not only because of the increased demand for food but also because the large number of these fugitives meant the cossacks could not absorb them into their culture through the traditional apprenticeship way. instead of taking these steps of proper assimilation into cossack society, the runaway peasants spontaneously declared themselves cossacks and lived beside true cossacks, laboring or working as barge - haulers to earn food. as conditions worsened and mikhail ’ s son alexis took the throne, divisions among the cossacks began to emerge. older cossacks began to settle and become prosperous, enjoying the privileges they earned through obeying and assisting the muscovite system. the old cossacks started giving up their traditions and liberties that had been worth dying for to obtain the pleasures of an elite life. the lawless and restless runaway peasants that called themselves cossacks looked for adventure and revenge against the nobility that had caused them suffering. these cossacks did not receive the government subsidies that the old cossacks enjoyed and thus had to work harder and longer for food and money. these divisions between the elite and lawless would lead to the formation of a cossack army beginning in 1667 under stenka razin as well as to the ultimate failure of that rebellion. stenka razin was born into an elite cossack family and had made many diplomatic visits to moscow before organizing his rebellion. the cossacks were razin ’ s main supporters and followed him during his first persian campaign in 1667, plundering and pillaging persian cities on the caspian sea. they returned ill and hungry, tired from fighting but rich with plundered goods in 1669. muscovy tried to gain support from the old cossacks, asking the ataman, or cossack chieftain, to prevent razin from following through with his plans. however the ataman, being razin ’ s godfather and swayed by razin ’ s promise of a share of the wealth from razin ’ s expeditions, replied that the elite cossacks were powerless against the band of rebels. the elite did not see much threat from razin and his followers either, although they realized he could cause them problems with the muscovite system if his following developed into a rebellion against the central government. razin and his followers began to capture cities at the start of the rebellion in 1669. they seized the towns of tsaritsyn, astrakhan, saratov, and samara, implementing democratic rule and releasing peasants from slavery as they went. razin envisioned


followers began to capture cities at the start of the rebellion in 1669. they seized the towns of tsaritsyn, astrakhan, saratov, and samara, implementing democratic rule and releasing peasants from slavery as they went. razin envisioned a united cossack republic throughout the southern steppe in which the towns and villages of the area would operate under the democratic, cossack style of government. these sieges often took place in the runaway peasant cossacks ’ old towns, leading them to wreak havoc on their old masters and get the revenge for which they were hoping. the rebels ’ advancement began to be seen as a problem to the elder cossacks, who, in 1671, decided to comply with the government in order to receive more subsidies. on april 14, ataman yakovlev led elders to destroy the rebel camp and captured razin, taking him soon afterward to moscow. razin ’ s rebellion marked the beginning of the end to traditional cossack practices. in august 1671, muscovite envoys administered the oath of allegiance and the cossacks swore loyalty to the tsar. while they still had internal autonomy, the cossacks became muscovite subjects, a transition that would prove to be a dividing point yet again in pugachev ’ s rebellion. for the cossack elite, a noble status within the empire came at the price of their old liberties in the 18th century. an advancement of agricultural settlement began forcing the cossacks to give up their traditional nomadic ways and to adopt new forms of government. the government steadily changed the entire culture of the cossacks. peter the great increased service obligations for the cossacks and mobilized their forces to fight in far - off wars. peter began establishing non - cossack troops in fortresses along the iaik river and in 1734 constructed orenburg, a fortress of government power on the frontier that gave cossacks a subordinate role in border defense. when the iaik cossacks sent a delegation to peter to explain their grievances, peter stripped the cossacks of their autonomous status and subordinated them to the war college rather than the college of foreign affairs, solidifying the change in the cossacks from border patrol to military servicemen. over the next fifty years, the central government responded to cossack grievances with arrests, floggings, and exiles. among the ordinary cossacks, hatred of the elite and central government boiled and by 1772, an open state of rebellion ensued for


years, the central government responded to cossack grievances with arrests, floggings, and exiles. among the ordinary cossacks, hatred of the elite and central government boiled and by 1772, an open state of rebellion ensued for six months between the iaik cossacks and the central government. under catherine the great in 1762, the russian peasants and cossacks once again faced increased taxation, heavy military conscription, and grain shortages that had characterized the land before razin ’ s rebellion. in addition, catherine ii annulled one of peter iii ’ s acts, an act interpreted to mean that economy peasants, or serfs living on church lands, were free from their obligations and payments to church authorities. in 1767, the empress refused to accept grievances directly from the peasantry. peasants fled once again to the land of the cossacks ; in particular, the fugitive peasants set their destination for the iaik host, whose people were committed to the old cossack traditions. the changing government burdened the cossacks as well, extending its reach to reform the cossack traditions. emelian pugachev, a low - status don cossack, arrived in the iaik host in late 1772. pugachev ’ s claim to be peter iii stemmed from the expectations the cossacks held for the late ruler, believing that peter iii would have been an effective ruler after signing an alliance with frederick the great of prussia, had he not been assassinated by a plot of his wife catherine ii. many iaik cossacks believed pugachev ’ s claim, though those closest to him knew the truth. others that may have known the truth but did not support catherine ii, due to her disposal of peter iii, still spread pugachev ’ s claim to be the late emperor. the first of the three phases of pugachev ’ s rebellion began in september 1773. the elite - supporting cossacks constituted the majority of the first prisoners taken by the rebels. after a five - month siege of orenburg, a military college became pugachev ’ s headquarters. pugachev began envisioning a cossack tsardom, similar to razin ’ s vision of a united cossack republic. the peasantry across russia stirred with rumors and listened to manifestos issued by pugachev. however, pugachev ’ s rebellion soon became to be seen as an inevitable failure. the don cossacks refused to help the rebellion in the last phase of the revolt


russia stirred with rumors and listened to manifestos issued by pugachev. however, pugachev ’ s rebellion soon became to be seen as an inevitable failure. the don cossacks refused to help the rebellion in the last phase of the revolt because they knew military troops followed pugachev closely after lifting the siege of orenburg and following pugachev ’ s flight from defeated kazan. in september, 1774, pugachev ’ s own cossack lieutenants turned him over to the government troops. the cossacks ’ opposition to modernization and institutionalization of political authority led them to participate in pugachev ’ s rebellion. one of their last hopes to defy the increasing political authority threatening the traditional cossack life failed. the cossack elite, hoping to obtain noble statues, accepted the government ’ s reforms and the ordinary cossacks had no choice but to give up their traditions and liberties. civil war, decossackization, and holodomor of 1932 - 33 in the russian civil war that followed the october revolution, the cossacks found themselves on both sides of the conflict. cossacks formed the core of the white army, but many of them also fought for the red army. some cossack units in the ukraininan service not relevant to the military estate of cossacks have participated in pogroms against jews in ukraine following the defeat of the white army, a policy of decossackization ( raskazachivaniye ) took place on the surviving cossacks and their homelands since they were viewed as potential threat to the new regime. university of york russian specialist shane o ' rourke states that " ten thousand cossacks were slaughtered systematically in a few weeks in january 1919 " and that this " was one of the main factors which led to the disappearance of the cossacks as a nation. " in addition, decossackization also involved dividing up the lands of cossack hosts among other divisions and giving them to new autonomous republics of non - cossack minorities. this was especially true of the terek cossacks ' land. cossacks were also banned from serving in the red army. some recent literature claims that hundreds of thousands or even millions of cossacks were killed by the soviet government during decossackization. according to michael kort, " during 1919 and 1920, out of a population of approximately 3 million, the bolshevik regime killed or deported an estimated 300, 000 to 500, 000 cossacks ",


the soviet government during decossackization. according to michael kort, " during 1919 and 1920, out of a population of approximately 3 million, the bolshevik regime killed or deported an estimated 300, 000 to 500, 000 cossacks ", including 45 thousand terek cossacks. the denikin regime alleged that in 1918 – 19, 5, 598 were executed in the provinces of the don, 3, 442 in the kuban, and 2, 142 in stavropol. on the other hand, historian leonid futorianskiy disputes these claims and argues instead that, during the preceding white terror of the krasnov regime, between 25 and 40 thousand cossacks were killed. the cossack homelands were often very fertile, and during the collectivisation campaign many cossacks shared the fate of kulaks. the soviet famine of 1932 – 1933, called holodomor by cossacks, hit ukraine, volga, don, kuban, and terek territories ( the northern caucasus ) very hard. the famine caused a population decline of about 20 - 30 % in these territories ( the population decline in the rural areas, populated by ethnic cossacks, was even higher, since metro areas were not affected by the famine ). robert conquest estimates the number of famine - related deaths in the northern caucasus to be at about 1 million. grain and other produce were expropriated from cossack families, leaving them to starve and die, and many families were forced out of their homes in the winter time, leaving them to freeze to death. these facts are documented in mikhail sholokhov ' s letters to joseph stalin, and by eyewitness accounts. in 1936, under pressure from cossack communities, the soviet government lifted the ban on cossacks serving in the red army. second world war during the second world war cossacks found themselves on both sides of the conflict once again. cossacks living in the usa and in the uk have always been the effective members of the us and the uk army and navy, american cossacks having considered the us president their commander - in - chief since at least john turchin ' s times. a lot of cossacks joined the resistance. though some cossacks joined german armed forces, they did so usually to defect either to the western allies or to the resistance, to liberate their co - patriots and family members from nazi work and concentration camps. however, a substantial number


