usually meant to be removed from the computer. hardware the central processing unit, monitor, keyboard, mouse, printer, and other equipment associated with a computer system. i interactive used to refer to applications that engage the computer user by prompting for certain responses and then reacting to those responses in what seems like original ways. internet a system of interconnected computer networks. provides access to computers, electronic mail, bulletin boards, databases, and discussion groups, all using the tcp / ip protocol. l leased line a dedicated private telephone line between two locations. leased lines are often used to connect mid - sized local networks to an internet service provider. local - area network ( lan ) a method of connecting computers, peripherals, and communications equipment within a restricted locality, such as a building or campus. m megahertz ( mhz ) a unit of measurement, equal to one million electrical vibrations or cycles per second, commonly used to measure the clock speeds of computers. microprocessor hardware component responsible for the basic elements of computer processing : arithmetic, logic, and control. the microprocessor is an integrated circuit chip — a dense network of microscopic electrical pathways etched into highly refined sand, or silicon. modem a device that connects a computer to a telephone line and converts the digital data from the computer into analog ( sound ) frequencies. the modem sends the sounds through the phone line to a receiving computer ' s modem, which then turns the sounds back into a digital form that can be displayed on the receiving computer ' s screen. ( modem is a contraction of modulator / demodulator. ) ocr for page 285 - - > monitor the video display terminal ( vdt ) ; the part of the personal computer system that looks like a tv screen. it allows the user to see text and graphics as it is entered into the computer. ms - dos an operating system for microcomputers. short for microsoft disk operating system, dos has been perhaps the most common set of programs for controlling the microcomputer. n network individual computers linked in such a way that users can share software and hardware ( for example, printers ) and communicate with each other. o online the " state " of being connected, either via a modem or a dedicated line, to a distant database or to another computer. operating systems the master program that controls the computer hardware and applications. also called the system software. p packet a " bundle " of data. in some types of electronic communications, data is broken into small chunks that traverse the networks


or to another computer. operating systems the master program that controls the computer hardware and applications. also called the system software. p packet a " bundle " of data. in some types of electronic communications, data is broken into small chunks that traverse the networks independently. packet - switching network a wide - area network that achieves high data transmission speeds by dividing information into sections, called packets. the packets are then transmitted by the most efficient route and reassembled at their destination. peripherals hardware components that are not essential to the basic operation of the computer but that may be necessary to perform certain applications. peripheral hardware includes printers, scanners, and modems. point the lowest level of the fidonet hierarchy. points are connected to hubs and hubs to hosts in order to move mail through the system. ocr for page 285 - - > poll a method by which a central computer calls or " polls " another computer to see if that computer has electronic messages to transmit. polls can be set up to automatically call another computer when the rates are lower or when traffic is minimal. r random access memory ( ram ) the computer ' s short - term memory or the electronic " work space " in which software, programs, and data reside while they are active. resolution a measurement, usually expressed in linear dots per inch ( dpi ), of the sharpness of an image generated by an output device such as a printer or monitor. router a device that connects networks that use the same protocols together and passes information among them. s scanner hardware device that allows the transfer of photographs, graphic images, or text to the computer. scanners convert the image to a form than can be manipulated and stored by the computer. software the applications, data, and operating systems associated with computer systems. spreadsheets an electronic means of organizing, storing, and presenting numeric information in formats that allow for easy calculations. the most common means of handling numeric information. t tcp / ip transmission control protocol / internet protocol. connotes a full - time, interactive internet connection. telnet the internet standard protocol for remote terminal connection service used for logging into and searching other computers connected to the internet. it allows your computer to interact with a remote timesharing system at another site as if your terminal were connected directly to the remote computer. ocr for page 285 - - > u uninterruptible power supply ( ups ) device that insures a steady and clean supply of electricity to the computer. a sudden loss of or change in power


connected directly to the remote computer. ocr for page 285 - - > u uninterruptible power supply ( ups ) device that insures a steady and clean supply of electricity to the computer. a sudden loss of or change in power can destroy data and cause damage to a computer. upss give the user time to exit from all active applications and save all current data in the event of a power outage. unix an operating system for a wide variety of computers, from mainframes to personal computers. it supports multi - tasking and is suited to multi - user environments. v virus a program designed to enter a computer without the user ' s knowledge and perform tasks that can be destructive to the data and software stored in the computer. w window a rectangular, on - screen frame through which you can view a document, worksheet, or other application. windows a windowing environment and application program interface for ms - dos that brings to ibm compatible computers some of the graphical user interface features of the macintosh computers. word processor the single most universal application for personal computers. word processing programs convert computers into writing and editing machines. word processing easily allows revisions, formatting, and corrections. wysiwyg pronounced wizzy - wig, an acronym for what you see is what you get. a term used in desktop publishing that means that what you see on the computer screen is exactly what you get on paper when you print.


" as the stomach turns " on the kc - 135 can you imagine going to your school or office and floating in air along with your desks, chairs and pencils? well that ' s what the astronauts experience when they take a flight on the kc - 135 aircraft, affectionately known as the " vomit astronauts get a unique perspective of their environment during a zero gravity flight. medical studies and motion sickness experiments are also researched on these flights. the nasa reduced gravity program began in 1959 and the kc - 135 was the perfect aircraft. the boeing four - engine turbojet stratotanker was originally designed for in - flight aircraft refueling and later as a 707 for commercial flights. further modified to meet nasa ' s needs, the kc - 135 is used to understand the role of gravity on humans and hardware in space. during a typical mission of 2 to 3 hours the aircraft will fly 30 to 40 parabolic arcs. during each parabolic arc there are 20 to 25 seconds of " g " gravity when the astronauts will experience how it feels to be in outer space. for most of us who don ' t know what a parabolic arc is, in the simplest terms it ' s a curve of equal distance to its fixed points. the diagram at left shows a flight plan for the kc - 135 during typical zero - g maneuvers. unfortunately during weightlessness even the most seasoned astronaut may experience the stomach - turning effects. the astronauts seem to take it in stride though, not talking about who got sick and who didn ' t. they know it ' s all part of a day ' s work. the kc - 135 has supported about 80, 000 parabolas flown in support of the space station and space shuttle programs. as a matter of fact, all the weightless scenes from the movie apollo 13 were filmed in the kc - 135. ron howard, director of apollo 13, made arrangements with nasa to use the plane for over six months. nasa ' s johnson space center operates the kc - 135 reduced gravity research aircraft and nasa ' s glenn research center hosts the kc - 135 eight weeks a year for additional research. for further information please visit : nasa ' s johnson space center and john f. kennedy space center


a non - profit site educating canadians and americans about the differences between human - beings, natural - persons and artificial - persons created by god. | how the government created your new identity how you can reclaim your unalienable rights. created by man. | for the text of this web - site is with the absence of the legal - advice. | | | national id card : urgent and extremely important, especially for britain : this page has been posted as an introductory page for the national id card. a more comprehensive page is begin prepared and should be ready soon. until such time, this should make you think about the dangers of having a national id card : question : what is wrong with a national id card? answer : nothing, as long as you don ' t mind being a slave for the rest of your life. question : how does a national id card make me a slave? answer : the card ' identifies ' you as the property of the government. question : what is the definition of identify and / or identity? answer : the definition of identify and / or identity means ' the same as '. question : how can a national id card make me the property of the government? answer : the id card is only for legal entities, and therefore the card ' identifies ' you to be ' the same as ' the legal entity ( artificial person ) which exists on the card. question : who has legal title to the id card? answer : the government has legal title to the id card ( they created it ), and therefore has legal title to the legal entity ( artificial person ) created thereon. the holder of the id card may have equitable title ( to use ) the card. question : what happens when i agree to have a national id card? answer : by agreeing to be identified by the card, you have just agreed ( by contract ) to be ' the same as ' the legal entity which was created by the government. in other words, you have agreed, by contract, to be owned by the government ( because they own the entity and now you have agreed to be the same as the entity, so they own you ). question : can i terminate the contract if i already have a national id card? answer : no. according to contract law, unless written otherwise into the contract, the contract will only be terminated when both parties to the contract agree to termination. although you may wish to terminate the contract, the government will never agree to do so. you are their slave for life, and your property ( children,


the contract, the contract will only be terminated when both parties to the contract agree to termination. although you may wish to terminate the contract, the government will never agree to do so. you are their slave for life, and your property ( children, estate, etc. ) becomes their property in perpetuity ( forever ). question : who can identify me? answer : you, your god ( if he shows up ), and possibly your parents ( provided babies were not swapped ). practically speaking, only you can identify you for sure, nobody else. you have to self - identify, viz : " i am the same as i am, i am i and nobody else. " question : how can a government tell me who i am? answer : the government cannot tell you who you are, but if you agree to be the same as their entity, now they can tell you who you are and make you their slave. solution : know who you are, and don ' t let anybody else tell you who you are. whatever you do, do not agree to have a national id card if you wish to remain free. a slave once said " oh master, please tell me who i am. " for those in britain who may be forced to have a national id card in order to obtain a passport to leave their own country, they should learn, and quote, from the following artilce 12 of the international covenant on civil and political rights, which states : " 1. everyone lawfully within the territory of a state shall, within that territory, have the right to liberty of movement and freedom to choose his residence. please be aware that the article 12, as quoted above, does not say every person ; it clearly says everyone, clearly not including artificial - persons. this article also appears to indicate that it is not necessary to have a passport in order to travel anywhere in the world. " whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule of law, "


