what is constipation? constipation is an abnormal condition in which bowel movements are less frequent than usual for you. constipation is difficulty with irregular bowel movements or pass hard, dry stools. everyone has differences in their normal pattern and regular bowel movements, but constipation can be defined as having fewer than three bowel movements per week. constipation is generally the most common astrointestinal problems. constipation is very common in teenage children and the aged, but can transpire in any age group or inhabitants. the main cause of constipation is due to the low - fiber diet or dehydration. constipation is found amongst youngsters, the aged and pregnant women. each individual has different bowel patterns. some of the symptoms associated with constipation are bloating, discomfort and sluggishness. adequate understanding of the cause will help prevent constipation. the main common sources of constipation are bad foodstuffs and absence of exercise. when you are constipated, have bowel movements that are hard, dry and difficult or painful and difficult to remove. diseases and condition – causes of constipation 1. the excessive intake of calcium or iron 2. irritable bowel syndrome 3. weak intestinal muscles 6.. diet low in fiber 7. low fluid intake 8. lack of exercise in some cases, constipation may occur with symptoms that could indicate a serious or life - threatening disease such as : symptoms of constipation 1. problems breathing or difficulty breathing, and shortness of breath, difficulty breathing, shortness of breath, wheezing, 2. change in level of sensibility or readiness, such as passing out or no reaction 3. rapid heart rate ( tachycardia ) or rapid breathing ( tachypnea ) 4. whites of the eyes ( icterus ) and yellowing of the skin 5. high fever ( over 101 degrees fahrenheit ) 6. stool with blood, tarry black color 7. choking or shortness of breath 8. loss of strength or weakness 9. rigid, board - like abdomen 10. significant rectal bleeding 11. severe abdominal pain home remedies for constipation 1. warm milk : drink a glass of warm milk before bedtime. use grandma ’ s advice to treat constipation. the next day they do not eat a lot of garbage. just a


home remedies for constipation 1. warm milk : drink a glass of warm milk before bedtime. use grandma ’ s advice to treat constipation. the next day they do not eat a lot of garbage. just a bit of soup and bread and simple carbohydrates. the next night, you can consume your meal. it is very effective. 2. triphala : triphala have been used in india for centuries, this is an effective home remedy to treat constipation. you can take this every day, even if you do not have constipation. it is a herbal remedy and has no side effects. triphala combines the properties of lubricating laxative and purgative laxative bulk. it upgrades el salvadoran colon fitness and acts as a evacuate without causing pains or displeasure. 3. castor oil : if you are experiencing chronic constipation then add two tablespoons of castor oil in warm milk and drink. doing this, probably in a day off. 4. fruits : eat lots of fruit, in general, fruits are beneficial in the treatment of constipation. apples, oranges, guavas, grapes, plums are great. avoid fruits like bananas and fat on dry stools jack and more. 5. corn syrup : try a teaspoon of corn syrup adds a glass of water to treat constipation. 6. honey with milk : add a little honey in a glass of milk or warm water and drink once in the morning and once at night. 7. isabgol : mix 3 tablespoons isabgol ( psyllium ) in water or milk or juice and drink it before going to bed. this is a filler and softens the stool and the next morning you see the difference. 8. lemon : take a lemon or two of work and squeeze its juice in hot water and keep drinking it. do not add sugar or salt. 9. asafoetida : while cooking use asafoetida, cumin powder, turmeric powder and coriander to make the food easy to digest. 10. warm water : drink 7 to 8 glasses of warm water. it motions the small intestines and leads to regular stools 11. bale fruit : bale fruit is the best laxative of all fruits. it cleans and tones up the intestines and relieves constipation. natural remedies & home remedies for consti


stools 11. bale fruit : bale fruit is the best laxative of all fruits. it cleans and tones up the intestines and relieves constipation. natural remedies & home remedies for constipation 1. yoga : yoga has many postures that can be beneficial for constipation and other diseases as well. the yoga poses squeeze the body parts in a way to relieve tension and make the digestive organs to work more efficiently and improve digestion and elimination. in many cases, constipation is caused due to stress and mental stress and yoga can help get rid of these problems as well. the practice of yoga poses simple 10 to 15 minutes a day in the morning can be really useful. 2. acupressure : acupressure can also be helpful in constipation by pressing on certain points of the body that help in curing constipation. the various points in the inspection body different energy points and cure many diseases like constipation. the acupressure points once you know that can be pressed at home very easily 3 to 5 minutes each day at each point. 3. naturopathy : naturopathy involves using natural elements to cure the ills of the body. for example, many diseases can be cured with the treatment of air exercises involving the lungs. for water and mud constipation therapies are used. mud is usually applied in the stomach, which removes body heat and toxins. it also stimulates the excretory system. 4. the control of cough old : although not very common, many naturopaths also emphasize much on removing old cough. the reason for this is to glue old cough into the intestines and feces gradually also beginning to stick to the walls of the intestine that can cause loss of water in the bowel and chronic constipation. precaution to be taken for constipation 1. if you have constipation or not, you should always do the following to have regular bowel movements and to stay healthy. 2. have your bowel movements at a certain time every day standard. do not skip it because it ’ s going to be late for work or for any other reason. 3. eat only three times, or up to 4 times a day. eat only when hungry and take food from home to office or an outing. 4. eating a well balanced diet, high in fiber include beans, bran


parent - child interactions in ethnically diverse families in the first years of life, infants ’ rapid advances in language, object exploration, play, and motor development do not occur in isolation. parents are nearby supporting infants ’ emerging skills. research with diverse families in the united states highlights the profound influence of these early parenting behaviors for later school readiness. findings will be presented on the types of parent - child interactions that promote children ’ s early development in families from diverse backgrounds ( european american, african american, dominican, mexican, and chinese ). discussion will focus on the role of practitioners in supporting parents and in promoting foundational skills in infants and toddlers. catherine s. tamis - lemonda is currently professor of developmental psychology at new york university ’ s steinhardt school of culture, education, and human development. she is director of the center for research on culture, development, and education, which focuses on infants and children from culturally diverse backgrounds. her research examines infants ’ developing language, cognition, and social understanding across the first four years of life. her special interest is in the social and cultural contexts of early development, especially the ways in which mothers ’ and fathers ’ beliefs and practices shape children ’ s developmental trajectories in different populations within the united states and internationally.


