the 18th century by camille allaz, page 26. - " british notes of the week flight march 18, 1911 - baldwin, n. c. ( 1960 ), p. 5, fifty years of british air mails, francis j. field ltd. - wells, e. ( 1987 ), p. 86, mailshot - a history of the forces postal service, defence postal & courier services. - fernandez 1983, pp. 39 – 43, 92 – 97. - the history of postage rates in the united states - usps news release # 06 - 043 ( june 20, 2006 ) u. s. postal service expands licensing program - usps international mail manual, issue 35 - usps - first class mail international - nevil shute, " so disdained ", london, 1928, ch. 1 - fernandez, ronald ( 1983 ), excess profits : the rise of united technologies, boston, massachusetts, usa : addison - wesley, isbn 9780201104844. - richard mcp. cabeen, standard handbook of stamp collecting ( collectors club, 1979 ), pp. 207 – 221 - schiff, stacy. benjamin franklin and the birth of america. bloomsbury, 2006. further reading - newall, alexander s. ( 1990 ) airmail stamps : fakes & forgeries. united kingdom : newall consultants. isbn 0 - 904804 - 96 - 8 - ukweekly. com article on early airmail service - british postal museum & archive information sheet - airmail - the flying mail ' s big debt to war : america again takes front rank in the air with machines of mighty power, popular science monthly, february 1919, page 78, scanned by google books : http : / / books. google. com / books? id = 7igdaaaambaj & pg = pa78


ashland ( henry clay estate ) a view of the front of the house | location : | | 120 sycamore road lexington, kentucky | | architect : | | benjamin h. latrobe ; thomas lewinski | | added to nrhp : | | october 15, 1966 | ashland is the name of the plantation of the 19th - century kentucky statesman henry clay, located in lexington, kentucky, in the central bluegrass region of the state. it is a registered national historic landmark. history of the estate henry clay came to lexington, kentucky from virginia in 1797. he began buying land for his plantation in 1804. 1 the ashland farm — which during clay ' s lifetime was outside of the city limits — at its largest consisted of over 600 acres ( 240 ha ). it is unclear whether clay named the plantation or retained a prior name, but he was referring to his estate as " ashland " by 1809. 2 the name derives from the ash forest that stood at the site. clay and his family resided at ashland from c. 1806 until his death in 1852 ( his widow lucretia clay moved out in 1854 ). given his political career, clay spent most of the years between 1810 - 1829 in washington, dc. he was a major planter, owning up to 60 slaves to operate his plantation. among the slaves were aaron and charlotte dupuy, and their children charles and mary ann. clay took them with him to washington, dc. their lives have recently gained new recognition in an exhibit at the decatur house, where they served henry clay for nearly two decades. in 1829, 17 years before the more famous dred scott challenge, charlotte dupuy sued henry clay for her freedom and that of her two children in washington circuit court. she was ordered to stay in washington while the court case proceeded, and lived there for 18 months, working for martin van buren, the next secretary of state. clay took aaron, charles and mary ann dupuy with him when he returned to ashland. when the court ruled against dupuy and she would not return voluntarily to kentucky, clay ' s agent had her arrested. clay had dupuy transported to new orleans and placed with his daughter and son - in - law, where she was enslaved for another decade. finally in 1840 clay freed charlotte and mary ann dupuy, and in 1844 freed her son charles dupuy. clay had divided the ashland estate among three sons. after clay ' s death, son james brown clay owned and occupied ashland proper and a surrounding approximately 325 - acre (


mary ann dupuy, and in 1844 freed her son charles dupuy. clay had divided the ashland estate among three sons. after clay ' s death, son james brown clay owned and occupied ashland proper and a surrounding approximately 325 - acre ( 132 ha ) tract. james clay rebuilt the house and his family resided there until his death in 1864. his widow susan jacob clay put the estate up for sale in 1866. kentucky university purchased ashland and used it as part of its campus. university founder and regent john bryan bowman occupied the mansion. the agricultural and mechanical college ( kentucky a & m ) was situated on clay ' s former farm. kentucky university split into what became transylvania university and the university of kentucky, and sold ashland in 1882. henry clay ' s granddaughter anne clay mcdowell and her husband henry clay mcdowell purchased the estate ( consisting of approximately 325 acres ( 132 ha ) and outbuildings ). they moved in with their children in 1883. their eldest daughter nannette mcdowell bullock continued to occupy ashland until her death in 1948. she founded the henry clay memorial foundation, which purchased and preserved ashland. the historic house museum opened to the public in 1950. the mansion henry clay began building his federal style house c. 1806 ( see federal architecture ). he added two wings between 1811 – 1814, designed for him by benjamin latrobe. inferior building materials, particularly a porous type of brick, resulted in an unstable structure. the building was likely damaged in the new madrid earthquake and aftershocks of 1811 - 12, clay ' s many repairs could never completely stabilize the house. seeing no viable alternative, clay ' s son james b. clay, opted to rebuild the house with the goals of living there with his family and paying fitting tribute to his father. james had the house razed by the end of 1854, and rebuilding was completed by 1857. local architect thomas lewinski designed the new structure, which utilized features of the original house : the footprint and foundation, floorplan, and massing. but lewinski aided james in updating the house stylistically. with many italianate features, the resulting mansion is a mix of federal architecture and italianate details. inside, james employed greek revival features and decorated the home lavishly ( see : victorian decorative arts ) with imported furnishings purchased in new york city. during the kentucky university period, regent john bowman utilized part of the mansion to house and display the university natural history museum. when granddaughter anne clay mcdowell came to ashland in 1883, she and her husband remodeled and modernized the house, up


new york city. during the kentucky university period, regent john bowman utilized part of the mansion to house and display the university natural history museum. when granddaughter anne clay mcdowell came to ashland in 1883, she and her husband remodeled and modernized the house, updating it with gas lighting ( later, electricity ), indoor plumbing, and telephone service. the farm the cash crop grown on the farm was hemp. merino sheep and six other species of european livestock were imported and bred on the farm. clay ' s record book of his breeding operation, including the herefords which he introduced, is now displayed at ashland. - " national register information system ". national register of historic places. national park service. 2007 - 01 - 23. - " charlotte dupuy ", ' the half had not been told me ' : the african american history of lafayette square ( 1795 - 1965 ), preservation nation, accessed 21 april 2009 1 clay ' s first purchase was a 125 - acre ( 51 ha ) tract. contract at ashland, the henry clay estate. 2 clay put a notice in a local paper asking for the return of a lost horse and listed his home as ashland. additional reading - archives of ashland, the henry clay estate, lexington, ky - brooks, eric. ashland : the henry clay estate. images of america series. charleston, sc : arcadia publishing, 2007 - remini, robert v. henry clay : statesman for the union. new york : w. w. norton, 1991. - clay family papers, manuscript division, library of congress - university of kentucky special collections. - transylvania university, special collections. - james f. hopkins, editor, the papers of henry clay. mary w. m. hargreaves, associate editor. lexington, ky : university of kentucky press, 1959 - 1992. isbn 0 - 8131 - 0056 - 9 ( v. 6 ) - fazio, michael w. and patrick a. snadon. the domestic architecture of benjamin henry latrobe. baltimore : johns hopkins university press, 2006. isbn 0 - 8018 - 8104 - 8 - hopkins, james f. a history of the hemp industry in kentucky, lexington, ky : university of kentucky press, 1998. isbn 0 - 8131 - 0930 - 2 - official website - national park service website of the house - " henry clay, presidential contender " from c - span ' s the contenders, broadcast from ashland


| | this article needs additional citations for verification. ( june 2009 ) | | activity sectors | | design and management of structures, transportation systems, and infrastructure | | competencies | | technical knowledge, management skills, mathematical analysis | a civil engineer is a person who practices civil engineering ; the application of planning, designing, constructing, maintaining, and operating infrastructures while protecting the public and environmental health, as well as improving existing infrastructures that have been neglected. originally, a civil engineer worked on public works projects and was contrasted with the military engineer, who worked on armaments and defenses. over time, various branches of engineering have become recognized as distinct from civil engineering, including chemical engineering, mechanical engineering, and electrical engineering, while much of military engineering has been absorbed by civil engineering. in some places, a civil engineer may perform land surveying ; in others, surveying is limited to construction surveying, unless an additional qualification is obtained. on some u. s. military bases, the personnel responsible for building and grounds maintenance, such as grass mowing, are called civil engineers and are not required to meet any minimum educational requirements. civil engineers usually practice in a particular specialty, such as construction engineering, geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, land development, transportation engineering, hydraulic engineering, and environmental engineering. some civil engineers, particularly those working for government agencies, may practice across multiple specializations, particularly when involved in critical infrastructure development or maintenance. education and licensing in most countries, a civil engineer will have graduated from a post - secondary school with a degree in civil engineering, which requires a strong background in mathematics and the physical sciences ; this degree is typically a bachelor ' s degree, though many civil engineers study further to obtain masters, engineer, doctoral and post doctoral degrees. in many countries, civil engineers are subject to licensure. in jurisdictions with mandatory licensing, people who do not obtain a license may not call themselves " civil engineers. " in belgium, civil engineer ( abbreviated ir ) ( french : ingenieur civil, dutch : burgerlijk ingenieur ) is a legally protected title applicable to graduates of the five - year engineering course of one of the six universities and the royal military academy. their speciality can be all fields of engineering : civil, structural, electrical, mechanical, chemical, physics and even computer science. this use of the title may cause confusion to the english speaker as the belgian " civil " engineer can have a speciality other than civil engineering. in fact, belgians use the adjective " civil " as an opposition to