the 194 - acre sweetbay bogs preserve was the mississippi chapter ' s first land purchase in december 1989, and is named for the area ' s numerous sweetbay trees. bogs are rarely found this far south, and the site has long been considered one of the most critical natural communities in the state. at least six species of rare plants are found here : showy orchids and carnivorous plants are present, including sundews, butterworts, bladderworts and pitcher plants. a number of rare gopher tortoises reside here year - round, while a diversity of neotropical migratory birds make temporary stops. all the flora and fauna are adapted to periodic fires, which keep bogs free of shrubs and allow new plant growth on which gopher tortoises and other species feed. to mimic a natural burning cycle, the conservancy uses periodic prescribed fires during the growing season as part of the area ' s management plan. partners who have aided in the understanding of the area include local neighbors and fire department, mississippi power company, mississippi heritage program and u. s. fish and wildlife service. due to the sensitivity of the sweetbay bogs habitat, field trips are available by appointment only. for more information on the sweetbay bogs preserve, please contact becky stowe, terrestrial program manager. the nature conservancy south mississippi conservation program 10910 highway 57, suite c vancleave, ms 3939565


archaeology of the tillett site non - fish faunal remains from the tillett site ( * department of biology, birmingham southern college ) the identification and analysis of non - fish vertebrate remains from the tillett site ( 31dr35 ) was undertaken at birmingham - southern college, birmingham, alabama. the faunal remains for the two components of the site, colington and mount pleasant, were analyzed separately. the sample from the colington component consisted of 5, 880 fragments of which 5, 180 ( 88. 1 % ) were identifiable at least to class. the sample from the mount pleasant component consisted of 808 fragments all of which were identifiable at least to class. materials and methods the initial step in the faunal analysis was the taxonomic identification of the remains. specimens from the zoo - archaeological collection at birmingham - southern college were available for comparative purposes. specimens were identified whenever possible to species ; however, many bones were very fragmented and identification was limited often to class. following identification to taxonomic level, the frag - ments were identified as to skeletal element, e, g., right distal humerus. any indicators of age and sex were noted. three methods were used to quantify species remains : determination of the total number of identifiable fragments of each species ; calculation of minimum number of individuals ; and calculation of bone weights. calculation of number of individuals of each species was based upon the minimum - number - of - individuals ( mni ) method first described by white ( 1953 ). this method involves counting the most common skeletal element of each species. this number corresponds to at least the minimum number of individuals represented in the sample. variations in age, sex, and size of the individuals were considered in the determination. live weights of the non - fish species were determined using bone weights of the archaeological remains. linear regression formulae used in this calculation were taken from fradkin ( 1979 ). in the formulae, x = body weights in kilograms and y = skeletal weight in kilograms. | log y = 1. 03 ( log x ) - 0. 69897 log y = 1. 071 ( log x ) - 1. 1871 log y = 1. 09 ( log x ) - 1. 2147 the live weights calculated from these formulae were converted to maximum possible edible meat yield using the percentages : turtles 50 % ; birds 70 % ; and mammals 60 %. using the edible meat yield weights, the calories available from the species were determined. estimated calories / 100 gms used in


to maximum possible edible meat yield using the percentages : turtles 50 % ; birds 70 % ; and mammals 60 %. using the edible meat yield weights, the calories available from the species were determined. estimated calories / 100 gms used in the calculations were taken from watt and merrill ( 1963 ). they are : | 126 calories / 100 gm 184. 25 calories / 100 gm 225 calories / 100 gm 111 calories / 100 gm finally, a list of the various species identified and the environment in which they are naturally found was made. three methods were used to determine the importance of the non - fish fauna exploited in the two major ecological habitats. the first procedure consisted of a species checklist indicating those animals identified. the second method involved calculation of the maximum possible meat yields of these animals, and the third method compared the caloric yields of these species. knowledge of the natural history of the various species and their seasons of maximum abundance was used to make inferences concerning seasonality of the components. in table d1 are recorded the non - fish species identified in the two components. a total of 15 genera or species of three classes of vertebrates were identified including five species of mammals, four species of birds, and six species of reptiles. eight species : rabbit ( sylvilagus sp. ), raccoon ( procyon lotor, white - tailed deer ( odocoileus virginianus ), wild turkey ( meleagris gallopavo ), snapping turtle ( chelydra serpentina ), mud turtle ( kinosternon sp. ), diamond - back terrapin ( malaclemys terrapin, and sliders and scooters ( chrysemys sp. ) were common to the two components. from the colington component of the tillett site were examined 5, 880 bone fragments of 14 species. of these 5, 180 ( 88. 1 % ) were identifiable at least to class. mammalian remains accounted for 2, 160 ( 50. 4 % ) of the identifiable bones, five ( 33. 3 % ) of the species, and 15 ( 53. 6 % ) of the mni. table d2 lists the species, number of identifiable fragments, and mni represented in this component. the white - tailed deer was the most intensively exploited mammal. a minimum of six individuals ( number estimate based on right ( page 110 ) calcanei present ) represented by 1375 fragments were examined. all major parts of the animal were represented


. the white - tailed deer was the most intensively exploited mammal. a minimum of six individuals ( number estimate based on right ( page 110 ) calcanei present ) represented by 1375 fragments were examined. all major parts of the animal were represented in the faunal sample. at least one animal was male as evidenced by a skull fragment with the antler base intact. the antler had been shed. age estimates were possible on three animals. a left mandible with pm2 - pm3 present was aged on basis of tooth wear at 3 1 / 2 years. degree of tooth wear as evidence of age was based on sevringhaus ( 1953 ). two right calcanei were lacking epiphyses indicating animals less than 35 months of age. age determination on the basis of epiphyseal ossification of selected long bones was based on studies by lewall and cowan ( 1963 ). five raccoons represented by 47 fragments were represented in the faunal sample. post - cranial remains accounted for 66. 0 % of the identified fragments. mni was based on number of right ulnae. all post - cranial remains exhibited full ephiphyseal closure indicative of adult specimens. one dog was represented by an isolated tooth, two metatarsals, and two phalanges. one bear was represented by an atlas. two rabbits represented by 10 fragments were among the faunal remains. six post - cranial elements exhibited complete ossification indicative of animals greater than nine months of age. age of closure of ( page 111 ) ossification centers of rabbits was based on studies by hale ( 1949 ). two species of rabbits, the. eastern cottontail ( sylvilagus floridanus ) and the marsh rabbit ( sylvilagus palustris ), are common to the area and determination of species was not attempted. avian remains consisted primarily of broken and unidentifiable long bone shafts. identifiable fragments included a left tibiofibula of mergus merganser, a right proximal humerus of linosa sp. and 10 post - cranial fragments of meleagris gallopavo. reptiles were well represented in the faunal assemblage, accounting for six of the identified species, 10 of the mni and 2357 of the identified bone fragments. plastron and carapace fragments comprised over 70 % of the identifiable turtle remains and for this reason the mni may be a significant underestimate of the total


identified species, 10 of the mni and 2357 of the identified bone fragments. plastron and carapace fragments comprised over 70 % of the identifiable turtle remains and for this reason the mni may be a significant underestimate of the total number of animals actually represented in the sample. remains included carapace, plastron, and limb elements of three fresh - water species ; kinosternon sp., chelydra serpentine ; and chrysemys sp. ; one brackish water species, malaclemys terrapin : and one salt water species, caretta caretta. ( page 112 ) turtles undergo a period of inactivity from december to february and are most abundant from march - may. their occurrence in the faunal assemblage suggests spring occupation of the site, though summer and fall occupation is possible. the presence of five vertebrae of the water snake, natrix sp., probably represents accidental deposition and not deliberate exploitation of this species by the inhabitants of the site. the 15 species of non - fish vertebrates represented in the faunal assemblage of the colington phase of the tillett site would have provided 18. 32 kg. of useable meat and 24, 204. 42 calories ( table d3 ;. mammils provided 14. 54 kg ( 79. 4 % ) of the useable meat and 19, 047. 63 ( 78. 7 % ) of the available calories. reptiles provided 2. 93 kg ( 16. 0 % ) of the useable meat and 3, 244. 52 ( 13. 4 % ) of the available calories. while six ( 40 % ) of the 15 identified species are inhabitants of the terrestrial habitat, these animals provided 15. 39 kg ( 84 % ) of the useable meat and 20, 954. 64 ( 86. 6 % ) of the available calories. cursory examination of these data would suggest intensive exploitation of the terrestrial habitat and minimal utilization of the aquatic environment however, it must be remembered that fish remains were not included in this analysis. the identifiable species do not provide significant information on seasonality of site occupation. all mammals identified can be found year - round on the north carolina coastal plain, as can the wild turkey. the american merganser ( mergus merganser ) and godwit ( limosa sp. ) are found in greatest abundance from october to march though numbers of both species may be found throughout the year. the presence of significant numbers


turkey. the american merganser ( mergus merganser ) and godwit ( limosa sp. ) are found in greatest abundance from october to march though numbers of both species may be found throughout the year. the presence of significant numbers of turtles in the faunal sample suggests spring or summer occupation since these animals undergo a period of reduced activity from december to february and would be more difficult to locate or capture. ( page 113 ) hence while no firm estimate of seasonality may be deduced from the data, there does exist slight evidence favoring a spring or summer occupation. mount pleasant component 808 bone fragments of nine species of non - fish vertebrates were examined. mammalian remains accounted for 299 ( 37. 0 % ) of the bones, three of the identified species, and three of the mni ( table d4 ). although fragments of the white - tailed deer were the most numerous mammalian fragments, only one individual could be definitely identified. raccoon was represented by six bone fragments. all were post - cranial remains and all exhibited complete epiphyseal closure. rabbit was represented by one post - cranial fragment and it was completely ossified. avian remains were represented by six post - cranial fragments of the wild turkey and one post - cranial element of anas sp. turtle fragments, primarily plaston and carapace elements comprised 56. 6 % of the skeletal fragments, a minimum of four species, and four mni. the estimate of mni is probably significantly low, since it was based on skeletal element which comprised less than 20 % of the reptilian remains. ( page 114 ) the nine species of non - fish vertebrates would have provided 2. 42 kg of useable meat and 2929. 41 calories ( table d5 ). mammals provided 1. 73 kg ( 71. 5 % ) of the available non - fish meat and 1916. 34 ( 65. 4 % ) of the available calories. reptiles provided 4. 76 kg ( 19. 6 % ) of the available meat and 528. 31 ( 18. 0 % ) calories. four of the identified species occupy a terrestrial habitat and these animals provided 1. 94 kg ( 80. 2 % ) of the meat and 2401. 1 ( 82. 0 % ) of the available calories. since fish were not included in these calculations, these data do not accurately reflect the relative importance of the terrestrial and aquatic habitats to the inhabitants of the site. the identified species provide little