1962 marx and the dictatorship of the proletariat [ draper ] from new politics, vol. 1, no. 4, summer 1962, pp. 93 ff. transcribed by adam buick. this study deals with the origin and history of the phrase “ dictatorship of the proletariat ” in marx and engels. it asks : what aid this term mean to them? the larger subject behind it is “ the state and democracy ” in marx ’ s writings. but study of this subject is shadowed by the belief that marx advocated a “ dictatorship. ” this is reinforced by the two types of exegetes who today carry on the cold war over the corpus of marxism : the bourgeois ideologues who think they must prove marx an authoritarian in order to defeat moscow ; and the soviet schoolmen whose assignment it is to wrap stalinism in quotations from marx, both these camps are anxious to prove the same thing. in fact, marxian exegeses, once the property of a few socialist scholars, bids fair to become a minor world industry, the larger issue, then, is the image of marx for the modern world. for me, marxism is the gateway to a revolutionary socialism which is thoroughly democratic and a democratic socialism which is thoroughly revolutionary. hence the need for the investigation which follows. there is no survey of the use of the term “ dictatorship of the proletariat ” in marx and engels which is even near complete. the first question is what the word “ dictatorship ” meant in the middle of the 19th century. this happens to be a word that assumed its present meaning in relatively recent times. the encyclopedia of the social sciences dates this transformation to the “ decade following the [ first ] world war. ” till well into the 19th century the word remained primarily a reference to the institution of “ dictatorship ” in the roman republican constitution. the roman dictatura was a constitutional provision for a temporary one - man ruler named, for a particular crisis, with limited powers. the modern institution which corresponds to it is “ martial law ” ( on the continent, “ state of siege ” ) as a form of crisis - government. by the time of the french revolution, even the “ one - man ” connotation had weakened somewhat. the girondins, for example, attacked “ the dictatorship of the paris commune ; ” there were references to the “ dictatorship of the convention. ” we have here the “ dictatorship ” of a popular, relatively democratic body. the primitive communist movement led by babeuf in the last episode of


attacked “ the dictatorship of the paris commune ; ” there were references to the “ dictatorship of the convention. ” we have here the “ dictatorship ” of a popular, relatively democratic body. the primitive communist movement led by babeuf in the last episode of the revolution picked up and used the word ; between a one - man dictatorship and a dictatorship of the revolutionary leadership, they decided in favor of the latter. from this time to marx, the idea of a revolutionary dictatorship was virtually standard in the early socialist and communist movement, being accepted in one form or another by weitling, saint - simon, bakunin, proudhon and louis blanc, as well as the three b ’ s of the period, babeuf, buonarroti, blanqui. while blanqui and the blanquists, like others, advocated a revolutionary dictatorship, it is not true that blanqui or his followers anticipated marx in using the term “ dictatorship of the proletariat, ” as has been asserted in some hundreds of books, each copying from the other. it has been established by maurice dommanget and alan spitzer that there is no record whatsoever that blanqui ever used the term. the claim stems largely from r. w. postgate ’ s out of the past, not a line of whose purported evidence stands up tinder investigation. everybody repeated the conclusion and no one bothered to check it. these earlier advocates of revolutionary dictatorship clearly meant a dictatorship of one sort or another over the proletariat. as we shall see, marx formulated the term “ dictatorship of the proletariat ” precisely as a counterposition to this idea, which was the orthodoxy of the day. how does marx use the word “ dictatorship ”, apart from the term “ dictatorship of the proletariat ”? writing to engels march 31, 1851, marx details his money troubles and adds : “ and besides all that, they have me exploiting the workers and striving for a dictatorship! quelle horreur. ” plainly he was not aware that he was for a dictatorship. in 1857 marx writes of england that palmerston ’ s administration was a “ dictatorship ” since the beginning of the war with russia. this, for his new york tribune readers, refers to the war - crisis powers and activities of a government otherwise not very “ dictatorial ”. but let us look especially at the same work in which he is first going to use the term “ dictatorship of the proletariat ”, namely, the class struggles


- crisis powers and activities of a government otherwise not very “ dictatorial ”. but let us look especially at the same work in which he is first going to use the term “ dictatorship of the proletariat ”, namely, the class struggles in france 1648 - 1850. we have room only to point to three out of many passages. ( 1 ) here marx first makes the distinction between the dictatorship of a class and dictatorship over a class : “ but cavaignac was not the dictatorship of the sabre over bourgeois society ; he was the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie by the sabre. ” alongside cavaignac existed also a sovereign assembly ; in fact, marx refers elsewhere in the same work to “ the dictatorship of cavaignac and the constituent assembly, ” giving us the “ dictatorship ” of a representative body again, like the “ dictatorship of the convention. ” ( 2 ) when in the next stage of the events the “ party of order ” used its parliamentary majority to scrap universal suffrage, marx comments : by repudiating universal suffrage, with which it had hitherto draped itself and from which it sucked its omnipotence, the bourgeoisie openly confesses, “ our dictatorship has hitherto existed by the will of the people ; it must now be consolidated against the will of the people ”. [ all emphasis in quotations as in the original. ] this reference to a “ dictatorship ” based on universal suffrage reflecting “ the will of the people ” is another indication of the aura of the word. ( 3 ) explicitly distinguished from a “ dictatorship of the proletariat ” is marx ’ s description of a possible government of “ the social - democratic party ”, i. e. the party of the pink - socialistic louis blanc, whom he despised, and the timid democrats of the “ mountain, ” who were an even sorrier lot. ( this was then called the “ red ” party, but let us not be confused by terminology. ) in a remarkable sentence marx refers simultaneously to two “ dictatorships ” in connection with a discussion of the “ exploiters ” versus the “ allies ” of the peasant : the constitutional republic is the dictatorship of his united exploiters ; the social - democratic, the red republic, is the dictatorship of his allies. obviously this does not mean what we mean by “ dictatorship, ” but rather a domination, a social rule. when in his writings marx advocates the domination or rule of the working class, the term he usually employs is herrschaft. this represents the view