. though some cossacks joined german armed forces, they did so usually to defect either to the western allies or to the resistance, to liberate their co - patriots and family members from nazi work and concentration camps. however, a substantial number of cossacks served with the germans honestly. this can be explained by harsh repressions and genocide that their families suffered under the collectivization and decossackization policies pursued by joseph stalin. like other people of the soviet union, who suffered persecution under stalin, some cossacks mistakenly greeted the advancing german army as ` ` liberators " from stalinism. while some cossacks in german service were the former white army refugees many soviet citizens including rank - and - file cossacks defected from the red army to join the " cossack units " of german armed forces, where native cossacks usually served as officers only. as early as 1941, the first cossack detachments, created out of prisoners of war, defectors and volunteers, were formed under german leadership. the dubrovski battalion formed of don cossacks in december 1941 was reorganised on july 30, 1942 into the pavlov regiment, numbering up to 350 men. the cossacks were successfully utilized for anti - partisan activity in the rear of the german army. the cossack national movement of liberation was set in the hope of creating an independent cossack state, cossackia. it was not until 1943 that the 1st cossack division was formed under the command of general helmuth von pannwitz, where cossack emigrees, like andrei shkuro and pyotr krasnov, took leading positions. the 2nd cossack division under the command of colonel hans - joachim von schultz, formed in 1944, existed only for a year, when both cossack divisions became part of the xv cossack cavalry corps, totalling some 25, 000 men, wearing regular wehrmacht uniforms and not waffen - ss ones, as has occasionally been incorrectly alleged. although in 1944 general von pannwitz accepted loose affiliation with the waffen - ss in order to gain access to their supply of superior arms and equipment, together with control over cossack units in france, no pagan ss features had ever been implemented to respect the christianity of cossacks and the corps command, structure, uniforms, ranks, etc. remained firmly wehrmacht. the corps contained regiments of different cossack groups, that were don, kuban, terek


features had ever been implemented to respect the christianity of cossacks and the corps command, structure, uniforms, ranks, etc. remained firmly wehrmacht. the corps contained regiments of different cossack groups, that were don, kuban, terek and siberian cossacks which had been fighting tito ' s guerrillas, ustashi and domobranci in the former yugoslavia. at the end of the war in 1945, they conducted a fighting retreat north - eastwards over the karavanken mountains into carinthia where they surrendered to the british army in allied - administered austria, hoping to join the british to fight communism. there was little sympathy at the time for a group who were seen as nazi collaborators and who were reported to have committed atrocities against resistance fighters in eastern europe. the cossacks were sent to russia as the part of operation keelhaul. on 28 may 1945 they were duped by british assurances that they were being taken to canada or australia. instead they were all handed over to smersh on the soviet demarcation line at judenburg together with the civilian members of the kazachi stan, consisting of old folk, woman, and children as well as about 850 german officers and non - commissioned officers of the corps. at the end of the war, the british repatriated between 40 to 50 thousand cossacks, including their families, to the soviet union. an unknown number were subsequently executed or imprisoned. reportedly, many of those punished had never been soviet citizens. this episode is widely known as the betrayal of the cossacks. the nuremberg tribunal excluded cases of service in the cavalry units of waffen ss, to which waffen ss cossack units belonged, from the membership in the criminal organization of waffen ss. however, the vast majority of the ethnic cossacks bravely fought against the nazis in the ranks of the red army and of the red navy on all war theaters. their service in particular was crucial on the southern theatre of the eastern front, where open prairies ( steppes ) made them ideal for frontal patrols and logistics. although the first cossacks units were formed prior to the war ( as early as 1936 ), by 1942 there were 17 cossack corps units in the red army ( as opposed to only two in the german forces ). later these corps units were increased in size and reduced to eight. their distinction in battle eventually led all to be merited as guards. oka gorodovikov formed 49 cossack cavalry divisions during


only two in the german forces ). later these corps units were increased in size and reduced to eight. their distinction in battle eventually led all to be merited as guards. oka gorodovikov formed 49 cossack cavalry divisions during the war only. many ethnic cossacks served in other divisions of the red army and in the navy, of whom boris shaposhnikov, markian popov, aksel berg, arseniy golovko, oka gorodovikov, lev dovator, pavel belov, general dmitry karbyshev, dmitry lavrinenko, pilot grigory bakhchivandzhi and engineer fedor tokarev could be mentioned to name only a few. a cossack detachment of the 4th guards corps marched in red square during the moscow victory parade of 1945. modern times following the war, cossack units, along with cavalry in general, were rendered obsolete and released from the soviet army. in the post - war years many cossack descendants were thought of as simple peasants, and those who lived inside an autonomous republic usually gave way to the particular minority and migrated elsewhere ( particularly, to the baltic region ). in the perestroika era soviet union of the late 1980s, many successors of the cossacks became enthusiastic about reviving their national traditions. in 1988 the soviet union passed a law which allowed formation of former hosts and the creation of new ones. the ataman of the largest, the all - mighty don host, was granted marshal rank and the right to form a new host. the cossacks have taken an active part in many of the conflicts that took place afterwards : the war of transnistria, the georgian - abkhazian conflict, the georgian - ossetian conflict, the kosovo war, the first chechen war and the second chechen war. at the same time many attempts were made to increase the cossack impact on russian society and throughout the 1990s many regional authorities agreed to hand over some local administration and policing duties to the cossacks. on april 2005, vladimir putin, president of russia introduced a bill " on the state service of the russian cossacks " ( o gosudarstvennoy sluzhbe rossiyskogo kazachestva ) to the state duma, which was passed at the first reading on may 18, 2005. for the first time in decades the cossacks were recognized as not only a distinct ethnoc


bautino, kazakhstan ), blagoveshchensk, towns and settlements at ural, ishim, irtysh, ob, yenisei, lena, amur, anadyr ( chukotka ), and ussuri rivers. a group of albazin cossacks settled in china as early as 1685. cossacks actively exchanged cultures and customs with nearby peoples ( for example, the terek cossacks were heavily influenced by the culture of north caucasian tribes ). they also frequently married local residents ( other non - cossack settlers and natives ) regardless of race or origin, sometimes setting aside religious restrictions. war brides brought from distant lands were also common in cossack families. one of the russian volunteer army commanders, general bogaevsky mentions in his book one of his cossacks unit ' s servicemen, sotnik khoperski, who was chinese by origin and brought from manchuria during the russian - japanese war 1904 – 1905 as a child, adopted and raised by a cossack family. family life cossack family values are simple, rigid, and to a western eye, seem to come from another era. in theory the men build the home and provide an income ; the women cook, clean and give birth to children. traditional russian values, culture, and orthodoxy form the bedrock of their beliefs. cossacks, particularly those in rural areas, tend to have more children than other slavic or christian peoples in russia. rural cossacks often live in large clans led by an elder patriarch, usually a grandfather, who often has the title of ataman. but in the past when male cossacks waged permanent wars at a large distance, just female cossacks were family leaders and even both protected their villages and towns from enemy attacks and raided and disarmed neighboring villages of other peoples. this is why, for example, leo tolstoy emphasized cossack feminism in his " cossacks " novel. sergei korolev ' s mother from the well - known zaporozhian sich cossack leader family used to joke, that men could be real cossack family leaders in the outer space only. popular image cossacks have long appealed to romantics as idealizing freedom and resistance to external authority, and their military exploits against their enemies have contributed to this favourable image. for others they have been a symbol of repression because of the role of various horsemen crying " cossacks " to cheer up themselves and to frighten


and resistance to external authority, and their military exploits against their enemies have contributed to this favourable image. for others they have been a symbol of repression because of the role of various horsemen crying " cossacks " to cheer up themselves and to frighten people in suppressing popular uprisings in the russian empire and their actions during the khmelnytsky uprising. literary reflections of cossack culture abound in russian, ukrainian and polish literatures, particularly in the works of nikolai gogol ' s taras bulba, taras shevchenko, mikhail sholokhov, henryk sienkiewicz ' s book with fire and sword. one of leo tolstoy ' s first novellas, the cossacks, depicts their autonomy and estrangement from moscow and centralized rule. most of polish romantic literature deals with themes about the cossacks. ( roman catholics especially poles could be zaporozhian cossacks up to 1635. a lot of landless polish schlahta converted into orthodox catholics to divide the lands of russian schlahta together with cossacks during the khmelnitsky ' s uprising. after this cossacks used to convert poles, especially polish children, into orthodox catholics to turn them into cossacks. many polish and polish jewish children were adopted into cossack families. all poles captured with arms in 1812 - 1814 campaign were enlisted in cossack hosts for 25 years, though without their obligation to convert into orthodox catholics now. moreover, those who converted into orthodox catholics might escape of the cossack service and of any other exile. polish cossack became synonymous with a polish roman catholic patriot since 1814 thus. even marshal rokossovsky commanded a kuban cossack bridage in the soviet army. ) cossacks are also portrayed in lord byron ' s " mazepa ", tennyson ' s poem " the charge of the light brigade ", and richard connell ' s short story " the most dangerous game ". in many of the stories by adventure writer harold lamb, the main character is a cossack. in ukraine, where the cossackdom represents historical and cultural heritage, some people have been attempting to recreate the images of ukrainian cossacks. traditional ukrainian culture is often tied in with the cossacks, and the ukrainian government actively supports these attempts. the traditional cossack bulava is one of its national symbols, and the island of the khortytsia, where the zaporoz


culture is often tied in with the cossacks, and the ukrainian government actively supports these attempts. the traditional cossack bulava is one of its national symbols, and the island of the khortytsia, where the zaporozhian sich once existed, has been restored. since the dissolution of the soviet union, many have begun seeing russian cossacks as defenders of russian sovereignty. cossacks not only reestablished all of their hosts, they also took over police and even administrative duties in their homelands. the russian military also took advantage of the patriotic feelings among the cossacks and as the hosts become larger and more organised, has in past turned over some of its surplus technology to them. on par with that, the cossacks also play a large cultural role in the south of russia. since the whole rural ethnic russian population of the rostov - on - don, krasnodar and stavropol territories, as well as the autonomous republics of the northern caucasus, considers themselves consisting almost exclusively of at least spiritual cossack descendants, the region was always known, even in the soviet times for its high discipline, low crime and conservative views, like having one of the highest rates of religious attendance and literacy rates. in the russian empire, the cossacks were organized into several voiskos ( hosts ), which lived along the russian border, or internal borders between russian and non - russian peoples. each host had its own leadership and regalia as well as uniforms and ranks. however, by the late 19th century the latter were standardized following the example of the imperial russian army. following the 1988 law, which allowed the hosts to reform and the 2005 one that legally recognized the hosts as a combat service, the ranks and insignia were kept, but on all military tickets that are standard for the russian army they are given below. | modern cossack rank | | equivalent modern russian army | | equivalent foreign rank | | mladshy uryadnik | | mladshy serzhant | | corporal | | starshy uryadnik | | starshy serzhant | | senior sergeant | | mladshy vakhmistr | | mladshy praporshik * | | junior warrant officer | | starshy vakhmistr | | starshy praporshchik | | senior warrant officer | | podkhorunzhy | | mladshy leitenant * | | junior lieutenant | | sotnik | | starshy leiten


