruising. - distended abdomen. - bleeding from mouth, rectum and other body orifice. - vomiting blood ( a red or dark color ). - stools with blood. - shock signs - altered mental status. - rapid, thready pulse. - decreased ( or normal if in the compensatory stage ) blood pressure. - rapid, shallow respiratory rate. - pale, cool clammy skin. - poor cap refill. - narrow pulse pressure ( low systolic, high diastolic ) due to vasoconstriction. - altered mental status. - dilated pupils that are slow to respond to light. - direct pressure : immediately press down with the finger tips of your gloved hand. apply pressure over a dressing when it becomes available. - elevate extremity : if bone fracture or joint injury occurred, splint before elevating extremity. - pressure points : brachial artery for the upper extremity and femoral artery for the lower extremity. - ppv if needed. - splinting : provides immobilization that prevents further injury. - traction splint : for femur fractures. - air splint : a splint that also applies pressure to control bleeding. - pasg ( pneumatic antishock garment ) : control severe bleeding in the pelvis and lower extremities. - cold application to local area : ice packs wrapped with a soft covering, applied to the site of injury can help clotting, vasoconstriction and may reduce swelling. - tourniquet as a last resort, as close to the injury site as possible, and follow medical direction. - for nose bleeds, have the patient sit and lean forward, pinch the nostrils together and apply ice pack to the bridge of the nose. - do not give medications that are anticoagulants such as aspirin to patients with bleeding. - patients with signs of shock should be placed in a trendelenburg position to help maintain blood pressure. - keep shock patients warm so their core body temperature is maintained. wrap patient in blankets. - als intercept can better stabilize shock patients by trans


. - patients with signs of shock should be placed in a trendelenburg position to help maintain blood pressure. - keep shock patients warm so their core body temperature is maintained. wrap patient in blankets. - als intercept can better stabilize shock patients by transfusion of saline solution. trauma conditions and mechanisms - femur fracture : up to 1500 ml of blood can be lost around each femur. the traction splint pulls on the leg and decrease the amount of blood that can bleed into it. - 3000 ml of blood can be lost in the thorax. - tibia, fibula and humerus can lose up to 500 - 750 ml of blood. - bleeding in the nasopharynx can fall into the stomach, which results in vomiting of blood. - in response to loss of blood, the body responds by increasing heart rate, strength of contraction, and vasoconstriction. also, the adrenal glands will secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine, which stimulate vasoconstriction and sweating. all this serves to maintain blood pressure and gives the patient the characteristic shock signs of pale, cool and clammy skin. - hemophilia : clotting disorder where bleeding can not stop. - shock is hypoperfusion due to a variety of factors : - fluid loss : from bleeding, fluid loss, or dehydration. the body ' s response is vasoconstriction to maintain blood pressure. - pump failure : inadequate heart function. - vasodilation : blood pressure drops when vessels dilate. - hypoxia : inadequate oxygen. - types of shock : - hypovolemic shock : decreased blood volume. a type of hypovolemic shock is hemorrhagic shock, which results from blood loss. - obstructive shock : something blocks perfusion to the heart. for example, pulmonary embolism, tension pneumothorax, or cardiac tamponade. - distributive shock : abnormal blood distribution that leads to inadequate blood reaching the heart. - vasogenic or neurogenic shock : nervous system injury leading to vasodilation in the periphery. this causes inadequate perfusion to the vital organs. - anaphylactic shock : severe allergic reaction that leads to vasodilation and bronchoconstriction. - cadiogenic shock : inadequate pumping of the heart. can be due to heart disease or heart attack. - stages


. - anaphylactic shock : severe allergic reaction that leads to vasodilation and bronchoconstriction. - cadiogenic shock : inadequate pumping of the heart. can be due to heart disease or heart attack. - stages of shock : - compensatory shock : the body is able to maintain blood pressure by vasoconstriction and also maintain perfusion by increasing the pulse and respiratory rate. perfusion to the periphery decreases as blood is shunted to maintain perfusion to the vital organs. thus the patients exhibits normal blood pressure but has a high diastolic blood pressure ( vasoconstriction ), increased pulse and respiratory rate, pale and cool skin ( blood shunting to the vital organs ) and anxiety ( epinephrine effect ). - decompensated ( progressive ) shock : the body can no longer maintain adequate perfusion to the vital organs. blood pressure drops even though the heart attempts to beat even faster ( tachycardia ) and stronger. this leads to a very weak pulse. vasoconstriction increases so much that it begins to shut off perfusion to vital organs - kidney failure. metabolic waste from poor perfusion builds up. more epinephrine is released and the skin becomes pale, cool and clammy. thirst develops. as the brain experiences hypoxia, the patient experiences anxiety and eventually altered mental status. - irreversible shock : the body fails at this stage, and the effects can not be reversed. blood pressure drops so much that even the carotid and femoral pulses are barely palpable. the heart begins to slow and eventually stop. breathing is ineffective ( rapid, shallow ). the skin mottles. bleeding may occur from every orifice. patient is unresponsive. - epistaxis : nosebleed. - hematoma : a contained collection of blood.