obviously this does not mean what we mean by “ dictatorship, ” but rather a domination, a social rule. when in his writings marx advocates the domination or rule of the working class, the term he usually employs is herrschaft. this represents the view he adopted, probably around 1845 and first expressed in the german ideology, that to achieve communism the proletariat must take political power. this is the view which is occasionally going to “ dictatorship of the proletariat. ” in 1847 engels wrote in an article, “ in all civilized countries the necessary consequence of democracy is the political rule of the proletariat, and the political rule of the proletariat is the first presupposition of all communist measures. ” in his preliminary draft of the communist manifesto, he answered the question, “ what will be the course of this revolution? ” as follows : first of all, it will establish a democratic constitution and thereby, directly or indirectly, the political rule of the proletariat. and in the manifesto marx and engels say “ that the first step in the revolution by the working class is to raise the proletariat to the position of ruling class, to win the battle of democracy. ” when this has been accomplished and the proletariat abolishes “ the old conditions of production, then it will, along with these conditions, have swept away the conditions for the existence of class antagonisms and of classes generally, and will thereby have abolished its own supremacy as a class. ” although the term “ dictatorship of the proletariat ” does not appear in the manifesto, the passages quoted here appear in our story later. but the first “ dictatorship ” which marx advocated was, in point of fact, not that of the proletariat. this was in the midst of the 1848 revolutionary upsurge in germany when marx, editing the neue rheinische zeitung in cologne, was lambasting the ludicrous pusillanimity and empty phrasemongering of the bourgeois national assembly in frankfurt, which was afraid to take any strong action against the crown and the absolutist regime. its ministers, wrote marx, were bleating about standing on constitutional principle while the absolutist counterrevolution organized itself. but what was going on was a revolution, which had first to establish constitutional principle. one had to fight with energy now so that there would be a constitutional principle to stand on. every provisional state setup after a revolution requires a


governments of the german states “ had counted upon a very dictatorial and revolutionary action on its part ” but in fact the assembly gave them little cause to worry. in short, marx ’ s first call for a revolutionary “ dictatorship ” was for an energetic regime by the nearest thing to a representative democracy that germany had, literally a “ dictatorship ” of the democracy. we now come to the loci in which marx and engels used the term “ dictatorship of the proletariat ”. there are eleven in all ( counting a work with more than one such passage as only one ). they cluster in three periods : ( 1 ) 1850 - 52, i. e. after the revolution of 1848 ; ( 2 ) 1872 - 75, i. e. after the paris commune, and ( 3 ) 1890 - 91, this last period being, we shall see, a sort of echo from 1875. in both the first and second periods, and most clearly in the very first locus, marx used the term particularly in connection with the blanquists.. what exactly was the nature of this connection? marx ’ s attitude toward blanqui and his movement remained essentially the same from 1844, when marx first became a socialist, to the end. this attitude combined complete rejection of the blanquist putsch, to be made by a conspiratorial group with great admiration for blanqui as a devoted and honest revolutionist ; it combined great respect for blanqui as a socialist militant with no respect for his ideas on how to make a revolution. in revolutionary periods marx sought joint action with the blanquists and other revolutionary currents ‒ a “ united front ” ‒ in spite of political disagreement. such united - front contact took place especially in 1850 and again after the paris commune. in both cases these were “ united fronts ” or joint action in london, between marx and engels and blanquist refugees from the fighting in france. in these contacts, marx and engels, rejecting the blanquist concept of dictatorship, counterposed to it their own formulation of the “ dictatorship of the proletariat. ” this is what engels explained in retrospect when, in 1874, he set down explicitly the difference between the blanquist and the marxist idea : from blanqui ’ s assumption, that any revolution may be made by the outbreak of a small revolutionary minority, follows of itself the necessity of a dictatorship after the success of the venture. this is, of course, a dictatorship, not of the entire


blanqui ’ s assumption, that any revolution may be made by the outbreak of a small revolutionary minority, follows of itself the necessity of a dictatorship after the success of the venture. this is, of course, a dictatorship, not of the entire revolutionary class, the proletariat, but of the small minority that has made the revolution, and who are themselves previously organized under the dictatorship of one or several individuals. [ this passage is referred to below as locus 7. ] one can hardly demand a clearer line of demarcation between the blanquist dictatorship of the active revolutionary minority and a class dictatorship or domination, the rule “ of the entire revolutionary class. ” this emphasis on class dictatorship is what we find in the first locus. the first use of “ dictatorship of the proletariat ” is in marx ’ s articles, later assembled under the title the class struggles in france 1848 - 1850, in his new london magazine neue rheinische zeitung, politisch - okonomische revue. the first article ( in the first issue ) was written in january and published in early march. after the defeat of the june 1848 workers ’ uprising, says marx, “ there appeared the bold slogan of revolutionary struggle : overthrow of the bourgeoisie! dictatorship of the working class! ” [ let us call this locus 1a. ] there is a problem here. marx writes that “ the bold slogan ” appeared : “ overthrow of the bourgeoisie! ” but then there immediately follows the slogan of the “ dictatorship of the working class. ” is marx intending to say that this slogan “ appeared ” among the revolutionary workers too? but it is quite certain that it did not. i suggest he is not literally claiming that this hitherto - unknown slogan “ appeared, ” but rather he is explaining, in apposition, what the “ bold slogan ” of overthrow of the bourgeoisie means ‒ in the first place, what it means to him, marx. in reality he is launching the slogan himself, putting words to the inchoate working - class aspiration expressed in the revolution. in the second article ( written at the beginning and published towards the end of march ) marx comments that the proletariat was “ not yet enabled through the development of the remaining classes to seize the revolutionary dictatorship ” and therefore “ had to throw itself into the arms ” of the social - democrats. [ this qualifies as locus 1b. ] he is here not only excluding the idea of establishing the “ revolutionary dictatorship ” by a band of consp


