this mechanism, either by removing it entirely and / or by rendering objects through the fog that would not normally be visible. in multiplayer modes, this allows for a distinct advantage against the other players that are subject to the intended settings. the advantage gained can be substantial, especially for the average real - time strategy games that rely on the rock - paper - scissors dynamic to balance out individual objects ' varying strengths and weaknesses. also called " chams " or " wallhacks " in most fps games ( such as cross fire, team fortress 2, and call of duty, to name a few ) it can enable users to see " through " a wall, the outline of said player is generally seen in a gamma - intensive outline, such as neon greens, blues, reds, extremes ( white / black ), and pinks. users can usually set what color to choose. wallhacking allows a player to see through solid or opaque objects and / or manipulate or remove textures, to know in advance when an opponent is about to come into targeting range from an occluded area. this can be done by making wall textures transparent, or modifying the game maps to insert polygonal holes into otherwise solid walls. as with the aimbot, wallhacking relies on the fact that an fps server usually sends raw positional information for all players in the game, and leaves it up to the client ' s 3d renderer to hide opponents behind walls, in plant foliage, or in dark shadows. if the game map rendering could be turned off completely, all players could be seen moving around in what appears to be empty space. complete map hiding offers no advantage to a cheater as they would be unable to navigate the invisible map pathways and obstacles. however if only certain surfaces are made transparent or removed, this leaves just enough of an outline of the world to allow the cheater still to navigate it easily. when used in conjunction certain wallhacks allow the player to shoot through solid objects, which is known as " opk " ( one place killing ) in such games as combat arms, because the killer can generally stay in one spot. a subset known as whitewalls removes the color / texture from objects in the surrounding environment, providing distinct contrast to opposition character models, which remain colored / textured. ( see esp for an evolution of the wallhack. ) a subset of wallhacking is also called " chamming " ( see skin cheats ). extrasensory perception ( esp ) in video games displays context


textured. ( see esp for an evolution of the wallhack. ) a subset of wallhacking is also called " chamming " ( see skin cheats ). extrasensory perception ( esp ) in video games displays contextual information such as the health, name, equipment, position and / or orientation of other participants as navigation / directional markers, which would normally be hidden from game players. this may be performed by reading the programs memory with an external program, or intercepting and decoding packets as they travel between the client and the server. this is difficult to detect and prove, but is definitely considered cheating. fly hack a fly hack is one that lets the user disable a game ' s collision boundaries, allowing the player to go through every object on the level, giving a good place to hide, or allowing the player to gain advantage by reaching places that would otherwise be unreachable without the cheat. this is usually combined with the ability to freely move about in any directions, as if the player was flying. this is often inaccurately called noclip. some servers might monitor the player ' s position and movement history and decide whether the movement is legitimate, however it ' s a lot harder to implement in situations where there is high emphasis on the client to process most or all of the game ' s mechanics. removal of game elements removals allow the cheater to remove a game ' s inhibitors or annoyances. these include gun recoil, bullet spread, and visual effects. such removals can significantly increase a user ' s firing accuracy, but may be noticeable to other players. removals may also consist of removing flash bang effects, which normally make the user ' s screen appear a bright white and mute their sound. with that particular removal, the user can continue play without loss of audiovisual input. smoke, sky, hands, ground, doors, and many other elements are also removed in order to cheat. a newer, more startling removal removes the ability to be kicked by a game, whether it be by a moderator or by vote - kick. this is often used in conjunction with other cheats / hacks to gain a permanent edge over the competition in a game. unsporting play a form of improving one ' s ranking in league tables, boosting is most common in 1 vs 1 fighting games such as street fighter iv and tekken. players will set up multiple accounts and play one against the other. the primary account will get an easy win due to no or little input from


tables, boosting is most common in 1 vs 1 fighting games such as street fighter iv and tekken. players will set up multiple accounts and play one against the other. the primary account will get an easy win due to no or little input from the second account. the major problem with this method is high cost since the boosting player requires at least two consoles, ip addresses and copies of the game. additionally, some games allow matches to be uploaded and viewed by others on replay channel. if the boosting player accidentally allows this, their boosting match can be seen by others. also gaining experience very fast in an objective - based game at an unfair way such as purely playing on the objectives ( when it is not intended to be so ) is considered boosting. even without matches being seen, players who boost can usually be easily identified, since they will have an extremely high number of points in relation to the number of matches played. for example, the ' top - ranked ' player in super street fighter iv has ≈35, 000 pp ( player points ) ; in comparison, daigo umehara, widely regarded as the best player in the world, currently has ≈6, 500 pp. in games where wins and losses are recorded on a player ' s account, a player may disconnect when he or she is about to lose, in order to prevent that loss from being recorded. this is usually done by known in game glitches and 3rd party sources via " ip booting ". ( a firewall software feature ) some players do this if someone is being unfair. in street fighter, someone might do a move that will kill if repeatedly used in timing, or set the timer low and hit a player so they can dodge around, and a player might disconnect to avoid a unfair loss. a similar phenomenon occurs when a server operator boots an opponent or players who they do not support. disconnecting is considered unsporting, as the opponent may not have his or her " win " recorded. some games implement a disconnection penalty, usually by recording the disconnect as a loss, or a loss of experience points. other games, such as ufc 2009 undisputed, include a " disconnect " statistic in players ' profiles, so players may select a match where the opponent will not be prone to disconnect. team - based games such as league of legends are highly dependent on each member participating, and one member disconnecting can greatly alter the outcome of the match so temporary


players may select a match where the opponent will not be prone to disconnect. team - based games such as league of legends are highly dependent on each member participating, and one member disconnecting can greatly alter the outcome of the match so temporary bans are employed to discourage such behaviour. the later games in the call of duty give extra experience points for staying in a match, and records games in which the player leaves as a loss. halo : reach gives a random " lottery " experience - point bonus to players at the end of each match, encouraging them to stay until the end. rapid fire modifications in games ( mostly first person shooters ) weapons featured can be fired in burst fire or single shot. for some gamers, modifying their controller or console to gain the advantage of having a faster shooting weapon than the standard player can be considered as a method of cheating. these modifications can create an imbalance within the game. in the call of duty series, having a semi - automatic pistol or rifle with a rapid fire modification could display the player as having the firing abilities of a heavy machine gun. in addition to modifying a console or its controller, it is possible to achieve a similar effect on the pc by binding the firing button to the scroll wheel of a mouse or using a macro setting that will tap automatically. with semi - automatic weaponry in games such as call of duty 4 : modern warfare seemingly limited to firing as quickly as a player can press the required button, the scroll wheel / macro egregiously abuses this limitation, allowing them to fire pistols and the like far faster than was originally intended. this exploit has not yet been prevented in most instances of first - person shooters. spawn camping in first person shooters, the spawns can be predictable. some players learn these spawns to kill players before they react, and this quickly ( especially in games like call of duty that have scorestreaks ) the victim team has lost before the game is even halfway through. environmental exploits exploiting is the application of an unintended use or bug that gives the player an advantage. not all gamers view exploits as cheating, some view it as another skill because certain exploits take a significant amount of time to find, or dexterity and timing to use. an example of dexterity exploits include bunny hopping and texture - climbing in quake, as well as so - called " wave - dashing " in super smash bros. melee. in the video game ace of spades ( video game ), and the infamous wall bugs in gta iv the map


and texture - climbing in quake, as well as so - called " wave - dashing " in super smash bros. melee. in the video game ace of spades ( video game ), and the infamous wall bugs in gta iv the map boundary is often easily accessible to every player, so it is not always considered cheating. exploits are often considered cheating when they have an unbalancing effect, or are used in an intended manner. skin cheats chameleon skins, cham - hacks or chams, replace player model textures with brightly colored skins, often bright red / yellow or blue / green, that change color depending on whether the model is visible. for instance, an exposed part of an opponent would be shown in a different color, giving a cham - hack user an advantage over non - hack users, especially in games in which camouflage techniques ( provided by in - game mechanics, objects or player models ) are negated. while cham - hacks are accomplished using a wallhack subset, historically, user settings ( in quakeworld, for example ) or exploits in many older games allowed replacing skins arbitrarily with varying degrees of success — from pseudo - camouflage in dark areas of a map ( prior to specular and other advanced lighting techniques ) when using a " shadow skin " ; to completely disappearing while the skin change propagated to other players ; to forcing a plain - white skin on all opponents. a more obvious skin cheat involves a person wearing a skin that makes him invisible to all players. however, this is a cheat that is easily discovered, especially if the game provides a killcam after each death. farming and stat - padding in games where achievements and player abilities are unlocked by defeating a number of enemies or challenges of a particular class, players may arrange to win or lose against one another in order to obtain the achievements without having to play the game linearly. this is also known as stat - padding, swapping, or boosting, and most players [ who? ] do not consider it to be cheating unless it is used to win the game ( or make it easier to win ). the term farming also refers to the practice of garnering achievements or virtual property for the purpose of real - money - trading. with rare exception, this has no direct effect on the gaming experience of other players ; instead, it is a violation of most eulas and could devalue the virtual property being farmed. a special type of farming that occurs in multiplayer games where multiple