and coloured beshmets ( waistcoats ), that epitomise the popular image of the cossacks. most hosts wore fleece hats with coloured cloth tops in full dress with peaked caps for ordinary duties. the two caucasian hosts however appear to have worn high fleece caps on most occasions. until 1909, cossack regiments wore white blouses and cap covers of standard russian army pattern in summer. the shoulder straps and cap bands were in the host colour as detailed below. from 1910 to 1918, a khaki - grey jacket was worn for field wear with the blue or green breeches and coloured stripes of the dress uniform. while most cossacks served as cavalry, there were infantry and artillery units in several of the hosts. three regiments of cossacks formed part of the imperial guard, as well as the konvoi — the tsar ' s mounted escort. the imperial guard regiments wore tailored government - issue uniforms which had spectacular and colourful appearance. as an example, the konvoi wore scarlet cherkesskas, white beshmets and red crowns on their fleece hats. | host | | year est. | | cherkesska or tunic | | beshmet | | trousers | | fleece hat | | shoulder straps | | don cossacks | | 1570 | | blue tunic | | blue | | blue with red stripes | | red crown | | blue | | ural cossacks | | 1571 | | blue tunic | | none | | blue with crimson stripes | | crimson crown | | crimson | | terek cossacks | | 1577 | | grey - brown cherkesska | | light blue | | grey | | light blue crown | | light blue | | kuban cossacks | | 1864 | | black cherkesska | | red | | grey | | red crown | | red | | orenburg cossacks | | 1744 | | green tunic | | none | | green with light blue stripes | | light blue crown | | light blue | | astrakhan cossacks | | 1750 | | blue tunic | | none | | blue with yellow stripes | | yellow crown | | yellow | | siberian cossacks | | 1750s | | green tunic | | none | | green with red stripes | | red crown | | red | | transbaikal cossacks | | 1851 | | green tunic | | none | | green with yellow stripes | | yellow crown | | yellow | | amur


| none | | green with red stripes | | red crown | | red | | transbaikal cossacks | | 1851 | | green tunic | | none | | green with yellow stripes | | yellow crown | | yellow | | amur cossacks | | 1858 | | green tunic | | none | | green with yellow stripes | | yellow crown | | green | | semiryechensk cossacks | | 1867 | | green tunic | | none | | green with crimson stripes | | crimson crown | | crimson | | ussuri cossacks | | 1889 | | green tunic | | none | | green with yellow stripes | | yellow crown | | yellow | * all details are based on the 1909 – 14 dress uniforms as portrayed in " tablitsi form ' obmundirovaniya russkoi armi ", colonel v. k. shenk, published by the imperial russian war ministry 1910 – 11. modern - day russian cossack identity unlike in ukraine, where the issue of cossack status and identity seems to have been resolved, in modern russia, the question of " who is a cossack? " can and does create major controversies. there are ethnic or " born " ( prirodnye ) cossacks, those trace or, at least, claim to trace their direct ancestry to cossacks of the old, tsarist era. these are mainly either orthodox catholic people or old believers ( including " edinovertsy " ), who consider themselves to be slavic. others, however, who are not " born " cossacks, can become cossacks through initiation. they are not necessarily slavic or christian. for example, since 2004, in the city of perm functioned modern russia ' s first muslim cossack unit. not everyone agrees that " initiated " cossacks should be considered cossacks at all. nor is there consensus on what is considered a proper form of initiation. there are people who simply put on a cossack uniform and, essentially, pretend to be cossacks, perhaps because there is a large ethnic cossack population in their area and it is more convenient to try to fit in ; or because that is simply a popular fad at the moment. such individuals tend to be scoffed at by " real " cossacks and referred to as ' ryazhenye ' ( ряженые, ' dressed up phonies ' ). because of the controversies surrounding the identity issue, true population


to be scoffed at by " real " cossacks and referred to as ' ryazhenye ' ( ряженые, ' dressed up phonies ' ). because of the controversies surrounding the identity issue, true population numbers of cossacks in russia still cannot be worked out. there are said to be 7 million people in russia who consider themselves cossacks. most cossack leaders estimate the number of ethnic cossacks as between 2. 5 and 4 million. but boris almazov believes that there are a few hundred thousands only. see also notes and references - cossacks lived along major rivers - - dnieper, don, volga, terek, ural, amur - - and had excellent naval capabilities and skills - - they were excellent fishermen and sea merchants in peaceful times and executed expert naval service in war times. also the word " frontier " is one characteristic of cossack communities that is frequently mentioned, the russian military encyclopedia ( 1911 ) has it as the probable translation of " cossack ". " frontier " is used to explain the democracy of cossack communities according to the frontier thesis by frederick jackson turner. really cossacks combined features of us cowboys, us cavalry, us coast guard, us marine corps, us navy, its father founder john paul jones being a cossack himself. but nevertheless the russian frontier was more similar to a canadian one, than to an american frontier, with the greater influence of metis populations because of the lack of european women at russian frontiers. ( cossacks called first - generation metis " tuma ", they had not even a word for metis in general. and cossacks meant not racial, but cultural mixing in a tuma, because children of blonde blue - eyed iranian women were tumas as well, while children of slavic, romanian, jewish, gypsy and other women from europe were not called tumas. then, many eastern countries sources could explain the native level iranian language of stenka razin by his iranian mother only, and reported razin as a tuma. but he spoke many other languages at a native level as well. ) moreover, while french language, prevalent at canadian frontier, is not the only state language of canada, cossack chernigov dialect developed into the state language of russia. - r. p. magocsi " a history of ukraine ", pp. 179 – 181 - count leo tolstoy had, " that all russian history has been made by co


chernigov dialect developed into the state language of russia. - r. p. magocsi " a history of ukraine ", pp. 179 – 181 - count leo tolstoy had, " that all russian history has been made by cossacks. no wonder europeans call all of us that... our people as a whole wishes to be cossacks. - this connection is supported by old cossack self - names such as kazara ( russian : казара ), kazarla ( russian : казарла ), kozarlyhi ( ukrainian : козарлюги ), kazare ( russian : казарре ) ; cf. n. d. gostev, " about the use of " kazarа " and other derivative words. " kazarla ethnic magazine, 2010, №1. ( link ) on another note, the name of khazars in old russian chronicles is kozare ( ukrainian : козаре ). prince myshetsky and later rigel ' man wrote extensively about the cossack folklore, where khazar origin is mentioned. myshetsky mentions the date 948 as the date of the first cossack varangian guard on byzantine service, explaining the name " cossacks " as greek misspelling of " khazars ". really, an irish surname cossack known since the 12th century can be explained by anglo - saxon and norman service in the varangian guard and the migration of the former varangian guards to ireland. later gustav von ewers discovered russian kaganate and volga rus as the legitimate sources of the russian statehood, the majority of varangians, including the first russian ruling dynasty, being khazars, in ewers ' opinion. the russian emperor nicholas i, impressed by ewers ' works, elaborated on ewers ' two - nation khazar - russian origin of the russian state, the empire being the russian - cossack one, and the heir of the russian emperor being the supreme ataman of cossacks since nicholas the first, similarly to the prince of wales ' rule in wales. a russian emperor had appointed all atamans of cossack hosts since nicholas the first. - professor peter v. golubovsky from kiev university explained that severians had been the significant part not only of early medieval russians


' rule in wales. a russian emperor had appointed all atamans of cossack hosts since nicholas the first. - professor peter v. golubovsky from kiev university explained that severians had been the significant part not only of early medieval russians, but of khazars as well, the khazar state being the " slavic stronghold in the east ". many khazars, like cossacks, described in " cossacks " by leo tolstoy, could be slavic - turkic bilinguals. * ( russian ) golubovsky peter v. ( 1884 ) pechenegs, torks and cumans before the invasion of the tatars. history of the south russian steppes in the 9th - 13th centuries ( печенеги, торки и половцы до нашествия татар. история южно - русских степеи ix — xiii вв. ) ; available at runivers. ru in djvu format. later mikhail artamonov and his school confirmed many golubovsky ' s results. - the official theory that the cossacks originated from fugitive russians and are the military class of fugitive russians dates from 1834 only, from the work of bronevskii. it was the prerequisite for the government of emperor nicholas i to mix bronevskii ' s and ewers ' theories publishing in 1835 the " imperial order ", entitled " administrative regulations for the don host. " this order only converted the cossacks from a people with its own ethnicity to the status of a " military class " in the same way as varangians had been the semi - military and semi - naval class of khazars, in ewers ' opinion. - the russian " military encyclopedia ", published in saint - petersburg in 1911, advanced a new theory that khazars themselves originated as the military class of huns, where " ко " in their name is " defense, protection ", and " zar " or " zak " means " a frontier ", " kozar " ( the name of a khazar in russian ) and " kozak " meaning " frontier protector ". - the don host and the sich region had close ties, and both hosts participated in numerous joint war expeditions, the most known of which is azov


of a khazar in russian ) and " kozak " meaning " frontier protector ". - the don host and the sich region had close ties, and both hosts participated in numerous joint war expeditions, the most known of which is azov sitting, when don and zaporozhian cossacks stormed the azov fortress and defended it with the aid of volunteers throughout russia against turkish armed forces for 5 years. a permanent exchange of cossacks existed between the zaporozhie region and the don region ; dinskoy ( don ) kuren ( division ) was one of kurens that made up the sich itself. the connection is also reflected in the fact that there are major towns in the don and dniepr regions sharing similar names, for example, novocherkassk city and starocherkasskaya stanitsa in the don region, and cherkasy city in the ukraine. notably, the exonym " cherkasy " was often used as the name not only of any enemy cossack ( from polish, turk, tatar etc. armies ) of any origin but of dnieper cossacks, even when allied with moscow, in moscovite chronicles ; and the lower dnieper ( zaporozhian ) cossacks often referred to higher dnieper ( malorussian ) cossacks as " cherkasy " as well. - from tak to yes : understanding the east europeans, yale richmond, intercultural press, 1995, p. 294 - андрусовскии мир 1667 http : / / historydoc. edu. ru / catalog. asp? cat _ ob _ no = 15249 & ob _ no = 16146 - britannica don river – history and economy - andrew gordeyev. the history of cossacks. moscow, 1992 - with the remarkable and important exclusion of malorussian cossacks, the former " registered cossacks " in poland and " town zaporozhian host " in russia, which were transformed into civil estates, including the new civil estate of cossacks. - the poor, without a knight horse, were to serve in cossack infantry and in cossack artillery, only navy had no cossack ships and units, and cossacks served in navy together with other people. - this is not only well documented, but reflected in a story by sholom aleichem titled " a wedding without musicians, " where