dictatorship ” and therefore “ had to throw itself into the arms ” of the social - democrats. [ this qualifies as locus 1b. ] he is here not only excluding the idea of establishing the “ revolutionary dictatorship ” by a band of conspirators, but also even by the proletariat as long as it does not yet have the support of other classes. as elsewhere in the same work, as previously in the manifesto, the “ rule ” or “ dictatorship of the proletariat ” is firmly linked to the idea of majority support. the third article ( written march 5 - 15 and published in mid - april ) said : the proletariat rallies more and more round revolutionary socialism, round communism, for which the bourgeoisie has itself invented the name of blanqui. this socialism is the declaration of the permanence of the revolution, the class dictatorship of the proletariat as the necessary transit point to the abolition of class distinctions generally, to the abolition of all the relations of production on which they rest, to the abolition of all the social relations that correspond to these relations of production, to the revolutionizing of all the ideas that result from these social relations. [ locus 1c. ] it is ironic that this, by marx himself, is the only contemporary passage on record which links blanqui ’ s name with “ dictatorship of the proletariat ”! it is marx who does the linking. of course, he is not saying it is blanqui ’ s slogan : he is saying that the bourgeoisie has attached blanqui ’ s name to this revolutionary socialism, emphasizing the class character of the revolutionary regime. we can now suggest why the term “ dictatorship of the proletariat ” makes its appearance in connection with the blanquists but not by the blanquists, ordinarily marx ’ s expression for this idea was “ rule of the proletariat, ” “ political power of the working class, ” etc., as in the manifesto. when, however, it is a question of counterposing this class concept to the blanquist - type dictatorship, it is dressed in the formula “ class dictatorship ”. class dictatorship is then counterposed to blanquist dictatorship. in united fronts with the blanquists, it was only such a class formula that could be acceptable to marx, such a united front was formed in early 1850 when marx still considered a new revolutionary upsurge to be imminent. he set about developing a framework


with the blanquists, it was only such a class formula that could be acceptable to marx, such a united front was formed in early 1850 when marx still considered a new revolutionary upsurge to be imminent. he set about developing a framework for joint action by revolutionary groups from various countries, an embryonic international, through representatives in london, including the left - wing chartists around harney, the communist league of the german emigres, and the french revolutionary refugees “ who wanted to differentiate themselves from the bourgeois democrats [ and therefore ] usually called themselves blanquist ” ( as arthur rosenberg puts it in democracy and socialism ). in april there was formed a societe universelle des communistes revolutionnaires on the basis of a brief programmatic agreement signed by marx, engels and august willich for the communist league, harney, and two blanquist emigres. the constituent organizations retained their independence while joined in practical collaboration. article 1 of the agreement read : the aim of the association is the downfall of all the privileged classes, to subject these classes to the dictatorship of the proletarians by maintaining the revolution in permanence until the achievement of communism, which is to be the last organizational form of the human family. [ locus 2. ] this is in willich ’ s handwriting, and perhaps the exact formulation is his too. at the very same time that this agreement was made, marx and engels published in nrz - revue an open criticism of the blanquist conspiratorial illusions which their french allies held, characterizing them as “ forestalling the process of revolutionary development, pushing it artificially into crises, making a revolution on the spur of the moment without the conditions for a revolution … they are the alchemists of the revolution, ” etc. this educational critique of blanquism, at the very moment after they had entered into a united - front agreement with blanquists, was a deliberate effort by marx and engels to utilize the new relationship to “ straighten out ” their allies, to influence their views. while it is doubtful if the sucr ever really got off paper in the first place, in any case it died for good after september, when marx concluded that the revolutionary wave was spent and that reorientation toward a new period was necessary. marx ’ s class struggles in france next evoked an echo within germany, in frankfurt, the neue deutsche zeitung was co - edited by joseph weydemeyer and otto luning ( who were also brothers


with such a title till at least 1918. it is all the more interesting since the article is not really about the dictatorship of the proletariat for the most part. most of it is a condensation of a good part of the communist manifesto. there is a reference to die diktatur des in den grossen stadten konzentrirten proletariats, only in the last paragraph. for present purposes the most important thing about weydemeyer ’ s article is simply its existence. indications are that when marx penned his famous letter of march 5 to weydemeyer, he had just recently received the latter ’ s own article on the dictatorship of the proletariat. this letter, moreover, is devoted to giving his friend suggestions for material for subsequent articles, in the course of which he advises on the treatment of certain american opponents. the reference to “ dictatorship of the proletariat ” comes in here. the next paragraph says : “ from the foregoing notes take whatever you consider suitable. ” in other words, marx has been jotting down notes to be used by weydemeyer for his, weydemeyer ’ s, own articles. what marx wrote was that he did not claim credit for discovery of classes or the class struggles : what i did that was new was to prove : 1 ) that the existence of classes is only bound up with particular historical phases in the development of production, 2 ) that the class struggle necessarily leads to the dictatorship of the proletariat, 3 ) that this dictatorship itself only constitutes the transition to the abolition of all classes and to a classless society [ locus 4 ] in using “ dictatorship of the proletariat ” here, instead of his usual “ rule of the proletariat, ” etc., marx was echoing weydemeyer, who himself was echoing marx in 1850. marx was throwing in a phrase that had special connotations and associations for his correspondent. his use of it in a private letter in passing depended on a certain amount of “ understood ” background. in this sense weydemeyer was not just the recipient of the famous letter but its begetter. for the next 20 years, no sign of the term appears in any writing, public or private, by marx or engels. ( or by anyone else, including blanquists. ) during these decades there was little contact between marx and the blanquists ; it is no accident that during these same two decades the term “ dictatorship of the pro


or engels. ( or by anyone else, including blanquists. ) during these decades there was little contact between marx and the blanquists ; it is no accident that during these same two decades the term “ dictatorship of the proletariat ” does not show up. the blanquists talked as usual about the revolutionary dictatorship of their band or of “ paris, ” and the marxists talked as usual about the “ rule of the proletariat ” or “ political power of the working class. ” what we have seen is that the term “ dictatorship of the proletariat ” as used by marx is the reformulation of the latter when counterposed to the former. when marx wrote his great defense and analysis of the paris commune, the civil war in france, he still had no contact with the blanquists. the term “ dictatorship of the proletariat ” does not appear in this work. there are three features of it important for the rest of our story : 1. marx presents the commune as “ a working - class government … the political form at last discovered under which to work out the economical emancipation of labour. ” this and other formulations are so sweeping that a government so described must be, for marx, that which he elsewhere called “ dictatorship of the proletariat ”. 2. what determined the character of the commune, for marx, was the hegemony of the proletariat in the revolution, that is, the fact that all the other class elements in the revolution looked to it as the vanguard and leader. 3. at the same time, lengthy sections of the civil war in france are devoted to painting in glowing colors the thoroughgoing democratic character of the commune ; universal suffrage, all officials and judges elective and revocable, abolition of the standing army, end of all “ hierarchic investiture ”, depoliticalization of the police, communal democracy from below replacing the shattered centralized state, etc. all this marx summed up by saying that the commune “ supplied the republic with the basis of really democratic institutions … its special measures could but betoken the tendency of a government of the people by the people. ” ( in contrast, the blanquists regarded the commune ’ s democratic measures as a weakness and a mistake. the contrast between these two diametrically opposed analysis of commune democracy was contained in ovo in the two different formulations on the “ dictatorship. ” ) with the defeat of the commune,