skagarans appear nearly identical to humans with the exception of distinguishing red protrusions above each eyebrow, on their throat, and in front of each ear. they also have red blood, like many humanoid species, and their body has a higher tolerance to alcohol than a human body. they are similar enough to humans to produce children with them. society and cultureedit technologically, the skagarans achieved warp drive by earth ' s mid - 19th century. they possessed weapons which were probably phasers or disruptors ( " guns which emitted a beam of light " ) and, reportedly, had transporter technology ( " they could move through thin air from one place to another " ). their starships were also capable of penetrating the thermobaric clouds which surrounded the delphic expanse. skagarans have their own kind of alcohol, skagaran whiskey. during the 19th century, skagarans were establishing colonies and were in need of workers. one skagaran ship was sent to earth. the vessel ' s crew abducted several thousand humans from america ' s western rocky desert regions ( as well as horses and cattle ) and took them as slave workers to help the skagarans start a colony on a planet with a similar climate. according to the human account, cooper smith was a folk hero who overthrew their skagaran masters. however, the skagarans recorded a slightly different version of events, calling cooper smith " rokdar ", which meant " butcher. " according to the skagarans, smith and his men burned the skagarans ' ship, destroy their weapons and murdering most of them, including entire families. to make sure that the skagarans could never enslave the humans again, smith wrote the first laws that kept the skagarans from going to school, owning property or marrying. by the mid - 22nd century, the skagaran population was less than a thousand and most lived in settlements, one of which was named " skagtown " by the humans. at this point, at least some skagarans no longer shared their ancestors ' attitude toward slavery, calling it a great crime. in 2153, the nx - class starship enterprise nx - 01 visited a planet inhabited by humans and skagarans in the delphic expanse. when an away team beamed to the surface of the planet, t ' pol and commander charles " trip " tucker discovered the wreckage of a skagaran ship which the skagarans had used three hundred years earlier to transport


in the delphic expanse. when an away team beamed to the surface of the planet, t ' pol and commander charles " trip " tucker discovered the wreckage of a skagaran ship which the skagarans had used three hundred years earlier to transport humans to the planet. in the ship ' s data module, t ' pol and tucker found small crystalline formations, which contained skagaran log entries. the skagaran logs were brought aboard enterprise, where the crew learned that the skagarans had suffered many disciplinary problems. six months after the skagaran ship had arrived, there were no more logs made. although enterprise was too small to carry the six thousand humans who lived on the planet back to earth, captain jonathan archer planned to return to the planet and provide aid to the inhabitants. archer believed that when starfleet was eventually able to send ships to the planet, the crews of those vessels would find that the humans had changed some of their laws. although some skagarans, such as draysik, were employed in saloons, they were not allowed to drink with their human masters and therefore reacted badly to alcohol. skagaran whiskey was illegal, but a barber named henry was allowed to keep a bottle for pulling teeth. if a skagaran killed a human, it was considered a hanging offense, even if the skagaran was acting in self - defense. legally, humans were not encouraged to harass the skagarans, though a human who defended a skagaran from other humans could possibly be arrested. it was deemed illegal for a human to teach skagarans and the minimum punishment for doing so was ten years in jail. however, some humans, such as bethany, taught skagaran children outside at night. a subject that bethany taught her students was mathematics, including the study of multiplication and long division. the students who bethany taught wrote on slates. some of her students were called yral, kret and taliyah. bethany herself was one - quarter skagaran. when the starship enterprise left the skagaran planet, bethany had been allowed to legally teach skagaran and human children together. one of the subjects she taught was earth history, including the study of the first airplane. ( ent : " north star " ) list of skagaransedit when it came time to design the look of the skagarans, it was deemed appropriate for their makeup appliances to not seem too alien. this was because skagarans were to be established as capable of interbreeding