navy had no cossack ships and units, and cossacks served in navy together with other people. - this is not only well documented, but reflected in a story by sholom aleichem titled " a wedding without musicians, " where a jewish town in ukraine calls for a cossack unit to prevent a pogrom by the local mob. - cossacks voted for revolutionary parties ( constitutional democrats and social democrats ) usually themselves, therefore as a rule their police service was used to suppress terrorist activities, not peaceful meetings etc. but all horsemen, including mounted police, cheered up themselves and frightened people, crying " cossacks ". this is why it is only mistakenly alleged that cossacks for example killed people in the bloody sunday ( 1905 ) etc. - " рг + россия 24 : росстат об итогах всероссиискои переписи населения 2010 года — " вот какие мы - россияне " — россииская газета — росстат об итогах всероссиискои переписи населения 2010 года ". rg. ru. retrieved 2012 - 08 - 13. - " конгресс казаков в америке | рассеяны но не расторгнуты ". kazaksusa. com. retrieved 2012 - 08 - 13. - " этническое казачье объединение казарла ". kazarla. ru. retrieved 2012 - 08 - 13. - " вольная станица ". fstanitsa. ru. retrieved 2012 - 08 - 13. - " cossacks ". encyclopediaofukraine. com. retrieved 2012 - 08 - 13. - казак / / этимологическии словарь ф


- " cossacks ". encyclopediaofukraine. com. retrieved 2012 - 08 - 13. - казак / / этимологическии словарь фасмера - " online etymology dictionary ". - encyclopædia britannica, article cossack - iaroslav lebedynsky, histoire des cosaques ed terre noire, p38 - shambarov, valery ( 2007 ). kazachestvo istoriya volnoy rusi. algoritm expo, moscow. isbn 978 - 5 - 699 - 20121 - 1. - vasili glazkov ( wasili glaskow ), history of the cossacks, p. 3, robert speller & sons, new york, isbn 0 - 8315 - 0035 - 2 - samuel j newland, cossacks in the german army, 1941 – 1945, routledge, 1991, isbn 0 - 7146 - 3351 - 8 - " the cumans, who are living in the land of the kipchak since time immemorial, [ … ], are known to us as turks. it is these turks, no new immigrants from the areas beyond the yaik, but true descendants of the ancient scythians, who now again occur in world history under the name cumans, [ … ]. " ( karl friedrich neumann, the people of southern russia in its historical evolution, bg teubner, leipzig 1855, p. 132. ) - the columbia electronic encyclopedia, 6th ed. ( out of print ). cossacks. columbia university press, 2001 – 04 - hrushevsky, m. illustrated history of ukraine. " bao ". donetsk, 2003. isbn 966 - 548 - 571 - 7 - don cossacks http : / / www. razdory - museum. ru / cossacks. html - cossacks of kalmykia http : / / www. kalm. ru / en / cossacks. html - ukrainians are still called rusi in the romanian language partly because of the danubian sich existence in romania. - this is also true of don cossacks of the lower don, where the local dialect has obvious ukrainian connections. many ukrainian peasants joined terek cossacks in 20 - 30s of the 19th century, influencing local dialects.


in romania. - this is also true of don cossacks of the lower don, where the local dialect has obvious ukrainian connections. many ukrainian peasants joined terek cossacks in 20 - 30s of the 19th century, influencing local dialects. but the grebensky ( row ) cossacks, the group of terek cossacks with deep adyghe roots because of intermarriages, still have an old northern russian viatka dialect ( probably with connections to the old dialects of the white sea shores ). middle don dialects have obvious connections with northern russian dialects, belorussian and volyn dialects of ukrainian, close to belorussian dialects. only upper don dialects are southern russian ones, though, of course, there are no distinct borders between ukrainian and southern russian dialects, modern russian being the descendant not of old dialects of the greater russia but of a medieval chernigov dialect. - is there mova in the kuban region? kuban newspaper. http : / / ngkub. ru / news / old _ 265 - bogdan zolotarevsky. kuban and ukraine. http : / / www. ukrterra. com. ua / developments / history / modern / zolotarevsky - kub. htm - kubanskaya balachka. the school course http : / / pedsovet. org / component / option, com _ mtree / task, viewlink / link _ id, 99614 / itemid, 118 / - john ure. the cossacks : an illustrated history. london : gerald duckworth - cossack navy 16th – 17th centuries - " in 1651, in the face of a growing threat from poland and forsaken by his tatar allies, khmelnytsky asked the tsar to incorporate ukraine as an autonomous duchy under russian protection... the details of the union were negotiated in moscow. the cossacks were granted a large degree of autonomy, and they, as well as other social groups in ukraine, retained all the rights and privileges they had enjoyed under polish rule. " pereyaslav agreement ". encyclopædia britannica. 2006. - dvornik, francis ( 1992 ). the slavs in european history and civilization. rutgers univ pr. isbn 978 - 0 - 8135 - 0799 - 6. - the dissertation of justus martius, maintained in mulhgausen in 1674 http : / / www. vostlit.


and civilization. rutgers univ pr. isbn 978 - 0 - 8135 - 0799 - 6. - the dissertation of justus martius, maintained in mulhgausen in 1674 http : / / www. vostlit. info / texts / dokumenty / russ / xvii / 1660 - 1680 / razin / martius / frametext. htm - angus konstam. russian army of the seven years ' war. osprey publishing ( october 15, 1996 ) language : english isbn 185532587x isbn 978 - 1855325876 - " www. napoleon - series. org / reviews / military / c _ cossackhurrah. html cossack hurrah! ". retrieved 2007 - 04 - 23. - notable supporters of this point of view were gustav von ewers, nicholas i, peter v. golubovsky, mikhail artamonov and his school, including lev gumilyov etc. - kadomsky the ethnic composition of black sea rus. http : / / www. dissercat. com / content / etnicheskii - sostav - prichernomorskoi - rusi see works of evgueni goloubinski and vasily vasilievsky about relations of gothoalans ( goths - tetraxits ) and russian colonists in region of north - east part of black sea and sea of azov as well. the goths - alans came from the western part of north caucasus and from northern europe, goths intermixed with slavs during their trip from northern europe. when alans had moved to europe, these goths occupied the part of the former alania in crimea and were called gothoalans, russian occupying another part were called roxolans. later people from the western part of north caucasus joined gotho - alans in their feodoro principality. it is believed that crimean greeks have the gotho - alan ancestry, among others. mikhail lomonosov was the first to identify roxolans as russians similar to gotho - alan identification as goths. - see penultimate footnote. - o ' rourke, shane ( 2000 ). warriors and peasants : the don cossacks in late imperial russia. isbn 978 - 0 - 312 - 22774 - 6. - old believer – raskolniks – text in english - after the caucasus war many muslims, subbotniks, molokane,


early modern europe, ed. marc raeff, ( the john hopkins press, 1975 ), 170. - raeff, " pugachev ' s rebellion, " 172. - o ’ rourke, the cossacks, 117. - o ’ rourke, the cossacks, 120. - o ’ rourke, the cossacks, 124. - o ’ rourke, the cossacks, 126. - o ’ rourke, the cossacks, 127 - 8. - o ’ rourke, the cossacks, 128. - o ’ rourke, the cossacks, 129 - 30. - " pogroms : anti - jewish violence in modern russian history, " p. 303, john doyle klier ( editor ), shlomo lambroza ( editor ) - soviet order to exterminate cossacks is unearthed university of york communications office, 21 january 2003 - kort, michael ( 2001 ). the soviet colosus : history and aftermath, p. 133. armonk, ny : m. e. sharpe. isbn 0 - 7656 - 0396 - 9. - pavel polian – forced migrations in ussr – retrieved on 5 february 2007 - orenburg state university - " голодомор | вольная станица ". fstanitsa. ru. retrieved 2012 - 08 - 13. - robert conquest ( 1986 ) the harvest of sorrow : soviet collectivization and the terror - famine. oxford university press. isbn 0 - 19 - 505180 - 7, p. 306. - " фэб : шолохов — сталину и. в., 4 апреля 1933. — 2003 ( текст ) ". feb - web. ru. retrieved 2012 - 08 - 13. - " голод 1932 - 1933 годов, рассказы очевидцев. голод в казахстане, поволжье, северном кавказе и украине. голодомор ". bibliotekar. ru. retrieved 2012 - 08 - 13. - " постановление цик ссс


cossacks saved a lot of serbs, jews, gypsies, communists and others from ustashi. their false marriages saved many russian prisoners of work camps. - hughes, james and sasse, gwendolyn : ethnicity and territory in the former soviet union : regions in conflict. taylor & francis, 2002, page 107. isbn 0 - 7146 - 8210 - 1 - evans, julian ( 2005 - 07 - 02 ). " putin sends for cossacks in fight against terrorism ". the times ( london ). retrieved 2010 - 04 - 30. - russian nations - " paramilitary : the cossacks return ". strategypage. com. 2010 - 09 - 17. retrieved 2012 - 08 - 13. - " сопредельные с ними ( поселенцами – ред. ) по " горькои линии " казаки... поголовно обучались киргизскому наречию и переняли некоторые, впрочем, безвредные привычки кочевого народа ". генерал - губернатор казнаков в докладе александру iii, 1875. " among – edit. neighboring ( to settlers - edit. ) in gor ' kaya liniya cossacks... everyone learnt kyrgys language and adopted some, harmless though, habits of nomadic folks " quoted report of governor - general kaznakov to tzar alexander iii, 1875. - богаевскии а. п. ледянои поход. воспоминания 1918 г. - " russia ' s cossacks rise again : : russia ' s cossacks rise again ". news. bbc. co. uk ( bbc news ). 2007 - 08 - 09. retrieved 2007 - 08 - 09. - when malorossian cossack regiments had been disbanded