rare exception, this has no direct effect on the gaming experience of other players ; instead, it is a violation of most eulas and could devalue the virtual property being farmed. a special type of farming that occurs in multiplayer games where multiple players join a game that is based around taking objectives, like capture the flag or domination, but instead of working to take the objective, they focus mainly on scoring kills. this is known as kill farming and is generally frowned upon. this was especially common in call of duty : modern warfare 2, where players would become angry and bitter when others would try and advance the game ( e. g. planting a bomb at a target location that, if allowed to detonate, would end the game ) and would discourage their team from protecting the bomb so the enemy could defuse it. this is because these players would attempt to farm kills to gain the tactical nuke ability, which would also end the game. although this isn ' t considered boosting, critics of the tactical nuke cited this as a reason to exclude it from further call of duty games because it ruined the gameplay of objective - based games. character sharing sharing is when multiple people play using a single character — mainly in mmorpgs — to gain an advantage by having higher online times and / or being able to apply more manpower toward game activities such as leveling or gaining experience. in some mmos this is not seen as cheating although others such as nexon ' s maplestory, blizzard entertainment ' s world of warcraft or jagex ' s runescape specifically forbid it. twinking is the act of giving gear intended for higher level characters to lower level characters that would be incapable of obtaining the gear on their own. twinked characters have a huge advantage over untwinked characters, as well as the rest of the game world. this is usually used by players who wish to create a new character, to help them level more rapidly or gain an unfair advantage in pvp. most mmorpgs tolerate it, provided that the twinked character is not used in player versus player combat with other characters of the same level, where it would have an unfair advantage over non - twinked characters. often limits on twinking are placed into the game, usually through strict level or stat requirements to equip the item. circumventing these level requirements would then be further cheating. most games allow other participants to observe the game as it is played from a variety of perspectives ; depending on the game, perspectives allow


level or stat requirements to equip the item. circumventing these level requirements would then be further cheating. most games allow other participants to observe the game as it is played from a variety of perspectives ; depending on the game, perspectives allow an observer a map overview or attach a " camera " to the movement of a specific player. in doing so, the observer can communicate with an accomplice using a secondary communication methodology ( in - game private message, third party communication, or even off - line ) to inform friendly players of traps or the position of opponents. an observer can be an active player, using a separate computer, connection and account. some systems prevent inactive players from observing the game if they are on the same ip address as an active player, on the grounds that they are probably in close physical proximity ; when all players from a single ip address are no longer active participants, they are all allowed to observe. however, this restriction can be easily evaded if there are multiple ip addresses available at one location ( a common feature of broadband subscriptions ), or if the observer installs remote desktop software on their computer, thus enabling their computer screen to be viewed by select other players in real time. secret alliances similar to ghosting in some respects, if two or more players to engage secret, co - operative play while all are active ( especially in mmorpgs ) it is considered cheating in many games, in particular when players engage in secondary communication. using remote desktop software to observe the screens of secret " allies " while one is playing could confer considerable tactical and / or strategic advantages for all players in the " alliance ", and would be considered cheating. in some rts games, this is made difficult by replacing all player names with " unknown ". this makes players unable to know who they are private messaging. starcraft 2 and warcraft 3 are examples of this anti - secret alliance setting. in games like super smash bros. brawl, sometimes when not using team battle 2 or more characters would try to attack one character and have one character win. most of the time these people would be the same character with the same or different costume. stacking involves altering game settings or team lineups to give one or more teams an unfair advantage over others. one example includes arranging a team composed of skilled or known players against a team with members of lesser skill. although this may be a valid and accepted practice in real - life sports, in online games stacking upsets less - skilled players who feel that they aren


includes arranging a team composed of skilled or known players against a team with members of lesser skill. although this may be a valid and accepted practice in real - life sports, in online games stacking upsets less - skilled players who feel that they aren ' t being given a fair chance. less ethical rigging involves weighting the game by providing a player or team with an advantage by outfitting them with better ( or more familiar ) weapons or equipment, or creating a play field that caters to a certain player, team or playing style. user settings typically, a player can change settings within a game to suit his or her preference or play style ; these alterations are considered cheating only in certain circumstances. for example, changing the keyboard layout to make it easier to use is an accepted practice and not considered cheating ; however, changing player models or textures, or increasing the field view beyond the values normally available in the game ' s options could be considered cheating. scripting is the use of a program or game feature to automate certain actions or behaviors. the use of scripts may or may not be considered cheating, depending on the behavior involved, and whether said behavior is replicable without the use of such script. a script may give the user unusually fast firing rate, unobtainable otherwise, or may perform seemingly trivial tasks such as reloading. scripts can also tamper with other players ' command systems, such as in crysis games, where a certain script edit known as a " longpoke " can force all players on a certain server to use the suicide command. implementation of cheats in the client – server model, the server is responsible for information security and enforcing game rules. ( see " efficiency versus security " below for drawbacks. ) in the peer - to - peer gaming model, clients run equal code but are still subject to most of the same type of cheats found in the client – server multiplayer model ; however, the peer - to - peer multiplayer model has deprecated in favor of the client – server model with the wider adoption of high - speed networks. " never trust the client " is a maxim among game developers ( as well as other ' types ' of developers ) that summarizes the model of client – server game design. it means that no information sent from a client should be accepted by a server if it breaks the game rules or the basic mechanics of the game, and that no information should be sent to a client unless it is " need - to - know. " for example, a server


sent from a client should be accepted by a server if it breaks the game rules or the basic mechanics of the game, and that no information should be sent to a client unless it is " need - to - know. " for example, a server with no rule enforcement or data integrity checking will synchronize all of the clients with all of the information about all of the other clients. the server will be very fast, but any wallhack program will reveal where all the players in the game are, what team they are on, and what state they ' re in — health, weapon, ammo etc. at the same time, altered and erroneous data from a client will allow a player to break the game rules, manipulate the server, and even manipulate other clients. game code modification many cheats are implemented by modifying game software, despite eulas which forbid modification. while game software distributed in binary - only versions makes it harder to modify code, reverse engineering is possible. also game data files can be edited separately from the main program and thereby circumvent protections implemented in software. wallhacks and maphacks often function by modifying the software. other cheats analyze or change the game state in memory, such as some aimbots and programs that give infinite ammo or health ( often called trainers ). additionally, software with legitimate use outside of gaming can fulfill the role of a cheat when used inside a game. examples include program accelerators and an auto clicker. system software modification rather than modifying the game code ( which the game itself or a 3rd - party protection system may detect ), some cheats modify underlying system components. an example of this is graphics driver modifications that ignore depth checking and draw all objects on the screen — a primitive wallhack. system or driver modification is harder to detect, as there are a large number of system drivers that differ from user to user. packet interception, tampering & manipulation the security of game software can be circumvented by intercepting and / or manipulating data in real - time while in transit from the client to the server or vice versa. interception can be passive ( see ghosting and esp ) or result in active manipulation ( see wallhacks ) ; either methodology can be performed on the client machine itself or via an external communication proxy ; some aimbots incorporate this methodology. anti - cheating methods and limitations there are many facets of cheating in online games which make the creation of a system to stop cheating very difficult ; however, game developers


client machine itself or via an external communication proxy ; some aimbots incorporate this methodology. anti - cheating methods and limitations there are many facets of cheating in online games which make the creation of a system to stop cheating very difficult ; however, game developers and third party software developers have created or are developing technologies that attempt to prevent cheating. anti - cheat software is commonly used in popular games such as team fortress 2, quake, or world of warcraft. a few examples of anti - cheat software are dmw anticheat, gameguard, punkbuster, vac, protectenviron, shoxguard, cleandod, xray, xtrap, hackshield, fairfight, warden or battleye. exploits of bugs are usually resolved / removed via a patch to the game ; however, not all companies force the patches / updates on users, leaving the actual resolution to individual users. client datafile checksums one common method used to prevent cheating is for a checksum ( such as an md5 sum ) to be calculated against each game datafile on the client computer, and for these checksums to be reported to the server before the client can join the game. when a cheater has modified a datafile to give them an advantage over others, the changes will affect the calculated checksum and may result in the client being automatically denied from joining the server if an unknown checksum is detected. someone who is attempting to cheat and who has downloaded a cheating package from the internet may possibly be automatically banned by game servers, if certain well - known hacked datafile checksums are detected by the server during the connection attempt. once a datafile has been checked, it is held in a " file open " state, so that other software on the multitasking system can not rename or copy over a file after the check has been done, and the current game session is in progress. when the game session ends, the files are closed until the next check - in. this works only on systems that enforce such file locks, however. the kernel or libraries of a system could be modified to disable the file locking, without making this apparent to the program. non - standard datafile storage some games work to prevent hacking by storing game data in a custom - built private database format that strips file names and directory structures, but does not otherwise encrypt the file data. this is commonly visible as two files, one containing file data for all objects, textures, sounds,


game data in a custom - built private database format that strips file names and directory structures, but does not otherwise encrypt the file data. this is commonly visible as two files, one containing file data for all objects, textures, sounds, maps, etc. that is typically several gigabytes in size. a second file only a few megabytes in size contains the file and directory structure for the game to access data within the larger file. hackers sometimes examine these data structures to write unpackers that convert the database into a normal editable file and directory structure. the game engine may or may not use this extracted structure if it is present in the game installation directory. also because the actual game data in this huge file is typically not encoded or compressed, it is possible to look for common data file headers such as for jpeg, mpeg, or wav and extract these individual files using a ripper, though this is done without knowing the database format or being able to write changes back to the game data structures. availability versus usability generally, the better the server is at enforcing the rules, the less of a problem cheating will be in the game. it may not require much code, but when game servers were restricted by limited available resources such as storage, memory, internal bandwidth, and computational capacity due to the technologies available and the cost of the hardware, coupled with internet connections that were slow, it was believed to be necessary to compromise on security for optimization to minimize the impact on the end - user. today however, with the increased speed and power of multi - core computers, lower priced hardware, and the increased availability of broadband internet, this has become less of an issue. efficiency versus security server - side game code makes a trade - off between calculating and sending results for display on a just - in - time basis or trusting the client to calculate and display the results in appropriate sequence as a player progresses. it can do this by sending the parts of the world state needed for immediate display, which can result in client lag under bandwidth constraints, or sending the player the entire world state, which results in faster display for the player under the same bandwidth constraints, but exposes that data to interception or manipulation — a trade - off between security and efficiency. some companies and leagues ban suspected cheaters by blacklisting specific installation or serial keys, or user accounts, meaning that the player is effectively prevented from playing the game online. in such cases, the banned player may be able to avoid the ban by purchasing