resources for living well this website has ideas, instructions, and videos of fun activities and games for students in grades 4 - 8. san diego county office of education these programs aim to assist parents in helping children manage their weight and live healthy lifestyles with specific activities and milestones. en espanol this website gives kids ages 9 to 13 the information they need to make healthy lifestyle choices. the site focuses on topics that are important to them — such as stress and physical fitness — using kid - friendly lingo, games, quizzes, and other interactive features. the teacher ' s corner provides interactive, educational, and fun activities that are linked to national education standards for science and health. centers for disease control and prevention ( cdc ) this program is designed to help parents and caregivers of adolescents ages 9 to 13 improve family eating and activity habits. the program toolkit focuses on parents as role models and provides them with hands - on tools to make small, specific behavior changes to prevent obesity and help maintain a healthy weight. en espanol office on women ' s health ( owh ) these teaching resources, including educational classroom games and school activities for preventing obesity, will help educators develop a preschool curriculum that builds a bridge between the school, home, and community and protects young children from developing risky behaviors. u. s. department of health and human services ( hhs ) choosemyplate. gov from the usda illustrates the five food groups that are the building blocks for a healthy diet and provides tools for diet / calorie tracking and information on weight management, physical activity, and healthy eating. some materials available in spanish. u. s. department of agriculture ( usda ) this resource provides tools for behavior change and information on how to create new healthy habits as well as a network to connect and share with other concerned families. this campaign provides practical resources to help motivate children and their caregivers to eat healthy and be active. u. s. department of agriculture ' s ( usda ) food & nutrition service ( fns ) this website for kids tells you cool stuff about how your body works, how eating right helps you play better and feel good, and how staying active is lots of fun! en espanol this in - person weight management program educates overweight children and their parents about nutrition and physical activity through interactive sessions. children ' s hospital los angeles - help me select one : i am a - person with prediabetes remove - child remove - type of resource select one : - language select


netwellness is a global, community service providing quality, unbiased health information from our partner university faculty. netwellness is commercial - free and does not accept advertising. wednesday, june 19, 2013 hello, i am intrested to know how a person ` s age is affected in sports?, as i am doing a natinal diploma in sports science it would be intresting to know. thanks aging changes do affect older adult sports capabilities. one in 10 men and 1 in 3 women loose bone density due to aging that may cause them to be more prone to fractures, sprains, and pain. two out of 3 older adults do experience back trouble that causes pain and discomfort during activity, not just in sports. it just gets worse with aging as the risks for injury increases. however, older runners are usually physically better off than the average person but need careful warmup and balance exercises as balance can be affected by aging. no reason for older people to avoid physical activity. most injuries can be prevented or treated. older people need to be active but not excessive in sports. they can enjoy a variety of sports such as swimming, bicycling, golf, running, basketball, baseball, racquet ball, tennis and even climbing if it ' s not too high of an altitude. some may be capable of playing these sports but football and other contact sports may be more risky as people age. many older people may experience rotator cuff, cervical neck, back, knee and hip problems from regular sports activity. just need to adjust to the changes and tune into the differences so that injury can be reduced or avoided. this information is general and does not apply to all older people. really depends on the physical condition of the individual. have any older adult consult his or her primary provider ( physician, nurse practitioner, physician assistant ) prior to undertaking sports or other physical activities. you can find additional information on online or in professional literature such as medline, emedicine, etc. evelyn l fitzwater, dsn, rn associate professor emerita associate director of the college of nursing university of cincinnati


“ to speak of the shi ’ a of the arab world is to raise a sensitive issue that most muslims would rather not discuss, ” is the opening gambit of the authors of “ the arab shi ’ a : the forgotten muslims ”. graham fuller, resident senior political consultant at the rand corporation, and rend rahim francke, executive director of the iraq foundation and later the iraqi governing council ’ s us representative, go on to say, “ sunnis by and large prefer to avoid the subject, and even many shi ’ a are uncomfortable with it. ” if western commentators are to be believed however, the story of the shi ’ a and sunni is not simply one of an awkward relationship. they represent ‘ islam ’ s great schism ’, one that renders the idea of a homogenous muslim collective – the ummah – a myth : “ the shi ’ a … present a sensitive problem that assails to the core of muslim unity and undermines the traditional histiography of the muslim state … ” or so fuller and francke believe. the concept of a universal islamic political system, one capable of ruling over both shi ’ a and sunni, is considered a similar figment of islamist utopia. the library journal ’ s review of olivier roy ’ s mid - nineties book, ‘ the failure of political islam ’ declares, “ … the attempt to create a universal islamist state is doomed to failure because of the conflicts between sunni and shi ’ a forms and other ethnic differences in the islamic world … ” 1 the belief that the existence of the shi ’ a and sunni represents an unresolved schism and a source of continuous conflict and tension in the islamic world is widely touted in discussion of numerous conflicts. the issue featured prominently in the recent iraqi elections for a transitional government, as observers commented on ‘ shi ’ a ’ coalitions and coined abstention from voting as ‘ sunni disgruntlement ’. the demographics of bahrain and iraq previously are presented as minority ‘ sunni ’ rule over a ‘ shi ’ a ’ majority. the considerable shi ’ a minority in saudi arabia feature in studies investigating the treatment of religious minorities at the hands of the kingdom ’ s sunni wahabi scholars. but it is the explosive images of violent feuds in pakistan, as sunnis and shi ’ a cyclically target each other ’ s religious centres and leaders, which are ultimately cited as evidence of a very serious sectarian problem in the muslim world that stems from the existence of the shi ’ a and sunni body. secularism often emerges


shi ’ a cyclically target each other ’ s religious centres and leaders, which are ultimately cited as evidence of a very serious sectarian problem in the muslim world that stems from the existence of the shi ’ a and sunni body. secularism often emerges in talk of possible conflict remediation2, proposed as a more coherent approach to deal with religious sectarianism, islamic or otherwise. the european continent, ravaged by religious wars for centuries, eventually became the relatively peaceful landscape it is now after it separated religion from state, its advocates argue. this article will ask whether an islamic political system is indeed the divisive force its critics label it as and will explore whether secularism has any relevance to the sunni - shi ’ a issue, or appeal beyond its european origins. doctrine versus history the doctrinal differences between the shi ’ a and sunni stem from a disagreement regarding leadership of the islamic community after the death of the prophet muhammad. sunnis hold that the prophet muhammad did not appoint a successor to rule the islamic polity he had established during his lifetime, and left the question of leadership to popular will ; that is to say, it was ( and still is ) for the citizens of the islamic state to choose their ruler. the shi ’ a on the other hand believe that the prophet muhammad did appoint a successor : ali ibn abi talib, his cousin and son - in - law, a member of the noble ahl - ul - bait ( family of the prophet ). they further believe that all subsequent rulers should be from ali ’ s bloodline, being both free from committing error ( ma ’ soom ) and divinely appointed to their roles. the ithna ashariyya ( lit. twelvers ) 3, the mainstream shi ’ a grouping, believe that these rulers number twelve, the twelfth of which, mohammed ibn hasan al - askari, disappeared in 260 ah and will reappear at some unspecified time in the future ; the period of his absence is described as the ghaybah ( occultation ). literally meaning ‘ party ’, the term ‘ shi ’ a ’ is cited in the ahadith ( prophet ’ s traditions ) describing the allies of ali, 4 and historically became associated with those who held that the bloodline of ali were the rightful successors of the prophet muhammad in leading the islamic community.