commune ’ s democratic measures as a weakness and a mistake. the contrast between these two diametrically opposed analysis of commune democracy was contained in ovo in the two different formulations on the “ dictatorship. ” ) with the defeat of the commune, the influx of communards to london included many blanquists and their leaders. here for the first time many of them came into prolonged contact with marx, his circle, and the general council of the international. there was considerable impact on them for several reasons ; the role of marx ’ s civil war in france as a champion of the commune in the eyes of the scandalized official world ; marx ’ s massive relief work for the refugees : the addition of a number of blanquists, especially vaillant, to the general council, working with marx ; the blanquists ’ joint fight with marx against the bakunin faction ; friendship with marx ’ s two french sons - in - law, longuet and lafargue. for these reasons, and perhaps also because the experience of the commune reinforced the same direction, the ideas of the london blanquists underwent a degree of “ marxification ”. their political formulations were largely affected, if not their essential putschism. this was displayed especially in two programmatic statements they issued, in 1872 and in 1874, both of these containing references to “ dictatorship of the proletariat. ” publicly as well as privately engels stated more than once during period, rather exultingly, that the new blanquist program had dressed itself in marxist ideas. once was in his the housing question ( 1872 ) : … when the so - called blanquists made an attempt to transform themselves from mere political revolutionists into a socialist workers ’ faction with a definite, programme ‒ as was done by the blanquist fugitives in london in their manifesto internationale et revolution ‒ they … adopted, and almost literally at that, the views of german scientific socialism on the necessity of political action by the proletariat and of its dictatorship as the transition to the abolition of classes and with them of the state ‒ views such as had already been expressed in the communist manifesto and since then on innumerable occasions. ” [ locus 5a ] here we have engels stating categorically and publicly that when the blanquists ( in london anyway ) did use “ dictatorship of the proletariat ” for the first time in 1872, they took it from marx, not the other way round as postgate believed


categorically and publicly that when the blanquists ( in london anyway ) did use “ dictatorship of the proletariat ” for the first time in 1872, they took it from marx, not the other way round as postgate believed. twice more in this period engels described the “ marxification ” of the london blanquist program. furthermore, the passage on “ dictatorship of the proletariat ” in the 1872 program internationale et revolution of the blanquists virtually says itself that this is a new view for them “ axiomatic since the 18th march ”, i. e. since the paris commune. as for marx and engels : first use of the term “ dictatorship of the proletariat ” in this period is by engels in his book the housing question ( 1872 ) originally three newspaper articles. the term occurs twice ; we have already given locus 5a. in the second passage engels polemizes against a proudhonist as follows : friend mulberger thus makes the following points here : 1. “ we ” do not pursue any “ class policy ” and do not strive for “ class domination. ” but the german social democratic workers ’ party, just because it is a workers ’ party, necessarily pursues a “ class policy ”, the policy of the working class. since each political party sets out to establish its rule in the state, so the german social - democratic workers party is necessarily striving to establish its rule, the rule of the working class, hence “ class domination ”. moreover, every real proletarian party, from the english chartists onward, has put forward a class policy, the organization of the proletariat as an independent political party, as the primary condition of its struggle, and the dictatorship of the proletariat as the immediate aim of the struggle. by declaring this to be “ absurd, ” mulberger puts himself outside the proletarian movement and inside the camp of petty - bourgeois socialism. [ locus 5b. ] what stands out is engels ’ obvious assumption that “ dictatorship of the proletariat ” has no special meaning other than the taking of power in the state by the socialist workers ’ movement. it appears here as one of three or four terms used indiscriminately : “ class domination ”, “ rule of the working class, ” etc. we are also told that every real proletarian party stands for it, including the chartists ‒ a statement which can make no sense to


indiscriminately : “ class domination ”, “ rule of the working class, ” etc. we are also told that every real proletarian party stands for it, including the chartists ‒ a statement which can make no sense to anyone who believes there is some special “ theory of proletarian dictatorship ” apart from the basic idea of the need and goal of working - class political power. that the term was also on marx ’ s mind now was evidenced the following year, in an out - of - the - way place : an article written january 1873, for an italian journal, directed against proudhonism and anarchism ( title : l ’ indifferenza in materia politica ). since the passage in this article was cited in lenin ’ s state and revolution it has been often referred to, but without explanation of its peculiar context. for the passage is not exactly set down by marx in his own name. the article begins abruptly with a long section all in quotation marks, purporting to represent what an anti - political proudhonist would say if he set down his views bluntly. the tone is satiric : “ if the political struggle of the working class assumes violent forms, if the workers substitute their revolutionary dictatorship for the dictatorship of the bourgeois class, they commit the terrible crime of violating principle [ leso - principio ] ; because, in order to satisfy their wretched, profane everyday needs, in order to crush the resistance of the bourgeois class, instead of laying down arms and abolishing the state they give it a revolutionary and transitional form … ” [ locus 6 ] marx, of course, implies he himself proposes that “ the workers substitute their revolutionary dictatorship for the dictatorship of the bourgeois class, ” but the whole thing is said in passing. we do get the direct counterposition of two class dictatorships, one the alternative to the other, thereby putting the accent on the social basis of the power rather than on the political forms of the regime. the next use of the term is by engels in 1874, and we have already quoted it in section 3 above [ locus 7 ]. it appeared in engels ’ article on the program of the blanquist fugitives from the paris commune in the volksstaat. this period of tension with blanquism no doubt accounts for the fact that the term, being around, gets used in. an important document written by marx the following year ‒ his critique of the gotha program, attacking