american guide series the american guide series was a group of books and pamphlets published under the auspices of the federal writers ' project ( fwp ), a depression - era works program in the united states. the american guide series books were compiled by the fwp, but printed by individual states, and contained detailed histories of each state with descriptions of every city and town. the format was uniform, comprising essays on the state ' s history and culture, descriptions of its major cities, automobile tours of important attractions, and a portfolio of photographs. titles in the american guide series - new castle on the delaware, 1936. newcastle, delaware - washington, city and capital, 1937. washington dc - philadelphia : a guide to the nation ' s birthplace, philadelphia, pennsylvania - erie : a guide to the city and county, 1938. erie, pennsylvania - lincoln city guide, 1937. lincoln, nebraska - augusta, 1938. augusta, georgia - new orleans city guide, 2008. new orleans, louisiana - lexington and the bluegrass country, 1938. lexington, kentucky - beaumont : a guide to the city and its environs, 1939. beaumont, texas - a guide to estherville, iowa, 1939. estherville, iowa - the new york city guide : a comprehensive guide to the five boroughs of the metropolis ; manhattan, brooklyn, the bronx, queens, and richmond, 1939. new york city - louisville : a guide to falls city, 1940. louisville, kentucky - a guide to mcgregor, 1940. mcgregor, iowa - portland city guide, 1940. portland, maine - a guide to key west, 1941. key west, florida - henderson : a guide to audubon ' s home town in kentucky, 1941. henderson, kentucky - san antonio : a history and guide, san antonio, texas - houston, a history and guide, 1942. houston, texas - cincinnati : a guide to the queen city and its neighbors, 1943. cincinnati, ohio - atlanta : capital of the south, 1949. atlanta, georgia - san diego : a california city, 1937. san diego - san francisco : the bay and its cities, 1940. san francisco - angeles : a guide to the city and its environs, 1941. los angeles - santa barbara : a guide to the channel city and its environs, 1941. santa barbara - tulsa : a guide to the oil capital, 1938. tulsa, oklahoma - st. augustine : seeing st. augustine, 1937 st augustine, florida regions and territories - the berkshire hills, 1939. - cape


environs, 1941. santa barbara - tulsa : a guide to the oil capital, 1938. tulsa, oklahoma - st. augustine : seeing st. augustine, 1937 st augustine, florida regions and territories - the berkshire hills, 1939. - cape cod pilot : a loquacious guide, 1937. - guide to cedar rapids and northwest iowa, 1937. - new york panorama, 1938. - the ocean highway : new brunswick, new jersey to jacksonville, florida, 1938. - u. s. one : maine to florida, 1938. - a guide to alaska : last american frontier, 1939. - death valley : a guide, 1939. - here ' s new england! a guide to vacationland, 1939 - the oregon trail, us 30 : the missouri river to the pacific ocean, 1939. - puerto rico : a guide to the island of boriquen, 1940. - monterey peninsula, 1941. - the minnesota arrowhead country, 1941. - ghost towns of colorado, 1947. - gross, andrew s. " the american guide series : patriotism as brand - name identification " arizona quarterly : a journal of american literature, culture, and theory. vol 62 number 1. p. 85 - 111. - powell, lawrence n. " lyle saxon and the wpa guide to new orleans. " southern spaces 29 july 2009.


| part of a series on | cossacks ( ukrainian : козаки, kozaky ; russian : казаки, kazaki ), are a group of predominantly east slavic people who originally were members of democratic, semi - military and semi - naval communities in ukraine and southern russia. they inhabited sparsely populated areas and islands in the lower dnieper, don, terek, ural basins, and played an important role in the historical development of both ukraine and russia. today self - identification " cossack " is an important part of cultural heritage of people in modern ukraine, southern russia, volga, ural, siberian regions and the russian far east. cossack societies exist throughout russia, ukraine, belarus and worldwide. the origins of the first cossacks are disputed, though the constitution of pylyp orlyk claimed khazar origin of cossacks. ” the traditional post - imperial historiography dates the emergence of cossacks to the 14th or to 15th centuries when two connected groups emerged, the zaporozhian sich of the dnieper and the don cossack host. the zaporozhian sich was initially a vassal of poland - lithuania. the increasing social and religious pressure from the commonwealth caused them to proclaim an independent cossack hetmanate, initiated by a rebellion under bohdan khmelnytsky in the mid - 17th century. afterwards, the treaty of pereyaslav brought most of the ukrainian cossack state under russian rule. but the sich itself with its lands became an autonomous region, under the russian - polish protectorate. the don cossack host, which had been established by the 16th century, allied itself with the tsardom of russia. together they began a systematic conquest and colonisation of lands in order to secure the borders on the volga, the whole of siberia ( see yermak timofeyevich ), the yaik and the terek rivers, the two latter rivers having had their own cossack communities as well before the arrival of don cossacks. by the 18th century, cossack hosts in the russian empire served as buffer zones on its borders. however, the expansionist ambitions of the empire relied on ensuring the loyalty of cossacks, which caused tension with their traditional freedom, democratic self - rule, and independence. as a result, cossacks, such as ivan bolotnikov, stenka razin, kondraty bulavin and