physics and even computer science. this use of the title may cause confusion to the english speaker as the belgian " civil " engineer can have a speciality other than civil engineering. in fact, belgians use the adjective " civil " as an opposition to military engineers. the formation of the civil engineer has a strong mathematical and scientific base and is more theoretical in approach than the practical oriented industrial engineer ( ing. ) educated in a five - year program at a polytechnic. traditionally, students were required to pass an entrance exam on mathematics to start civil engineering studies. this exam was abolished in 2004 for the flemish community, but is still organised in the french community. in scandinavian countries, civil engineer ( civilingenjor ( swedish ), sivilingeniør ( norwegian ), civilingeniør ( danish ) ) is a first professional degree, approximately equivalent to master of science in engineering, and a protected title granted to students by selected institutes of technology. as in english the word has its origin in the distinction between civilian and military engineers, as in before the start of the 19th century only military engineers existed and the prefix " civil " was a way to separate those who had studied engineering in a regular university from their military counterparts. today the degree spans over all fields within engineering, like civil engineering, computer science, electronics engineering, etc. there is generally a slight difference between a master of science in engineering degree and the scandinavian civil engineer degree, the latter ' s programme having closer ties with the industry ' s demands. a civil engineer is the most well - known of the two ; still, the area of expertise remains obfuscated for most of the public. a noteworthy difference is the mandatory courses in mathematics and physics, regardless of the equivalent master degree, e. g. computer science. although a ' college engineer ' ( hogskoleingenjor, diplomingenjor / mellaningenjor ( swedish ), høgskoleingeniør ( norwegian ), diplomingeniør ( danish ) ) is roughly equivalent to a bachelor of science in scandinavia, to become a ' civil engineer ' one often has had to do up to one extra year of overlapping studies compared to attaining a b. sc. / m. sc. combination. this is because the higher educational system is not fully adopted to the international standard graduation system, since it is treated as a professional degree. today ( 2009 ) this is starting to change due to the bologna process. a scandinavian " civilingenjor " will in


because the higher educational system is not fully adopted to the international standard graduation system, since it is treated as a professional degree. today ( 2009 ) this is starting to change due to the bologna process. a scandinavian " civilingenjor " will in international contexts commonly call herself " master of science in engineering " and will occasionally wear an engineering class ring. at the norwegian institute of technology ( now the norwegian university of science and technology ), the tradition with a nth ring goes back to 1914, before the canadian iron ring. in norway the title " sivilingeniør " will no longer be issued after 2007, and have been replaced with " master i teknologi ". in the english translation of the diploma, the title will be " master of science ", since " master of technology " is not an established title in the english - speaking world. the extra overlapping year of studies have also been abolished with this change to make norwegian degrees more equal to their international counterparts. in spain, a civil engineering degree can be obtained after four years of study in the various branches of mathematics, physics, mechanics, etc. the earned degree is called grado en ingenieria civil. further studies at a graduate school include master ' s and doctoral degrees. before the current situation, that is, before the implementation of bologna process in 2010, a degree in civil engineering in spain could be obtained after three to six years of study and was divided into two main degrees. in the first case, the earned degree was called ingeniero tecnico de obras publicas ( itop ), literally translated as " public works engineer " obtained after three years of study and equivalent to a bachelor of civil engineering. in the second case, the academic degree was called ingeniero de caminos, canales y puertos ( often shortened to ingeniero de caminos or iccp ), that literally means " highways, canals and harbors engineer ", though civil engineers in spain practice in the same fields as civil engineers do elsewhere. this degree is equivalent to a master of civil engineering and is obtained after five or six years of study depending on the school granting the title. the first spanish civil engineering school was the escuela especial de ingenieros de caminos y canales ( now called escuela tecnica superior de ingenieros de caminos, canales y puertos ), established in 1802 in madrid, followed by the escuela especial de a


de caminos y canales ( now called escuela tecnica superior de ingenieros de caminos, canales y puertos ), established in 1802 in madrid, followed by the escuela especial de ayudantes de obras publicas ( now called escuela universitaria de ingenieria tecnica de obras publicas de la universidad politecnica de madrid ), founded in 1854 in madrid. both schools now belong to the technical university of madrid. in spain, a civil engineer has the technical and legal ability to design projects of any branch, so any spanish civil engineer can oversee projects about structures, buildings ( except residential structures which are reserved for architects ), foundations, hydraulics, the environment, transportation, urbanism, etc. united kingdom a chartered civil engineer ( known as certified or professional engineer in other countries ) is a member of the institution of civil engineers, and has also passed chartership exams. however a non - chartered civil engineer may be a member of the institution of civil engineers or the institution of civil engineering surveyors. the description " civil engineer " is not restricted to members of any particular professional organisation although " chartered civil engineer " is. eastern europe in many eastern european countries civil engineering does not exist as a distinct degree or profession but it ' s various sub - professions are often studied in separate university faculties and performed as separate professions, whether they are taught in civilian universities or military engineering academies. even many polytechnic tertiary schools give out separate degrees for each field of study. typically study in geology, geodesy, structural engineering and urban engineering allows a person to obtain a degree in construction engineering. mechanical engineering, automotive engineering, hydraulics and even sometimes metalurgy are fields in a degree in " machinery engineering ". computer sciences, control engineering and electrical engineering are fields in a degree in electrical engineering, while security, safety, environmental engineering, transportation, hydrology and meteorology are in a category of their own, typically each with their own degrees, either in separate university faculties or at polytechnic schools. north america united states in the united states, civil engineers are typically employed by municipalities, construction firms, consulting engineering firms, architect / engineer firms, state governments, and the federal government. each state requires engineers who offer their services to the public to be licensed by the state. licensure is obtained by meeting specified education, examination, and work experience requirements. specific requirements vary by state. typically licensed engineers must graduate from an abet - accredited university


engineers who offer their services to the public to be licensed by the state. licensure is obtained by meeting specified education, examination, and work experience requirements. specific requirements vary by state. typically licensed engineers must graduate from an abet - accredited university or college engineering program, pass the fundamentals of engineering exam, obtain several years of engineering experience under the supervision of a licensed engineer, then pass the principles and practice of engineering exam. after completing these steps and the granting of licensure by a state board, engineers may use the title " professional engineer " or pe in advertising and documents. professional associations the asce ( american society of civil engineers ) represents more than 140, 000 members of the civil engineering profession worldwide. official members of the asce must hold a bachelor ' s degree from an accredited civil engineering program and be a licensed professional engineer or have five years responsible charge of engineering experience. most civil engineers join this organization to be updated of current news, projects, and methods ( such as sustainability ) related to civil engineering ; as well as contribute their expertise and knowledge to other civil engineers and students obtaining their civil engineering degree. the ice ( institution of civil engineers ) founded in 1818, represents, as of 2008, more than 80, 000 members of the civil engineering profession worldwide. its commercial arm, thomas telford ltd, provides training, recruitment, publishing and contract services. see also - canal engineer - list of civil engineers - professional engineer - construction engineering - geotechnical engineering - structural engineer - structural engineering - urban planning - transport engineering - hydraulic engineering - environmental engineering - critical infrastructure - national council of examiners for engineering and surveying - " faculte des sciences appliquees - ingenieur civil " ( in french ). university of liege. retrieved 2 january 2011. - national council of examiners for engineering and surveying ; licensure, retrieved november 24, 2010. - about asce


| — town — | | • mayor | | gerald m. foreman ii | | • total | | 1. 6 sq mi ( 4. 1 km2 ) | | • land | | 1. 6 sq mi ( 4. 1 km2 ) | | • water | | 0. 0 sq mi ( 0. 0 km2 ) | | elevation | | 36 ft ( 11 m ) | | time zone | | eastern ( est ) ( utc - 5 ) | | • summer ( dst ) | | edt ( utc - 4 ) | | area code ( s ) | | 571, 703 | | gnis feature id | | 1499362 | dumfries is located at. ( 38. 567853, - 77. 324591 ) according to the united states census bureau, the town has a total area of 1. 6 square miles ( 4. 1 km² ), all of it land. the town is situated approximately 25 miles / 40 km south of central washington d. c. dumfries history began as early as 1690 when richard gibson erected a gristmill on quantico creek. a customhouse and warehouse followed in 1731, and many others cropped up along the estuary by 1732. the town of dumfries was formally established on 60 acres ( 240, 000 m2 ) of land at the head of the harbor of quantico creek, provided by john graham. he named the town after his birthplace, dumfries, scotland. after much political maneuvering, the general assembly established dumfries as the first of seven townships in the county. dumfries received its charter on may 11, 1749, making it the oldest continuously chartered town in virginia. the ceremonial seal of the town of dumfries embodies elements of its heritage, from the period of 1651, when the first patents were issued to colonists, who following the potomac recognized the value of a snug harbor in quantico creek. thus the foundations for the establishment of a town, which in 1749 received its charter from the colonial government in williamsburg, virginia. the elements of the seal are contained within the pattern formed by the outer frame of a hawser rope or cable, and the inner frame of an anchor chain, of a type employed in ships of the colonial era. within these frames are found items which are consistent with a town of maritime background. they are overlaid on a chart of the chesapeake bay and the potomac river, with