companies and leagues ban suspected cheaters by blacklisting specific installation or serial keys, or user accounts, meaning that the player is effectively prevented from playing the game online. in such cases, the banned player may be able to avoid the ban by purchasing an additional copy of the game which will include a new unbanned serial key. while game publishers are known to ban players employing cheats, the actual number of players banned is usually not revealed. exceptions to this include blizzard entertainment and nexon, known for banning cheaters in batches, and publicising the number of banned accounts in order to discourage others from cheating. see also - clive thompson ( 2007 - 04 - 23 ). " what type of game cheater are you? ". wired. com. retrieved 2009 - 09 - 15. - " how to hurt the hackers : " the scoop on internet cheating and how you can combat it " ". gamasutra. com. 2000 - 07 - 24. retrieved 2009 - 09 - 15. - bradley mitchell. " what is a lag switch? ". about. com. retrieved 2012 - 12 - 15. - " what our competitors won ’ t tell you ". premium lag. september 3, 2009. retrieved 2012 - 12 - 15. - jouni smed and harri hakonen ( 2006 ). algorithms and networking for computer games. wiley. isbn 0470029749. - " daigo umehara : the king of fighters ". eurogamer. net. retrieved 2010 - 05 - 18. - dibbell, julian ( 2008 - 11 - 24 ). " wired magazine : 16. 12, the decline and fall of an ultra rich online gaming empire ". wired. com. retrieved 2009 - 09 - 15. - " twinking is just another form of cheating | we fly spitfires - mmorpg blog ". blog. weflyspitfires. com. 2009 - 09 - 17. retrieved 2010 - 07 - 28. - " gartner says 17 countries to surpass 60 percent broadband penetration into the home by 2012 ". gartner. com. retrieved 2009 - 09 - 15. - wily ferret ( june 22, 2007 ). " intel plays tattle - tale ". the inquirer. retrieved 2012 - 12 - 15. - charlie demerjian ( june 24, 2007 ). " more on intel anti - cheat technology revealed ". the inquirer. retrieved 2012 - 12 - 15. -


the technique of intarsia inlays sections of wood ( at times with contrasting ivory or bone, or mother - of - pearl ) within the solid stone matrix of floors and walls or of table tops and other furniture ; by contrast marquetry assembles a pattern out of veneers glued upon the carcase. it is thought that the word ' intarsia ' is derived from the latin word ' interserere ' which means " to insert ". when egypt came under arab rule in the seventh century, indigenous arts of intarsia and wood inlay, which lent themselves to non - representational decors and tiling patterns, spread throughout the maghreb. the technique of intarsia was already perfected in islamic north africa before it was introduced into christian europe through sicily and andalusia. the art was further developed in siena and by sienese masters at the cathedral of orvieto, where figurative intartsia made their first appearance, ca 1330 and continuing into the 15th century and in northern italy in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, spreading to german centers and introduced into london by flemish craftsmen in the later sixteenth century. the most elaborate examples of intarsia can be found in cabinets of this period, which were items of great luxury and prestige. after about 1620, marquetry tended to supplant intarsia in urbane cabinet work. intarsia is a woodworking technique that uses varied shapes, sizes, and species of wood fitted together to create a mosaic - like picture with an illusion of depth. intarsia is created through the selection of different types of wood, using their natural grain pattern and color ( but can involve the use of stains and dyes ) to create variations in the pattern. after selecting the specific woods to be used within the pattern, each piece is then individually cut, shaped, and finished. sometimes areas of the pattern are raised to create more depth. once the individual pieces are complete, they are fitted together like a jig - saw puzzle and glued to wood backing which is sometimes cut to the outline shape of the image. marble intarsia ( opere di commessi ), called pietre dura in english for the semi - precious hardstones combined with colored marbles that are employed, is an intarsia of coloured stones inlaid in white or black marble. early examples in florence date from the mid fifteenth century and reached a peak of refinement and complexity in revetments of the medici chapel, produced under medici patronage


, is an intarsia of coloured stones inlaid in white or black marble. early examples in florence date from the mid fifteenth century and reached a peak of refinement and complexity in revetments of the medici chapel, produced under medici patronage in the opificio delle pietre dure, which was established by ferdinando i de ’ medici. later complex designs and refinement of the art developed in naples circa the beginning of the 17th century. the floor of st. peter ' s basilica in rome is a particularly notable example of marble intarsia. later this form of decoration became a feature of baroque interior design, particularly so in the sicilian baroque designs following the earthquake of 1693. see also - ms dimand, " an egypto - arabic panel with mosaic decoration " the metropolitan museum of art bulletin, 33. 3 ( march 1938 : 78 - 79 ) - antoine wilmering, " domenico di niccolo, mattia di nanni and the development of sienese intarsia techniques domenico di niccolo, mattia di nanni and the development of sienese intarsia techniques ", the burlington magazine 139 no. 1131 ( june 1997 : 376 - 97 ). - angeles jordano, " the plus oultra writing cabinet of charles v : expression of the sacred imperialism of the austrias ", journal of conservation and museum studies 9 ( 2011 : 14 - 26 ), doi : 10. 5334 / jcms. 91105. - opificio delle pietre dure, florence, an institute of the ministry for cultural heritage - jackson, f. hamilton, intarsia and marquetry, ( london : sands & co. ) 1903 excerpt | wikimedia commons has media related to : intarsia |


in christian cultures, the term lay priest is sometimes used in the past to refer to a secular priest, a diocesan priest who is not a member of a religious institute. terms such as lay priest, lay clergy and lay nun were also once used in buddhist cultures to indicate ordained persons who continued to live in the wider community instead of retiring to a monastery. in the context of specialized professions, the term lay is often used to refer to those who are not members of that profession. christian laity in anglicanism, the term " laity " refers to anyone who is not a bishop, priest, or deacon in the church. in the anglican tradition, all baptized persons are expected to minister in christ ' s name. the orders of ministry are thus laymen, deacons, priests, and bishops. the ministry of the laity is " to represent christ and his church ; to bear witness to him wherever they may be ; and, according to the gifts given them, to carry on christ ' s work of reconciliation in the world ; and to take their place in the life, worship, and governance of the church ". much of the ministry of the laity thus takes place outside official church structures in homes, workplaces, schools, and so forth. laymen also play important roles in the structures of the church. there are elected lay representatives on the various governing bodies of churches in the anglican communion. in the church of england, these governing bodies range from a local parochial church council, through deanery synods and diocesan synods. at the topmost level, the general synod includes a house of laity. likewise, in the episcopal church in the usa the general convention includes four laymen from each diocese in the house of deputies, and each diocesan convention includes lay delegates from the parishes. on the local parish level, laymen are elected to a church council called a vestry which manages church finances and elects the parish rector. parish musicians, bookkeepers, administrative assistants, sextons, sacristans, etc., are all roles normally filled by laymen. at higher levels, diocesan and national offices rely on laymen in many important areas of responsibility. often specialized ministries as campus ministers, youth ministers, or hospital chaplains are performed by laymen. laymen serve in worship services in a number of important positions, including vergers, acolytes, lectors, intercessors, ushers, and so forth. acolytes include torch bearers, crucifers, thurifers


worship services in a number of important positions, including vergers, acolytes, lectors, intercessors, ushers, and so forth. acolytes include torch bearers, crucifers, thurifers, and boat bearers. lectors read the lessons from the bible appointed for the day ( except for the gospel reading, which is read by a deacon ), and may also lead the prayers of the people. some specialized lay ministries require special licensing by the bishop. which ministries require a license varies from province to province. in the episcopal church, there are six specialized lay ministries requiring a license : pastoral leader, worship leader, preacher, eucharistic minister, eucharistic visitor, and catechist. roman catholicism the second vatican council [ 1962 – 1965 ] devoted its decree on the apostolate of the laity apostolicam actuositatem and chapter iv of its dogmatic constitution lumen gentium to the laity in a sense narrower than that which is normal in the catholic church. the normal definition of laity is that given in the code of canon law : | “ | | by divine institution, there are among the christian faithful in the church sacred ministers who in law are also called clerics ; the other members of the christian faithful are called lay persons. there are members of the christian faithful from both these groups who, through the profession of the evangelical counsels by means of vows or other sacred bonds recognized and sanctioned by the church, are consecrated to god in their own special way and contribute to the salvific mission of the church ; although their state does not belong to the hierarchical structure of the church, it nevertheless belongs to its life and holiness. the narrower sense in which the second vatican council gave instruction concerning the laity is as follows : | “ | | the term laity is here understood to mean all the faithful except those in holy orders and those in the state of religious life specially approved by the church. these faithful are by baptism made one body with christ and are constituted among the people of god ; they are in their own way made sharers in the priestly, prophetical, and kingly functions of christ ; and they carry out for their own part the mission of the whole christian people in the church and in the world. | | ” | in this narrower sense, the council taught that the laity ' s specific character is secularity : they are christians who live the life of christ in the world. their role is