hurricane philippe and tropical storm rita formed in the north atlantic on sunday, making them the eighth hurricane and seventeenth tropical storm of the season. the us national hurricane center ( nhc ) expects rita to become a full - fledged hurricane this week, amid fears that it could affect areas hard - hit by deadly hurricane katrina. now in the southern bahamas, rita is expected to continue moving west, with its most likely course taking it between cuba and southern florida into the gulf of mexico. hurricane warnings were issued late on sunday afternoon for parts of cuba and the florida keys. current projections by the nhc indicate the storm will intensify over the gulf and eventually hit southern texas saturday morning, but the paths of hurricanes are notoriously hard to predict days in advance. an obvious concern is if its path should bend north, toward hurricane - shattered new orleans and surrounding areas of louisiana, mississippi and alabama. philippe formed further to the east of rita and is following a north - northwest course in the atlantic. it is not expected to approach land before nearing bermuda on saturday. at the start of august, the nhc predicted an exceptionally busy north atlantic hurricane season, with 18 to 21 tropical storms, 9 to 11 of which would become hurricanes. so far that forecast has been borne out, and it could yet prove an underestimate. the record tropical storm season saw 21 cyclones, and occurred in 1933. if that number is exceeded, the nhc will use up its list of names and turn to greek - letter designations. the record hurricane season was 12 in 1969. katrina ' s devastation of new orleans and the gulf coast has already made this the most expensive hurricane season ever for the us, in terms of life lost and damaged infrastructure. if you would like to reuse any content from new scientist, either in print or online, please contact the syndication department first for permission. new scientist does not own rights to photos, but there are a variety of licensing options available for use of articles and graphics we own the copyright to. have your say only subscribers may leave comments on this article. please log in. only personal subscribers may leave comments on this article


autism, a neurological condition that affects children ’ s social and communicative abilities, is becoming increasingly common. in the united states today, one of out every 150 babies is affected by autism or another similar brain development disorder. dr. russell blaylock has attributed this rise in brain development disorders to the inclusion of harmful preservatives in today ’ s most common vaccines. since most children receive 12 or more injections before their first birthday, according to dr. blaylock, the preservatives in vaccines must be playing a role in affecting the brain development of babies. for example, one of the additives commonly used in vaccines today contains mercury. mercury has been known for years to be harmful to health and, more specifically, has been linked to autism and alzheimer ’ s. furthermore, some of the vaccines containing these dangerous additives are only minimally effective in the first place. therefore, increased reliance on vaccination puts children at risk to experience brain development effects from these various additives without even realizing the health benefits of the vaccination, accoding to dr. blaylock. the need for many of these vaccines can be eliminated with certain nutritional adjustments, so experts like dr. blaylock urge parents to research the vaccines recommended to their infants to make sure that the vaccine is, in fact, necessary. © 2013 newsmax. all rights reserved.


a cathedral is an impressive christian church that traditionally contained the seat of a bishop. the great cathedrals of the world represent one of humanity ' s many efforts to connect with god. during the middle ages, cathedrals were especially important in the lives of medieval christians for serving a variety of functions : they were places for communal worship, ritual, celebration, education, and governance. in particular, cathedrals represented the seat of local authority and ecclesiastical power and frequently functioned as a social center, like a city hall. it is a religious building for worship, specifically of a denomination with an episcopal hierarchy, such as the roman catholic, anglican, orthodox and some lutheran churches, which serves as a bishop ' s seat, and thus as the central church of a diocese. cathedrals were monuments to god ' s glory and greatness. their towering structures represented a visual axis mundi for connecting with the divine. furthermore, they offered visual instruction to the generally illiterate masses who often learned about religion through observing the sacred art and architecture that adorned the cathedrals. the word cathedral is derived from the latin noun " cathedra " ( seat or chair ), and refers to the presence of the bishop ' s or archbishop ' s chair or throne. in the ancient world, the chair was the symbol of a teacher and thus of the bishop ' s role as teacher, and also of an official presiding as a magistrate and thus of the bishop ' s role in governing a diocese. the word cathedral, though now grammatically used as a noun, is originally the adjective in the phrase " cathedral church, " from the latin " ecclesia cathedralis. " the seat marks the place set aside in the prominent church of the diocese for the head of that diocese and is therefore a major symbol of authority. there are certain deviations on the use of the term " cathedral " ; for example, some pre - reformation cathedrals in scotland now within the church of scotland still retain the term cathedral, despite the church ' s presbyterian polity which does not have bishops. as cathedrals are often particularly impressive edifices, the term is often used incorrectly as a designation for any large important church. the term " cathedral " is not officially used in eastern orthodoxy, the church of a bishop being known as " the great church. " the oriental orthodox churches similarly do not have cathedrals as such, however some major churches like saint mark ' s coptic orthodox cathedral in cairo are called cathedrals. several cathedrals in europe, such as strasbourg, and in england at york


church. " the oriental orthodox churches similarly do not have cathedrals as such, however some major churches like saint mark ' s coptic orthodox cathedral in cairo are called cathedrals. several cathedrals in europe, such as strasbourg, and in england at york, lincoln and southwell, are referred to as minster ( german : munster ) churches, from latin monasterium, because the establishments were served by canons living in community or may have been an abbey, prior to the reformation. the other kind of great church in western europe is the abbey early middle ages the history of the body of clergy attached to the cathedral church is obscure, and in each case local considerations affected its development, however the following main features were more or less common to all. originally the bishop and cathedral clergy formed a kind of religious community, which, while not in the true sense a monastery, was nevertheless often called a monasterium, the word not having the restricted meaning which it afterwards acquired. in this lies the reason for the apparent anomaly that churches like york minster and lincoln cathedral, which never had any monks attached to them, have inherited the name of minster or monastery. in these early communities, the clergy often lived apart in their own dwellings, and were not infrequently married. in the eighth century, chrodegang, bishop of metz ( 743 - 766 c. e. ), compiled a code of rules for the clergy of the cathedral churches, which, though widely accepted in germany and other parts of the continent, gained little acceptance in england. according to chrodegang ' s rule, the cathedral clergy were to live under a common roof, occupy a common dormitory and submit to the authority of a special officer. the rule of chrodegang was, in fact, a modification of the benedictine rule. gisa, a native of lorraine, who was bishop of wells from 1061 to 1088 c. e., introduced it into england, and imposed its observance on the clergy of his cathedral church, but it was not followed for very long there, or elsewhere in england. late middle ages during the tenth and eleventh centuries, the cathedral clergy became more clearly organized, and were divided into two classes. one was that of a monastic establishment of some recognized order of monks, often the benedictines, while the other class was that of a college of clergy, bound by no vows except those of their ordination, but governed by a code of statutes or canons. hence the name of canon. in this


recognized order of monks, often the benedictines, while the other class was that of a college of clergy, bound by no vows except those of their ordination, but governed by a code of statutes or canons. hence the name of canon. in this way arose the distinction between the monastic and other cathedral churches. in germany and england, many of the cathedral churches were monastic. in denmark, all seem to have been benedictine at first, except børglum, which was praemonstratensian until the reformation. the others were changed to churches of secular canons. in sweden, uppsala was originally benedictine, but was secularized about 1250, and it was ordered that each of the cathedral churches of sweden should have a chapter of at least 15 secular canons. in medieval france monastic chapters were very common, but nearly all the monastic cathedral churches were changed to churches of secular canons before the seventeenth century. one of the latest to be so changed was that of seez, in normandy, which was augustinian till 1547, when pope paul iii dispensed the members from their vows, and constituted them a chapter of secular canons. the chapter of senez was monastic till 1647, and others perhaps even later, but the majority were secularized about the time of the reformation. in the case of monastic cathedral churches, the internal government was that of the religious order to which the chapter belonged, and all the members kept perpetual residence. the alternative of this was the cathedral ruled by a secular chapter ; the dignities of provost, dean, precentor, chancellor, treasurer, etc., came into being for the regulation and good order of the church and its services, while the non - residence of the canons, rather than their perpetual residence, became the rule, and led to their duties being performed by a body of " vicars, " who officiated for them at the services of the church. history of cathedrals in britain the history of the cathedrals in britain differs somewhat from that on the continent. cathedrals have always been fewer than in italy, france and other parts of europe, while the buildings themselves tend to be very large. while france, at the time of the french revolution had 136 cathedrals, england had 27. because of a ruling that no cathedral could be built in a village, any town in which a cathedral was located was elevated to city status, regardless of its size. to this day several large english cathedrals are located in small " cathedral cities, " notably wells and ely cathedrals


cathedral could be built in a village, any town in which a cathedral was located was elevated to city status, regardless of its size. to this day several large english cathedrals are located in small " cathedral cities, " notably wells and ely cathedrals, both of which rank among the greatest works of english medieval architecture. in the british isles towns were few, and, instead of exercising jurisdiction over definite areas, many of the bishops were bishops of tribes or peoples, as the bishops of the south saxons, the west saxons, the somersætas, etc. the cathedra of such a bishop was often migratory. in 1075, a council was held in london, under the presidency of archbishop lanfranc, which, reciting the decrees of the council of sardica held in 347 and that of laodicea held in 360 on this matter, ordered the bishop of the south saxons to remove his see from selsey to chichester ; the wiltshire and dorset bishop to remove his cathedra from sherborne to old sarum, and the mercian bishop, whose cathedral was then at lichfield, to transfer it to chester. traces of the tribal and migratory system may still be noted in the designations of the irish see of meath ( where the result has been that there is now no cathedral church ) and ossory, the cathedral church of which is at kilkenny. some of the scottish sees were also migratory. late middle ages between 1075 and the fifteenth century, the cathedrals of england were almost evenly divided between those ruled by secular canons headed by a dean and those ruled by monastic orders headed by a prior, all of which were benedictine except carlisle. two cathedrals, bath and coventry, shared their sees with wells and lichfield, respectively. the entire structure of the monastic and cathedral system was overthrown and reconstituted during the reformation. cathedrals which were once roman catholic came under the governance of the church of england. all the english monastic cathedral chapters were dissolved by henry viii and, with the exceptions of bath and coventry, were re - founded by him as churches of secular chapters, with a dean as the head, and a certain number of canons ranging from twelve at canterbury and durham to four at carlisle, and with certain subordinate officers as minor canons, gospellers, epistolers, etc. the precentorship in these churches of the " new foundation, " as they are called, is not, as in the secular churches of the " old foundation, " a dignity, but is merely