: : russia ' s cossacks rise again ". news. bbc. co. uk ( bbc news ). 2007 - 08 - 09. retrieved 2007 - 08 - 09. - when malorossian cossack regiments had been disbanded, those cossacks who were not promoted to nobility or did not join other estates were united into a civil cossack estate, like korolev ' s mother family. http : / / yablor. ru / blogs / 12 - yanvarya - 1907 - goda - rodilsya - sergey - pavlovich - ko / 169210 - milovidov, bessonov. polish prisoners of war in 1812 - 1814. http : / / adjudant. ru / captive / bes06. htm - " в перми появятся первые в россии казаки - мусульмане ". - " казаки и " ряженые " ". - boris almazov. cossack tragedy. http : / / borisalmazov. narod. ru / stati / kazachia _ drama. htm - " в россии насчитывается 7 млн. казаков ". - knotel, richard, knotel, herbert, & sieg herbert ( 1980 ) uniforms of the world : a compendium of army, navy and air force uniforms 1700 – 1937, charles scribner ' s sons, new york - summerfield, stephen ( 2005 ) cossack hurrah : russian irregular cavalry organisation and uniforms during the napoleonic wars, partizan press isbn 1 - 85818 - 513 - 0 - summerfield, stephen ( 2007 ) the brazen cross : brazen cross of courage : russian opochenie, partizans and russo - german legion during the napoleonic wars, partizan press isbn 978 - 1 - 85818 - 555 - 2 - o ’ rourke, shane ( 2008 ). " the cossacks, " manchester university press isbn 0 - 7190 - 7680 - 3 further reading - h. havelock, the cossacks in the early seventeenth century, english historical review, vol. 13, no. 50 ( apr., 1898 ), pp. 242 – 260, j


7190 - 7680 - 3 further reading - h. havelock, the cossacks in the early seventeenth century, english historical review, vol. 13, no. 50 ( apr., 1898 ), pp. 242 – 260, jstor - " the cossack corps ", general der flieger hellmuth felmy, us army historical division, hailer publishing, 2007 - le fiamme di zaporoze - flames of zaporoze – novel on zaporozhian cossacks of hetman ivan mazepa. isbn 88 - 6155 - 268 - 4 | wikimedia commons has media related to : cossacks | | look up cossacks in wiktionary, the free dictionary. | - cossack site – eng., rus., spa., fre. - cossackdom. com – history of cossacks xv - xxi cent. - cossacks during the napoleonic wars - zaporizhian cossacks - history of ukrainian cossacks at encyclopedia of ukraine - soviet cossacks – an issue of the propaganda journal ussr in construction which presents numerous images of cossack life in soviet russia. - cossack nation livejournal - cossack nation - - the social network of ethnic cossacks - the congress of cossacks in america


blanking and piercing blanking and piercing are shearing processes in which a punch and die are used to modify webs. the tooling and processes are the same between the two, only the terminology is different : in blanking the punched out piece is used and called a blank ; in piercing the punched out piece is scrap. the process for parts manufactured simultaneously with both techniques is often termed ' pierce and blank '. there are various types of blanking and piercing : lancing, perforating, notching, nibbling, shaving, cutoff, and dinking. lancing is a piercing operation in which the workpiece is sheared and bent with one strike of the die. a key part of this process is that there is not reduction of material, only a modification in its geometry. this operation is used to make tabs, vents, and louvers. the cut made in lancing is not a closed cut, like in perforation even though a similar machine is used, but a side is left connected to be bent sharply or in more of a rounded manner. lancing can be used to make partial contours and free up material for other operations further down the production line. along with these reasons lancing is also used to make tabs ( where the material is bent at a 90 degree angle to the material ), vents ( where the bend is around 45 degrees ), and louvers ( where the piece is rounded or cupped ). normally lancing is done on a mechanical press, lancing requires the use of punches and dies to be used. the different punches and dies determine the shape and angle ( or curvature ) of the newly made section of the material. the dies and punches are needed to be made of tool steel to withstand the repetitious nature of the procedure. perforating is a piercing operation that involves punching a large number of closely spaced holes. notching is a piercing operation that removes material from the edge of the workpiece. the nibbling process cuts a contour by producing a series of overlapping slits or notches. this allows for complex shapes to be formed in sheet metal up to 6 mm ( 0. 25 in ) thick using simple tools. the nibbler is essentially a small punch and die that reciprocates quickly ; around 300 – 900 times per minute. punches are available in various shape and sizes ; oblong and rectangular punches are common because they minimize waste and allow for greater distances between strokes, as compared to a round punch. nibbling can occur


plate holds the material so tightly, and since the counter pressure is applied, the material is cut in a manner more like extrusion than typical punching. mechanical properties of the cut benefit similarly with a hardened layer at the cut edge of the part. because the material is so tightly held and controlled in this setup, part flatness remains very true, distortion is nearly eliminated, and edge burr is minimal. clearances between the die and punch are generally around 1 % of the cut material thickness, which typically varies between 0. 5 – 13 mm ( 0. 020 – 0. 51 in ). currently parts as thick as 19 mm ( 0. 75 in ) can be cut using fine blanking. tolerances between ±0. 0003 – 0. 002 in ( 0. 0076 – 0. 051 mm ) are possible based on material thickness & tensile strength, and part layout. with standard compound fine blanking processes, multiple parts can often be completed in a single operation. parts can be pierced, partially pierced, offset ( up to 75° ), embossed, or coined, often in a single operation. some combinations may require progressive fine blanking operations, in which multiple operations are performed at the same pressing station. the advantages of fine blanking are : - excellent dimensional control, accuracy, and repeatability through a production run. - excellent part flatness is retained. - straight, superior finished edges to other metal stamping processes. - smaller holes possible relative to thickness of material. - little need to machine details. - multiple features can be added simultaneously in 1 operation. - more economical for large production runs than traditional operations when additional machining cost and time are factored in ( 1000 – 20000 parts minimum, depending on secondary machining operations ) the disadvantages are : - slightly higher tooling cost when compared to traditional punching operations. - slightly slower than traditional punching operations. the amount of clearance between a punch and die for piercing is governed by the thickness and strength of the workpiece material being pierced. the punch - die clearance determines the load or pressure experienced at the cutting edge of the tool, commonly known as point pressure. excessive point pressure can lead to accelerated wear and ultimately failure. burr height is typically used as an index to measure tool wear, because it is easy to measure during production. a simple operation may only need a pancake die. while many dies perform complex procedures simultaneously, a pancake die may only perform one simple procedure with the finished product being removed by hand. -


wear, because it is easy to measure during production. a simple operation may only need a pancake die. while many dies perform complex procedures simultaneously, a pancake die may only perform one simple procedure with the finished product being removed by hand. - degarmo, p. 427. - todd ( 1994 ), manufacturing processes reference guide, new york : industrial press, pp. 84 – 85, isbn 0 - 8311 - 3049 - 0 - degarmo, p. 428. - todd, pp. 97 – 98. - degarmo, p. 425. - " fineblanking 101 ". retrieved 2008 - 11 - 05. - kalpakjian, serope ; schmid, steven r. ( 2006 ). manufacturing engineering and technology ( 5th ed. ). upper saddle river, nj : pearson prentice hall. p. 429. isbn 0 - 13 - 148965 - 8. - " fine blanking history ". retrieved 2008 - 11 - 05. - mpi international, inc. " guidelines ". retrieved 2008 - 11 - 05. - bralla, pp. 3. 47 – 3. 48. - " fine blanking benefits ". retrieved 2008 - 11 - 05. - bralla, pp. 3. 49 – 3. 50. - bralla, james g. ( 1999 ). design for manufacturability handbook. new york, new york : mcgraw - hill. isbn 0 - 07 - 007139 - x. - degarmo, e. paul ; black, j t. ; kohser, ronald a. ( 2003 ). materials and processes in manufacturing ( 9th ed. ). wiley. isbn 0 - 471 - 65653 - 4. - todd, robert h. ; dell k. allen and leo alting ( 1994 ), manufacturing processes reference guide, industrial press inc, isbn 0 - 8311 - 3049 - 0


geography of vatican city the geography of vatican city is unique due to the country ' s position as an urban, landlocked enclave of rome, italy. with an area of 0. 17 sq mi ( 0. 44 km2 ), it is the world ' s smallest independent state. outside the vatican city, thirteen buildings in rome and castel gandolfo ( the pope ' s summer residence ) enjoy extraterritorial rights. ( one building, the paul vi audience hall, straddles the border, but its italian portion has extraterritorial rights. ) the country contains no major natural resources, and no known natural hazards other than those that affect rome in general, such as earthquakes. the city state has the same climate as rome : temperate, mild, rainy winters ( september to mid - may ) with hot, dry summers ( may to september ). vatican city sits on a low hill. the hill has been called the vatican hill ( in latin, mons vaticanus ) since long before christianity existed. an etruscan settlement, possibly called vatica or vaticum, may have existed in the area generally known by the ancient romans as " vatican territory " ( vaticanus ager ), but if so no archaeological trace of it has been discovered. extreme points - north : at the intersection of the viale vaticano and the via leone iv ( ) - south : at the intersection of the via della stazione vaticana and the via di porta cavalleggeri ( ) - west : at the intersection of the viale vaticano and the via aurelia ( ) - east : easternmost edge of saint peter ' s square ( ) the lowest point in vatican city is an unnamed location at 63 feet ( 19. 2 m ). the highest point is another unnamed location at 250 feet ( 76. 2 m ). the tallest building is st. peter ' s basilica, at 452 feet ( 138 m ). land use the nature of the estate is fundamentally urban and none of the land is reserved for significant agriculture or other exploitation of natural resources. the city state displays an impressive degree of land economy, born of necessity due to its extremely limited territory. thus, the urban development ( i. e., buildings ) is optimized to occupy less than 50 % of the total area, while the rest is reserved for open space, including the vatican gardens. the territory holds many diverse structures that help provide autonomy for the sovereign state, including a rail line and train station, he