christian people in the church and in the world. | | ” | in this narrower sense, the council taught that the laity ' s specific character is secularity : they are christians who live the life of christ in the world. their role is to sanctify the created world by directing it to become more christian in its structures and systems : " the laity, by their very vocation, seek the kingdom of god by engaging in temporal affairs and by ordering them according to the plan of god ". the laity are full members of the church, fully share in church ' s purpose of sanctification, of " inner union of men with god ", acting with freedom and personal responsibility and not as mere agents of the hierarchy. due to their baptism, they are members of god ' s family, the church, and they grow in intimate union with god, " in " and " by means " of the world. it is not a matter of departing from the world as the monks and the nuns do that they sanctify themselves ; it is precisely through the material world sanctified by the coming of the god made flesh, i. e. made material, that they reach god. doctors, mothers of a family, farmers, bank tellers, drivers, by doing their jobs in the world with a christian spirit are already extending the kingdom of god. according to the repeated statements of popes and lay catholic leaders, the laity should say " we are the church, " in the same way that the saints said that " christ lives in me. " lay involvement takes diverse forms, including participation in the life of the parish, confraternities, lay apostolates, secular institutes, and lay ecclesial movements. there are also lay ecclesiastical ministries, and where there is a priest shortage, lay people have to take on some functions previously performed by priests. methodist lay preacher a very early tradition of preaching in the wesleyan / methodist churches was for a lay preacher to be appointed to lead services of worship and preach in a group ( called a ' circuit ' ) of meeting places or churches. the lay preacher walked or rode on horseback in a prescribed circuit of the preaching places according to an agreed pattern and timing, and people came to the meetings. after the appointment of ministers and pastors, this lay preaching tradition continued with local preachers being appointed by individual churches, and in turn approved and invited by nearby churches, as an adjunct to the minister or during their planned absences. in addition to being appointed by


of ministers and pastors, this lay preaching tradition continued with local preachers being appointed by individual churches, and in turn approved and invited by nearby churches, as an adjunct to the minister or during their planned absences. in addition to being appointed by members of their local churches, local and certified lay speakers of the united methodist church ( more commonly in the united states ) attend a series of training sessions. these training sessions prepare the individual to become a leader within the church. all individuals who are full members of the church are laity, but some go on to become lay speakers. some preachers get their start as lay speakers. - by the congregation as a lay preacher ; and / or - by the regional presbytery to conduct communion. the comparable term in the anglican and episcopal churches is lay reader. presbyterians do not use the term " lay ". thus the church of scotland has " readers ", men and women set apart by presbyteries to conduct public worship. this arises out of the belief in the priesthood of all believers. ministers are officially ' teaching elders ' alongside the ' ruling elders ' of the kirk session and have equivalent status, regardless of any other office. in the church of scotland, as the established church in scotland, this gives ruling elders in congregations the same status as queen ' s chaplains, professors of theology and other highly qualified ministers. all are humble servants of the people in the congregation and parish. ministers are simply men and women whose gift is for their role in teaching and possibly pastoral work. they are thus selected for advanced theological education. all elders ( teaching and ruling ) in meetings of session, presbytery, or assembly are subject to the moderator, who may or may not be a minister but is always an elder. the church of jesus christ of latter - day saints the church of jesus christ of latter - day saints practices the principle of having a lay ministry. essentially all worthy male members above the age of 12 are ordained to an office of the priesthood and hold various positions in the church. with the exception of general authorities, all leadership positions are temporary. permanent positions are only held by apostles and the first quorum of the seventy. they are also unpaid positions, and they are often called to these positions after a long secular career. buddhist lay persons in buddhism, a layperson is known as an upasaka ( masc. ) or upasika ( fem. ). buddhist laypeople take refuge in the triple gem ( the buddha, his teaching, and his community


lay persons in buddhism, a layperson is known as an upasaka ( masc. ) or upasika ( fem. ). buddhist laypeople take refuge in the triple gem ( the buddha, his teaching, and his community of noble disciples ) and accept the five precepts ( or the eight precepts ) as rules for conduct. laymen and laywomen are two of the " four assemblies " that comprise the buddha ' s " community of disciples. " in chinese buddhism, there are usually laypersons, who are depicted wearing a black robe and sometimes a brown sash, denoting that they received the five precepts. - laity at the catholic encyclopedia - book of common prayer of the episcopal church in the united states of america p. 855 - canon 4, title iii, constitution & canons together with the rules of order for the government of the protestant episcopal church in the united states of america, adopted and revised in general convention, 2006 - apostolicam actuositatem - code of canon law, canon 207 - lumen gentium, 31 - catechism of the catholic church, 775 - the code of canon law ( roman catholic church ) - the religions of south vietnam in faith and fact : v. buddhism in vietnam ( section e. definitions and explanation of buddhist terms )


| this article does not cite any references or sources. ( december 2009 ) | latitudinarian was initially a pejorative term applied to a group of 17th - century english theologians who believed in conforming to official church of england practices but who felt that matters of doctrine, liturgical practice, and ecclesiastical organization were of relatively little importance. good examples of the latitudinarian philosophy were found among the cambridge platonists and sir thomas browne in his religio medici. currently, latitudinarianism should not be confused with ecumenical movements, which seek to draw all christian churches together, rather than to de - emphasize practical doctrine. the term has taken on a more general meaning, indicating a personal philosophy which includes being widely tolerant of other views, particularly ( but not necessarily ) on religious matters. in the roman catholic church, latitudinarianism was condemned in the 19th century document quanta cura, because pope pius ix felt that this attitude was undermining the church, with its high emphasis on religious liberty and possibility to discard traditional christian doctrines and dogmas. latitudinarianism is still commonly criticized under the epithet of cafeteria catholic. original meaning the latitudinarian anglicans of the seventeenth century built on richard hooker ' s position, in of the laws of ecclesiastical polity, that god cares about the moral state of the individual soul and that such things as church leadership are " things indifferent ". however, they took the position far beyond hooker ' s own and extended it to doctrinal matters. as a positive position, their stance was that human reason is a sufficient guide when combined with the holy spirit for the determination of truth in doctrinal contests, and therefore that legal and doctrinal rulings that constrain reason and the freedom of the believer were neither necessary nor salutary. at the time, their position was referred to as low church ( in contrast to the high church position ). later, the latitudinarian position was called broad church. while always officially opposed, the latitudinarian philosophy was, nevertheless, dominant in the 18th century in england. because of the hanoverian reluctance to act in church affairs ( see, for example, george i ' s actions in the bangorian controversy ) and all sides of the religious debates being balanced against one another, the dioceses became tolerant of variation in local practice. furthermore, after george i dismissed the convocation, there was very little internal church power to sanction or approve. thus


metabolic theory of ecology the metabolic theory of ecology ( mte ) is an extension of kleiber ' s law and posits that the metabolic rate of organisms is the fundamental biological rate that governs most observed patterns in ecology. mte is based on an interpretation of the relationships between body size, body temperature, and metabolic rate across all organisms. small - bodied organisms tend to have higher mass - specific metabolic rates than larger - bodied organisms. furthermore, organisms that operate at warm temperatures through endothermy or by living in warm environments tend towards higher metabolic rates than organisms that operate at colder temperatures. this pattern is consistent from the unicellular level up to the level of the largest animals on the planet. in mte, this relationship is considered to be the single constraint that defines biological processes at all levels of organization ( from individual up to ecosystem level ), and is a macroecological theory that aims to be universal in scope and application. theoretical background metabolic rate scales with the mass of an organism of a given species according to kleiber ' s law where b is whole organism metabolic rate ( in watts or other unit of power ), m is organism mass ( in kg ), and bo is a mass - independent normalization constant ( given in a unit of power divided by a unit of mass. in this case, watts per kilogram ) : at increased temperatures, chemical reactions proceed faster. this relationship is described by the boltzmann factor, where e is activation energy in electronvolts or joules, t is absolute temperature in kelvins, and k is the boltzmann constant in ev / k or j / k : while bo in the previous equation is mass - independent, it is not explicitly independent of temperature. to explain the relationship between body mass and temperature, these two equations are combined to produce the primary equation of the mte, where bo is a normalization constant that is independent of body size or temperature : according to this relationship, metabolic rate is a function of an organism ’ s body mass and body temperature. by this equation, large organisms have proportionally higher metabolic rates ( in watts ) than small organisms, and organisms at high body temperatures have higher metabolic rates than those that exist at low body temperatures. however specific metabolic rate ( smr, in watts / kg ) is given by hence smr for large organisms are lower than small organisms. controversy over exponent there is disagreement amongst researchers about the most accurate value for use in the power function, and whether the factor is indeed universal. the


in watts / kg ) is given by hence smr for large organisms are lower than small organisms. controversy over exponent there is disagreement amongst researchers about the most accurate value for use in the power function, and whether the factor is indeed universal. the main disagreement is whether metabolic rate scales to the power of 3 / 4 or 2 / 3. the majority view is currently that 3 / 4 is the correct exponent, but a large minority believe that 2 / 3 is the more accurate value. although a rigorous exploration of the controversy over choice of scaling factor is beyond the scope of this article, it is informative to understand the biological justification for the use of either value. the argument that 2 / 3 should be the correct scaling factor is based on the assumption that energy dissipation across the surface area of three dimensional organisms is the key factor driving the relationship between metabolic rate and body size. smaller organisms tend to have higher surface area to volume ratios, causing them to lose heat energy at a faster rate than large organisms. as a consequence, small organisms must have higher specific metabolic rates to combat this loss of energy over their large surface area to volume ratio. in contrast, the argument for a 3 / 4 scaling factor is based on a hydraulic model of energy distribution in organisms, where the primary source of energy dissipation is across the membranes of internal distribution networks. this model is based on the idea that metabolism is essentially the rate at which an organism ’ s distribution networks ( such as circulatory systems in animals or xylem and phloem in plants ) deliver nutrients and energy to body tissues. it therefore takes longer for large organisms to distribute nutrients throughout the body and thus they have a slower metabolic rate. the 3 / 4 factor is then derived from the observation that selection favors a fractal or near - fractal distribution network for space - filling circulatory systems. all fractal networks terminate in identical units ( such as capillary beds ), and the number of such units in organisms is proportional to a 3 / 4 power relationship with body size. kolokotrones et al. 2010 showed that relationship between mass and metabolic rate has a convex curvature on logarithmic scale. the curvature explains the variations in the power law exponent. despite the controversy over the value of the exponent, the implications of this theory might remain true regardless of its precise numerical value. implications of the theory the metabolic theory of ecology ’ s main implication is that metabolic rate, and the influence of body