frame of an anchor chain, of a type employed in ships of the colonial era. within these frames are found items which are consistent with a town of maritime background. they are overlaid on a chart of the chesapeake bay and the potomac river, with dumfries indicated at the head of quantico creek. the navigational aids of the sextant and compass rose complete the maritime motif. the two water fowl relate to the wetlands of quantico creek. the dock with fishnet, pilings, ships block and line further the theme of a mercantile port of call. the thistle indicates the scottish founders of the town, with the name of dumfries, taken by john graham, the founder, in honor of his home in scotland. the supporters of the shield are, on the left, a piscataway brave, of the powhatan confederacy, the predominant tribe along the potomac, in this area. on the right, a colonial militiaman of 1775, when colonel henry lee was company commander. the shield in its upper quadrant, displays a sailing vessel of the period, and below the tobacco leaf, the first commodity, overlaid with shafts of wheat, the later commodity that supported the town. when dumfries became the second leading port in colonial america receiving tobacco from the upland, it rivaled new york, philadelphia and boston. dumfries peaked in size and importance in 1763. for about 15 years dumfries was a thriving port when several factors brought about its demise : the revolutionary war, erosion and siltation, and the shift in the main shipping commodity ( from tobacco to wheat and sugar ). the dumfries cemetery contains burials of some of the dumfries pioneers. alexander henderson built a house known as the henderson house which still stands on a hill in dumfries, as well as owning various land in prince william forest park. alexander was a merchant when the ports were booming in dumfries. alexander is famous for his son, united states marine corps commandant archibald henderson. as of the census of 2000, there were 4, 937 people, 1, 573 households, and 1, 198 families residing in the town. the population density was 3, 085. 6 people per square mile ( 1, 191. 4 / km² ). there were 1, 699 housing units at an average density of 1, 061. 9 per square mile ( 410. 0 / km² ). the racial makeup of the town was


per square mile ( 1, 191. 4 / km² ). there were 1, 699 housing units at an average density of 1, 061. 9 per square mile ( 410. 0 / km² ). the racial makeup of the town was 48. 91 % white, 35. 26 % black, 0. 63 % native american, 1. 07 % asian, 3. 73 % from other races, and 8. 40 % from two or more races. hispanic or latino of any race were 15. 06 % of the population. there were 1, 573 households out of which 46. 5 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48. 8 % were married couples living together, 19. 7 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 23. 8 % were non - families. 16. 5 % of all households were made up of individuals and 3. 7 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. the average household size was 3. 13 and the average family size was 3. 51. in the town the population was spread out with 35. 0 % under the age of 18, 9. 7 % from 18 to 24, 33. 6 % from 25 to 44, 17. 1 % from 45 to 64, and 4. 7 % who were 65 years of age or older. the median age was 29 years. for every 100 females there were 98. 8 males. for every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93. 0 males. the median income for a household in the town was $ 43, 672, and the median income for a family was $ 46, 927. males had a median income of $ 35, 247 versus $ 24, 451 for females. the per capita income for the town was $ 17, 652. about 10. 4 % of families and 12. 5 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 16. 0 % of those under age 18 and 7. 1 % of those age 65 or over. residents of dumfries are currently represented in the virginia house of delegates by l. scott lingamfelter. notable people - alexander henderson, merchant - kendall marshall, professional basketball player - ali krieger, professional soccer player - " american factfinder ". united states census bureau. retrieved 2008 - 01 - 31. - " us board on geographic names ". united states geological survey. 2007 - 10 - 25. retrieved 2008 - 01 - 31. - " us gazetteer


| | this article provides insufficient context for those unfamiliar with the subject. ( october 2009 ) | process music is music that arises from a process. it may make that process audible to the listener, or the process may be concealed. primarily begun in the 1960s, diverse composers have employed divergent methods and styles of process. " a ' musical process ' as christensen defines it is a highly complex dynamic phenomenon involving audible structures that evolve in the course of the musical performance... 2nd order audible developments, i. e., audible developments within audible developments " ( seibt 2004, xiii ). these processes may involve specific systems of choosing and arranging notes through pitch and time, often involving a long term change with a limited amount of musical material, or transformations of musical events that are already relatively complex in themselves. steve reich defines process music not as, " the process of composition but rather pieces of music that are, literally, processes. the distinctive thing about musical processes is that they determine all the note - to - note ( sound - to - sound ) details and the overall form simultaneously. ( think of a round or infinite canon. ) " ( reich 2002, 34 ). although today often used synonymously with minimalism, the term predates the appearance of this style by at least twenty years. elliott carter, for example, used the word " process " to describe the complex compositional shapes he began using around 1944 ( edwards 1971, 90 – 91 ; brandt 1974, 27 – 28 ), with works like the piano sonata and first string quartet, and continues to use down to the present time. carter came to his conception of music as process from alfred north whitehead ' s " principle of organism ", and particularly from his 1929 book, process and reality ( bernard 1995, 649 – 50 ). michael nyman has stated that " the origins of this minimal process music lie in serialism " ( nyman 1974, 119 ). kyle gann ( 1987 ) also sees many similarities between serialism and minimalism, and herman sabbe ( 1977, 68 – 73 ) has demonstrated how process music functions in the early serial works of the belgian composer karel goeyvaerts, especially in his electronic compositions nr. 4, met dode tonen [ with dead tones ] ( 1952 ) and nr. 5, met zuivere tonen [ with pure tones ] ( 1953 ). elsewhere, sabbe ( 1981, 18 – 21 ) makes a similar demonstration for kreuzspiel ( 1951 ) by karlheinz stock


) and nr. 5, met zuivere tonen [ with pure tones ] ( 1953 ). elsewhere, sabbe ( 1981, 18 – 21 ) makes a similar demonstration for kreuzspiel ( 1951 ) by karlheinz stockhausen. beginning in the early 1960s, stockhausen composed several instrumental works which he called " process compositions ", in which symbols including plus, minus, and equal signs are used to indicate successive transformations of sounds which are unspecified or unforeseeable by the composer. they specify " how sounds are to be changed or imitated rather than what they are to be " ( griffiths 2001 ). in these compositions, " structure is a system of invariants ; these invariants are not substances but relations. … stockhausen ' s process planning is structural analysis in reversed time - direction. composition as abstraction, as generalization. analysis of reality before its entry into existence " ( fritsch 1979, 114 – 15 ). these works include plus - minus ( 1963 ), prozession ( 1967 ), kurzwellen, and spiral ( both 1968 ), and led to the verbally described processes of the intuitive music compositions in the cycles aus den sieben tagen ( 1968 ) and fur kommende zeiten ( 1968 – 71 ) ( kohl 1978 and 1981 ; hopp 1998 ). the term process music ( in the minimalist sense ) was coined by composer steve reich in his 1968 manifesto entitled " music as a gradual process " in which he very carefully yet briefly described the entire concept including such definitions as phasing and the use of phrases in composing or creating this music, as well as his ideas as to its purpose and a brief history of his discovery of it. a number of steve reich ' s early works are examples of this form of process music, particularly a specific process called phasing. in his 1968 work pendulum music, a number of microphones are connected to a number of loudspeakers, and each is allowed to swing freely above the loudspeaker it is connected to until it is still — the feedback that results from this process, as each microphone passes above its loudspeaker, makes up the music. process music can also be created using relatively traditional instrumental techniques — reich ' s piano phase is an example. james tenney is another composer who is concerned with process, such as in his tribute to steve reich, chromatic canon, in which a tone row is eventually built up, one note at a time, from


' s piano phase is an example. james tenney is another composer who is concerned with process, such as in his tribute to steve reich, chromatic canon, in which a tone row is eventually built up, one note at a time, from what started as a repeated open fifth, before returning by the same path. for reich it was important that the processes be audible : " i am interested in perceptible processes. i want to be able to hear the process happening throughout the sounding music. … what i ' m interested in is a compositional process and a sounding music that are one and the same thing " ( reich 2002, 34 ). this has not necessarily been the case for other composers, however. reich himself points to john cage as an example of a composer who used compositional processes that could not be heard when the piece was performed ( reich 2002, 34 ). the postminimalist david lang is another composer who does not want people to hear the process he uses to build a piece of music ( brown 2010, 181 ). within the field of popular music, process music made its strongest early appearance in the ambient works of brian eno, notably his first foray into the genre, discreet music. on several of the tracks of this album, musicians were instructed to play a small section of johann pachelbel ' s canon in d major in different ways. on one piece, for instance, musicians played the section at different speeds, the speed determined purely by the pitch of the instrument used. thus the bass instruments played the section at a slower rate than the treble instruments, and the new piece created was shaped by these melodic lines drifting in and out of phase with each other. michael nyman has identified five types of processes ( nyman 1974, 5 – 8 ) : - chance determination processes, in which the material is not determined by the composer directly, but through a system he or she creates - people processes, in which performers are allowed to move through given or suggested material, each at his or her own speed - contextual processes, in which actions depend on unpredictable conditions and on variables arising from the musical continuity - repetition processes, in which movement is generated solely by extended repetition - electronic processes, in which some or all aspects of the music are determined by the use of electronics. these processes take many forms. the first type is not necessarily confined to what are normally recognised as " chance " compositions, however. for example, in karel goeyvaerts ’ s sonata for two pianos, "