the loyalty of cossacks, which caused tension with their traditional freedom, democratic self - rule, and independence. as a result, cossacks, such as ivan bolotnikov, stenka razin, kondraty bulavin and yemelyan pugachev, have lead major anti - imperial wars and revolutions in the empire in order to abolish slavery and odious bureaucracy. in extreme cases, the empire responded by dissolving whole hosts, as was the fate of the zaporozhian sich and of its " nizovy " ( lower dnieper ) zaporozhian host in 1775, and of malorossian cossack regiments later. the yaik host, its capital, yaik cossaks and zimoveyskaya cossack town in the don region were renamed after the pugachev rebellion to have cossacks put a lid and forget razin and pugachev and their rebellions. by the end of the 18th century, cossack nations were transformed into a special military estate ( sosloviye ), " a military class ". they like medieval knights were to come to the military service with their own expensive knight horse and own arms and supplies at their own expense, for exception of firearms and supplies to them, provided by the government, and cossack service was the most hard one. because of their military tradition, cossack forces played an important role in russia ’ s wars of the 18th - 20th centuries such as the great northern war, the seven years ' war, the crimean war, napoleonic wars, caucasus war, numerous russo - turkish wars, and the first world war. in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the tsarist regime employed them extensively to perform police service ( for example both to prevent pogroms and to suppress the revolutionary movement, especially in 1905 – 7. ) they also served as border guards on national and internal ethnic borders ( as was the case in the caucasus war ). during the russian civil war, don and kuban cossacks have been the first nations to declare open war against the bolsheviks. by 1918, cossacks declared the complete independence of their nations and formed the independent states, the ukrainian state, the don republic, and the kuban people ' s republic. the cossack troops formed the effective core of the anti - bolshevik white army, and cossack republics became centers for the anti - bolshevik white movement. with the victory of the red army, the cossa


kuban people ' s republic. the cossack troops formed the effective core of the anti - bolshevik white army, and cossack republics became centers for the anti - bolshevik white movement. with the victory of the red army, the cossack lands were subjected to decossackization and the man - made famine of 1932 - 33 ( holodomor ). after the dissolution of the soviet union, the cossacks have made a systematic return to russia. many took an active part in post - soviet conflicts and yugoslav wars. in russia ' s 2010 population census, cossacks have been recognized as an ethnicity. there are cossack organizations in russia, kazakhstan, ukraine, poland and the usa. in written sources the name first attested in codex cumanicus from the 13th century. the english word is attested from 1590, an irish surname cossack has existed since 12th century. the ethnonym kazakh is from the same turkic root. early history it is not clear when new slavic people apart from brodnici and berladniki started settling in the lower reaches of major rivers such as the don and the dnieper after the demise of the khazar state. it is unlikely it could have happened before the 13th century, when the mongols broke the power of the cumans, which had assimilated the previous population on that territory. it is known that new settlers inherited a lifestyle that persisted there long before, such as those of the turkic cumans and the circassian kassaks. however, slavic settlements in southern ukraine started to appear relatively early during the cuman rule, with the earliest ones, like tsiurupynsk, dating back to 11th century. early " proto - cossack " groups are generally reported to have come into existence within the present - day ukraine in the mid - 13th century as the influence of cumans grew weak, though some have ascribed their origins to as early as the tenth century. some historians suggest that the cossack people were of mixed ethnic origins, descending from russians, ukrainians, poles, turks, tatars, and others who settled or passed through the vast steppe. however some turkologists argue that cossacks are descendants of native cumans of ukraine, who lived there long ago before the mongol invasion. in the midst of the growing moscow and lithuanian powers, new political entities had appeared in the region such as moldavia and the crimean khanate. in 1261 some slavic people living in the area between the d