volksstaat. this period of tension with blanquism no doubt accounts for the fact that the term, being around, gets used in. an important document written by marx the following year ‒ his critique of the gotha program, attacking the lassallean formulations in the unity program being proposed for the merger of the two existing german socialist parties. this document was a sort of circular addressed to the “ eisenacher ” leaders. this passage on “ dictatorship of the proletariat ” is one of the two most of ten - quoted loci, yet it is one of the barest. its context is an attack on lassalle ’ s now - well - known fetishism of the state ; marx is arguing that “ freedom consists in converting the state from an organ standing above society into one completely subordinated to it. ” he raises the question of the dying - away of the state in the future society, and adds : between capitalist and communist society lies the period of the revolutionary transformation of the one into the other. there corresponds to this also a political transition period in which the state can be nothing but the revolutionary dictatorship of the proletariat. [ locus 8. ] that ’ s all, but a passage on the next page is very relevant, marx has that the state will be a dictatorship of the proletariat. we now get a very sharp reminder that when he says “ state ” he does not mean the “ government machinery ”. to say that the state is a rule or dictatorship of the proletariat is a social description, a statement of the class character of the political power. it is not a statement about the forms of the government machinery. the last thing to note is that marx does not propose that the party program call for “ dictatorship of the proletariat. ” the missing demand which he does press is that for the democratic republic, though he reluctantly agrees that government repression rules out its open inclusion. ( nor did marx bring in “ dictatorship of the proletariat ” as a term when the program of the french marxist party was drafted in his london study in 1880 ). there now ensues another hiatus of 15 years ‒ no mention of “ dictatorship of the proletariat ” in any writing by marx or engels, public or private. the next time we meet it is in a letter by engels to conrad schmidt, october 27, 1890, explaining that historical materialism does not say that only economic factors are operative in history : if therefore


marx or engels, public or private. the next time we meet it is in a letter by engels to conrad schmidt, october 27, 1890, explaining that historical materialism does not say that only economic factors are operative in history : if therefore barth supposes that we deny any and every reaction of the political, etc., reflexes of the economic movement upon the movement itself, he is simply tilting at windmills. he has only to look at marx ’ s eighteenth brumaire … or capital … or why do we fight for the political dictatorship of the proletariat if political power is economically impotent? force ( that is, state power ) is also an economic power! [ locus 9. ] here “ dictatorship of the proletariat ” is tossed in with the utmost casualness as a mere synonym for the conquest of political power. why did the term recur to engels now, after a 15 - year gap? perhaps because he was already looking back at marx ’ s critique of the gotha program in anticipation of the coming erfurt party program discussion. for not long after, engels proceeded to get marx ’ s 1875 critique published for the first time, with results leading to our next two ( and last ) loci. engels knew that its publication would be “ a bomb ” because of its attack on lassalle, whose legend had grown. the target was also the rapidly developing opportunist trends in the party. on both scores there was indeed a violent reaction. one of the things that was seized on was the fact that the newly published document used the term “ revolutionary dictatorship of the proletariat. ” in the reichstag itself, the social - democratic deputy karl grillenberger arose to repudiate marx and say for the party that the social - democratic party rejected the suggestion which marx had made for its program. marx was annoyed by the fact that the german social - democratic party has worked out its program as it thought fit in view of conditions in germany, and that therefore for us any revolutionary dictatorship of the proletariat is out of the question. the veneer of “ marxism ” which lay over the top strata of the party had broken through. it is doubtful whether the good reichstag deputy shuddered more over the word “ dictatorship ” or the word before it. eighteen days after, engels finished his introduction to a new edition of marx ’ s the civil war in france, the last words being “ the dictatorship of the proletariat. ”


over the word “ dictatorship ” or the word before it. eighteen days after, engels finished his introduction to a new edition of marx ’ s the civil war in france, the last words being “ the dictatorship of the proletariat. ” this line of thought takes off from another attack ( similar to locus 7 ) on the blanquist concept of “ the strictest dictatorship, and centralization of all power in the hands of the new revolutionary government. ” in contrast engels offers the paris commune, reviewing ( as did marx ) its great expansion of democracy and control from below. then follows a criticism of “ the superstitious belief in the state ” typical of germany, and the need “ to throw the entire lumber of the state on the scrap - heap ”. then the last paragraph : of late, the social democratic philistine has once more been filled with wholesome terror at the words : dictatorship of the proletariat. well and good, gentlemen, do you want to know what this dictatorship looks like? look at the paris commune. that was the dictatorship of the proletariat. [ locus 10. ] three months later he had another “ bomb ” ready for the “ social - democratic philistines ” : a critique of the new draft program ( erfurt program ). in this, as he wrote kautsky, he “ found an opportunity to let fly at the conciliatory opportunism of the vorwarts [ party organ ] and at the frisch - fromm - frolich - freie ‘ growth ’ of the filthy old mess ‘ into socialist society. ’ ” here engels raises very sharply the question of the demand for the democratic republic, which had been omitted from the program. in the course of this he remarks : one thing that is absolutely certain is that our party and the working class cannot achieve rule except under the form of the democratic republic. this latter is even the specific form of the dictatorship of the proletariat, as the great french revolution already showed. [ locus 11. ] true, he agrees, the program cannot openly come out for the democratic republic in so many words, but ways must be found to say as much : … what in my opinion can and should go into the program is the demand for the concentration of all political power in the hands of the representation of the people. and that would be enough in the meantime, if one cannot go any further. so “ concentration of all power in the hands of the representation