by the use of electronics. these processes take many forms. the first type is not necessarily confined to what are normally recognised as " chance " compositions, however. for example, in karel goeyvaerts ’ s sonata for two pianos, " registral process created a form that depended neither on conventional models nor … on the composer ’ s taste and judgment. given a few simple rules, the music did not need to be ' composed ' at all : the notes would be at play of themselves ” ( griffiths 2011, 38 ). galen h. brown acknowledges nyman ' s five categories and proposes adding a sixth : mathematical process, which includes the manipulation of materials by means of permutation, addition, subtraction, multiplication, changes of rate, and so on ( brown 2010, 186 ). erik christensen identifies six process categories ( christensen 2004, 97 ) : - rule - determined transformation processes - goal - directed transformation processes - indeterminate transformation processes - rule - determined generative processes - goal - directed, and generative processes - indeterminate generative processes he describes reich ' s piano phase ( 1966 ) as rule - determined transformation process, cage ' s variations ii ( 1961 ) as an indeterminate generative process, ligeti ' s in zart fliessender bewegung ( 1976 ) as a goal - directed transformation process containing a number of evolution processes ( christensen 2004, 116 ), and per nørgard ' s second symphony ( 1970 ) as containing a rule - determined generative process of a fractal nature ( christensen 2004, 107 ). notable works - sonata for cello and piano ( 1948 ) ( brandt 1971, 28 ) - string quartet no. 1 ( 1950 – 51 ) ( brandt 1971, 28 ; griffiths 2011, 62 – 63 ) - string quartet no. 2 ( 1959 ) ( schiff 1998, 73 ) - double concerto for piano, harpsichord and 2 chamber orchestras ( 1959 – 61 ) ( bernard 1995, 668 ) - piano concerto ( 1964 – 65 ) ( brandt 1971, 28 ) - duo for violin and piano ( 1974 ) ( schiff 1998, 117 – 19 ) - a mirror on which to dwell ( 1975 ) - night fantasies ( 1980 ) - symphonia : sum fluxae pretium spei ( 1993 – 1996 ) - piece for four pianos ( 1957 ) ( nyman 1974, 5 ) - gyorgy ligeti ( 1923 – 2006 ) - piano transplant no. 1. burning piano ( oteri 2004 ) -


1995. " carter and the modern meaning of time ". musical quarterly 79, no. 4 ( winter ) : 644 – 82. - brandt, william e. 1974. " the music of elliott carter : simultaneity and complexity ". music educators journal 60, no. 9 ( may ) : 24 – 32. - brown, galen h. 2010. " process as means and ends in minimalist and postminimalist music ". perspectives of new music 48, no. 2 ( summer ) : 180 – 92. - christensen, erik. 2004. " overt and hidden processes in 20th century music ", in process theories : crossdisciplinary studies in dynamic categories, edited by johanna seibt, 97 – 117. dordrecht and london : kluwer academic publishers. isbn 1 - 4020 - 1751 - 0. - edwards, allen. 1971. flawed words and stubborn sounds : a conversation with elliott carter. new york : w. w. norton & company inc. - fritsch, johannes. 1979. " prozeßplanung ". in improvisation und neue musik, veroffentlichungen des instituts fur neue musik und musikerziehung darmstadt 20, edited by reinhold brinkmann, 108 – 17. mainz : b. schott ' s sohne. - gann, kyle. 1987. " let x = x : minimalism vs. serialism ". village voice ( 24 february ) : 76. - griffiths, paul. 2001. " aleatory ". the new grove dictionary of music and musicians, second edition, edited by stanley sadie and john tyrrell. london : macmillan publishers. - griffiths, paul. 2011. modern music and after, third edition. oxford and new york : oxford university press. isbn 978 - 0 - 19 - 974050 - 5. - hopp, winrich. 1998. kurzwellen von karlheinz stockhausen : konzeption und musikalische poiesis. kolner schriften zur neuen musik 6. mainz ; new york : schott. - kohl, jerome. 1978. " intuitive music and serial determinism : an analysis of stockhausen ’ s aus den sieben tagen. " in theory only 3, no. 2 ( march ) : 7 – 19. - kohl, jerome. 1981. " serial and non - serial techniques in the music of karlheinz stockhausen from 1962 – 1968.


stockhausen - zeit... : neue erkenntnismoglichkeiten der seriellen entwicklung anhand des fruhen wirkens von stockhausen und goeyvaerts. dargestellt aufgrund der briefe stockhausens an goevaerts ”. in musik - konzepte 19 : karlheinz stockhausen :... wie die zeit verging..., edited by heinz - klaus metzger and rainer riehn, 5 – 96. munich : edition text + kritik. - schiff, david. 1998. the music of elliott carter, 2nd edition. ithaca, ny : cornell university press. - seibt, johanna ( ed. ). 2004. process theories : crossdisciplinary studies in dynamic categories. dordrecht and london : kluwer academic publishers. isbn 978 - 1 - 4020 - 1751 - 3. - stockhausen, karlheinz. 1989. " musik als prozeß ( gesprach mit rudolf frisius am 25. august 1982 in kurten ) ", in his texte zur musik 6, edited by christoph von blumroder, 399 – 426. cologne : dumont buchverlag. isbn 3 - 7701 - 2249 - 6 - whitney music box by jim bumgardner


| | this article needs additional citations for verification. ( october 2009 ) | | | this article may require cleanup to meet wikipedia ' s quality standards. ( october 2009 ) | scientific realism is, at the most general level, the view that the world described by science ( perhaps ideal science ) is the real world, as it is, independent of what we might take it to be. within philosophy of science, it is often framed as an answer to the question " how is the success of science to be explained? " the debate over what the success of science involves centers primarily on the status of unobservable entities apparently talked about by scientific theories. generally, those who are scientific realists assert that one can make reliable claims about unobservables ( viz., that they have the same ontological status ) as observables, as opposed to instrumentalism. main features of scientific realism scientific realism involves two basic positions. first, it is a set of claims about the features of an ideal scientific theory ; an ideal theory is the sort of theory science aims to produce. second, it is the commitment that science will eventually produce theories very much like an ideal theory and that science has done pretty well thus far in some domains. it is important to note that one might be a scientific realist regarding some sciences while not being a realist regarding others. for example, one might hold realist attitudes toward physics, chemistry and biology, and not toward economics, psychology and sociology. according to scientific realism, an ideal scientific theory has the following features : - the claims the theory makes are either true or false, depending on whether the entities talked about by the theory exist and are correctly described by the theory. this is the semantic commitment of scientific realism. - the entities described by the scientific theory exist objectively and mind - independently. this is the metaphysical commitment of scientific realism. - there are reasons to believe some significant portion of what the theory says. this is the epistemological commitment. combining the first and the second claim entails that an ideal scientific theory says definite things about genuinely existing entities. the third claim says that we have reasons to believe that the things said about these entities are true. scientific realism usually holds that science makes progress, i. e. scientific theories usually get successively better, or, rather, answer more and more questions. for this reason, many people, scientific realist or otherwise, hold that realism should make sense of the progress of science in terms of theories being successively more like the ideal theory that scientific


successively better, or, rather, answer more and more questions. for this reason, many people, scientific realist or otherwise, hold that realism should make sense of the progress of science in terms of theories being successively more like the ideal theory that scientific realists describe. characteristic claims the following claims are typical of those held by scientific realists. due to the wide disagreements over the nature of science ' s success and the role of realism in its success, a scientific realist would agree with some but not all of the following positions. - the best scientific theories are at least partially true. - the best theories do not employ central terms that are non referring expressions. - to say that a theory is approximately true is sufficient explanation of the degree of its predictive success. - the approximate truth of a theory is the only explanation of its predictive success. - even if a theory employs expressions that do not have a reference, a scientific theory may be approximately true. - scientific theories are in a historical process of progress towards a true account of the physical world. - scientific theories make genuine, existential claims. - theoretical claims of scientific theories should be read literally and are definitively either true or false. - the degree of the predictive success of a theory is evidence of the referential success of its central terms. - the goal of science is an account of the physical world that is literally true. science has been successful because this is the goal that it has been making progress towards. history of scientific realism scientific realism is related to much older philosophical positions including rationalism and realism. however, it is a thesis about science developed in the twentieth century. portraying scientific realism in terms of its ancient, medieval, and early modern cousins is at best misleading. scientific realism is developed largely as a reaction to logical positivism. logical positivism was the first philosophy of science in the twentieth century and the forerunner of scientific realism, holding that a sharp distinction can be drawn between observational terms and theoretical terms, the latter capable of semantic analysis in observational and logical terms. logical positivism encountered difficulties with : - the verification theory of meaning ( for which see hempel ( 1950 ) ). - troubles with the analytic - synthetic distinction ( for which see quine ( 1950 ) ). - the theory ladenness of observation ( for which see kuhn ( 1970 ) and quine ( 1960 ) ). - difficulties moving from the observationality of terms to observationality of sentences ( for which see putnam ( 1962 ) ). - the vagueness of


ladenness of observation ( for which see kuhn ( 1970 ) and quine ( 1960 ) ). - difficulties moving from the observationality of terms to observationality of sentences ( for which see putnam ( 1962 ) ). - the vagueness of the observational - theoretical distinction ( for which see maxwell ( 1962 ) ). these difficulties for logical positivism suggest, but do not entail, scientific realism, and lead to the development of realism as a philosophy of science. realism became the dominant philosophy of science after positivism. bas van fraassen developed constructive empiricism as an alternative to realism. responses to van fraassen have sharpened realist positions and lead to some revisions of scientific realism. arguments for and against scientific realism one of the main arguments for scientific realism centers on the notion that scientific knowledge is progressive in nature, and that it is able to predict phenomena successfully. many realists ( e. g., ernan mcmullin, richard boyd ) think the operational success of a theory lends credence to the idea that its more unobservable aspects exist, because they were how the theory reasoned its predictions. for example, a scientific realist would argue that science must derive some ontological support for atoms from the outstanding phenomenological success of all the theories using them. arguments for scientific realism often appeal to abductive reasoning or " inference to the best explanation " ( lipton, 2004 ). scientific realists point to the success of scientific theories in predicting and explaining a variety of phenomena, and argue that from this we can infer that our scientific theories ( or at least the best ones ) provide true descriptions of the world, or approximately so. on the other hand, pessimistic induction, one of the main arguments against realism, argues that the history of science contains many theories once regarded as empirically successful but which are now believed to be false. additionally, the history of science contains many empirically successful theories whose unobservable terms are not believed to genuinely refer. for example, the effluvial theory of static electricity is an empirically successful theory whose central unobservable terms have been replaced by later theories. realists reply that replacement of particular realist theories with better ones is to be expected due to the progressive nature of scientific knowledge, and when such replacements occur only superfluous unobservables are dropped. for example, albert einstein ' s theory of special relativity showed that the concept of the luminiferous ether could