gospellers, epistolers, etc. the precentorship in these churches of the " new foundation, " as they are called, is not, as in the secular churches of the " old foundation, " a dignity, but is merely an office held by one of the minor canons. henry viii also created six new cathedrals from old monastic establishments, in each case governed by secular canons. of these, westminster did not retain its cathedral status. four more of england ' s large historic churches were later to become cathedrals, southwell, southwark, ripon and saint albans abbey. although a cathedral may be amongst the grandest of churches in a particular country or area, size and grandeur have never been requirements and in some places a cathedral church may be a modest structure. for example, early celtic and saxon cathedrals tended to be of diminutive size, as is the byzantine so - called little metropole cathedral of athens. the plan of a cathedral generally takes the form of a cross which has both symbolic meaning and is functional in terms of church worship, allowing space for clergy, choir, chapels, processions a pipe organ and other activities and objects associated with cathedral tradition. a cathedral, in common with other christian churches has an altar or table upon which the eucharist is laid, a lectern for reading the bible and a pulpit from which the sermon is traditionally preached. cathedrals also have a baptismal font for the traditional rite of washing that marks the acceptance of a new christian, ( most usually an infant ) into the church. particularly in italy, baptism may take place in a separate building for that purpose. within the church, an area, usually to the eastern end, is set aside for the ceremonial seats of the dignitaries of the church, as well as the choir. cathedrals of monastic foundation, and some of secular clergy have square cloisters which traditionally provided an open area where secular activities took place protected from wind and rain. some cathedrals also have a chapter house where the chapter could meet. in england, where these buildings have survived, they are often octagonal. a cathedral may front onto the main square of a town, as in florence, or it may be set in a walled close as at canterbury. there may be a number of associated monastic or clergy buildings, a bishop ' s palace and often a school to educate the choristers. the role of the cathedral is chiefly to serve god in the community, through its hierarchical and organizational position in the church structure. a cathedral,


associated monastic or clergy buildings, a bishop ' s palace and often a school to educate the choristers. the role of the cathedral is chiefly to serve god in the community, through its hierarchical and organizational position in the church structure. a cathedral, its bishop and dignitaries have traditional functions which are mostly religious in nature, but may also be closely associated with the civil and communal life of the city and region. the formal cathedral services are linked to the cycle of the year and respond to the seasons of the northern hemisphere. the cathedral marks times of national and local civic celebration and sadness with special services. the funerals of those famous within the community are invariably held at cathedrals. some cathedrals, such as aachen and rheims are the traditional coronation places of monarchs. the bells of a cathedral are traditionally used signal the outbreak and the ending of war. many cathedral buildings are very famous for their architecture and have local and national significance, both artistically and historically. many are listed among the unesco world heritage sites. not only may the building itself be architecturally significant, but the church often houses treasures such as stained glass, stone and wood statues, historic tombs, richly carved furniture and object of both artistic and religious significance such as reliquaries. moreover, the cathedral often plays a major role in telling the story of the town, through its plaques, inscriptions, tombs, stained glass and paintings. cathedrals, because of their large size and the fact that they often have towers, spires or domes were the major landmarks in cities or the countryside until the twentieth century with the rise of skyscrapers. outside the british isles, the earliest head of a secular church seems to have been the provost ( praepositus, probst, etc. ), who was charged, not only with the internal regulation of the church, and oversight of the members of the chapter and control of the services, but was also the steward or seneschal of the lands and possessions of the church. the latter often mainly engaged his attention, to the neglect of his domestic and ecclesiastical duties, and complaints were soon raised that the provost was too much mixed in worldly affairs, and was too frequently absent from his spiritual duties. this led, in many cases, to the institution of a new officer called the " dean, " who had charge of that portion of the provost ' s duties which related to the internal discipline of the chapter and the services of the church. in some cases, the office of provost was abolished, but in others it was continued


the " dean, " who had charge of that portion of the provost ' s duties which related to the internal discipline of the chapter and the services of the church. in some cases, the office of provost was abolished, but in others it was continued : the provost, who was occasionally archdeacon as well, remaining head of the chapter. this arrangement was most commonly followed in germany. in england, the provost was almost unknown. bishop gisa introduced a provost as head of the chapter of wells, but the office was afterwards subordinated to the other dignities, and the provost became simply the steward of certain of the prebendal lands. the provost of the collegiate church of beverley was the most notable instance of such an officer in england, but at beverley he was an external officer with authority in the government of the church, no stall in the choir and no vote in chapter. in germany and in scandinavia, and in a few of the cathedral churches in the south of france, the provost was the ordinary head of the cathedral chapter, but the office was not common elsewhere. as regards france, of 136 cathedral churches existing at the revolution, 38 only, and those either on the borders of germany or in the extreme south, had a provost as the head of the chapter. in others the provost existed as a subordinate officer. there were two provosts at autun, and lyons and chartres had four each, all as subordinate officers. the secular chapter the normal constitution of the chapter of a secular cathedral church comprised four dignitaries ( there might be more ), in addition to the canons. these are the dean, the precentor, the chancellor and the treasurer. these four dignitaries, occupying the four corner stalls in the choir, are called in many of the statutes the quatuor majores personae of the church. the dean ( decanus ) seems to have derived his designation from the benedictine " dean " who had ten monks under his charge. the dean came into existence to supply the place of the provost in the internal management of the church and chapter. in england every secular cathedral church was headed by a dean who was originally elected by the chapter and confirmed in office by the bishop. the dean is president of the chapter, and with the in cathedral has charge of the performance of the services, taking specified portions of them by statute on the principal festivals. he sits in the chief stall in the choir, which is usually the first on the right hand on entering the choir at the west. next to the dean ( as a rule


the services, taking specified portions of them by statute on the principal festivals. he sits in the chief stall in the choir, which is usually the first on the right hand on entering the choir at the west. next to the dean ( as a rule ) is the precentor ( primicerius, cantor, etc. ), whose special duty is that of regulating the musical portion of the services. he presides in the dean ' s absence, and occupies the corresponding stall on the left side, although there are exceptions to this rule, where, as at st. paul ' s cathedral, the archdeacon of the cathedral city ranks second and occupies what is usually the precentor ' s stall. the third dignitary is the chancellor ( scholasticus, ecoldtre, capiscol, magistral, etc. ), who must not be confounded with the chancellor of the diocese. the chancellor of the cathedral church is charged with the oversight of its schools, ought to read divinity lectures, and superintend the lections in the choir and correct slovenly readers. he is often the secretary and librarian of the chapter. in the absence of the dean and precentor he is president of the chapter. the easternmost stall, on the dean ' s side of the choir, is usually assigned to him. the fourth dignitary is the treasurer ( custos, sacrisla, cheficier ). he is guardian of the fabric, and of all the furniture and ornaments of the church, and his duty was to provide bread and wine for the eucharist, and candles and incense, and he regulated such matters as the ringing of the bells. the treasurer ' s stall is opposite to that of the chancellor. in many cathedral churches are additional dignitaries, as the praelector, subdean, vice - chancellor, succentor - canonicorum, and others, who rolls came into existence to supply the places of the other absent dignitaries, for non - residence was the fatal blot of the secular churches, and in this they contrasted very badly with the monastic churches, where all the members were in continuous residence. besides the dignitaries there were the ordinary canons, each of whom, as a rule, held a separate prebend or endowment, besides receiving his share of the common funds of the church. for the most part, the canons also speedily became non - resident, and this led to the distinction of residentiary and non - residentiary canons, till in


having, from time immemorial, taken charge of the vacant dioceses in their respective provinces. when, however, either of the sees of canterbury or york is vacant the chapters of those churches take charge, not only of the diocese, but of the province as well, and incidentally, therefore, of any of the dioceses of the province which may be vacant at the same time. in the canon law of the catholic church the relationship of the bishop to his cathedral is often compared to the relationship of a pastor to the parochial church. both are pastors over an area ( the diocese for the bishop and the parish for the pastor ) and both are rectors over a building ( the cathedral for the bishop and the parish church for the pastor ). in view of this, canon lawyers often extend the metaphor and speak of the cathedral church as the one church of the diocese, and all others are deemed chapels in their relation to it. cathedral churches may have different degrees of dignity : - a parish church that was formerly a cathedral is known as a proto - cathedral. - a parish church that is temporarily serving as the cathedral or co - cathedral of a diocese is known as a pro - cathedral. - a church that serves as an additional cathedral of a diocesan bishop is known as a co - cathedral. - the church of a diocesan bishop is known as a cathedral. - a church to which the other diocesan cathedral churches of a province are suffragan is a metropolitan cathedral. - a church under which are ranged metro - political churches and their provinces is a primatial cathedral. - a church to which primatial, metro - political, and cathedral churches alike owe allegiance is a patriarchal cathedral. the title of " primate " was occasionally conferred on metropolitan bishops of sees of great dignity or importance, such as canterbury, york and rouen, whose cathedral churches remained simply metro - political. lyon, where the cathedral church is still known as la primatiale, and lund in sweden, may be cited as instances of churches that were really primatial. lyon had the archbishops of sens and paris and their provincial dioceses subject to it until the french revolution, and lund had the archbishop of uppsala and his province subject to it. as with the title of primate, so also that of " patriarch " has been conferred on sees such as venice and lisbon, the cathedral churches of which are patriarchal in name alone. the basilica di san giovanni in laterano, the cathedral church of rome, alone in western europe possesses a patriarchal character among roman catholics, since