government of argentina the government of argentina, functioning within the framework of a federal system, is a presidential representative democratic republic. the president of argentina is both head of state and head of government. executive power is exercised by the president. legislative power is vested in both the executive and the national congress. the judiciary is independent from the executive and from the legislature. executive branch the current composition of the executive branch includes only the head of state and head of government president of argentina cristina fernandez de kirchner, formally given the power over the administration to follow through with the interests of the nation. the president is also the commander in chief of the argentine armed forces. the president and the vice president are elected through universal suffrage by the nation considered as a whole. the constitutional reform of 1994 introduced a two - round system by which the winning president - vice president ticket has to receive either more than 45 % of the overall valid votes, or at least 40 % of it and a 10 % lead over the runner - up. in any other case, the two leading tickets get to face a second round whose victor will be decided by a simple majority. this mechanism was not necessary in the 1995 election, when it could have first come into use, nor in the 1999 one, nor in the last two presidential elections, occurred in 2007 and 2011. however, it was instrumental in the selection of nestor kirchner in 2003. the cabinet of ministers is appointed by the president, but is not technically part of the executive power. the vice - president, amado boudou, belongs to the legislative branch, since he is also the president of the senate. president cristina kirchner holds the office since december 10, 2007. as of december 10, 2011, her cabinet consists of the following ministers : - chief of the cabinet of ministers : juan manuel abal medina - minister of the interior : florencio randazzo - minister of foreign relations ( mostly known as the chancellor ) : hector timerman - minister of defense : arturo puricelli - minister of economy : hernan lorenzino - minister of justice and human rights : julio alak - minister of security : nilda garre - minister of labor, employment and social security : carlos tomada - minister of education : alberto sileoni - minister of science, technology and innovative production : lino baranao - minister of health : juan luis manzur - minister of social development : alicia kirchner - minister of federal planning and public utilities : julio de vido - minister of


minister of science, technology and innovative production : lino baranao - minister of health : juan luis manzur - minister of social development : alicia kirchner - minister of federal planning and public utilities : julio de vido - minister of industry : debora giorgi - minister of agriculture : norberto yahuar - minister of tourism : carlos enrique meyer legislative branch the national congress ( spanish : congreso nacional ) constitutes the legislative branch of government. the congress consists of the senate ( 72 seats ), presided by the vice - president of the nation, and the chamber of deputies ( 257 seats ), currently presided by julian dominguez, deputy for buenos aires province. senators stay in office for six years, and deputies, for four. each of the provinces and of the autonomous city of buenos aires elect deputies and senators directly. deputies are representatives of the whole people of the nation, while senators represent their districts. each district elects a number of deputies roughly proportional to their overall population by proportional representation, and three senators : two for the majority, and one for the first minority. members of both chambers are allowed indefinite re - elections. every two years, each one of the twenty - four electoral districts ( the twenty - three provinces and the autonomous city of buenos aires ) elects one half of their lower chamber representatives. districts with an odd number of deputies elect one more or one less of them on each election. as for the senators, the twenty - four districts are divided into three groups consisting of eight districts. every two years all eight districts of one of those groups elect all their three senators, assigning two of them from the party that obtains the majority, and one from the first minority party. six years later, the same group of districts will hold its next senatorial elections. current situation | parts of this article ( those related to current composition of argentine congress ) are outdated. ( december 2011 ) | following the june 28th, 2009 mid - term elections, half the chamber of deputies seats and one third of the seats in the senate were subjected to the ballot box. the front for victory ( fpv ) and other allies of nestor and cristina kirchner, argentina ' s progressive ruling couple, secured 113 of 257 seats in the lower house, losing 24 seats and their previous absolute majority ( the fractious justicialist party, to which the fpv formally adheres, continue to enjoy the control of the lower house since 1989 ). among justicialists representatives, a further 17 seats went


seats and their previous absolute majority ( the fractious justicialist party, to which the fpv formally adheres, continue to enjoy the control of the lower house since 1989 ). among justicialists representatives, a further 17 seats went to anti - kirchnerites ( mostly conservatives ), gaining just one seat from the previous situation. the centrist social democratic radical civic union, argentina ' s oldest party, allied itself in various districts with the centrist civic coalition or with the social democratic socialist party, secured 77 seats, thus gaining 16. the conservative republican proposal secured 26 seats, gaining 12 from the previous election. a further 24 seats went to smaller parties, mostly provincially oriented, but also from the center - left spectrum. something similar took place in the senate, where the kirchners ' front for victory secured 36 of 72 seats ( losing 4 ), the ucr / cc / ps grouping secured 23 ( gaining 7 ), and the justicialist party wing opposed to the kirchners maintained their presence of 9 seats. smaller, provincial parties were left with 4 seats in all ( losing 3 ) ; justicialists ( pro or against the current administration ) maintained the control over the senate they ' ve enjoyed since 1983. riding a wave of approval during a dramatic economic recovery from a 2001 - 02 crisis, the kirchners ' fpv enjoyed increasingly large majorities in congress, reaching a peak at the 2007 general elections ( 153 congressmen and 44 senators ). however, soon after, on july 16, 2008, a presidentially sponsored bill to increase argentina ' s export taxes on the basis of a sliding scale met with a legislative deadlock, and was ultimately defeated by the tie - breaking " against " vote of vice president julio cobos. that controversial law cost the fpv 16 congressmen and 4 senators by way of defections. in 2009 elections, fpv candidates lost in the four most important electoral districts ( home to 60 % of argentines ), only in the province of buenos aires by a narrow difference. considering the overall national vote, fpv obtained only a very narrow victory, becoming the congress first minority form december 10, 2009, on. this will be reflected in strengthened opposition alliances, notably the center - right union pro, the center - left civic coalition and the left - wing proyecto sur, when elected candidates in both chambers take office on december 11, 2009. judiciary branch the judiciary branch is composed of federal judges and others with different jurisdictions, and


pro, the center - left civic coalition and the left - wing proyecto sur, when elected candidates in both chambers take office on december 11, 2009. judiciary branch the judiciary branch is composed of federal judges and others with different jurisdictions, and a supreme court with nine members ( one president, one vice - president and seven ministers ), appointed by the president with approval of the senate, who may be deposed by congress. as of august 2006 there are two vacancies, which then president kirchner stated she did not intend to fill. - president of the supreme court : dr. ricardo l. lorenzetti - vice - president of the supreme court : dra. elena i. highton de nolasco - minister of the court : dr. carlos s. fayt - minister of the court : dr. juan carlos maqueda - minister of the court : dr. eugenio raul zaffaroni - minister of the court : dr. enrique s. petracchi - minister of the court : dra. carmen argibay - minister of the court : dr. eduardo coudet provincial and municipal governments argentina is divided into 23 districts called provinces and one autonomous district, which hosts the national capital, the autonomous city of buenos aires ( which is conurbated into the province of buenos aires ). each of the provinces has its own constitution, laws, authorities, form of government, etc., though these must first and foremost comply with the national constitution and laws. the government of each province has three branches. the executive, legislative and judiciary. the executive branch is led by a governor. the legislative branch may be organized as a unicameral or a bicameral system ( that is, either one or two chambers or houses ). each province, except for buenos aires province, is divided into districts called departments ( departamentos ). departaments are merely administrative divisions ; they do not have governing structures or authorities of their own. they are in turn divided into municipalities ( cities, towns and villages ). each province has its own naming conventions and government systems for different kinds of municipalities. for example, cordoba province has municipios ( cities ) and comunas ( towns ) ; santa fe province further distinguishes between first - and second - tier municipios ; chaco province refers to every populated center as municipios, in three categories. the province of buenos aires has a different system. its territory is divided into 134 districts called partidos, which are technically municipalities


tier municipios ; chaco province refers to every populated center as municipios, in three categories. the province of buenos aires has a different system. its territory is divided into 134 districts called partidos, which are technically municipalities, even though they usually contain several cities and towns. regardless of the province, each department / partido has a head town ( cabecera ), often though not necessarily the largest urban center, and in some provinces often named the same as their parent district. municipalities are ruled by mayors, usually called intendant ( intendente ) in the case of cities and towns ( the larger categories ). a city has a legislative body called the deliberative council ( concejo deliberante ). the smaller towns have simpler systems, often ruled by commissions presided by a communal president ( presidente communal ) or a similarly named authority. buenos aires city, seat of the national government, was declared an autonomous city by the 1994 constitutional reform. its mayor, formerly chosen by the president of the republic, is now elected by the people, and receives the title of chief of government ( jefe de gobierno ). other than that, buenos aires, as the provinces, has its own legislative branch ( a unicameral legislature ) and elect deputies and senators as representatives to the national congress. - argentina upgrades tourism to ministry given its growing economic contribution http : / / en. mercopress. com retrieved 17 july 2010 - clarin : infografia - clarin : crisis politica tras el sorpresivo voto del vicepresidente cobos ( spanish ) - this article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the cia world factbook. - ( english ) u. s. department of state - ( spanish ) text of the constitution - ( spanish ) supreme court of justice of argentina - ( spanish ) presidency of argentina


the skagerrak is a strait running between the southeast coast of norway, the southwest coast of sweden, and the jutland peninsula of denmark, connecting the north sea and the kattegat sea area, which leads to the baltic sea. both names skagerrak and kattegat are commonly held to be of dutch origin. skagerrak means in dutch approximately ' skagen channel '. the danish town of skagen ( the skaw ) lies at the northern tip of the danish mainland. rak means ' straight waterway ' ( compare the damrak in amsterdam ) ; it is cognate to ' reach '. the ultimate source of this syllable is the proto - indo - european root * reg -, ' straight '. rak means ' straight ' in both modern norwegian and swedish. there is no evidence to suggest a connection to the modern danish word rak ( meaning rabble or riff - raff ). the skagerrak is 240 km ( 150 mi ) long and between 80 and 140 km ( 50 and 87 mi ) wide. it deepens toward the norwegian coast, reaching over 700 metres at the norwegian trench. some ports along the skagerrak are oslo and kristiansand in norway and uddevalla and stromstad in sweden. the skagerrak has a salinity of 30 practical salinity units. the volume available to biomass is about 3, 600 km2 ( 1, 400 sq mi ), including a wide variety of habitats from the sandbanks to sweden and denmark to the deeps of the norwegian trench. on the west. a line joining hanstholm ( ) and the naze ( lindesnes, ). on the southeast. the northern limit of the kattegat [ a line joining skagen ( the skaw, north point of denmark ) and paternoster skær ( ) and thence northeastward through the shoals to tjorn island ]. in both the world wars, the skagerrak was strategically very important for germany. one of the biggest sea battles of world war i, the battle of jutland, also known as the battle of the skagerrak, took place there may 31 to june 1, 1916. the importance of controlling this waterway, the only sea access to the baltic, was the motivation for the german invasion of denmark and norway during world war ii. these naval engagements have contributed to the large number of shipwrecks in the area. the skagerrak is habitat for approximately 2000 marine species,