expected due to the progressive nature of scientific knowledge, and when such replacements occur only superfluous unobservables are dropped. for example, albert einstein ' s theory of special relativity showed that the concept of the luminiferous ether could be dropped because it had contributed nothing to the success of the theories of mechanics and electromagnetism. on the other hand, when theory replacement occurs, a well - supported concept, such as the concept of atoms, is not dropped but is incorporated into the new theory in some form. also against scientific realism social constructivists might argue that scientific realism is unable to account for the rapid change that occurs in scientific knowledge during periods of revolution. constructivists may also argue that the success of theories is only a part of the construction. however, these arguments ignore the fact that many scientists are not realists. in fact, during what is perhaps the most notable example of revolution in science — the development of quantum mechanics in the 1920s — the dominant philosophy of science was logical positivism. the alternative realist bohm interpretation and many - worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics do not make such a revolutionary break with the concepts of classical physics. another argument against scientific realism, deriving from the underdetermination problem, is not so historically motivated as these others. it claims that observational data can in principle be explained by multiple theories that are mutually incompatible. realists might counter by saying that there have been few actual cases of underdetermination in the history of science. usually the requirement of explaining the data is so exacting that scientists are lucky to find even one theory that fulfills it. furthermore, if we take the underdetermination argument seriously, it implies that we can know about only what we have directly observed. for example, we could not theorize that dinosaurs once lived based on the fossil evidence because other theories ( e. g., that the fossils are clever hoaxes ) can account for the same data. realists claim that, in addition to empirical adequacy, there are other criteria for theory choice, such as parsimony. see also - constructivist epistemology - constructive empiricism - confirmation holism - critical realism - entity realism - naive realism - pessimistic induction - scientific materialism - stanford school - structural realism - model - dependent realism further reading - bunge, mario. ( 2006 ). chasing reality : strife over realism. toronto studies in philosophy : university of toronto press - hempel, carl.


induction - scientific materialism - stanford school - structural realism - model - dependent realism further reading - bunge, mario. ( 2006 ). chasing reality : strife over realism. toronto studies in philosophy : university of toronto press - hempel, carl. ( 1950 ). " empiricist criteria of cognitive significance " in boyd, richard et al. eds. ( 1990 ). the philosophy of science cambridge : mit press.. - kukla, a. ( 2000 ). social constructivism and the philosophy of science. london : routledge. - kuhn, thomas. ( 1970 ). the structure of scientific revolutions, 2nd edition. chicago : university of chicago press. - laudan, larry. ( 1981 ). " a confutation of convergent realism " philosophy of science - leplin, jarrett. ( 1984 ). scientific realism. california : university of california press. - leplin, jarrett. ( 1997 ). a novel defense of scientific realism. oxford : oxford university press. - lipton, peter. ( 2004 ). inference to the best explanation, 2nd edition. london : routledge. - maxwell, grover ( 1962 ). " the ontological status of theoretical entities " in feigl and maxwell scientific explanation, space, and time vol. 3, minnesota studies in the philosophy of science, 3 - 15. - okasha, samir. ( 2002 ). philosophy of science : a very short introduction. oxford : oxford university press. see especially chapter 4, " realism and anti - realism. " - putnam, hilary. ( 1962 ). " what theories are not " in ernst nagel et al. ( 1962 ). logic, methodology, and philosophy of science stanford university press. - psillos, stathis. ( 1999 ). scientific realism : how science tracks truth. london : routledge. - quine, w. v. o. ( 1951 ). " two dogmas of empiricism " in his ( 1953 ). from a logical point of view cambridge : harvard university press. - quine, w. v. o. ( 1960 ). word and object cambridge : mit press. - sankey, h. ( 2001 ). " scientific realism : an elaboration and a defense " retrieved from http : / / philsci - archive. pitt. edu


epoch j2000 equinox j2000 | right ascension | | 21h 08m 46. 8s | | declination | | - 88° 57 ′ 23 ″ | | apparent magnitude ( v ) | | 5. 42 | | spectral type | | f0 iii | | u−b color index | | 0. 13 | | b−v color index | | 0. 27 | | variable type | | delta scuti | | radial velocity ( rv ) | | + 11. 9 km / s | | proper motion ( μ ) | | ra : 25. 96 mas / yr dec. : 5. 02 mas / yr | parallax ( π ) | | 12. 07 ± 0. 48 mas | | absolute magnitude ( mv ) | | 0. 83 | sigma octantis ( σ oct, σ octantis ) is a magnitude 5. 6 star in the constellation octans most notable for being the current south star. sigma octantis is approximately 270 light years from earth, and is classified as a giant, with a spectral type of f0 iii. it is a delta scuti variable, with magnitude varying by about 0. 03 magnitudes over 2. 3 hours. southern pole star sigma octantis is the southern pole star, whose counterpart is polaris, the current north star. to an observer in the southern hemisphere, sigma octantis appears almost motionless and all the other stars in the southern sky appear to rotate around it. it is part of a small " half hexagon " shape. it is over a degree away from the true south pole, and the south celestial pole is moving away from it due to precession of the equinoxes. locating sigma octantis at magnitude 5. 6, sigma octantis is barely visible to the naked eye, making it a rather poor pole star, especially by comparison with the much brighter and more easily visible polaris. because of this, the crux constellation is often preferred for determining the position of the south celestial pole. once sigma octantis ' approximate position has been determined, either by the major stars in octans or using the southern cross method, it can be positively verified using an asterism. sigma, chi, tau and upsilon octantis are all stars of around magnitude 5. 6, and form the distinctive shape of a trapezoid. see also - " astronomy of the brazilian flag ". fotw flags of the world website. - "


the presidents of the united states, 1789 - 1914 / james madison james madison also in this chapter … dorothy, wife james madison, fourth president of the united states, born in port conway, va., march 16, 1751 ; died at montpelier, orange county, va., june 28, 1836. his earliest paternal ancestor in virginia seems to have been john madison, who, in 1653, took out a patent for land between the north and york rivers on chesapeake bay. there was a capt. isaac madison in virginia in 1623 – ' 5, but his relationship to john madison is matter of doubt. john ' s son, named also john, was father of ambrose madison, who married, august 24, 1721, frances, daughter of james taylor, of orange county, va. frances had four brothers, one of whom, zachary, was grandfather of zachary taylor, twelfth president of the united states. the eldest child of ambrose and frances was james madison, born march 27, 1723, who married, september 15, 1749, nelly conway, of port conway. the eldest child of james and nelly was james, the subject of this biography, who was the first of twelve children. his ancestors, as he says himself in a note furnished to dr. lyman c. draper in 1834, " were not among the most wealthy of the country, but in independent and comfortable circumstances. " james ' s education was begun at an excellent school kept by a scotchman named donald robertson, and his studies, preparatory for college, were completed at home under the care of the rev. thomas martin, clergyman of the parish. he was graduated at princeton in 1772, and remained there another year, devoting himself to the study of hebrew. on returning home, he occupied himself with history, law, and theology, while teaching his brothers and sisters. of the details of his youthful studies little is known, but his industry must have been very great ; for, in spite of the early age at which he became absorbed in the duties of public life, the range and solidity of his acquirements were extraordinary. for minute and thorough knowledge of ancient and modern history and of constitutional law he was unequalled among the americans of the revolutionary period ; only hamilton, and perhaps ellsworth and marshall, approached him in this regard. for precocity of mental development he resembled hamilton and the younger pitt, and, like washington, he was distinguished in youth for soundness of judgment, keenness of perception, and rare capacity for work. along with these ad


in this regard. for precocity of mental development he resembled hamilton and the younger pitt, and, like washington, he was distinguished in youth for soundness of judgment, keenness of perception, and rare capacity for work. along with these admirable qualities, his lofty integrity and his warm interest in public affairs were well known to the people of orange, so that when, in the autumn of 1774, it was thought necessary to appoint a committee of safety, madison was its youngest member. early in 1776 he was chosen a delegate to the state convention, which met at williamsburg in may. the first business of the convention was to instruct the virginia delegation in the continental congress with regard to an immediate declaration of independence. from the painting by gilbert stuart, owned by t. jefferson coolidge next came the work of making a constitution for the state, and madison was one of the special committee appointed to deal with this problem. here one of his first acts was highly characteristic. religious liberty was a matter that strongly enlisted his feelings. when it was proposed that, under the new constitution, " all men should enjoy the fullest toleration in the exercise of religion, according to the dictates of conscience, " madison pointed out that this provision did not go to the root of the matter. the free exercise of religion, according to the dictates of conscience, is something which every man may demand as a right, not something for which he must ask as a privilege. to grant to the state the power of tolerating is implicitly to grant to it the power of prohibiting, whereas madison would deny to it any jurisdiction whatever in the matter of religion. the clause in the bill of rights, as finally adopted at his suggestion, accordingly declares that " all men are equally entitled to the free exercise of religion, according to the dictates of conscience. " the incident illustrates not only madison ' s liberality of spirit, but also his precision and forethought in so drawing up an instrument as to make it mean all that it was intended to mean. in his later career these qualities were especially brilliant and useful. madison was elected a member of the first legislature under the new state constitution, but he failed of re - election because he refused to solicit votes or to furnish whiskey for thirsty voters. the new legislature then elected him a member of the governor ' s council, and in 1780 he was sent as delegate to the continental congress. the high consideration in which he was held showed itself in the number