conferred on sees such as venice and lisbon, the cathedral churches of which are patriarchal in name alone. the basilica di san giovanni in laterano, the cathedral church of rome, alone in western europe possesses a patriarchal character among roman catholics, since the pope is the patriarch of the latin rite church. however, in february of 2006, pope benedict xvi ceased the use of the title " patriarch of the west. " the removal of a bishop ' s cathedra from a church deprives that church of its cathedral dignity, although often the name clings in common speech, as for example at antwerp, which was deprived of its bishop at the french revolution. technically, such a church is a proto - cathedral. lutheran helsinki cathedral is finland ' s most famous church. saints and apostles at chartres cathedral cathedral of the holy name, bombay. photo nichalp alexander nevsky cathedral in sofia, bulgaria detail of the cathedral of milan, in italy - ↑ new standard encyclopedia. ( chicago : standard educational corp., 1992 isbn 0873921976 set ), b - 262c. - ↑ new standard encyclopedia, c - 172 / 3. - macaulay, david. cathedral : the story of its construction. trumpet club special ed edition, 1989. isbn 978 - 0440840916 - prache, anne. cathedrals of europe. cornell university press, 2000. isbn 978 - 0801437816 - schutz, bernhard. great cathedrals. harry n. abrams, 2002. isbn 978 - 0810932975 - wilson, christopher. the gothic cathedral : the architecture of the great church 1130 - 1530. thames & hudson ; 2nd revised edition, 2005. isbn 978 - 0500276815 all links retrieved april 24, 2013. - catholic cathedrals in the world, giga - catholic information. - cathedral, catholic encyclopedia, new advent. - cathedral index, sacred destinations. - a history of cathedral choir schools, of choristers – ancient and modern. new world encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the wikipedia article in accordance with new world encyclopedia standards. this article abides by terms of the creative commons cc - by - sa 3. 0 license ( cc - by - sa ), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the new world encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the wikimedia foundation. to cite this


london and rotterdam, nov. 19 / csrwire / - unilever, through its leading hygiene brand domestos, today – world toilet day - announced new initiatives to raise awareness for the global sanitation crisis. ‘ toilets for health ’, a white paper by the london school of hygiene and tropical medicine and domestos, gives new insights in the sanitation crisis. in ho chi minh city the first domestos toilet academy was opened and in london an interactive statue ‘ the public toilet ’ was revealed. the united nations has declared access to sanitation a basic human right, yet almost a third of the world ’ s population suffer from a lack of access to improved sanitation. unilever, under its sustainable living plan, has committed to helping more than one billion people take action to improve their health and well - being. the white paper ‘ toilets for health ' highlights how improved sanitation could greatly reduce diseases such as diarrhoea, which results in at least 1. 1 million deaths of children under five every year. also, the report provides an overview of the main diseases linked to poor sanitation which include cholera, typhoid, hepatitis a & e and many parasitic diseases. the paper revealed : improved sanitation & handwashing facilities have a particularly positive impact on the education opportunities for young girls ; up to 443 million school days are lost every year due to water, sanitation and hygiene ( wash ) related diseases ; diarrhoea causes under nutrition, it also reduces a child ’ s resistance to subsequent infections creating a vicious circle of malnutrition & infection.


19th arondissement - buttes chaumont before 1860, when paris was re - arranged into its present shape, the 19th arrondissement was part of the township of belleville – and very much the rough end of it. in the north, there were the docks and the municipal slaughterhouses, and with much of the land to the south ( after centuries of gypsum mining ) being too porous for permanent structures, the entire area had been abandoned to rat - infested knacker ' s yards, bull - baiting rings and the largest municipal rubbish dump. a daring act of social engineering was to change all that : the park of buttes chaumont, still the town ' s prettiest, was conceived as an island of gentility whose effects, it was hoped, would eventually radiate to heal the whole district. or, in the words of baron haussmann ( the de facto mayor of paris at the time ) : to provide " moral uplift " for the entire area. after 150 years, however, the park still has a long way to go, its gentrifying effects having penetrated the area about two blocks deep. the docks along the canal, meanwhile, have made way for showpiece municipal housing ( alongside an art - house cinema and restaurants ), while the slaughterhouses have been converted into the parc de la villette, france ' s largest " hands - on " museum for science and technology and well worth a visit, particularly if you travel with kids. © nileguide


vulnerable young people according to mind, 1 in every 100 women aged between 15 and 30 in the uk suffers from anorexia. and recent reports show that some girls as young as five years old have weight concerns and think about going on a diet. now a new research project is aiming to improve knowledge and understanding of the risks presented by the increasing number of pro - anorexia ( pro - ana ) websites and online communities available on the internet. contributing to the condition? virtually anorexic – where ’ s the harm? is a project led by dr emma bond, senior lecturer at university college suffolk. the exploratory study will look to examine why people use the growing number of pro - ana sites, what they use them for and whether or not these online resources are contributing to either the anorexic condition or the phenomenon. it also aims to raise awareness of the potential risks to vulnerable young people of using pro - ana sites through wide - ranging dissemination and discussion with academics, policymakers and practitioners. all about identity it is known that young people use new media technologies for both risk management and risk - taking behaviours – to achieve identity as individuals and as members of cultural groups in both offline and online environments. the virtually anorexic project will consider perceptions of risk from a variety of perspectives and notions of self - identity in relation to pro - ana online environments. the research will examine how young people use the sites for tips and advice, support and other information and as an ‘ embodied ’ social space. it will also detail the range, uses and content of these sites, including the availability of photographs, images and video. the findings will then be considered in relation to existing literature on anorexia, young people and online environments in order to consider an ethical research framework for a more in - depth participant - centred virtual scientific evaluation of pro - ana sites and online environments.


alaska natives are twice as likely to get colon cancer and die from it as the white population in the united states. when mayo clinic doctor david ahlquist took a trip to bethel, alaska, in the mid - 1990s, that startling statistic caught his attention. " here they had one of the world ' s highest rates of colon cancer and one of the world ' s poorest outcomes in terms of survival from cancer, because of late diagnosis, " ahlquist says. the best way to prevent colon cancer is through screening, but ahlquist realized that approach has flaws in rural alaska. colonoscopy equipment isn ' t available in remote native villages. a widely used test that detects blood in stool isn ' t effective because many alaska natives have a stomach bacterium called h. pylori that also causes bleeding. the colon cancer screening rate for alaska natives in some rural areas of the state is as low as 23 percent. in urban areas, it ' s closer to 60 percent. so ahlquist began working on a test that can identify several altered genes that are present in colon cancer. " it measures dna changes that are shed from the surface of cancer or pre - cancer into the stool, and we can detect those changes that act as a signature of the presence of cancer or polyps, " he explains. ahlquist compares his research to the advent of the pap smear. when that test was invented in the 1950s, cervical cancer killed more women in the u. s. than any other cancer. " now it ' s essentially been eradicated in women who are screened, " ahlquist says. according to two studies published this year, the dna colon cancer test finds 85 percent of colon cancers and more than 50 percent of pre - cancerous polyps. ahlquist and the mayo clinic are working with a company called exact sciences to commercially develop the test, and both will benefit financially if it comes on the market. dr. randall burt at the huntsman cancer institute in utah has high hopes, too. " in the end, it could be a huge game changer, " he says. but burt thinks the test has to get better at detecting pre - cancerous polyps. " is it enough to replace colonoscopies so we only do colonoscopies on people with a positive stool test? probably not yet. but it ' s getting there, " he says. dr. william grady of the fred hutchinson cancer research center in seattle agrees that with more rigorous study, these tests could change cancer diagnosis and treatment.


one of the greatest stories of explorationand discovery is the europeanquest for a northwest passageanoceanic shortcut from the atlantic to thepacific across the top of north america. in the centuriesfollowing columbus ' s encounter with theamericas, the search for a route through the continent ( as opposed to the long, arduous voyage byway of the tip of south america ) engaged the attentionof spain, britain and other european powers. by the nineteenth century, the quest for the northwestpassage was a major initiative of the britishadmiralty, particularly since it appeared that thepassage would lie in british - claimed territory acrossthe more northerly part of the continent. thesearch for the passage, at that time largely a matterof conjecture and legend, its eventual discovery, and the saga of human endeavour in the far north, are formative aspects of the history and culture ofwhat is now canada. after the first voyage of martin frobisher to thearctic in 1576, subsequent expeditions probed theregion and its shores, charting and mapping the landand interacting with its indigenous peoples. theclimax of this great quest was the ill - fated expeditionof sir john franklin in 184548, when everyone of the 129 - man expedition died. the search forfranklin and for clues to his fate resulted in thecharting of the northwest passage by 1859, but itwas not until the 19036 voyage of roald amundsenin the sloop gjøa that the passage was conquered byship. the final acts in the drama of the northwestpassage were the two voyages of the royal canadianmounted police schooner st. roch, which in1940 - 42 became the second vessel to navigate thepassage, this time from west to east, and again in1944, when st. roch became the first vessel to navigatethe more northerly route through melvillesound and prince of wales strait. the frozen north, with its long history ofexploration and settlement, the rugged conditionsin an environment where survival was tenuous, andthe occasional loss of ships and lives in its lands andwaters, captured the popular imagination andinterest. for people of the victorian era, in particular, the arctic voyages of the nineteenth centurywere compelling. the era of arctic exploration, and the sacrifices it requiredisolation, privation, starvation, even deathcoincided with the rise ofthe gothic tale. the accounts of the explorersthemsel