. despite the controversy over the value of the exponent, the implications of this theory might remain true regardless of its precise numerical value. implications of the theory the metabolic theory of ecology ’ s main implication is that metabolic rate, and the influence of body size and temperature on metabolic rate, provide the fundamental constraints by which ecological processes are governed. if this holds true from the level of the individual up to ecosystem level processes, then life history attributes, population dynamics, and ecosystem processes could be explained by the relationship between metabolic rate, body size, and body temperature. organism level small animals tend to grow fast, breed early, and die young. according to mte, these patterns in life history traits are constrained by metabolism. an organism ' s metabolic rate determines its rate of food consumption, which in turn determines its rate of growth. this increased growth rate produces trade - offs that accelerate senescence. for example, metabolic processes produce free radicals as a by - product of energy production. these in turn cause damage at the cellular level, which promotes senescence and ultimately death. selection favors organisms which best propagate given these constraints. as a result, smaller, shorter lived organisms tend to reproduce earlier in their life histories. population and community level mte has profound implications for the interpretation of population growth and community diversity. classically, species are thought of as being either r selected ( where population size is limited by the exponential rate of population growth ) or k selected ( where population size is limited by carrying capacity ). mte explains this diversity of reproductive strategies as a consequence of the metabolic constraints of organisms. small organisms and organisms that exist at high body temperatures tend to be r selected, which fits with the prediction that r selection is a consequence of metabolic rate. conversely, larger and cooler bodied animals tend to be k selected. the relationship between body size and rate of population growth has been demonstrated empirically, and in fact has been shown to scale to m - 1 / 4 across taxonomic groups. the optimal population growth rate for a species is therefore thought to be determined by the allometric constraints outlined by the mte, rather than strictly as a life history trait that is selected for based on environmental conditions. observed patterns of diversity can be similarly explained by mte. it has long been observed that there are more small species than large species. in addition, there are more species in the tropics than at higher latitudes. classically, the latitudinal gradient in species diversity has been explained by factors such as higher productivity or reduced seasonality


small species than large species. in addition, there are more species in the tropics than at higher latitudes. classically, the latitudinal gradient in species diversity has been explained by factors such as higher productivity or reduced seasonality. in contrast, mte explains this pattern as being driven by the kinetic constraints imposed by temperature on metabolism. the rate of molecular evolution scales with metabolic rate, such that organisms with higher metabolic rates show a higher rate of change at the molecular level. if a higher rate of molecular evolution causes increased speciation rates, then adaptation and ultimately speciation may occur more quickly in warm environments and in small bodied species, ultimately explaining observed patterns of diversity across body size and latitude. mte ’ s ability to explain patterns of diversity remains controversial. for example, researchers analyzed patterns of diversity of new world coral snakes to see whether the geographical distribution of species fit within the predictions of mte ( i. e. more species in warmer areas ). they found that the observed pattern of diversity could not be explained by temperature alone, and that other spatial factors such as primary productivity, topographic heterogeneity, and habitat factors better predicted the observed pattern. ecosystem processes at the ecosystem level, mte explains the relationship between temperature and production of biomass. the average production to biomass ratio of organisms is higher in small organisms than large ones. this relationship is further regulated by temperature, and the rate of production increases with temperature. as production consistently scales with body mass, mte predicts that the primary factor that causes differing rates of production between ecosystems is temperature and not the mass of organisms within the ecosystem. this suggests that regions with similar climatic factors would sustain the same primary production, even if standing biomass is different. see also - constructal theory - dynamic energy budget - evolutionary physiology - occupancy - abundance relationship - brown, j. h., gillooly, j. f., allen, a. p., savage, v. m., & g. b. west ( 2004 ). " toward a metabolic theory of ecology ". ecology 85 ( 7 ) : 1771 – 89. doi : 10. 1890 / 03 - 9000. - agutter, p. s., wheatley, d. n. ( 2004 ). " metabolic scaling : consensus or controversy? ". theoretical biology and medical modelling 1 : 13. doi : 10. 1186 / 1742 - 4682 - 1 - 13. pmc 539293. pmid 15546492. -


" metabolic scaling : consensus or controversy? ". theoretical biology and medical modelling 1 : 13. doi : 10. 1186 / 1742 - 4682 - 1 - 13. pmc 539293. pmid 15546492. - west, g. b., brown, j. h., & enquist, b. j. ( 1999 ). " the fourth dimension of life : fractal geometry and allometric scaling of organisms ". science 284 ( 5420 ) : 1677 – 9. doi : 10. 1126 / science. 284. 5420. 167. pmid 10356399. - kolokotrones, t., van savage, deeds, e. j. ( 2010 ). " curvature in metabolic scaling ". nature 464 ( 7289 ) : 753 – 756. doi : 10. 1038 / nature08920. - savage v. m., gillooly j. f., brown j. h., west g. b. & charnov e. l. ( 2004 ). " effects of body size and temperature on population growth ". american naturalist 163 ( 3 ) : 429 – 441. doi : 10. 1086 / 381872. pmid 15026978. - enrique cadenas, lester packer, ed. ( 1999 ). understanding the process of ages : the roles of mitochondria, free radicals, and antioxidants. new york : marcel dekker. isbn 0 - 8247 - 1723 - 6. - denney n. h., jennings s. & reynolds j. d. ( 2002 ). " life history correlates of maximum population growth rates in marine fishes ". proceedings of the royal society of london b 269 ( 1506 ) : 2229 – 37. doi : 10. 1098 / rspb. 2002. 2138. - hutchinson, g., macarthur, r. ( 1959 ). " a theoretical ecological model of size distributions among species of animals ". am. nat. 93 ( 869 ) : 117 – 125. doi : 10. 1086 / 282063. - rohde, k. ( 1992 ). " latitudinal gradients in species - diversity : the search for the primary cause ". oikos 65 ( 3 ) : 514 – 527. doi : 10. 2307 / 3545569. jstor 3545569. -


| | the examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with north america and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. ( april 2012 ) | | this article does not cite any references or sources. ( november 2007 ) | news broadcasting is the broadcasting of various news events and other information via television, radio or internet in the field of broadcast journalism. the content is usually either produced locally in a radio studio or television studio newsroom, or by a broadcast network. it may also include additional material such as sports coverage, weather forecasts, traffic reports, commentary and other material that the broadcaster feels is relevant to their audience. television news television news refers to disseminating current events via the medium of television. a " news bulletin " or a " newscast " are television programs lasting from seconds to hours that provide updates on world, national, regional or local news events. television news is very image - based, showing video of many of the events that are reported. television channels may provide news bulletins as part of a regularly scheduled news program. less often, television shows may be interrupted or replaced by breaking news ( " news flashes " ) to provide news updates on events of great importance. radio news radio news is the same as television news but is transmitted through the medium of the radio. it is more based on the audio aspect rather than the visual aspect. sound bites are captured through various reporters and played back through the radio. news updates occur more often on the radio than on the television - usually about once or twice an hour. structure, content and style newscasts, also known as bulletins or news programs, differ in content, tone and presentation style depending on the format of the channel on which they appear, and their timeslot. in most parts of the world, national television networks will have network bulletins featuring national and international news. the top rating shows will often be in the evening at ' prime time ', but there are also often breakfast time newscasts of two to three hours in length. rolling news channels broadcast news 24 hours a day. many video and audio news reports presented on the internet are updated 24 hours a day. local news may be presented by stand - alone local tv stations, local stations affiliated to national networks or by local studios which ' opt - out ' of national network programming at specified points. different news programming may be aimed at different audiences, depending on age, socio - economic group or those from particular sections of society. ' magazine - style ' television shows may mix news coverage with topical lifestyle issues, debates or entertainment content