the program is the demand for the concentration of all political power in the hands of the representation of the people. and that would be enough in the meantime, if one cannot go any further. so “ concentration of all power in the hands of the representation of the people ” stands for the forbidden “ democratic republic ”, and this in turn is “ the specific form of the dictatorship of the proletariat. ” the advocate of that revolutionary dictatorship which perturbed the “ social - democratic philistines ” is arguing with them that they should hint at their goal of a democratic republic instead of adapting themselves to the kaiser regime ’ s legality. with this episode of 1891, prefiguring the future, comes to a close the story of the term “ dictatorship of the proletariat ” as far as marx and engels are concerned. but of course, as we know, this is only the first chapter in the history of that phrase. 1. of the 11 marx - engels loci on “ dictatorship of the proletariat ”, lenin ’ s state and revolution gave the ones here numbered 5a, 6, 8, 11, adding no. 4 in its second edition. kautsky ’ s reply pretended there was only one in marx. ernst drahn, karl marx und fr. engels ueber die diktatur des proletariats ( 1920 ) knows only of loci 4, 8, 10. max beer ’ s an inquiry into dictatorship ( labour monthly, august 1922 ) mentions only 1a, 1c, 4, 6, 8. sherman h. m. chang ’ s marxian theory of the state ( 1931 ) quotes 1a, 1c, 4, 5a, 6, 8 ‒ exactly one half the available passages, the most to date. the opposite record is held by stanley w. moore, the critique of capitalist democracy ; introduction to the theory of the state in marx, engels, and lenin ( 1957 ), which never reveals that the term is to be found in marx or engels at all. – a. b. 2. this is a much condensed version of a study which will be published shortly ( about september ) in no. 6 of etudes de marxologie ( paris ), edited by m. rubel, and which will present full reference notes, considerably more detail, and some additional sections. the spring issue of labor history ( iii, 2 ) contains a translation of the article by weydemeyer on dictatorship of the proletaria


through the first three weeks of the season, the number of broken bats has dropped slightly compared to last season, baseball officials said friday. an average of about. 8 bats per game have broken this season compared to about one bat per game last season, said pat courtney, a spokesman for major league baseball. under baseball ’ s count, a broken bat is considered one that has broken into two or more pieces. although many manufacturers have responded to new guidelines implemented last december by baseball officials, some manufacturers still provide players with bats that do not comply with the guidelines, courtney said. “ we are in a period of getting manufacturers to adjust and comply with the new regulations, ” he said in an e - mail message. the companies that have not followed the guidelines will be warned, courtney said, and they will be barred from supplying bats to major league players if they fail to comply. a study by major league baseball last year found that many broken bats had poor - quality slope of grain, a term that refers to how straight the grain is along a bat. when the straightness decreases, so does the durability of the bat. along with monitoring the slope of grain, baseball officials are examining other factors that may be causing bats to break, including their geometry and whether the wood being used is too dry, courtney said. after the number of broken bats surged last season, management and union officials conducted a study on how to lower the number of broken bats. last december, baseball implemented nine recommendations in response to the study, which found that the increasingly popular maple bats were three times more likely to break than ash bats. courtney said baseball did not yet have figures on the types of bats that have broken this season. although the number of broken bats has decreased, flying shards have caused some injuries. on april 21, umpire kerwin danley sustained a concussion and had to be hospitalized for a day after he was hit in the head with a piece of a broken bat.


1 ) cell growth you should look into chemotherapy and cancer medicine in general. because chemo is mostly effective because it kills fast dividing cells, this has been worked out reasonably well. the 7 - 10 year number is not really correct, some cells are replaced a lot more slowly. this is why hair often falls out in cancer treatment, because the follicle cells are growing quickly. neurons divide very slowly - if at all - and often are never replaced. fat cells are in between - probably replaced in the 7 - 10 year range. heart cells are replaced albeit quite slowly - less than 1 % per year, which implies that many cells are with you your entire lifetime. 2 ) atoms / molecules change the cell itself is in a continuous state of flux, but different parts of the cell, like cells in the body, change at different rates. some proteins which make up the cell matrix or the dna in the nucleus are replaced very rarely ( through repair or rearrangement of the chromosome for instance ) and most of the chromosome dna is with the cell for the entire life of the cell. most proteins are labelled for degradation and are recycled after a few hours of function. metabolic compounds such as sugars or salt might drift in and out of the cell continuously, maybe turning over in an hour or so. fats can be incorporated into the cell and last for years i think.


edubuntu is an educational operating system that is a part of the ubuntu family. it aims to make ubuntu, the popular linux - based operating system, a great choice for the computing needs of children, students, parents, teachers, and schools. “ ubuntu ” is an ancient african word, meaning “ humanity to others ”. edubuntu seeks to bring the freedoms and spirit of ubuntu to children, parents, students, teachers, and schools. gnome is the gnu graphical desktop, it ’ s the default desktop environment on ubuntu, as well as edubuntu. it provides us with file managers, network browsers, menus, and system tools. gnome also provides an application framework, and many of the applications available in edubuntu has been created using the gnome framework. edubuntu also provides three different theme setups, ‘ young ’, for younger users, ‘ plain ’ for a clean desktop setup, and ‘ default ’, which is a general purpose theme setup. kde is another graphical environment, and also serves as an application framework. the kde project has a sub - project called the kde edutainment suite, which is a collection of fun educational software that makes use of the kde framework. kde applications runs fine under gnome. we have included the very latest versions of the kde edutainment software in edubuntu. you can support ubuntu community in many ways either by developing good applications or purchasing some dvds / cds and other item from their store. in near they are going to give you a lot of fun in teaching zoneby their innovative ideas, so keep watching their website. http : / / edubuntu. org


article - - nets for students, 2 pdfs the netsfor _ students. pdf is a pdf. i ' ve found the same content as a web page here. it is a comprehensive outline with links to the different outlines of " connecting curriculum and technology ". it provides some visionary perspectives on the use of technology in school, strategies for its use, standards as well as some good examples of lessons were students use technology to learn particular content. this will be a useful link ( above ) when working with my team mates as we work to integrate technology. the netss _ standards contain both nets for students and performance indicators. the following are the nets for students : 1. basic operations and concepts i?? students demonstrate a sound understanding of the nature and operation of technology systems. i?? students are proficient in the use of technology. 2. social, ethical, and human issues i?? students understand the ethical, cultural, and societal issues related to technology. i?? students practice responsible use of technology systems, information, and software. i?? students develop positive attitudes toward technology uses that support lifelong learning, collaboration, personal pursuits, and productivity. 3. technology productivity tools i?? students use technology tools to enhance learning, increase productivity, and promote creativity. i?? students use productivity tools to collaborate in constructing technology - enhanced models, prepare publications, and produce other creative works. 4. technology communications tools i?? students use telecommunications to collaborate, publish, and interact with peers, experts, and other audiences. i?? students use a variety of media and formats to communicate information and ideas effectively to multiple audiences. 5. technology research tools i?? students use technology to locate, evaluate, and collect information from a variety of sources. i?? students use technology tools to process data and report results. i?? students evaluate and select new information resources and technological innovations based on the appropriateness for specific tasks. 6. technology problem - solving and decision - making tools i?? students use technology resources for solving problems and making informed decisions. i?? students employ technology in the development of strategies for solving problems in the real world. the following are the performance indicators for middle school : prior to completion of grade 8 students will : 1. apply strategies for identifying and solving routine hardware and software problems that occur during everyday use. ( 1 ) 2. demonstrate knowledge of current changes in information technologies and the effect those changes have on the workplace and society. ( 2 ) 3. exhibit legal and ethical behaviors when using information and