there long ago before the mongol invasion. in the midst of the growing moscow and lithuanian powers, new political entities had appeared in the region such as moldavia and the crimean khanate. in 1261 some slavic people living in the area between the dniester and the volga were mentioned in ruthenian chronicles. historical records of the cossacks before the 16th century are scant as the history of the ukrainian lands in that period for various reasons. in the 15th century, the cossack society was described as a loose federation of independent communities, often forming local armies, entirely independent from the neighbouring states ( of, e. g., poland, the grand duchy of moscow or the khanate of crimea ). according to hrushevsky the first mention of cossacks could be found already in the 14th century ; however, they were either of turkic or of undefined origin. hrushevsky states that cossacks could have descended from the long forgotten antes, or groups from the berlad territory in present - day romania, then a part of the grand duchy of halych, brodniki. there, cossacks may have served as self - defense formations, organized to defend against raids conducted by neighbors. by 1492, the crimean khan complained that kanev and cherkasy cossacks attacked his ship near tighina ( bender ), and the grand duke of lithuania alexander i promised to find the guilty among the cossacks. sometime in the beginning of 16th century there appeared the old ukrainian ballad of cossack holota about a cossack near kiliya. by the 16th century these cossack societies merged into two independent territorial organisations as well as other smaller, still detached groups : - the cossacks of zaporizhia, centered on the lower bends of dnieper, inside the territory of modern ukraine, with the fortified capital of zaporozhian sich. they were formally recognised as an independent state, the zaporozhian host, by a treaty with poland in 1649. - the don cossack state, on the river don, separated from the grand duchy of moscow by the nogai states, vassals of the ottoman empire. the capital of the don cossack state was initially razdory, then moved to cherkassk, later moved to novocherkassk. n addition to these two, one finds mention of the less well - known tatar cossacks such as nagaybaklar and meschera ( mis


don are not my subjects, and they go to war or live in peace without my knowledge. " similar exchanges passed between russia, the ottoman empire and the polish - lithuanian commonwealth, each of which tried to exploit cossack warmongering for its own purposes. in the 16th century, with the power of the polish - lithuanian commonwealth extending south, the zaporozhian cossacks were mostly, if tentatively, regarded by the polish - lithuanian commonwealth as their subjects. registered cossacks formed a part of the commonwealth army until 1699. around the end of the 16th century, relations between the polish - lithuanian commonwealth and the ottoman empire, not cordial to begin with, were further strained by increasing cossack aggression. from the second part of the 16th century, cossacks started raiding ottoman territories. the polish government could not control the fiercely independent cossacks, but since they were nominally subjects of the commonwealth, it was held responsible for the raids by their victims. reciprocally, the tatars living under ottoman rule launched raids into the commonwealth, mostly in the sparsely inhabited southeast territories. cossack pirates, however, started raiding wealthy trading port - cities in the heart of the ottoman empire, which were just two days away by boat from the mouth of the dnieper river. by 1615 and 1625, cossacks had even managed to raze townships on the outskirts of constantinople, forcing the ottoman sultan to flee his palace. consecutive treaties between the ottoman empire and the polish - lithuanian commonwealth called for both parties to keep the cossacks and tatars in check, but enforcement was almost non - existent on both sides. in internal agreements, forced by the polish side, cossacks agreed to burn their boats and stop raiding. however, boats could be rebuilt quickly, and the cossack lifestyle glorified raids and booty. during this time, the habsburg empire sometimes covertly employed cossack raiders to ease ottoman pressure on their own borders. many cossacks and tatars shared an animosity towards each other due to the damage done by raids from both sides. cossack raids followed by tatar retaliation, or tatar raids followed by cossack retaliation, were an almost regular occurrence. the ensuing chaos and string of retaliations often turned the entire southeastern polish - lithuanian commonwealth border into a low - intensity war zone and led to escalation of commonwealth - ottoman warfare, from the moldavian magnate wars ( 1593 - 1617 ) to the battle of cecora ( 1620 ) and campaigns