at specified points. different news programming may be aimed at different audiences, depending on age, socio - economic group or those from particular sections of society. ' magazine - style ' television shows may mix news coverage with topical lifestyle issues, debates or entertainment content. newscasts consist of several a reporter being interviewed by an anchor, known as a ' two - way ', or by a guest involved in or offering analysis on the story being interviewed by a reporter or anchor. there may also be breaking news stories which will present live rolling coverage. packages will usually be filmed at a relevant location and edited in an editing suite in a newsroom or a remote contribution edit suite in a location some distance from the newsroom. they may also be edited in mobile editing trucks, or satellite trucks, and transmitted back to the newsroom. live coverage will be broadcast from a relevant location and sent back to the newsroom via fixed cable links, microwave radio, production truck, satellite truck or via online streaming. roles associated with television news include a technical director, floor director audio technician and a television crew of operators running character graphics ( cg ), teleprompters and professional video cameras. most news shows are broadcast live. radio station newscasts can range from as little as a minute to as much as the station ' s entire schedule, such as the case of all - news radio, or talk radio. stations dedicated to news or talk will often feature newscasts, or bulletins, usually at the top of the hour, usually between 3 and 8 minutes in length. they can be a mix of local, national and international news, as well as sport, entertainment, weather and traffic, or they may be incorporated into separate bulletins. there may also be shorter bulletins at the bottom of the hour, or three at fifteen minute intervals, or two at twenty minute intervals. all - news radio stations exist in some countries, primarily located in major metropolitan areas such as new york city, toronto and chicago, which often broadcast local, national and international news and feature stories on a set time schedule. news broadcasting by country terrestrial television unlike in united states, most canadian television stations have license requirements to offer locally - produced newscasts in some form. educational television stations are exempt from these requirements ; multicultural television stations are also not required to carry news programming, however some stations licensed as a multicultural station do produce local newscasts in varied languages ( such as the omni television station group ). canadian television stations normally broadcast newscasts between two and four times a day : usually at noon ; 5, 5


news programming, however some stations licensed as a multicultural station do produce local newscasts in varied languages ( such as the omni television station group ). canadian television stations normally broadcast newscasts between two and four times a day : usually at noon ; 5, 5 : 30 and 6 p. m. in the evening, and 11 p. m. at night ( there are some variations to this : stations affiliated with ctv usually air their late evening newscasts at 11 : 30 p. m., due to the scheduling of the network ' s national evening news program ctv national news at 11 p. m. in all time zones ; most cbc television - owned stations formerly carried a 10 - minute newscast at 10 : 55 p. m., following the national, these were expanded to a half - hour and moved to 11 p. m. during the fall of 2012 ). some stations carry morning newscasts ( usually starting at 5 : 30 or 6 a. m., and ending at 9 a. m. ). unlike in the united states, a primetime newscast in the 10 : 00 p. m. timeslot is uncommon ( global owned - and - operated stations in manitoba and saskatchewan, cknd - dt, cfsk - dt and cfre - dt, are the only television stations in the country carrying a primetime newscast ) ; conversely, pre - 5 a. m. local newscasts are also uncommon in canada, hamilton, ontario independent station chch - dt, whose weekdaily programming consists largely of local news, is currently the only station in the country that starts its weekday morning newscasts before 5 : 30 a. m. ( the station ' s morning news block begins at 4 a. m. on weekdays ). like with u. s. television, many stations use varied titles for their newscasts ; this is particularly true with owned - and - operated stations of global and citytv ( global ' s stations use titles based on daypart such as news hour for the noon and early evening newscasts and news final for 11 p. m. newscasts, while all six citytv - owned broadcast stations produce morning news / talk programs under the umbrella title breakfast television and its flagship station city - dt / toronto ' s evening newscasts are titled citynews ). overall umbrella titles for news programming use the titling schemes " ( network or system name ) news " for network - owned stations or " ( callsign ) news " for affiliates not directly owned by a network or television system. cbc television, global and ctv each produce national evening newscasts ( the national


- language sister to the weather network. the canadian radio - television and telecommunications commission authorizes some cable channels from foreign countries to be carried on cable and satellite operators provided that they are linked to a canadian network. amongst news channels, all four major u. s. cable news networks : cnn, hln, msnbc and fox news channel are available on most providers, along with channels from outside north america such as al jazeera english from qatar, bbc world news from the united kingdom, deutsche welle from germany and rt from russia. regionally - based news channels are fairly uncommon in canada in comparison to the united states. two 24 - hour regional news channels currently exist in the country : the toronto - centered citynews channel and cp24 ( although chch - dt, a general entertainment station with a rolling daytime news block on weekdays ( currently from 4 a. m. - 4 : 30 p. m. ) that has existed since august 2009 and hour - long local newscasts nightly at 6 and 11 p. m., serves as a de facto regional news channel for southern ontario ' s golden horseshoe region ), with a third service that is expected to debut in march 2013 : the vancouver - focused global news : bc 1. united states broadcast television local newscasts local tv stations in the united states normally broadcast local news 3 - 4 times a day : 5, 5 : 30 and / or 6 a. m. in the morning ; noon ; 5 and 6 p. m. in the early evening ; and 10 or 11 p. m. at night. some stations carry morning newscasts at 4, 4 : 30, 7, 8 or 9 a. m., midday newscasts at 11 or 11 : 30 a. m., late afternoon newscasts at 4 or 4 : 30 p. m., or early evening newscasts at 5 : 30 or 6 : 30 p. m. many fox affiliates, affiliates of minor networks ( such as the cw and mynetworktv ) and independent stations air newscasts in the final hour of primetime ( i. e., 10 p. m. in the eastern and pacific time zones or 9 p. m. in the mountain and central time zones in the u. s. ). stations that produce local newscasts typically produce as little as one to as much as ten hours of local news on weekdays and as little as one hour on weekends ; news programming on weekends are typically limited to morning and evening newscasts as the variable scheduling of network sports programming usually prevents most stations from carrying midday newscasts ( however a


as much as ten hours of local news on weekdays and as little as one hour on weekends ; news programming on weekends are typically limited to morning and evening newscasts as the variable scheduling of network sports programming usually prevents most stations from carrying midday newscasts ( however a few stations located in the eastern and pacific time zones do produce weekend midday newscasts ). since the early 1990s, independent stations and stations affiliated with a non - big three network have entered into " news share agreements ", in which news production is outsourced to a major network station ( usually an affiliate of abc, nbc or cbs ), often to avoid shouldering the cost of starting a news department from scratch. these commonly involve fox, cw and mynetworktv affiliates ( and previously affiliated of the now - defunct predecessors of the latter two networks, the wb and upn ) and in some cases, independent stations ; however such agreements exist in certain markets between two co - owned / co - managed big three affiliates. news share agreements are most common with stations co - owned with a larger network affiliate or whose operations are jointly managed through a shared service or local marketing agreement. in cases where a station with an existing news department enters into a news share agreement, it will result either the two departments merging or the outright conversion of newscast production from in - house to outsourced production. minor network affiliates involved in news share agreements will often carry far fewer hours of local newscasts than would be conceivable with an in - house news department to avoid competition with the outsourcing partner ' s own newscasts, as a result, minor network affiliates involved in these nsas often will carry a morning newscast from 7 - 9 a. m. ( in competition with the national network newscasts instead of airing competing with the big three affiliates ' newscasts ) and / or a primetime newscast at 10 p. m. et / pt or 9 p. m. ct / mt, with no midday, late afternoon or early evening newscasts. unlike international broadcast stations which tend to brand under uniform news titles based solely on network affiliation, u. s. television stations tend to use varying umbrella titles for their newscasts ; some title their newscasts utilizing the station ' s on - air branding ( such as combining the network affiliation and channel number with the word " news " ), others use franchised brand names ( like eyewitness news, action news and newschannel ) for their news programming. conversely, the naming conventions for a station ' s newscast are sometimes used as a universal on - air branding for the station itself, and may


franchised brand names ( like eyewitness news, action news and newschannel ) for their news programming. conversely, the naming conventions for a station ' s newscast are sometimes used as a universal on - air branding for the station itself, and may be used for general promotional purposes, even used in promoting syndicated and network programming. many stations title their newscasts with catchy names like daybreak, good morning ( insert city or region here ), first at four, live at five, eleven @ 11 : 00 or nightcast. these names are intended to set one station apart from the rest, especially for viewers who are chosen for audience measurement surveys. if the respondent was unable to provide a channel number or call letters, the newscast title is often enough for the appropriate station to receive nielsen ratings credit. network news programming the big three broadcast television networks produce morning and evening national newscasts ( america this morning, good morning america and abc world news are broadcast by abc, cbs broadcasts the cbs morning news, cbs this morning and the cbs evening news, and nbc produces early today, today and nbc nightly news ) as well as weekly newsmagazine series ( nbc ' s dateline and rock center, abc ' s 20 / 20 and cbs news sunday morning, 48 hours and 60 minutes on cbs ). network morning newscasts usually air at 7 a. m. ( english - language network morning shows are tape delayed for each time zone, while the spanish - language morning shows are aired live in all time zones ) ; network evening newscasts usually are broadcast live at 6 : 30 p. m. on the east coast and broadcast live in both the eastern and central time zones, with a secondary live broadcast at 6 : 30 p. m. pacific time. today was the first morning news program to be broadcast on american television and in the world, when it debuted on january 14, 1952 ; the earliest national evening news program was the walter compton news, a short - lived 15 - minute newscast that aired on the dumont television network from 1947 to 1948. all four major english networks and the two largest spanish networks also carry political talk programs on sunday mornings ( nbc ' s meet the press, abc ' s this week, cbs ' face the nation, fox ' s sole news program fox news sunday, univision ' s al punto and telemundo ' s enfoque ) ; of these programs, meet the press holds the distinction of being the longest - running american television program as it has aired since november 6, 1947. cbs and abc are currently the