or to furnish whiskey for thirsty voters. the new legislature then elected him a member of the governor ' s council, and in 1780 he was sent as delegate to the continental congress. the high consideration in which he was held showed itself in the number of important committees to which he was appointed. as chairman of a committee for drawing up instructions for john jay, then minister at the court of madrid, he insisted that, in making a treaty with spain, our right to the free navigation of the mississippi river should on no account be surrendered. mr. jay was instructed accordingly, but toward the end of 1780 the pressure of the war upon the southern states increased the desire for an alliance with spain to such a point that they seemed ready to purchase it at any price. virginia, therefore, proposed that the surrender of our rights upon the mississippi should be offered to spain as the condition of an offensive and defensive alliance. such a proposal was no doubt ill - advised. since spain was already, on her own account and to the best of her ability, waging war upon great britain in the west indies and florida, to say nothing of gibraltar, it is doubtful if she could have done much more for the united states, even if we had offered her the whole mississippi valley. the offer of a permanent and invaluable right in exchange for a temporary and questionable advantage seemed to mr. madison very unwise ; but as it was then generally held that in such matters representatives must be bound by the wishes of their constituents, he yielded, though under protest. but hardly had the fresh instructions been despatched to mr. jay when the overthrow of cornwallis again turned the scale, and spain was informed that, as concerned the mississippi question, congress was immovable. the foresight and sound judgment shown by mr. madison in this discussion added much to his reputation. his next prominent action related to the impost law proposed in 1783. this was, in some respects, the most important question of the day. the chief source of the weakness of the united states during the revolutionary war had been the impossibility of raising money by means of federal taxation. as long as money could be raised only through requisitions upon the state governments, and the different states could not be brought to agree upon any method of enforcing the requisitions, the state governments were sure to prove delinquent. finding it impossible to obtain money for carrying on the war, congress had resorted to the issue of large quantities of inconvertible paper, with the


of enforcing the requisitions, the state governments were sure to prove delinquent. finding it impossible to obtain money for carrying on the war, congress had resorted to the issue of large quantities of inconvertible paper, with the natural results. there had been a rapid inflation of values, followed by sudden bankruptcy and the prostration of national credit. in 1783 it had become difficult to obtain foreign loans, and at home the government could not raise nearly enough money to defray its current expenses. to remedy the evil a tariff of five per cent. upon sundry imports, with a specific duty upon others, was proposed in congress and offered to the several states for approval. to weaken as much as possible the objections to such a law, its operation was limited to twenty - five years. even in this mild form, however, it was impossible to persuade the several states to submit to federal taxation. virginia at first assented to the impost law, but afterward revoked her action. on this occasion mr. madison, feeling that the very existence of the nation was at stake, refused to be controlled by the action of his constituents. he persisted in urging the necessity of such an impost law, and eventually had the satisfaction of seeing virginia adopt his view of the matter. the discussion of the impost law in congress revealed the antagonism that existed between the slave - states and those states which had emancipated their slaves. in endeavoring to apportion equitably the quotas of revenue to be required of the several states, it was observed that, if taxation were to be distributed according to population, it made a great difference whether or not slaves were to be counted as population. if slaves were to be counted, the southern states would have to pay more than their equitable share into the treasury of the general government ; if slaves were not to be counted, it was argued at the north that they would be paying less than their equitable share. consequently at that time the northern states were inclined to maintain that the slaves were population, while the south preferred to regard them as chattels. the question was settled by a compromise that was proposed by mr. madison ; according to this arrangement the slaves were rated as population, but in such wise that five of them were counted as three persons. in 1784 mr. madison was again elected to the virginia legislature, an office then scarcely inferior in dignity, and superior in influence, to that of delegate to the continental congress. his efforts were stead


that five of them were counted as three persons. in 1784 mr. madison was again elected to the virginia legislature, an office then scarcely inferior in dignity, and superior in influence, to that of delegate to the continental congress. his efforts were steadfastly devoted to the preparation and advocacy of measures that were calculated to increase the strength of the federal government. he supported the proposed amendment to the articles of confederation, giving to congress control over the foreign trade of the states ; and, pending the adoption of such a measure, he secured in that body the passage of a port bill restricting the entry of foreign ships to certain specified ports. the purpose of this was to facilitate the collection of revenue, but it was partially defeated in its operation by successive amendments increasing the number of ports. while the weakness of the general government and the need for strengthening it were daily growing more apparent, the question of religious liberty was the subject of earnest discussion in the virginia legislature. an attempt was made to lay a tax upon all the people of that state " for the support of teachers of the christian religion. " at first madison was almost the only one to see clearly the serious danger lurking in such a tax ; that it would be likely to erect a state church and curtail men ' s freedom of belief and worship. mr. madison ' s position here well illustrated the remark that intelligent persistence is capable of making one person a majority. his energetic opposition resulted at first in postponing the measure. then he wrote a " memorial and remonstrance, " setting forth its dangerous character with wonderful clearness and cogency. he sent this paper all over the state for signatures, and in the course of a twelvemonth had so educated the people that, in the election of 1785, the question of religious freedom was made a test question, and in the ensuing session the dangerous bill was defeated, and in place thereof it was enacted " that no man shall be compelled to frequent or support any religious worship, place, or ministry whatsoever, nor shall be enforced, restrained, molested, or burthened in his body or goods, nor shall otherwise suffer on account of his religious opinions or belief ; but that all men shall be free to profess and, by argument, maintain their opinions in matters of religion, and that the same shall in nowise diminish, enlarge, or affect their civil capacities. " in thus abolishing religious tests virginia came to the front among all the american states, as massachusetts had come to the front in the


and that the same shall in nowise diminish, enlarge, or affect their civil capacities. " in thus abolishing religious tests virginia came to the front among all the american states, as massachusetts had come to the front in the abolition of negro slavery. nearly all the states still imposed religious tests upon civil office - holders, from simply declaring a general belief in the infallibleness of the bible, to accepting the doctrine of the trinity. madison ' s " religious freedom act " was translated into french and italian, and was widely read and commented upon in europe. in our own history it set a most valuable precedent for other states to follow. the attitude of mr. madison with regard to paper money was also very important. the several states had then the power of issuing promissory notes and making them a legal tender, and many of them shamefully abused this power. the year 1786 witnessed perhaps the most virulent craze for paper money that has ever attacked the american people. in virginia the masterly reasoning and the resolute attitude of a few great political leaders saved the state from yielding to the delusion, and among these leaders mr. madison was foremost. but his most important work in the virginia legislature was that which led directly to the annapolis convention, and thus ultimately to the framing of the constitution of the united states. the source from which such vast results were to flow was the necessity of an agreement between maryland and virginia with regard to the navigation of the potomac river, and the collection of duties at ports on its banks. commissioners appointed by the two states to discuss this question met early in 1785 and recommended that a uniform tariff should be adopted and enforced upon both banks. but a further question, also closely connected with the navigation of the potomac, now came up for discussion. the tide of westward migration had for some time been pouring over the alleghanies, and, owing to complications with the spanish power in the mississippi valley, there was some danger that the united states might not be able to keep its hold upon the new settlements. it was necessary to strengthen the commercial ties between east and west, and to this end the potomac company was formed for the purpose of improving the navigation of the upper waters of the potomac and connecting them by good roads and canals with the upper waters of the ohio at pittsburg — an enterprise which, in due course of time, resulted in the chesapeake and ohio canal. the first president of the potomac company was george washington, who well understood that the undertaking was quite as


canals with the upper waters of the ohio at pittsburg — an enterprise which, in due course of time, resulted in the chesapeake and ohio canal. the first president of the potomac company was george washington, who well understood that the undertaking was quite as important in its political as in its commercial bearings. at the same time it was proposed to connect the potomac and delaware rivers with a canal, and a company was organized for this purpose. this made it desirable that the four states — virginia, maryland, delaware, and pennsylvania — should agree upon the laws for regulating interstate traffic through this system of water - ways. but from this it was but a short step to the conclusion that, since the whole commercial system of the united states confessedly needed overhauling, it might perhaps be as well for all the thirteen states to hold a convention for considering the matter. when such a suggestion was communicated from the legislature of maryland to that of virginia, it afforded mr. madison the opportunity for which he had been eagerly waiting. some time before he had prepared a resolution for the appointment of commissioners to confer with commissioners from the other states concerning the trade of the country and the advisableness of entrusting its regulation to the federal government. this resolution mr. madison left to be offered to the assembly by some one less conspicuously identified with federalist opinions than himself ; and it was accordingly presented by mr. tyler, father of the future president of that name. the motion was unfavorably received and was laid upon the table, but when the message came from maryland, the matter was reconsidered and the resolution passed. annapolis was selected as the place for the convention, which assembled on september 11, 1786. only five states — virginia, delaware, pennsylvania, new jersey, and new york — were represented at the meeting. maryland, which had first suggested the convention, had seen the appointed time arrive without even taking the trouble to select commissioners. as the representation was so inadequate, the convention thought it best to defer action, and accordingly adjourned after adopting an address to the states, which was prepared by alexander hamilton. the address incorporated a suggestion from new jersey, which indefinitely enlarged the business to be treated by such convention ; it was to deal not only with the regulation of commerce, but with " other important matters. " acting upon this cautious hint, the address recommended the calling of a second convention, to be held at philadelphia on the second monday of may, 1787. mr. madison was one of the commissioners at annapolis, and