voyages of the nineteenth centurywere compelling. the era of arctic exploration, and the sacrifices it requiredisolation, privation, starvation, even deathcoincided with the rise ofthe gothic tale. the accounts of the explorersthemselves, culminating in the seventeen contemporarynarratives of the search for the ill - fatedfranklin expedition, fed the public ' s taste. indeed, the high drama and tragedy of the franklin expeditionhas probably done more to popularize thequest for the northwest passage than any otherevent. franklin ' s epitaph, fittingly enough, waspenned for his memorial at westminster abbey byhis nephew, alfred, lord tennyson : not here : the white north has thy bones ; and thou, heroic sailor - soul, art passing on thine happier voyage now toward no earthly pole. the arctic and its grim appeal have served andcontinue to serve as muse. mary shelley, writing in1818, when britain resumed its push for thenorthwest passage, had dr. frankenstein chase his " modern prometheus " into arctic seas, whilegothic novelist wilkie collins penned the frozendeep about a lost arctic explorer, drawing on thepublic ' s interest in the then still unravelling story ofthe franklin expedition. artists, too, were drawn by the arctic and thetales it held. edwin landseer, in man proposes, goddisposes, and frederick church, in iceberg, bothpaint broken masts on ice - strewn shores. caspardavid friedrich ' s die gescheiterte hoffnung ( the polarsea ) captures the seemingly impenetrable mass ofbroken, upthrust ice that had thwarted, and occasionallytrapped, arctic explorers. in more moderntimes, irish - canadian artist vincent sheridan usedthe stark images of skulls and of the exhumedfrozen bodies of some of franklin ' s men to create aseries of prints, a journey with franklin. in several ofhis prints, sheridan shows, rising out of the skulls, images of ice - bound ships and desperate men, likelong - lost memories embedded within the bleachedand flaking bone. canadian artist ken kirkby in hisgigantic isumataq depicts the arctic coast on a 46 - metre - long, 3 - metre - high ( 152 - foot - long, 10 - foot - high ) canvas. the scale of kirkby ' s work captures, unlike many other paintings, the sheer


by a long - dead hand, silently examining broken dishes and scattered silverwareon a galley deck from a sunday breakfastforever interrupted by a fatal attack on the morningof december 7, 1941. this personal quest also led me north to thearctic. it came in stagesfirst from reading theaccounts of the great expeditions, then seeing thearctic relics themselvesthe legacy of the questfor the northwest passage. when i was a childgrowing up in the san francisco bay area, my parentstook me to see the tiny gjøa, the ship in whichroald amundsen conquered the passage, nestled inits sandy berth at the foot of golden gate park, looking out to sea. long after gjøa was pluckedfrom the dunes and sent home to her nativenorway, i too took passage from san francisco. arriving in canada, i settled in vancouver, britishcolumbia. now, daily, i see the venerable arcticschooner st. roch in her concrete berth on theshores of english bay. second ship to make thenorthwest passage, this dauntless vessel is now myresponsibility as the director of the vancouvermaritime museum, st. roch ' s final home. over the past several years, i have been fortunateto again merge words with artifacts andplaces as i travelled around the world to numerousmuseums, seeking the scattered relics of the questfor the northwest passage. i travelled north aswell, to the shores of the arctic ocean, where thestories of the quest played out. this book is theresult of those travels and research. it is notintended to be the final word on the quest. thereare shelves of books that examine the various voyages, the personalities and the events. this book, rather, is my attempt to assemble the flow of thestory, from antiquity until now, and let the wordsand the images draw the reader with me alongthose icy shores. the arctic holds many tangible reminders, evencenturies after the events discussed in the pages ofthis book. stan rogers sings that the explorerscame " seeking gold and glory, leaving weathered, broken bones, and a long forgotten, lonely cairnof stones. " the numerous expeditions, the cachingof supplies, the building of camps and cairns, andthe sinking of ships have combined to create a richarchaeological record. relics of the franklin expedition, as well as others, have been gathered


. " the numerous expeditions, the cachingof supplies, the building of camps and cairns, andthe sinking of ships have combined to create a richarchaeological record. relics of the franklin expedition, as well as others, have been gathered bysearchers and later by souvenir hunters throughoutthe last decades of the nineteenth century and formuch of the twentieth century. serious scientificwork, conducted under the supervision of theprince of wales northern heritage centre, incanada, has resulted in the documentation and stabilizationof a number of sites, and careful archaeologicalexcavation of a few. fragile and yetstrangely resilient, these places evoke the past, bethey a ring of rocks that once marked a tent, or theintact hulk of breadalbane, crushed and stink in 1853while searching for franklin and now slumberingbeneath the ice off beechey island. in writing this book, i have been privileged tohave some experiences that made the past come tolife. i have stood on grey gravel beaches, with thewind never ceasing, inside one of those tent rings ; floated in frigid waters at the submerged bow of thewreck of amundsen ' s maud, and sat in the libraryof the national maritime museum in greenwich, with the last record of the franklin expedition inmy hands. i have mused, alone for an hour, in thesmall cabin of gjøa. this book, with its marriage ofthe words, the places and the artifacts, is my attemptto share a physical sense of the centuries - long questfor a northwest passage. for i, like stan rogers, sought the northwest passage, and found there butthe way back home again. copyright © 1999 james p. delgado. all rights reserved.


northern prairie wildlife research center the little - wing pearly mussel faces water quality degradation resulting from industrial and sewage effluents and the runoff of silt and other water pollutants from poorly designed construction, development, mining, agricultural, and forestry activities. further, the spread of the exotic zebra mussel ( dreissena polymorpha ) represents a potential threat to the survival of this species. zebra mussels outcompete native mussel fauna, and infestations in the water column can physically disrupt normal breeding and feeding behavior. although little measurable progress has been made in establishing new mussel populations or in stabilizing existing populations, substantial recovery efforts for all the state ' s federally listed mussels are under way. research is continuing on maintaining captive mussel populations, mussel cryopreservation, and potential impacts of the exotic zebra mussel on native mussels. recovery of the littlewing pearly mussel will require additional research to develop new propagation techniques, reintroduction into unoccupied historical habitat, and determination of the factors that are causing declines in the wild. also, technology is needed for cryopreservation of freshwater mussel genetic material. in fy 1992, the north carolina wildlife resources commission was provided $ 5, 000 to conduct surveys and monitor the little - wing pearly mussel, as well as the state ' s other federally listed mussels. forest service : this federal agency has funded a study of mussel distribution in the little tennessee river, which is inhabited by the little - wing pearly mussel. north carolina wildlife resources commission : this state agency is responsible for managing the state ' s mussel populations and helps protect listed species through an environmental review process and site surveys. the agency published proceedings of a symposium on north carolina ' s endangered mollusks, including the little - wing pearly mussel. north carolina department of environment, health and natural resources : through maintenance of a natural history data base, this state agency provides valuable information on the distribution of federally listed mussels. plan approved 9 / 22 / 89.


researchers from wake forest university school of medicine in winston - salem, north carolina, recruited 976 people aged 65 or older from two towns in the chianti area of italy. scientists measured physical performance including walking speed, ability to stand up from a seated position, ability to maintain balance in several increasingly difficult postures and hand grip strength. those who had low levels of vitamin d scored 5 % to 10 % lower in physical performance tests and hand grip strength than those with higher levels. research does not show that low vitamin d levels cause poor physical performance, but doctors noted that muscles need vitamin d to function properly. separately, medical experts from harvard medical school have recently concluded that the optimal level for vitamin d begins at 75 nanomoles per liter of blood ( nmol / l ). in the chianti study, nearly 75 % of women and 51 % of men had insufficient levels of vitamin d, meaning 50 nmol / l or less. approximately 29 % of women and 14 % of men were deficient in vitamin d, which doctors classified as 25 nmol / l or less. harvard researchers stated that the average adult would require 560 iu of vitamin d per day to raise the level by 10 nmol / l. the u. s. department of agriculture currently recommends 200 iu of vitamin d per day for those under 50, 400 iu per day for those 50 to 70, and 600 iu per day for those over 70. there is a growing consensus in the medical community that vitamin d is safe at higher levels, that many people are deficient or insufficient in vitamin d and that the government should raise its recommendations.


nuts are a delicious, filling snack that we simply love. but did you know that nuts can also promote heart health? according to an article by the experts at mayoclinic. com, nuts are chock - full of unsaturated fatty acids, which have been shown to lower bad cholesterol levels. keeping those cholesterol levels low is key for preventing heart disease. all nuts supply fantastic nutrients, vitamins and fats, but some contain more heart - healthy fats and nutrients than others. walnuts, for example, have been shown by researchers to lower cholesterol, reduce inflammation and improve arterial function. they ’ re loaded with essential omega - 3 fatty acids that are key for heart health. try sprinkling walnuts on a salad, adding them to oatmeal or even eating them by the handful for a quick snack! almonds are another wonderful choice for those who are trying to improve their heart health. almonds are the leading source of monounsaturated fat among america ’ s most consumed nuts. in fact, of the 14 grams of total fat found in one ounce of almonds, about 64 percent of that fat is monounsaturated. that ’ s wonderful news for those who are working to lower their cholesterol! we love almonds because they ’ re easy to take on the go. just load up a small container with 1 oz. of almonds. macadamia nuts are deliciously sweet, crisp nuts that are simply amazing in baked goods and granola. they contain potent antioxidants called flavenoids and tocopherols that can help protect against cancer and heart disease. macadamia nuts are also loaded with monounsaturated fatty acids and contain omega - 3s. hazelnuts contain nearly 91 percent monounsaturated fat and less than 4 percent saturated fat, which makes them ideal for promoting heart health. they ’ re also incredible nutrient - dense, with protein, fiber, iron, phosphorus, vitamins b1, b2, c, and e, folate and many other essential nutrients. rich, delicious cashews are wonderful when included in a healthy diet. it ’ s estimated that 75 percent of the unsaturated fatty acid in cashews is oleic acid, which is the same mono - unsaturated fat found in olive oil. various studies have shown that oleic acid promotes cardiovascular health, even with diabetics. furthermore, studies show that the monounsat