southeastern polish - lithuanian commonwealth border into a low - intensity war zone and led to escalation of commonwealth - ottoman warfare, from the moldavian magnate wars ( 1593 - 1617 ) to the battle of cecora ( 1620 ) and campaigns in the polish - ottoman war of 1633 – 1634. cossack numbers expanded with peasants escaping serfdom in the polish - lithuanian commonwealth. attempts by the szlachta to turn the zaporozhian cossacks into serfs eroded the cossacks ' once fairly strong loyalty towards the commonwealth. cossack ambitions for recognition as equal to the szlachta were constantly rebuffed, and plans for transforming the polish - lithuanian ( they meant first of all present belorussians as lithuanians ) two - nations commonwealth into polish - lithuanian - russian commonwealth ( three nations with russian cossacks equal to russian szlahta ) made little progress due to the cossacks ' unpopularity among first of all russian szlahta. the cossacks ' strong historic allegiance to the eastern orthodox christianity put them at odds with the roman catholic - dominated commonwealth. tensions increased when commonwealth policies turned from relative tolerance to suppression of the orthodox catholic church after the union of brest, making the cossacks strongly anti - roman, which in context became synonymous with anti - polish. registered cossacks the waning loyalty of the cossacks and the szlachta ' s arrogance towards them resulted in several cossack uprisings against the polish - lithuanian commonwealth in the early 17th century. finally, the king ' s adamant refusal to cede to the cossacks ' demand to expand the cossack registry was the last straw that prompted the largest and most successful of these : the khmelnytsky uprising that started in 1648. some cossacks, including polish schlahta of the ukraine ( they were called ukrainians ), converted to orthodox catholics, divided the lands of russian szlahta in the ukraine, and became the cossack szlahta. the uprising became one of a series of catastrophic events for the commonwealth known as the deluge, which greatly weakened the polish - lithuanian commonwealth and set the stage for its disintegration 100 years later. the influential relatives of russian and lithuanian schlahta in moscow helped to create the russian - polish alliance against khmelnitsky ' s cossacks as rebels against any order and the private property of russian orthodox catholic schlahta


. the influential relatives of russian and lithuanian schlahta in moscow helped to create the russian - polish alliance against khmelnitsky ' s cossacks as rebels against any order and the private property of russian orthodox catholic schlahta, don cossack raids on crimea leaving khmelnitsky without the aid of his usual tatar allies. but in russian opinion the rebellion ended with the 1654 treaty of pereyaslav in which khmelnitsky ' s cossacks so that to destroy the russian - polish alliance against them pledged their loyalty to the russian tsar with the latter guaranteeing cossacks his protection, recognition of cossack starshyna ( nobility ) and their property and autonomy under his rule, freeing the cossacks from the polish sphere of influence and land claims of russian schlahta. only some part of the russian schlahta of the chernigov region, being of the moscow state origin, saved their lands from division among cossacks and became the part of the cossack schlahta. after this russian schlahta refrained from its plans to have a moscow tsar the king of the commonwealth, its own michał korybut wisniowiecki became the king later. the last, ultimately unsuccessful, attempt to rebuild the polish - cossack alliance and create a polish - lithuanian - ruthenian commonwealth was the 1658 treaty of hadiach, which was approved by the polish king and sejm as well as by some of the cossack starshyna, including hetman ivan vyhovsky. the starshyna were, however, divided on the issue and the treaty had even less support among rank - and - file cossacks ; thus it failed. under russian rule the cossack nation of the zaporozhian host was divided into two autonomous republics of the moscow tsardom : the cossack hetmanate, and the more independent zaporizhia. these organisations gradually lost their autonomy, and were abolished by catherine ii by the late 18th century. the hetmanate became the governorship of little russia, and zaporizhia was absorbed into new russia. in 1775 the zaporozhian host was destroyed. later its high - ranking cossack leaders were exiled to siberia, the last chief becoming the prisoner of the solovetsky islands, for the establishment of a new sich in the ottoman empire by the part of cossacks without any involvement of the punished co