but with " other important matters. " acting upon this cautious hint, the address recommended the calling of a second convention, to be held at philadelphia on the second monday of may, 1787. mr. madison was one of the commissioners at annapolis, and was very soon appointed a delegate to the new convention, along with washington, randolph, mason, and others. the avowed purpose of the new convention was to " devise such provisions as shall appear necessary to render the constitution of the federal government adequate to the exigencies of the union, and to report to congress such an act as, when agreed to by them and confirmed by the legislatures of every state, would effectually provide for the same. " the report of the annapolis commissioners was brought before congress in october, in the hope that congress would earnestly recommend to the several states the course of action therein suggested. at first the objections to the plan prevailed in congress, but the events of the winter went far toward persuading men in all parts of the country that the only hope of escaping anarchy lay in a thorough revision of the imperfect scheme of government under which we were then living. the paper - money craze in so many of the states, the violent proceedings in the rhode island legislature, the riots in vermont and new hampshire, the shays rebellion in massachusetts, the dispute with spain about the navigation of the mississippi, and the consequent imminent danger of separation between north and south, had all come together ; and now the last ounce was laid upon the camel ' s back in the failure of the impost amendment. in february, 1787, just as mr. madison, who had been chosen a delegate to congress, arrived in new york, the legislature of that state refused its assent to the amendment, which was thus defeated. thus, only three months before the time designated for the meeting of the philadelphia convention, congress was decisively informed that it would not be allowed to take any effectual measures for raising a revenue. this accumulation of difficulties made congress more ready to listen to the arguments of mr. madison, and presently congress itself proposed a convention at philadelphia identical with the one recommended by the annapolis commissioners, and thus in its own way sanctioned their action. the assembling of the convention at philadelphia was an event to which mr. madison, by persistent energy and skill, had contributed more than any other man in the country, with the possible exception of alexander hamilton. for the noble political structure reared by the convention it was madison that furnished the basis. before the convention


which mr. madison, by persistent energy and skill, had contributed more than any other man in the country, with the possible exception of alexander hamilton. for the noble political structure reared by the convention it was madison that furnished the basis. before the convention met he laid before his colleagues of the virginia delegation the outlines of the scheme that was presented to the convention as the " virginia plan. " of the delegates, edmund randolph was then governor of virginia, and it was he that presented the plan, and made the opening speech in defence of it, but its chief author was madison. this " virginia plan " struck directly at the root of the evils from which our federal government had suffered under the articles of confederation. the weakness of that government had consisted in the fact that it operated only upon states and not upon individuals. only states, not individuals, were represented in the continental congress, which accordingly resembled a european congress rather than an english parliament. the delegates to the continental congress were more like envoys from sovereign states than like members of a legislative body. they might deliberate and advise, but had no means of enforcing their will upon the several state governments ; and hence they could neither raise a revenue nor preserve order. in forming the new government, this fundamental difficulty was met first by the creation of a legislative body representing population instead of states, and secondly by the creation of a federal executive and a federal judiciary. thus arose that peculiar state of things so familiar to americans, but so strange to europeans that they find it hard to comprehend it : the state of things in which every individual lives under two complete and well - rounded systems of laws — the state law and the federal law — each with its legislature, its executive, and its judiciary, moving one within the other. it was one of the longest reaches of constructive statesmanship ever known in the world, and the credit of it is due to madison more than to any other one man. to him we chiefly, owe the luminous conception of the two co - existing and harmonious spheres of government, although the constitution, as actually framed, was the result of skilful compromises by which the virginia plan was modified and improved in many important points. in its original shape that plan went further toward national consolidation than the constitution as adopted. it contemplated a national legislature to be composed of two houses, but both the upper and the lower house were to represent population instead of states. here it encountered fierce opposition from the smaller states, under the lead of new jersey, until the matter was settled by the famous connecticut


legislature to be composed of two houses, but both the upper and the lower house were to represent population instead of states. here it encountered fierce opposition from the smaller states, under the lead of new jersey, until the matter was settled by the famous connecticut compromise, according to which the upper house was to represent states, while the lower house represented population. madison ' s original scheme, moreover, would have allowed the national legislature to set aside at discretion such state laws as it might deem unconstitutional. it seems strange to find madison, who afterward drafted the virginia resolutions of 1798, now suggesting and defending a provision so destructive of state rights. it shows how strongly he was influenced at the time by the desire to put an end to the prevailing anarchy. the discussion of this matter in the convention, as we read it to - day, brings out in a very strong light the excellence of the arrangement finally adopted, by which the constitutionality of state laws is left to be determined through the decisions of the federal supreme court. in all the discussions in the federal convention mr. madison naturally took a leading part. besides the work of cardinal importance which he achieved as principal author of the virginia plan, especial mention must be made of the famous compromise that adjusted the distribution of representatives between the northern and the southern states. we have seen that in the congress of 1783, when it was a question of taxation, the south was inclined to regard slaves as chattels, while the north preferred to regard them as population. now, when it had come to be a question of the apportionment of representation, the case was reversed : it was the south that wished to count slaves as population, while the north insisted that they should be classed as chattels. here mr. madison proposed the same compromise that had succeeded in congress four years before ; and mr. rutledge, of south carolina, who had supported him on the former occasion, could hardly do otherwise than come again to his side. it was agreed that in counting population, whether for direct taxation or for representation in the lower house of congress, five slaves should be reckoned as three individuals. in the history of the formation of our federal union this compromise was of cardinal importance. without it the union would undoubtedly have gone to pieces at the outset, and it was for this reason that the northern abolitionists, gouverneur morris and rufus king, joined with washington and madison and with the pro - slavery pinckneys in subscribing to it. some of the evils


, and it was for this reason that the northern abolitionists, gouverneur morris and rufus king, joined with washington and madison and with the pro - slavery pinckneys in subscribing to it. some of the evils resulting from this compromise have led historians, writing from the abolitionist point of view, to condemn it utterly. nothing can be clearer, however, than that, in order to secure the adoption of the constitution, it was absolutely necessary to satisfy south carolina. this was proved by the course of events in 1788, when there was a strong party in virginia in favor of a separate confederacy of southern states. by south carolina ' s prompt ratification of the constitution this scheme was completely defeated, and a most formidable obstacle to the formation of a more perfect union was removed. of all the compromises in american history, this of the so - called " three - fifths rule " was probably the most important : until the beginning of the civil war there was hardly a political movement of any consequence not affected by it. mr. madison ' s services in connection with the founding of our federal government were thus, up to this point, of the most transcendent kind. we have seen that he played a leading part in the difficult work of getting a convention to assemble ; the merit of this he shares with other eminent men, and notably with washington and hamilton. then, he was chief author of the most fundamental features in the constitution, those which transformed our government from a loose confederacy of states into a federal nation ; and to him is due the principal credit for the compromise that made the adoption of the constitution possible for all the states. after the adjournment of the convention his services did not cease. among those whose influence in bringing about the ratification of the constitution was felt all over the country, he shares with hamilton the foremost place. the " federalist, " their joint production, is probably the greatest treatise on political science that has ever appeared in the world, at once the most practical and the most profound. the evenness with which the merits of this work are shared between madison and hamilton is well illustrated by the fact that it is not always easy to distinguish between the two, so that there has been considerable controversy as to the number of papers contributed by each. according to madison ' s own memorandum, he was the author of twenty - nine of the papers, while fifty - one were written by hamilton, and five by jay. the question is not of great importance. very probably mr. madison would have


. according to madison ' s own memorandum, he was the author of twenty - nine of the papers, while fifty - one were written by hamilton, and five by jay. the question is not of great importance. very probably mr. madison would have had a larger share in the work had he not been obliged, in march, 1788, to return to virginia, in order to take part in the state convention for deciding upon the ratification of the constitution. the opposition in virginia was strong and well organized, and had for leaders such eminent patriots as patrick henry and richard henry lee. the debates in the convention lasted nearly a month, and for a considerable part of this time the outlook was not promising. the discussion was conducted mainly between madison and henry, the former being chiefly assisted by marshall, wythe, randolph, pendleton, and henry lee, the latter by mason, monroe, harrison, and tyler. to mr. madison, more than to any one else, it was due that the constitution was at length ratified, while the narrowness of the majority — 89 to 79 — bore witness to the severity of the contest. it did not appear that the people of virginia were even yet convinced by the arguments that had prevailed in the convention. the assembly that met in the following october showed a heavy majority of anti - federalists, and under henry ' s leadership it called upon congress for a second national convention to reconsider the work done by the first. senators were now to be chosen for the first u. s. senate, and henry, in naming richard henry lee and william grayson, both anti - federalists, as the two men who ought to be chosen, took pains to mention james madison as the one man who on no account whatever ought to be elected senator. henry was successful in carrying this point. the next thing was to keep mr. madison out of congress, and henry ' s friends sought to accomplish this by means of the device afterward known as " gerrymandering " ; but the attempt failed, and madison was elected to the first national house of representatives. his great knowledge, and the part he had played in building up the framework of the government, made him from the outset the leading member of the house. his first motion was one for raising a revenue by tariff and tonnage duties. he offered the resolution for creating the executive departments of foreign affairs, of the treasury, and of war. he proposed twelve amendments to the constitution, in order to meet the objection, urged in many quarters, that that instrument did not contain