more than two thirds of the 16, 000 people who meet the criteria for inclusion in the people of colonial albany study population were actually born within the city of albany. our community - based research program has told us much about their origins and backgrounds. these boys and girls represent the core city population - born within the defined city limits. at the same time, please be aware that almost half of those albany children did not live long enough to reach adulthood, are mostly historically mute, and thus must take a back seat to the adults - generally speaking that is! for the sometimes silent majority of the native born " albanians, " our sweep of community - based resources has yielded substantial material with which to sketch out their life course profiles. however, for the original settlers ( in the community at its founding in 1664 ) and for those newcomers who came to albany afterwards, their pre - albany stories are far more challenging. in the days before the world wide web, searching for origins and backgrounds of newcomers was a far more arduous task when accessibility to a comparative handful of printed family - based resources, actual legwork for research, or what i still recall as tedious and frustrating correspondence, made origins research a veritable " needle - in - a - haystack " experience. newcomers came into the community on a regular basis ( true then as well as now ). a small percentage of those who entered the city limits stayed on for a year, a decade, or a lifetime. finding the answer to the marquee question on this page is part of every biographical initiative. we now start with an internet search under a range of spellings and identity terms. that initial search invariably leads in so many interesting directions. stay tuned for much more on this task. silently posted : 10 / 29 / 10 ; revised 3 / 5 / 11


the ongoing riots that are occurring in ever greater numbers throughout more and more cities, are testimony to the fact that there are inherent problems within our society, as many for some time have advocated. speculation abounds regarding the causes, poverty, lack of education, and numerous other factors including parenting, however the one fact that is undeniable, is the fact that the individuals perpetrating these acts of violence have no interest in justice or concerns about the property or welfare of other individuals. one of the key elements regarding how to deal with those who riot, is the human rights card, but as speculated by many on forums and blogs, those who infringe other peoples human rights, should not be allowed to utilise that as a valid defence, or as a means of escaping punishment. it has also been noted by the media, that the age group of many of the rioters, is generally seen to be within the teens to 25 age group, with some as young as seven or eight. perhaps the solution, as speculated by many, is to make parents accountable for the actions of their children. in terms of persistent offenders, the parents of the relevant child could receive some form of punishment, in whatever form. in essence responsibility is the key, whether it is for the individual or their children, the actions of parents have an undeniable effect on their offspring. there is no doubt that if parents were made accountable for the actions of their children, that many would take a sterner view and more responsibility when it comes to the welfare and actions of their offspring. whatever the potential solution, there are many who believe that zero tolerance should be the overriding factor, when dealing with those who perpetrate violent criminal activity in whatever shape or form, and it appears by the ongoing political debate, it is becoming a popular position.


celeriac develops a pitted and whorled exterior that, when peeled away, reveals a soft, creamy white interior with a mild, herbaceous flavor. this mediterranean native is popular in europe. gardeners and cooks in the united states largely ignored it until recently, when it began appearing on menus as a classic french salad, coarsely grated and dressed with remoulade, or in potato leek soup. celeriac, also called celery root or knob celery, belongs to the same species as the common celery grown for its stalks — but is easier to grow. a cousin of carrots, parsley, and parsnips, celeriac ( apium graveolens ) is a long - season crop, taking a minimum of 115 days from seed to a harvestable knob up to 4 inches in diameter. it needs well - fertilized soil and consistent moisture throughout the growing season to prevent bolting, misshapen roots, or black heart, a calcium deficiency that riddles the interior with dark mottled lines. the attractive leafy tops form a low mound, remain green from spring until fall, and can be harvested sparingly to season soups and stews. celeriac ’ s mild flavor easily blends with and enhances other vegetables. it is a boon to those on a diet : boil and mash the low - starch knobs with an equal measure of potatoes for a dish with fewer calories than mashed potatoes. for a refreshing salad to serve alongside a hearty entree, grate or thinly slice celeriac, then toss with remoulade, a mustardy mayonnaise seasoned with fresh chopped tarragon. cultivars vary slightly in size, days to maturity, and reliability. ‘ brilliant ’ and the european cultivar ‘ diamant ’ are commonly available. how to grow : sow seeds indoors 8 to 10 weeks before transplanting outdoors in late spring. keep soil moist and temperatures at 65°f to 70°f while seeds are germinating ; they can take 2 to 3 weeks to emerge. move seedlings outdoors when weather is settled, setting plants 6 to 8 inches apart in loose, fertile soil. to avoid misshapen knobs, take extra care not to disturb the roots while transplanting. several times during the long growing season, side - dress with nutrient - rich compost or organic fertilizer. don ’ t allow the soil to dry out, yet avoid too


progress, and applications of the human genome project sponsored by the u. s. department of energy human genome program human genome news archive edition human genome news, january - june 1997 ; 8 : ( 3 - 4 ) at the january 1997 conference on small genomes : sequencing, functional characterization, and comparative genomics, over 250 participants gathered on hilton head island to discuss recent progress and future directions in this emerging and exciting area of research. as stated by craig venter [ the institute for genomic research ( tigr ) ] in the opening session, small - genome research is growing exponentially, and a new era of biological insight is emerging because of it. this first meeting on small genomes was sponsored by tigr and organized by claire fraser ( tigr ), hamilton o. smith ( johns hopkins university medical school ), and e. richard moxon ( oxford university ). selected meeting highlights follow. plasmodium falciparum, the organism causing 300 million to 500 million new cases of malaria each year, contains over 5000 genes distributed among 14 chromosomes. as discussed by stephen l. hoffman ( naval medical research institute ), less than 5 % of this organism ' s dna is cloned at the present time. a consortium of sponsors including the wellcome trust, burroughs wellcome fund, u. s. department of defense, and the nih national institute for allergy and infectious diseases has joined to sequence this pathogen, many strains of which have become resistant to chloroquine, the only effective drug for treating malaria. the hope is that new targets for different drugs will be revealed by the complete sequence of the plasmodial genome. cloning and sequencing the plasmodium dna, however, is proving difficult because ofthe organism ' s high at content ( as much as 76 % in coding regions and 90 % to 100 % in intergenic regions ). further, p. falciparum ' s dna has proven unstable in escherichia coli, and the organism itself is difficult to maintain in culture. several interesting characteristics of helicobacter pylori, which resides in mucosa or apposed to epithelia and causes gastric and duodenal ulcers in humans, were reported by jean - francois tomb ( tigr ) and douglas e. berg ( washington university medical school ). h. pylori contains over 1500 open reading frames ( orfs ), with many repetitive sequences. a large porin - like family of cell adhesion


francois tomb ( tigr ) and douglas e. berg ( washington university medical school ). h. pylori contains over 1500 open reading frames ( orfs ), with many repetitive sequences. a large porin - like family of cell adhesion molecules may be involved in mucosal or epithelial cell adhesion. most genes for flagellar structure and function are present. dinucleotide repeats may affect the orf for some surface proteins and provide a possible mechanism for eluding the host immune system. there is much variation among helicobacter strains. different variants predominate in members of the same host species, which may reflect spontaneous mutation, horizontal gene transfer, and selection by different hosts over a long interval of infection. a challenge for the future will be to identify the function of unknown or " orphan " genes in h. pylori and determine how different genes allow this organism to live in a relatively hostile acid environment, causing active disease in some cases but not others. bernard dujon ( institut pasteur ) presented some highlights of the recently completed yeast genome sequence. three signature features are apparent in the more than 6000 orfs of this organism : a large number of genes have unknown function, the genome contains many redundant sequences, and about 10 % to 15 % of the orfs are thought to be essential for life. work is proceeding to assign functions to orphan orfs by using deletion and other mutants to examine effects on expression in different vector systems. two hybrid systems are being used to search for relationships and interactions with other yeast gene products. satoshi tabata ( kazusa dna research institute, japan ) reported that 3, 573, 470bp of dna specify more than 3100 potential orfs in the cyanobacterium synechocystis. this single - celled organism is photoautotrophic and capable of oxygenic photosynthesis. synechocystis contains more than 126 genes related to photosynthesis, and about 90 % of algal plastid genes appear to be conserved in synechocystis. richard hermann ( university of heidelberg ) reported on the closely related bacteria mycoplasma genitalium ( 580, 070bp ) and mycoplasma pneumoniae ( 816, 394bp ). all the orfs in m. genitalium are present in m. pneumoniae, whose genome consists of six segments. segment order is not conserved between the two species, but gene order is conserved


( 816, 394bp ). all the orfs in m. genitalium are present in m. pneumoniae, whose genome consists of six segments. segment order is not conserved between the two species, but gene order is conserved within each segment. differences in genome size could have evolved by deletion of m. genitalium genes that are not essential for life outside the host and by gene amplification in m. pneumoniae. bacterial virulence factors are often encoded in extrachromosomal plasmids, phages, and transposons that can be transmitted horizontally between different species or strains. pathogenic vibrio cholera, for example, carries a phage kappa. the phage has a gene for glo, a virulence factor very similar to a small eukaryotic g protein. present on the chromosomal dna of toxigenic strains are cholera toxin – encoding genes similar to the genome of a filamentous bacteriophage. the cholera toxin and pilus are regulated coordinately by a transcriptional regulator called tox r. in fact, the pilus is the receptor for the phage ( john mekalonos, harvard medical school ). as reported by brian g. spratt ( university of sussex, u. k. ), both inter - and intraspecies recombination can occur in bacteria, particularly when the bacteria coexist in an environment such as the nasopharynx. in these cases, spratt noted, recombination occurs more frequently in housekeeping genes and in genes under strong selection. analysis of gene - product function several groups are attempting to analyze the function of gene products specified by orfs of completely sequenced organisms. richard moxon and his collaborators have identified and cloned 25 genes involved in the biosynthesis and regulation of the lipopolysaccharide ( lps ) of haemophilus influenzae. lps is a major virulence determinant for this human pathogen. analysis of these genes and their mutants with monoclonal antibodies, polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, and mass spectrometry has, in fact, confirmed a role for most of these proteins in strain pathogenicity. h. influenzae has an estimated 1700 orfs. only about 500 polypeptides, however, can be detected by coomassie blue staining following separation of cell extracts by 2 - d poly