al punto and telemundo ' s enfoque ) ; of these programs, meet the press holds the distinction of being the longest - running american television program as it has aired since november 6, 1947. cbs and abc are currently the only networks that produce overnight news programs on weeknights in the form of up to the minute and world news now, respectively ; nbc previously produced overnight newscasts at different times, both of which have since been cancelled : nbc news overnight from 1982 to 1983, and nbc nightside from 1992 to 1999 ( nbc currently does not offer a late night newscast, although the network currently airs the fourth hour of today, and sister network cnbc ' s mad money on weeknights ). spanish - language news programs are provided by univision ( which produces early and late evening editions of its flagship evening news program noticiero univision seven nights a week, along with weekday afternoon newsmagazine primer impacto and weekday morning program despierta america ) and telemundo ( whose flagship evening newscast is noticiero telemundo, which unlike univision and their english - language competitors ' national evening news programs airs on weeknights only, along with weekday morning program ¡ levantate! and weekday afternoon newsmagazine al rojo vivo ). fox, the cw and mynetworktv do not produce national morning and evening news programs ( although fox made a brief attempt at a morning program in the late 1990s with fox after breakfast ; many cw and mynetworktv affiliates and independent stations air the syndicated news program the daily buzz, while some tribune broadcasting - owned cw and mynetworktv stations air a similar program called eyeopener ). cable television 24 - hour news channels are devoted to current events 24 - hours per day. they are often referred to as cable news channels. the originator of this format from which the name derives is cnn ( as well as cnn international, cnn en espanol and cnn - ibn ), which originally stood for cable news network in reference to the then - new phenomenon of cable television. as satellite and other forms have evolved, the term cable news has become something of an anachronism but is still in common use ; many other television channels have since been established, such as bbc world news, bbc news, sky news, al jazeera, abc news 24, france 24, star news, fox news channel, msnbc and abc news now. some news channels specialize even further, such as espnews (


bbc world news, bbc news, sky news, al jazeera, abc news 24, france 24, star news, fox news channel, msnbc and abc news now. some news channels specialize even further, such as espnews ( sports from espn ) ; the weather channel ( weather ) ; cnbc, bloomberg television and fox business network ( financial ). conversely, several cable news channels exist that carry news information specifically geared toward a particular metropolitan area, state or region such as new york city ' s ny1 ( which focuses on the entire new york metropolitan area ) and news 12 networks ( which serves portions of the area outside of manhattan ), orlando ' s central florida news 13 ( which is also carried throughout most of greater orlando and surrounding areas ), tampa, florida ' s bay news 9 and washington, d. c. ' s newschannel 8. these channels are usually owned by a local cable operator and are distributed solely through cable television and iptv system operators. some broadcast television stations also operate cable channels ( some of which are repeated through digital multicasting ) that air the station ' s local newscasts in the form of live simulcasts from the television station, with rebroadcasts of the newscasts airing in the time period between live broadcasts. a term which has entered common parlance to differentiate cable news from traditional news broadcasts is network news, in reference to the traditional television networks on which such broadcasts air. a classic example is the cable news channel msnbc, which overlaps with ( and, in the case of breaking world - changing events, pre - empts ) its network counterpart nbc news. most u. s. cable news networks do not air news programming 24 hours a day, often filling late afternoon, primetime and late night hours with news - based talk programs, documentaries and other specialty programming. more often, am stations will air a 6½ minute newscast on the top of the hour, which can be either a local report, a national report from a radio network such as cbs radio, cnn radio, npr, fox news radio or abc radio, or a mix of both local and national content, including weather and traffic reports. some stations also air a two minute report at the bottom of the hour. fm stations, unless they feature a talk radio format, usually only air minute - long news capsules featuring a quick review of events and an abbreviated weather forecast, and usually only in drive time periods or in critical emergencies, since fm stations usually focus more on playing music. traffic reports also air on fm


their counterparts in the main settlement, they also have very tall walls and oversized doors. to the south there are other structures, but smaller and built out of fieldstones. ' araqhama has been continuously occupied since inca times, as evidenced by the roman catholic church on the eastern side of the plaza. to the north of manyaraki there are several sanctuaries with carved stones, sculpted rock faces, and elaborate waterworks, they include the templo de agua and the bano de la nusta. temple hill ' araqhama is bordered to the west by cerro bandolista, a steep hill on which the incas built a ceremonial center. the part of the hill facing the town is occupied by the terraces of pumatallis, framed on both flanks by rock outcrops. due to impressive character of these terraces, the temple hill is commonly known as the fortress, however, this is a misnomer as the main functions of this site were religious. the main access to the ceremonial center is a series of stairways that climb to the top of the terrace complex. at this point, the site is divided into three main areas : the middle sector, directly in front of the terraces ; the temple sector, to the south ; and the funerary sector, to the north. the temple sector is built out of cut and fitted stones in contrast to the other two sectors of the temple hill which are made out of fieldstones. it is accessed via a stairway that ends on a terrace with a half finished gate and the enclosure of the ten niches, a one room building. behind them there is an open space which hosts the platform of the carved seat and two unfinished monumental walls. the main structure of the whole sector is the sun temple, an uncompleted building which features the wall of the six monoliths. the middle and funerary sectors have several rectangular buildings, some of them with two floors ; there are also several fountains in the middle sector. the unfinished structures at the temple hill and the numerous stone blocks that litter the site indicate that it was still undergoing construction at the time of its abandonment. some of the blocks show evidences of having been removed from finished walls, which provides evidence that a major remodeling effort was also underway. it is unknown which event halted construction at the temple hill, likely candidates include the war of succession between huascar and atahualpa, the spanish conquest of peru and the retreat of manco inca from ollantayt


was also underway. it is unknown which event halted construction at the temple hill, likely candidates include the war of succession between huascar and atahualpa, the spanish conquest of peru and the retreat of manco inca from ollantaytambo to vilcabamba. the valleys of the urubamba and patakancha rivers along ollantaytambo are covered by an extensive set of agricultural terraces which start at the bottom of the valleys and climb up the surrounding hills. the terraces permitted farming on otherwise unusable terrain ; they also allowed the incas to take advantage of the different ecological zones created by variations in altitude. terraces at ollantaytambo were built to a higher standard than common inca agricultural terraces, for instance, they have higher walls made of cut stones instead of rough fieldstones. this type of high - prestige terracing is also found in other inca royal estates such as chinchero, pisaq, and yucay. a set of sunken terraces start south of ollantaytambo ' s plaza de armas, stretching all the way to the urubamba river. they are about 700 meters long, 60 meters wide and up to 15 meters below the level of surrounding terraces ; due to their shape they are called callejon, the spanish word for alley. land inside callejon is protected from the wind by lateral walls which also absorb solar radiation during the day and release it during the night ; this creates a microclimate zone 2 to 3°c warmer than the ground above it. these conditions allowed the incas to grow species of plants native to lower altitudes that otherwise could not have flourished at this site. at the southern end of callejon, overlooking the urubamba river, there is an inca site called q ' ellu raqay. its interconnected buildings and plazas form an unusual design quite unlike the single - room structures common in inca architecture. as the site is isolated from the rest of ollantaytambo and surrounded by an elaborate terraces, it has been postulated that it was a palace built for emperor pachacuti. the incas built several storehouses ( quechua : qollqa ) out of fieldstones on the hills surrounding ollantaytambo. their location at high altitudes, where there is more wind and lower temperatures, defended their contents against decay. to enhance this effect, the ollantaytambo qollqas feature ventilation systems. it is believed that they


event of these fortifications being overrun, the temple hill itself with its high terraces provided a last line of defense against invaders. see also - fernando e. elorrieta salazar & edgar elorrieta salazar - cusco and the sacred valley of the incas ( 2005 ), pages 83 - 91 isbn 978 - 603 - 45 - 0911 - 5 - protzen, inca architecture, p. 19. - protzen, inca architecture, p. 64. - protzen, inca architecture, p. 27. - protzen, inca architecture, p. 26. - protzen, inca architecture, p. 23. - hemming, the conquest, pp. 222 – 223. - glave and remy, estructura agraria, p. 6. - hemming, the conquest, pp. 559. - protzen, inca architecture, p. 50. - protzen, inca architecture, pp. 50, 52. - protzen, inca architecture, p. 52. - protzen, inca architecture, p. 53. - protzen, inca architecture, p. 65. - kubler, the art and architecture, pp. 462 – 463. - protzen, inca architecture, pp. 48 – 49. - gasparini and margolies, inca architecture, p. 71. - protzen, inca architecture, pp. 66 – 70. - protzen, inca architecture, p. 28. - protzen, inca architecture, pp. 73 – 74. - protzen, inca architecture, pp. 81 – 87. - protzen, inca architecture, pp. 87 – 91. - protzen, inca architecture, pp. 92 – 94. - protzen, inca architecture, p. 269. - protzen, inca architecture, pp. 30 – 34. - hyslop, inka settlement, pp. 282 – 284. - protzen, inca architecture, p. 97. - protzen, inca architecture, pp. 102 – 110. - protzen, inca architecture, pp. 111 – 135. - robert randall, referenced by peter frost, p148 " exploring cusco ", 1999. - protzen, inca architecture, pp. 137 – 153. - protzen, inca architecture, pp. 22 – 26. - bengtsson, lisbet. prehistoric stonework in the peruvian


exploring cusco ", 1999. - protzen, inca architecture, pp. 137 – 153. - protzen, inca architecture, pp. 22 – 26. - bengtsson, lisbet. prehistoric stonework in the peruvian andes : a case study at ollantaytambo. goteborg : etnografiska museet, 1998. isbn 91 - 85952 - 76 - 1 - gasparini, graziano and luize margolies. inca architecture. bloomington : indiana university press, 1980. isbn 0 - 253 - 30443 - 1 - ( spanish ) glave, luis miguel and maria isabel remy. estructura agraria y vida rural en una region andina : ollantaytambo entre los siglos xvi y xix. cusco : centro de estudios rurales andinos " bartolome de las casas ", 1983. - hemming, john. the conquest of the incas. london : macmillan, 1993. isbn 0 - 333 - 10683 - 0 - hyslop, john. inka settlement planning. austin : university of texas press, 1990. isbn 0 - 292 - 73852 - 8 - kubler, george. the art and architecture of ancient america : the mexican, maya and andean peoples. harmondsworth : penguin books, 1990. - protzen, jean - pierre. inca architecture and construction at ollantaytambo. new york : oxford university press, 1993. isbn 0 - 19 - 507069 - 0 | wikimedia commons has media related to : ollantaytambo |