to the baltic, was the motivation for the german invasion of denmark and norway during world war ii. these naval engagements have contributed to the large number of shipwrecks in the area. the skagerrak is habitat for approximately 2000 marine species, many of them adapted to its waters. for example, a variety of atlantic cod called the skagerrak cod spawns off the norwegian coast. the eggs are buoyant and the hatchlings feed on zooplankton. juveniles sink to the bottom where they have a shorter maturity cycle ( 2 years ). they do not migrate but remain local to norwegian fjords. the variety of habitats and the large volume of plankton on the surface support prolific marine life. energy moves from the top to the bottom according to vinogradov ' s ladder of migrations ; that is, some species are benthic and others pelagic, but there are graded marine layers within which species move vertically for short distances. in addition, some species are benthopelagic, moving between surface and bottom. the benthic species include coryphaenoides rupestris, argentina silus, etmopterus spinax, chimaera monstrosa and glyptocephalus cynoglossus. on the top are clupea harengus, scomber scombrus, sprattus sprattus. some species that move between are pandalus borealis, sabinea sarsi, etmopterus spinax. - nudansk ordbog ( 1993 ), 15th edition, 2nd reprint, copenhagen : politikens forlag, entry skagerrak. - den store danske encyklopædi ( 2004 ), cd - rom edition, copenhagen : gyldendal, entry skagerrak. - " limits of oceans and seas, 3rd edition ". international hydrographic organization. 1953. retrieved 6 february 2010. | wikisource has the text of the 1911 encyclopædia britannica article skagerrack. |


the xiang ’ er ( simplified chinese :, traditional chinese : ) is a commentary to the dao de jing that is best known for being one of the earliest surviving texts from the way of the celestial master variant of daoism. the meaning of the title xiang ’ er is debated, but can be translated as meaning ‘ thinking of you. ’ the xiang ’ er was most likely written in between 190 and 220 ce, a time when the celestial masters controlled a theocratic state in sichuan. early sources indicate that the text was written by zhang lu, the third celestial master and grandson to zhang daoling. the text available to us today was discovered in the buddhist caves at dunhuang in the early 20th century and was part of the trove that traveled to london along with aurel stein. however, the xiang ’ er that survives only comments upon half of the daode jing. presumably there was also a second part of the xiang ’ er, but it has now been lost. the xiang ’ er text found at dunhuang likely dates from the 5th or 6th centuries. the xiang ’ er reveals a great deal about early celestial master thought and practice. in particular, the text offers advice to individuals and to society as a whole. in terms of individual advice, the xiang ’ er, like the rest of daoism, discusses ways in which a person could gain immortality. according to the xiang ’ er, the body was inhabited by spirits that survive in the presence of qi. in order to attain immortality, a person had to preserve and nourish these internal spirits. presumably these spirits could be nurtured through meditation, but the xiang ’ er offers very little guidance on what type of meditation one should do. the xiang ’ er also looks down upon daoist sexual practices, and urges its readers not to practice them. while aimed at a wide audience, the xiang ’ er also contains advice that could be used for rulers. these rulers were encouraged to remake society on the model of the dao. such a society would not be based on desire for wealth and fame, but on the fear and the respect of heaven. hopefully when people learn to be respectful and fearful towards heaven, they will act morally.


catholic encyclopedia ( 1913 ) / patriarchate of lisbon patriarchate of lisbon ( lisbonensis ). includes the districts of lisbon and santarem. the area of the district of lisbon is 3065 sq. miles ; pop. 709, 509 ( 1900 ). area of santarem 2, 555 sq. miles ; pop. 283, 154. lisbon is said to owe its origin to ulysses, and hence its oldest name ulisaypo or olissipo, which became on phœnecian lips alisubbo, meaning the " friendly bay ". its charm was acknowledged by the romans in the name they gave it, felicitas julia ; and when the moors came they changed it back to al aschbuna, a variant of the poœnician title. from alisubbo and al aschbuna we have the later name lissabona, whence the modern portuguese lisboa and the english lisbon. it lies on the north bank of the tagus, 12 miles from the open sea, clustered around seven hills that rise above one another, ending in the serra of cintra. the town was taken by the moors in 716 and remained in their possession until 1145, when alfonso henriques with the assistance of an army of crusaders, english, normans and flemings bound for the holy land, drove out the invaders, and removed the capital of the country from coimbra to lisbon. an english monk named gilbert who was with the expedition was chosen bishop of lisbon at this time. on two occasions the city suffered from disastrous earthquakes ; in 1531 more than 1500 houses were destroyed, besides many churches and palaces. on 1 novembner, 1755, a second disastrous earthquake shook the city and more than 30, 000 of the inhabitants perished. to add to the misery, a fire broke out which lasted four days. carvalho, marquis of pombal, at that time minister of war, took charge of the panic - stricken city, and having extinguished the flames, drew up plans for the rebuilding of lisbon. a bronze equestrian statue of king jose with a medallion of pombal, was erected in the new prac do commercio to commemorate the rebuilding. except in this new quarter, around the praca do commercio, the streets of lisbon are irregular and steep, but there is an elaborate electric trolley sylstem connecting all parts of the town, and the ascensores or giant lifts help to overcome the difficulties of high and low levels.


do commercio, the streets of lisbon are irregular and steep, but there is an elaborate electric trolley sylstem connecting all parts of the town, and the ascensores or giant lifts help to overcome the difficulties of high and low levels. there are fountains everywhere and the streets are lined by trees, of which the olaia or judas - tree is the most common. the oldest portion of lisbon is along the steep slopes of the castello de s. jorge, which had been the stronghold of the moors. in the neighbourhood of the cathedral or se, roman remains have been found including the ruins of a roman theatre. the se or cathedral of santa maria is the oldest church in lisbon ; it dates back to the year 306. it served as a mosque for the moors during their occupation of the city, and the facade with its towers and massive portico was rebuilt during the fourteenth century. it has been restored many times. outside what were the old walls of lisbon stands the church of s. vincente da fora ( st. vincent ' s without ) with a monastery attached, which is now the residence of the patriarch of lisbon. the church contains the mortuary chapel of the kings of the house of braganza, and the great constable nuno. alvara pariera lies buried here. st. vincent is the patron saint of lisbon ; he was martyred for the faith under diocletian. according to the legend, his body was attached to a millstone and flung into the sea ( 336 ), but was miraculously discovered on the sands at valencia by some christians of that place. in the eighth century the moors took valencia, and the inhabitants fled by sea, taking the relics of st. vincent with them. they were driven ashore on the coast of algarve at the cape now known as cape st. vincent, and there they remained until d. alfonso henriques had expelled the moors from lisbon, when they were brought from cape saint vincent and deposited in the cathedral he had just built. at this same time alfonso began the building of the cistercian monastery of alcobaca, in fulfilment of a vow he had made to build a monastery for st. bernard ' s monks, if he were successful in his war against the moors. the castello of s. jorge was built in the time of julius cæsar, and strengthened by the moors, who held out there against the assault of alfonso henriques. it had three towers, known as ulysses, albarram, and


the castello of s. jorge was built in the time of julius cæsar, and strengthened by the moors, who held out there against the assault of alfonso henriques. it had three towers, known as ulysses, albarram, and managem, but every trace of them disappeared in the earthquake of 1755. it was the royal residence until the spanish kings of portugal chose the famous paco do terriero which was ruined in 1755. don joao i made st. george its patron saint ; he had married an english princess, philippa, daughter of john of gaunt. the procession on the feast of corpus christi from the castello to the church of s. domingo was a brilliant one in former years. st. george, lance in hand and on horseback in heavy armour, was personated by one of the faithful and his standard was borne before him by another rider. king and court all took part in this procession, the patriarch carrying the sacred host. the modern city the church of st. roque looks onto a square of its own name ; it contains the chapel of st. john the baptist, built in rome from designs by the architect vaneteli. its costly marbles and mosaic reproductions of paintings by guido reni, raphael, and michelangelo took ten years to complete. close by is the casa de unisencordia, a hospital and an orphanage. near at hand is the graca church and convent ( now a barracks ) facing the city. the church contains a remarkable crucifix known as nosso senhor dos passos da graca. the church of the carmo, a beautiful relic of portuguese gothic, is now a museum. belem, a suburb of lisbon, contains the church and monastery of santa maria, known locally as the jeronimos. the old name of belem was restelo, and it was from here that vasco da gama set out to discover a sea route to india. a chapel had been built on the spot by prince henry the navigator, and to it king and court went in procession, 8 july, 1497. on that same day vasco da gama embarked ; he returned in september, 1499, having rounded the cape of good hope. to immortalize the event king manuel built a monastery near prince henry ' s chapel, changed the name of the locality from restelo to belem or bethlehem, and gave the new building to the monks of st. jerome ; hence the name jeronimos. the first stone was laid in 1500


near prince henry ' s chapel, changed the name of the locality from restelo to belem or bethlehem, and gave the new building to the monks of st. jerome ; hence the name jeronimos. the first stone was laid in 1500. the building is of white stone from the quarries of estremadura, and the foundations were laid on piles of pinewood. the style of architecture is pure manueline ( a mixture of gothic, renaissance, and moorish ) and the doorway is exuberantly decorated. the church is fast becoming a mausoleum of celebrated men. it contains the tombs of vasco da gama, of camoes, the great poet, and of almeida garrett, the chief portuguese poet of the nineteenth century. in the chapter house of the monastery is the tomb of alexandre herculano, greatest of portuguese historians. the columned arches of the cloisters are decorated with the twisted cable moulding so common in manueline buildings. high above belem stands the ajuda palace, built early in the nineteenth century to replace the royal palace which had been destroyed by the earthquake of 1755. it is a conspicuous edifice and is one of the first seen on entering the port of lisbon. the actual residence of the royal family is the palace of the necessidades. since 1834 the cortes, a generic designation for the constitutional chambers of peers and deputies, occupies the monastery of sao bento. the actual number of deputies is 148, elected by the people, whereas the chamber of peers consists of nominated members appointed by the crown, and none of them under 40 years of age. one of the most remarkable monuments connected with the city is the aqueduto das aguas livres ( built in 1713 ), which reaches a distance of ten miles to chellos. near the estrela gardens is a protestant cemetery containing the tomb of henry fielding, the english novelist, who died in lisbon in 1754. this part of the city also contains the basilica of the ss. coracao de jesus with its commanding cupola of white marble. the old franciscan convent has been turned into a museum of fine arts ; and a portion of the building contains the national library of lisbon, where are stored about 300, 000 volumes, besides many rare manuscripts. the first book printed by guttenberg is shown there, and a bible from the same press. it also contains books from the duke of northumberland ' s library brought to lisbon when the nuns of sion were driven out of england during the reformation. the largest