- ranking cossack leaders were exiled to siberia, the last chief becoming the prisoner of the solovetsky islands, for the establishment of a new sich in the ottoman empire by the part of cossacks without any involvement of the punished cossack leaders. black sea, azov and danubian sich cossacks with the destruction of the zaporozhian sich, many zaporozhian cossacks, especially the vast majority of old believers and other people from the greater russia, defected to turkey and settled in the area of the danube river, founding a new sich there. part of these cossacks settled on tisa river in austrian empire to have a new sich there as well. some ukrainian - speaking orthodox catholic cossacks however ran away across the danube ( territory under the control of the ottoman empire ) together with cossacks of the greater russia origin to form a new host before rejoining the others in the kuban. and a lot of ukrainian peasants and adventurers joined the danubian sich afterwards. ukrainian folklore remembers the danubian sich, while new siches of loyal zaporozhians on bug and dniester are not famous ones. the majority of tisa sich and danubian sich cossacks returned to russia in 1828 and settled in the area north of the azov sea and became known as the azov cossacks. but the majority of zaporozhian cossacks, especially ukrainian - speaking orthodox catholics, remained loyal to russia in spite of the sich destruction and became known as the black sea cossacks. both azov and black sea cossacks were resettled to colonise the kuban steppe which was a crucial foothold for russian expansion in the caucasus. during cossack stay in turkey, a new host was founded which by the end of 1778 numbered around 12, 000 cossacks. their settlement at the border with russia was approved by the ottoman empire after the cossacks officially vowed to serve the sultan. yet the conflict inside the new host of the new loyalty, and the political manoeuvres used by the russian empire, led to splits in the cossacks. after a portion of the runaway cossacks returned to russia they were used by the russian army to form new military bodies that also incorporated greek albanians, crimean tatars and gypsies. however after the russo - turkish war of 1787 – 1792, most of them were incorporated into the black sea cossa


russia they were used by the russian army to form new military bodies that also incorporated greek albanians, crimean tatars and gypsies. however after the russo - turkish war of 1787 – 1792, most of them were incorporated into the black sea cossack host together with loyal zaporozhians. the black sea host moved to the kuban steppes. most of the remaining cossacks that stayed in the danube delta returned to russia in 1828 and created the azov cossack host between berdyansk and mariupol. in 1860 all of them were resettled to the north caucasus and merged into the kuban cossack host. russian cossacks the native land of the cossacks is defined by a line of russian / ruthenian town - fortresses located on the border with the steppe and stretching from the middle volga to ryazan and tula, then breaking abruptly to the south and extending to the dnieper via pereyaslavl. this area was settled by a population of free people practicing various trades and crafts. these people, constantly facing the tatar warriors on the steppe frontier, received the turkic name cossacks ( kazaks ), which was then extended to other free people in russia. many cumans, who had assimilated khazars, retreated to the ryazan grand principality ( grand duchy ) after the mongol invasion, green eyes and straw hair appearing among russians due to cuman assimilation by russians. the oldest reference in the annals mentions cossacks of the russian principality of ryazan serving the principality in the battle against the tatars in 1444. in the 16th century, the cossacks ( primarily those of ryazan ) were grouped in military and trading communities on the open steppe and started to migrate into the area of the don ( source vasily klyuchevsky, the course of the russian history, vol. 2 ). cossacks served as border guards and protectors of towns, forts, settlements and trading posts, performed policing functions on the frontiers and also came to represent an integral part of the russian army. in the 16th century, to protect the borderland area from tatar invasions, cossacks carried out sentry and patrol duties, guarding from crimean tatars and nomads of the nogai horde in the steppe region. russian cossacks played a key role in the expansion of the russian empire into siberia ( particularly by yermak timofeyevich ), the caucasus and central asia in the period


nomads of the nogai horde in the steppe region. russian cossacks played a key role in the expansion of the russian empire into siberia ( particularly by yermak timofeyevich ), the caucasus and central asia in the period from the 16th to 19th centuries. cossacks also served as guides to most russian expeditions formed by civil and military geographers and surveyors, traders and explorers. in 1648 the russian cossack semyon dezhnyov discovered a passage between north america and asia. cossack units played a role in many wars in the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries ( such as the russo - turkish wars, the russo - persian wars, and the annexation of central asia ). cossacks were the popular subjects of european scientific dissertations, speaking eight different languages and having a common language with almost any current european researcher of cossacks stenka razin being the most favorite subject. western europeans had a lot of contacts with cossacks during the seven year ' s war and had seen cossack patrols in berlin. during napoleon ' s invasion of russia, cossacks were the russian soldiers most feared by the french troops. napoleon himself stated " cossacks are the best light troops among all that exist. if i had them in my army, i would go through all the world with them. " cossacks also took part in the partisan war deep inside french - occupied russian territory, attacking communications and supply lines. these attacks, carried out by cossacks along with russian light cavalry and other units, were one of the first developments of guerrilla warfare tactics and, to some extent, special operations as we know them today. frenchmen had had few contacts with cossacks before the allies occupied paris in 1814. as the most exotic of the russian troops seen in france, cossacks drew a great deal of attention and notoriety for their alleged purity during napoleon ' s wars. bistrots appeared after the cossack occupation of paris. stendhal had, that " cossacks were pure as children and great as gods ". don cossacks the don cossack host ( russian : всевеликое воиско донское, vsevelikoye voysko donskoye ) was either an independent or an autonomous democratic republic in the present day southern russia from the end of the 16th until the early 20th century. don cossacks had a rich military tradition