orlande de lassus orlande de lassus ( also orlandus lassus, orlando di lasso, roland de lassus, or roland de lattre ) ( 1532 ( possibly 1530 ) – 14 june 1594 ) was a franco - flemish composer of the late renaissance. he is today considered to be the chief representative of the mature polyphonic style of the franco - flemish school, and one of the three most famous and influential musicians in europe at the end of the 16th century ( the other two being palestrina and victoria ). lassus was born in mons in the county of hainaut ( modern - day belgium ). information about his early years is scanty, although some uncorroborated stories have survived, the most famous of which is that he was kidnapped three times because of the singular beauty of his singing voice. at the age of twelve, he left the low countries with ferrante gonzaga and went to mantua, sicily, and later milan ( from 1547 to 1549 ). while in milan, he made the acquaintance of the madrigalist spirito l ' hoste da reggio, a formative influence on his early musical style. he then worked as a singer and a composer for costantino castrioto in naples in the early 1550s, and his first works are presumed to date from this time. next he moved to rome, where he worked for cosimo i de ' medici, grand duke of tuscany, who maintained a household there ; and in 1553, he became maestro di cappella of the basilica di san giovanni in laterano, the ecumenical mother church of rome and a spectacularly prestigious post indeed for a man only twenty - one years old. however, he stayed there for only a year. ( palestrina would assume this post a year later, in 1555. ) no solid evidence survives for his whereabouts in 1554, but there are contemporary claims that he traveled in france and england. in 1555 he returned to the low countries and had his early works published in antwerp ( 1555 – 1556 ). in 1556 he joined the court of albrecht v, duke of bavaria, who was consciously attempting to create a musical establishment on a par with the major courts in italy. lassus was one of several netherlanders to work there, and by far the most famous. he evidently was happy in munich and decided to settle there. in 1558 he married regina wackinger, the daughter of a maid of


. lassus was one of several netherlanders to work there, and by far the most famous. he evidently was happy in munich and decided to settle there. in 1558 he married regina wackinger, the daughter of a maid of honor of the duchess ; they had two sons, both of whom became composers. by 1563 lassus had been appointed maestro di cappella, succeeding ludwig daser in the post. lassus remained in the service of albrecht v and his heir, wilhelm v, for the rest of his life. by the 1560s lassus had become quite famous, and composers began to go to munich to study with him. andrea gabrieli went there in 1562, and possibly remained in the chapel for a year ; giovanni gabrieli also possibly studied with him in the 1570s. his renown had spread outside of strictly musical circles, for in 1570 emperor maximilian ii conferred nobility upon him, a rare circumstance for a composer ; pope gregory xiii knighted him ; and in 1571, and again in 1573, the king of france, charles ix, invited him to visit. some of these kings and aristocrats attempted to woo him away from munich with more attractive offers, but lassus was evidently more interested in the stability of his position, and the splendid performance opportunities of albrecht ' s court, than in financial gain. " i do not want to leave my house, my garden, and the other good things in munich, " he wrote to the duke of electorate of saxony in 1580, upon receiving an offer for a position in dresden. in the late 1570s and 1580s lassus made several visits to italy, where he encountered the most modern styles and trends. in ferrara, the center of avant - garde activity, he doubtless heard the madrigals being composed for the d ' este court ; however his own style remained conservative and became simpler and more refined as he aged. in the 1590s his health began to decline, and he went to a doctor named thomas mermann for treatment of what was called " melancholia hypocondriaca ", but he was still able to compose as well as travel occasionally. his final work was often considered one of his best pieces : an exquisite set of twenty - one madrigali spirituali known as the lagrime di san pietro ( " tears of st. peter " ), which he dedicated to pope clement viii, and which was published posthumously in 1595. lassus died in munich on 14 june 1594,


based on extremely secular french chansons, some of which are frankly obscene ( entre vous filles de quinze ans, " oh you fifteen - year old girls ", by clemens non papa, gave him source material for his 1581 missa entre vous filles, probably the most scandalous of the lot ). that this practice was not only accepted but encouraged by his employer is confirmed by evidence from their correspondence, much of which has survived. in addition to his traditional parody masses, he wrote a considerable quantity of missae breves, " brief masses, " syllablic short masses meant for brief services ( for example, on days when duke albrecht went hunting : evidently he did not want to be detained by long - winded polyphonic music ). the most extreme of these is a work actually known as the jager mass ( missa venatorum ) — the " hunter ' s mass. " some of his masses show influence from the venetian school, particularly in their use of polychoral techniques ( for example, in the eight - voice missa osculetur me, based on his own motet ). three of his masses are for double choir, and they may have been influential on the venetians themselves ; after all, andrea gabrieli visited lassus in munich in 1562, and many of lassus ' s works were published in venice. even though lassus used the contemporary, sonorous venetian style, his harmonic language remained conservative in these works : he adapted the texture of the venetians to his own artistic ends. motets and other sacred music lassus is one of the composers of a style known as musica reservata — a term which has survived in many contemporary references, many of them seemingly contradictory. the exact meaning of the term is a matter of fierce debate, though a rough consensus among musicologists is that it involves intensely expressive setting of text, chromaticism, and that it may have referred to music specifically written for connoisseurs. a famous example of a composition by lassus which is a representative of this style is his series of 12 motets entitled prophetiae sibyllarum, which is in a wildly chromatic style reminiscent of gesualdo ; some of his chord progressions in this piece were not to be heard again until the 20th century. lassus wrote four settings of the passion, one for each of the evangelists, st. matthew, mark, luke and john. all are for a cappella voices. he


in five languages – latin in addition to those mentioned above – and he wrote with equal fluency in each. many of his songs became hugely popular, circulating widely in europe. in these various secular songs, he conforms to the manner of the country of origin while still showing his characteristic originality, wit, and terseness of statement. in his madrigals, many of which he wrote during his stay in rome, his style is clear and concise, and he wrote tunes which were easily memorable ; he also " signed " his work by frequently using the word ' lasso ' ( and often setting with the sol - fege syllables la - sol, i. e. a - g in the key of c ). his choice of poetry varied widely, from petrarch for his more serious work to the lightest verse for some of his amusing canzonettas. lassus often preferred cyclic madrigals, i. e. settings of multiple poems in a group as a set of related pieces of music. for example, his fourth book of madrigals for five voices begins with a complete sestina by petrarch, continues with two - part sonnets, and concludes with another sestina : therefore the entire book can be heard as a unified composition with each madrigal a subsidiary part. another form which lassus cultivated was the french chanson, of which he wrote about 150. most of them date from the 1550s, but he continued to write them even after he was in germany : his last productions in this genre come from the 1580s. they were enormously popular in europe, and of all his works, they were the most widely arranged for instruments such as lute and keyboard. most were collected in the 1570s and 1580s in three publications : one by pierre phalese the elder in 1571, and two by le roy and ballard in 1576 and 1584. stylistically, they ranged from the dignified and serious, to playful, bawdy, and amorous compositions, as well as drinking songs suited to taverns. lassus followed the polished, lyrical style of sermisy rather than the programmatic style of clement janequin for his writing. one of the most famous of lassus ' s drinking songs was used by shakespeare in henry iv, part ii. english words are fitted to un jour vis un foulon qui fouloit ( as monsieur mingo ) and sung by the drunken justice silence, in act v, scene iii. german


drinking songs was used by shakespeare in henry iv, part ii. english words are fitted to un jour vis un foulon qui fouloit ( as monsieur mingo ) and sung by the drunken justice silence, in act v, scene iii. german lieder a third type of secular composition by lassus was the german lied. most of these he evidently intended for a different audience, since they are considerably different in tone and style from either the chansons or madrigals ; in addition, he wrote them later in life, with none appearing until 1567, when he was already well - established at munich. many are on religious subjects, although light and comic verse are represented as well. he also wrote drinking songs in german, and contrasting with his parallel work in the genre of the chanson, he also wrote songs on the unfortunate aspects of overindulgence. dutch songs in the preface to his collection of german songs, lassus states that he has composed dutch songs. however, no dutch song has been preserved. coat of arms lassus bore the following arms : - azure, a pile and a pile reversed argent, on each a crosslet or ; - on a fess argent a sharp, flat and natural, over all a bordure or. | problems listening to this file? see media help. | - jan willem bonda, de meerstemmige nederlandse liederen van de vijftiende en zestiende eeuw, uitgeverij verloren, 1996, isbn 90 - 6550 - 545 - 8, isbn 978 - 90 - 6550 - 545 - 3, p. 23 references and further reading - article " orlande de lassus ", in the new grove dictionary of music and musicians, ed. stanley sadie. 20 vol. london, macmillan publishers ltd., 1980. isbn 1 - 56159 - 174 - 2 - haar, james. in l. macy. orlande de lassus. grove music online. retrieved 29 october 2010. ( subscription required ) - gustave reese, music in the renaissance. new york, w. w. norton & co., 1954. isbn 0 - 393 - 09530 - 4 - harold gleason and warren becker, music in the middle ages and renaissance ( music literature outlines series i ). bloomington, indiana. frangipani press, 1986. isbn 0 - 89917 - 034 - x | wikimedia commons has media related