and advocating an extension of the powers of the federal government. but there was no reason in the world why a federalist of 1787 – ' 90 must thereafter, in order to preserve his consistency, become a loose constructionist. it was entirely consistent for a statesman to advocate the adoption of the constitution, while convinced that the powers specifically granted therein to the general government were ample, and that great care should be taken not to add indefinitely to such powers through rash and loose methods of interpretation. not only is such an attitude perfectly reasonable in itself, but it is, in particular, the one that a principal author of the constitution would have been very likely to take ; and no doubt it was just this attitude that mr. madison took in the early sessions of congress. the occasions on which be assumed it were, moreover, eminently proper, and afford an admirable illustration of the difference in temper and mental habit between himself and hamilton. the latter had always more faith in the heroic treatment of political questions than madison. the restoration of american credit in 1790 was a task that demanded heroic measures, and it was fortunate that we had such a man as hamilton to undertake it. but undoubtedly the assumption of state debts by the federal government, however admirably it met the emergency of the moment, was such a measure as might easily create a dangerous precedent, and there was certainly nothing strange or inconsistent in madison ' s opposition to it. a similar explanation will cover his opposition to hamilton ' s national bank ; and indeed, with the considerations here given as a clew, there is little or nothing in mr. madison ' s career in congress that is not thoroughly intelligible. at the time, however, the federalists, disappointed at losing a man of so much power, misunderstood his acts and misrepresented his motives, and the old friendship between him and hamilton gave way to mutual distrust and dislike. mr. madison sympathized with the french revolutionists, though he did not go so far in this direction as jefferson. in the debates upon jay ' s treaty with great britain he led the opposition, and supported the resolution asking president washington to submit to the house of representatives copies of the papers relating to the negotiations. the resolution was passed, but washington refused on the ground that the making of treaties was intrusted by the constitution to the president and the senate, and that the lower house was not entitled to meddle with their work. at the close of washington ' s second administration mr. madison retired for a brief season from public


of treaties was intrusted by the constitution to the president and the senate, and that the lower house was not entitled to meddle with their work. at the close of washington ' s second administration mr. madison retired for a brief season from public life. during this difficult period the country had been fortunate in having, as leader of the opposition in congress, a man so wise in counsel, so temperate in spirit, and so courteous in demeanor. whatever else might be said of madison ' s conduct in opposition, it could never be called factious ; it was calm, generous, and disinterested. about two years before the close of his career in congress he married mrs. dolly payne todd, a beautiful widow, much younger than himself ; and about this time he seems to have built the house at montpelier, which was to be his home during his later years. but retirement from public life, in any real sense of the phrase, was not yet possible for such a man. the wrath of the french government over jay ' s treaty led to depredations upon american shipping, to the sending of commissioners to paris, and to the blackmailing attempts of talleyrand, as shown up in the x. y. z. despatches. in the fierce outbursts of indignation that in america greeted these disclosures, in the sudden desire for war with france, which went so far as to vent itself in actual fighting on the sea, though war was never declared, the federalist party believed itself to be so strong that it proceeded at once to make one of the greatest blunders ever made by a political party, in passing the alien and sedition acts. this high - handed legislation caused a sudden revulsion of feeling in favor of the republicans, and called forth vigorous remonstrance. party feeling has, perhaps, never in this country been so bitter, except just before the civil war. montpelier, piedmont, va., the home of james madison, now owned by col. william dupont a series of resolutions, drawn up by mr. madison, was adopted in 1798 by the legislature of virginia, while a similar series, still more pronounced, drawn up by mr. jefferson, was adopted in the same year by the legislature of kentucky. the virginia resolutions asserted with truth that, in adopting the federal constitution, the states had surrendered only a limited portion of their powers ; and went on to declare that, whenever the federal government should exceed its constitutional authority, it was the business


of kentucky. the virginia resolutions asserted with truth that, in adopting the federal constitution, the states had surrendered only a limited portion of their powers ; and went on to declare that, whenever the federal government should exceed its constitutional authority, it was the business of the state governments to interfere and pronounce such action unconstitutional. accordingly, virginia declared the alien and sedition laws unconstitutional, and invited the other states to join in the declaration. not meeting with a favorable response, virginia renewed these resolutions the next year. there was nothing necessarily seditious, or tending toward secession, in the virginia resolutions ; but the attitude assumed in them was uncalled for on the part of any state, inasmuch as there existed, in the federal supreme court, a tribunal competent to decide upon the constitutionality of acts of congress. the kentucky resolutions went further. they declared that our federal constitution was a compact, to which the several states were the one party and the federal government was the other, and each party must decide for itself as to when the compact was infringed, and as to the proper remedy to be adopted. when the resolutions were repeated in 1799, a clause was added, which went still further and mentioned " nullification " as the suitable remedy, and one that any state might employ. in the virginia resolutions there was neither mention nor intention of nullification as a remedy. mr. madison lived to witness south carolina ' s attempt at nullification in 1832, and in a very able paper, written in the last year of his life, he conclusively refuted the idea that his resolutions of 1798 afforded any justification for such an attempt, and showed that what they really contemplated was a protest on the part of all the state governments in common. doubtless such a remedy was clumsy and impracticable, and the suggestion of it does not deserve to be ranked along with mr. madison ' s best work in constructive statesmanship ; but it certainly contained no logical basis for what its author unsparingly denounced as the " twin heresies " of nullification and secession. in 1799 mr. madison was again elected a member of the virginia assembly, and in 1801, at mr. jefferson ' s urgent desire, he became secretary of state. in accepting this appointment, he entered upon a new career, in many respects different from that which he had hitherto followed. his work as a constructive statesman, which was so great as to place him in the foremost rank among the men that have built up nations, was by this time


a new career, in many respects different from that which he had hitherto followed. his work as a constructive statesman, which was so great as to place him in the foremost rank among the men that have built up nations, was by this time substantially completed. during the next few years the constitutional questions that had hitherto occupied him played a part subordinate to that played by questions of foreign policy, and in this new sphere mr. madison was not, by nature or training, fitted to exercise such a controlling influence as he had formerly brought to bear in the framing of our federal government. as secretary of state, he was an able lieutenant to mr. jefferson, but his genius was not that of an executive officer so much as that of a lawgiver. he brought his great historical and legal learning to bear in a paper entitled, " an examination of the british doctrine which subjects to capture a neutral trade not open in the time of peace. " but the troubled period that followed the rupture of the treaty of amiens was not one in which legal arguments, however masterly, counted for much in bringing angry and insolent combatants to terms. in the gigantic struggle between england and napoleon the commerce of the united states was ground to pieces as between the upper and the nether millstone, and in some respects there is no chapter in american history more painful for an american citizen to read. the outrageous affair of the " leopard " and the " chesapeake " was but the most flagrant of a series of wrongs and insults, against which jefferson ' s embargo was doubtless an absurd and feeble protest, but perhaps at the same time pardonable as the only weapon left us in that period of national weakness. affairs were drawing slowly toward some kind of crisis when, at the expiration of jefferson ' s second term, mr. madison was elected president of the united states by 122 electoral votes against 47 for cotesworth pinckney, and 6 for george clinton, who received 113 votes for the vice - presidency, and was elected to that office. the opposition of the new england states to the embargo had by this time brought about its repeal, and the substitution for it of the act declaring non - intercourse with england and france. by this time many of the most intelligent federalists, including john quincy adams, had gone over to the republicans. in 1810 congress repealed the non - intercourse act, which, as a measure of intimidation, had proved ineffectual. congress now sought to use the threat of


most intelligent federalists, including john quincy adams, had gone over to the republicans. in 1810 congress repealed the non - intercourse act, which, as a measure of intimidation, had proved ineffectual. congress now sought to use the threat of non - intercourse as a kind of bribe, and informed england and france that if either nation would repeal its obnoxious edicts, the non - intercourse act would be revived against the other. napoleon took prompt advantage of this, and informed mr. madison ' s government that he had revoked his berlin and milan decrees as far as american ships were concerned ; but at the same time he gave secret orders by which the decrees were to be practically enforced as harshly as ever. the lie served its purpose, and congress revived the non - intercourse act as against great britain alone. in 1811 hostilities began on sea and land, in the affair of tippecanoe and of the " president " and " little belt. " the growing desire for war was shown in the choice of henry clay for speaker of the house of representatives, and mr. madison was nominated for a second term, on condition of adopting the war policy. on june 18, 1812, war was declared, and before the autumn election a series of remarkable naval victories had made it popular. mr. madison was re - elected by 128 electoral votes against 89 for dewitt clinton, of new york. the one absorbing event, which filled the greater part of his second term, was the war with great britain, which was marked by some brilliant victories and some grave disasters, including the capture of washington by british troops, and the flight of the government from the national capital. whatever opinion may be held as to the character of the war and its results, there is a general agreement that its management, on the part of the united states, was feeble. mr. madison was essentially a man of peace, and as the manager of a great war he was conspicuously out of his element. the history of that war plays a great part in the biographies of the military and naval heroes that figured in it ; it is a cardinal event in the career of andrew jackson or isaac hull. in the biography of madison it is an episode which may be passed over briefly. the greatest part of his career was finished before he held the highest offices ; his renown will rest chiefly or entirely upon what he did before the beginning of the 19th century. after the close of his second term in 1817, mr. madison retired to his estate at montpelier, where he