early members of the terek cossacks were ossetians. yaik cossacks the ural cossack host was a cossack host formed from the ural cossacks, cossacks settled by the ural river. their alternative name, yaik cossacks, comes from the old name of the river changed after the pugachev ' s rebellion. the ural cossacks although speaking russian and identifying themselves as being of primarily russian ancestry also incorporated many tatars into their ranks. twenty years after the conquest of the volga from kazan to astrakhan, in 1577, moscow sent troops to disperse pirates and raiders along the volga ( one of their number was ermak ). some of these fled southeast to the ural river and joined yaik cossacks. in 1580 they captured saraichik. by 1591 they were fighting for moscow. sometime in the next century they were officially recognized. in the russian empire from the start, relations of cossacks with the tsardom of russia were very much varied ; at times this involved combined military operations, and at others there were famous cossack uprisings. one particular example was the destruction of the zaporozhian host, which took place at the end of the 18th century. the divisions of the cossacks within were clearly visible between those that chose to stay loyal to the russian monarch and continue their service ( who later moved to the kuban ) and those that chose to continue their pro - mercenary role and ran off the danube delta. nevertheless by the 19th century, the russian empire managed to fully annex all the control over the hosts and instead rewarded the cossacks with privileges for their service. at this time the cossacks were actively participating in many russian wars. although cossack tactics in open battles were generally inferior to those of regular soldiers such as the dragoons, cossacks were nevertheless excellent for scouting and reconnaissance duties, as well as undertaking ambushes. in 1840 the hosts included the don, black sea, astrakhan, little russia, azov, danube, ural, stavropol, mesherya, orenburg, siberia, tobolsk, tomsk, yeniseisk, irkutsk, sabaikal, yakutsk and tartar voiskos. by 1890s the ussuri, semirechensk and amur cossacks were added, with the last having a regiment of elite mounted rifles. the cossack sense of being a separate and elite community


, when dynastic conflicts constantly presented themselves and inconsistency reigned with the lack of a single, competent ruler. the government began attempting to assimilate the cossacks into the russian culture and political system by granting elite status and enforcing military service, thus creating divisions within the cossacks themselves as they fought to keep their own traditions alive. the government ’ s efforts to alter the traditional nomadic lifestyle of the cossacks caused the cossacks to be involved in nearly all the major disturbances in russia over a 200 - year period, including the rebellions led by stenka razin and emilian pugachev. as muscovy regained stability under mikhail romanov after the time of troubles beginning in 1613, discontent steadily grew within the serf and peasant populations. the code of 1649 under alexis romanov, mikhail ’ s son, divided the russian population into distinct and fixed hereditary categories. this law tied peasants to the land and forced townsmen to take on their fathers ’ occupations. the code of 1649 increased tax revenue for the central government and stopped wandering to stabilize the social order by fixing people in the same land with the same occupation of their families. the increased taxes fell mainly on the peasants as a burden and continued to widen the gap between the wealthy and the poor. as the government developed more military expeditions, human and material resources became limited, putting an even harsher strain on the peasants. war with poland and sweden in 1662 led to a fiscal crisis and riots across the country. taxes, harsh conditions, and the gap between social classes drove peasants and serfs to flee, many of them going to the cossacks, knowing that the cossacks would accept refugees and free them. the cossacks experienced difficulties under tsar alexis as the influx of refugees grew daily. the cossacks received a subsidy of food, money, and military supplies from the tsar in return for acting as border defense. these subsidies fluctuated often and provided a source of conflict between the cossacks and the government. the war with poland diverted necessary food and military shipments to the cossacks as the population of the host, the unit of cossacks identified by the region in which they resided, grew with the fugitive peasants. the influx of these refugees troubled the cossacks not only because of the increased demand for food but also because the large number of these fugitives meant the cossacks could not absorb them into their culture through the traditional apprenticeship way. instead of taking these steps of proper assimilation into cossack society