first book printed by guttenberg is shown there, and a bible from the same press. it also contains books from the duke of northumberland ' s library brought to lisbon when the nuns of sion were driven out of england during the reformation. the largest church in lisbon is s. domingo in the praca do rossio. it was dedicated in 1241, and has undergone many changes. the kings of portugal are usually married there, and it was the former church of the inquisition. in 1761 it witnessed the auto da fe of father malagrida the jesuit, who was falsely accused of complicity in a plot against pombal ' s life. except around the praca do comercio, nearly all the important buildings of lisbon are or have been churches and monasteries. since their suppression, 28 may, 1834, the monasteries have been mainly used as barracks. the catholic faith is the state religion, but all other forms of worship are tolerated, and in government circles the feeling is anti - clerical if not anti - religious. the press is represented by two able journals, the " diario de noticias " and " o seculo ". the population of lisbon in 1900 was computed at 357, 000. the present king of portugal is manuel ii, born 15 november, 1889, who succeeded to the throne on the assassination of his father and elder brother 1 february, 1908. the reigning dynasty belongs to the house of braganca - coburg ; john iv of braganca having expelled the spanish from lisbon in 1640, and maria ii of braganca, having married fernando, prince of coburg - gotha, in the middle of the nineteenth century. the avenida da libertade is one of the new boulevards. it begins at the praca dos restauradores, which commemorates portugal ' s independence day, 1 dec., 1640, when the duke of braganca freed the land from spanish domination. the avenue is lined with trees and subtropical plants and is divided by flower - beds and rockeries into three arteries to facilitate traffic. twenty years ago all this district did not exist, and as in the newer quarters in rome, there has been some overbuilding. behind the avenida lie the botanical gardens with their leafy lanes and wealth of tropical vegetation. the praca do principe real, a few minutes ' walk from the gardens, stands on the site of the se patriarchal, built by joao v ( 1706 - 1750 ), as the cathedral of western lisbon, and


tropical vegetation. the praca do principe real, a few minutes ' walk from the gardens, stands on the site of the se patriarchal, built by joao v ( 1706 - 1750 ), as the cathedral of western lisbon, and destroyed by fire during the great earthquake. the port of lisbon, one of the safest and most commodious roadsteads in the world, is annually entered and cleared by an average of 6000 vessels sailing under every flag. the chief manufactures of the neighbourhood are pottery, woollens, glass, preserved food, and fish. the wine trade of lisbon is also important. besides the public buildings referred to, the academia real, the escola polytechnica ( 580 pupils ), and the escola medico - cirurgica ( 224 pupils ), as well as the observatory, deserve mention. lisbon has also a military school ( 339 students ), a school of fine arts ( 69 students ), and a conservatorio ( 503 students ). lisbon was occupied by the french in 1807, but the english took it in 1808 and made it a centre of operations against napoleon during the peninsular war. the see of lisbon dates from early christian times, and tradition has enshrined the names of its bishops as far back as the sub - apostolic epoch. it seems certain that a st. potamius, who took part in the council of rimini ( 356 ), was bishop of lisbon. other bishops are mentioned up to the year 716 when lisbon passed into the hands of the moors and the see reamined vacant till 1147. before the moorish conquest the diocese was suffragan of merida ; the liberation under alfonso i took place in 1147, and in 1199 lisbon was made suffragan of compostela. at the request of king john i, pope boniface ix, by bull dated 10 november, 1394, erected lisbon into an archdiocese and gave it as suffragans, coimbra, leiria, guarda, evora, and silves ( in 1396, however, evora was detached by the same pope ) and the first archbishop was john anes. among his more famous successors were roderiguez da cunha ( 1636 ) and cardinal luiz da souza ( 1676 ). as portugal grew in political importance and colonial possessions, the jurisdiction of the metropolitan of lisbon expanded, and we learn from stadel, " compend. geogr. eccles. " (


and cardinal luiz da souza ( 1676 ). as portugal grew in political importance and colonial possessions, the jurisdiction of the metropolitan of lisbon expanded, and we learn from stadel, " compend. geogr. eccles. " ( 1712 ) that coimbra, leiria, portalegre, elvas, funchal, angra, congo, st. james of cape verde, san thome, and baia of all saints were suffragans of lisbon. as a reward for assistance against the turks, clement xi in 1708 raised the chapel of the royal palace to collegiate rank and associated with it three parishes in the dioceses of braganca and lamego. later in that same year, yielding to the request of john v, he issued the bull " in supremo apostolatus solio " ( 22 oct., 1716 ), known as the golden bull, because the seal or bulla was affixed with gold instead of lead, giving the collegiate chapel cathedral rank, with metropolitical rights, and conferring on its titular the rank of patriarch. the town of lisbon was ecclesiastically divided into eastern and western lisbon. the former archbishop of lisbon retained jurisdiction over eastern lisbon, and had as suffragans guarda, portalegre, st. james of cape verde, san thome, and san salvator in congo. western lisbon and metropolital rights over leiria, lamego, funchal, and angra, together with elaborate privileges and honours were granted to the new patriarch and his successors. it was further agreed between pope and king that the patriarch of lisbon should be made a cardinal at the first consistory following his appointment. the first patriarch of lisbon was a saintly man, thomas d ' almeyda, formerly bishop of porto, and he was raised to the cardinalate 20 dec., 1737. there thus existed side by side in the city of lisbon two metropolitical churches. to obviate the inconvenience of this arrangement benedict xiv ( 13 dec., 1740 ) united east and west lisbon into one single archdiocese under patriarch d ' almeyda, who ruled the see until 1754. the double chapter however remained until 1843, when the old cathedral chapter was dissolved by gregory xvi. it was during the patriarchate of cardinal d ' almeyda ( 1746 ) that the famous chapel of saint john the baptist, now in the church of sao roque, was built in rome at the expense of king john


by gregory xvi. it was during the patriarchate of cardinal d ' almeyda ( 1746 ) that the famous chapel of saint john the baptist, now in the church of sao roque, was built in rome at the expense of king john v, and consecrated by pope benedict xiv. at what date the patriarchs of lisbon began to quarter the tiara with three crowns, though without the keys, on their coat of arms is uncertain and there are no documents referring to the grant of such a privilege. by apostolic letters dated 30 sept., 1881 the metropolitan of lisbon claims as suffragans the dioceses of angola, st. james of cape verde, san thome, egitan, portalegre, angra, funchal. the archdiocese comprises the civil districts of lisbon and santarem, and has a catholic population of 728, 739. the estimated number of protestants and jews is 5000. the total number of parishes is 341, of priests 662, and of churches and chapels 1555. the present patriarch is antonio mendes bello, who was born at gouvea in the diocese of guarda in june, 1842, appointed archbishop of mitylene 24 march, 1884, translated to faro 13 nov., 1884, and appointed patriarch of lisbon, 19 dec., 1907, in succession to cardinal neto, who resigned. the patriarch is assisted by an auxiliary bishop, mgr. jose alves de mattos, titular archbishop of mitylene. cardinal neto, the ex - patriarch, was born at lagos in the diocese of faro, 8 feb., 1841 ; was ordained in 1863 ; joined the order of friars minor in 1875 ; was appointed bishop of angola and congo in 1879 ; became patriarch of lisbon in 1883 ; was named cardinal of the title of the twelve apostles, 24 march, 1884, and at present ranks as senior cardinal priest. he resigned his patriarchate in november, 1907, and retired to a convent of his own order in lisbon. in 1624 a college for english students desiring to study for the priesthood and for mission work in england, was founded in lisbon by pietro catinho, a member of an illustrious family. it is known as ss. peter and paul ' s and has the same rights and privileges as the english college, rome. it suffered severely from the earthquake of 1755, but continues its work to this day, and is now governed by monsignor hilton, who was born in 1825 ; educated at lisbon ; ordained 1850 ; served some time


as the english college, rome. it suffered severely from the earthquake of 1755, but continues its work to this day, and is now governed by monsignor hilton, who was born in 1825 ; educated at lisbon ; ordained 1850 ; served some time on the mission in the diocese of shrewsbury, england ; made a domestic prelate in 1881 ; and returned to lisbon as president in 1883. a college for irish students was founded by royal charter in 1593 ; it escaped all injury from the earthquake, but was closed during the civil wars in portugal in the nineteenth century and has never been reopened. a convent of irish dominican monks and another of irish dominican nuns exist in lisbon to this day. the ancient scalabis, the præsidium julium of the romans, and capital fo the district of santarem lies on the right bank of the tagus about 46 miles from lisbon. the population in 1901 was 9400. it does a large trade in wine and oil, and is the vegetable garden of lisbon. in the sixteenth century it was of more importance than nowadays, and its population stood at 21, 000. a long narrow bridge spans the tagus, and on a rock in the river stands the castle of almourel, a building in gothic architecture. roman relics unearthed in the vicinity incline archæologists to the opinion that the noted nabantia of the romans and goths stood there. the franciscan convent is now a barracks, and the convent of santa iria or irene is in ruins. saint irene ( whence the name of the town santarem ) is said to have been the niece of the prior of the benedictine monastery when the goths ruled that portion of portugal. inchbold, lisbon and cintra ( new york, 1908 ) ; stephens, portugal ( london, 1903 ) ; adam, la patrie portuguaise ( paris, 1896 ) ; crawford, portugal old and new ( london, 1880 ) ; annuaire pontificale ( 1910 ) ; gerarchia ( 1910 ).