routine hardware and software problems that occur during everyday use. ( 1 ) 2. demonstrate knowledge of current changes in information technologies and the effect those changes have on the workplace and society. ( 2 ) 3. exhibit legal and ethical behaviors when using information and technology, and discuss consequences of misuse. ( 2 ) 4. use content - specific tools, software, and simulations ( e. g., environmental probes, graphing calculators, exploratory environments, web tools ) to support learning and research. ( 3, 5 ) 5. apply productivity / multimedia tools and peripherals to support personal productivity, group collaboration, and learning throughout the curriculum. ( 3, 6 ) 6. design, develop, publish, and present products ( e. g., web pages, videotapes ) using technology resources that demonstrate and communicate curriculum concepts to audiences inside and outside the classroom. ( 4, 5, 6 ) 7. collaborate with peers, experts, and others using telecommunications and collaborative tools to investigate curriculum - related problems, issues, and information, and to develop solutions or products for audiences inside and outside the classroom. ( 4, 5 ) 8. select and use appropriate tools and technology resources to accomplish a variety of tasks and solve problems. ( 5, 6 ) 9. demonstrate an understanding of concepts underlying hardware, software, and connectivity, and of practical applications to learning and problem solving. ( 1, 6 ) 10. research and evaluate the accuracy, relevance, appropriateness, comprehensiveness, and bias of electronic information sources concerning real - world problems. ( 2, 5, 6 ) these are good and are useful whenever i need to justify what i ' m doing to my administrator as well as provides me with help in providing additional dimentions to my lessons. the performance indicators provide a very general answer to the question : " how do i know when my students have reached these standards "? here is a link to document which give information for k - 12 : profiles for technology literate students performance indicators for technologya€ ” literate students


by a. grano on september 27th, 2011 at 7 : 00 am do you experience shortness of breath during everyday activities, such as going up stairs? do you have a tightness in your chest or have a chronic, mucus - producing cough? if so, you may have copd, short for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, a serious lung condition that occurs as a result of damage to or obstruction of the airways of lungs. according to the u. s. department of health and human services, it ’ s the fourth - leading cause of death in the united states. more than 12 million americans have been diagnosed with copd, but another 12 to 13 million people have the condition but have not been diagnosed, often because they disregard the symptoms. however, as statistics show, failure to address the condition can be deadly. symptoms typically come on gradually and slowly worsen over time. what causes copd? smoking is the number one risk factor, as irritants and chemicals inhaled cause permanent damage to lung airways. other causes include genetics, exposure to other pollutants such as chemical fumes, exhaust pollution or repeated exposure to fine dust or powder. what you can do - quit smoking. as cigarette smoking is responsible for the majority of copd cases, quitting is the best way to help lower your risk. - ease the discomfort of excessive chest mucus naturally. kali mur is well known for its beneficial effects of the respiratory system. kali sulph is also excellent at naturally treating phlegm coughs and sinus congestions, as well as reducing inflammation of the mucous membranes. kali bich also works on soothing irritated mucous membranes, especially in the lungs, and helps loosen thick chest mucus. - avoid lung irritants, including second hand cigarette smoke, dust and aerosol sprays. mucus - clear™ homeopathic remedy reduces phlegm, thick mucus and throat clearing


vancouver - - at the conclusion of this year ' s washington state legislative session, gov. chris gregoire said, " i think it will go down as one of the most important environmental sessions. " and today, gregoire signed one of the bills that will make it so. gregoire signed a bill that sets goals for reducing emissions, sets an emissions performance standard for new power plants and meshes with the climate - change goals the governor set in an executive order issued in february. gregoire, in a signing ceremony in vancouver ' s water resources center next to the columbia river, said the climate change bill is a big step at making washington state an environmental stewardship leader. " it signifies we ' re at the beginning and that others will follow, " gregoire said, " and that ' s what leadership is about. " the bill calls for : - reducing greenhouse - gas emissions from power plants to 1990 levels by 2020, to 25 percent below 1990 levels by 2035, and by 2050 to 50 percent below 1990 levels or 70 percent below the state ' s expected emissions that year. - increasing the number of clean energy sector jobs to 25, 000 from the 8, 400 jobs the state had in 2004. - requiring the governor to develop policy recommendations to achieve the greenhouse gas emissions reductions goals. - establishing emission performance standards for electric generation facilities in washington. - - allan brettman ; firstname. lastname @ example. org


today in the innermost region of our solar system, nasa ’ s messenger space probe will swoop past mercury for the third and final time. the maneuver will give scientists a close look at the dense, iron - rich, oddball planet, and will also alter the probe ’ s trajectory and prepare it to begin orbiting mercury in march 2011. as messenger travels within 142 miles of mercury at 12, 000 miles per hour, the spacecraft ’ s camera will swivel to stare at a succession of craters and other geological features …. one target will be an old 90 - mile - wide crater. another will be young 13 - mile crater and a splash of light - colored soil surrounding it. a third crater of interest has materials of unusual color perhaps produced by violent volcanic eruptions [ the new york times ]. when this third flyby is complete, 95 percent of the planet will have been mapped in high resolution. scientists will also take a moment to examine the stream of charged atoms that start at the planet ’ s surface and extend millions of miles into space in a comet - like, gaseous tail. the ions bleed from mercury ’ s surface as it is blasted by the full force of the solar wind, a stream of particles from our star which buffets the entire solar system [ bbc news ]. while researchers are waiting eagerly to see what the flyby ’ s measurements and pictures will reveal, they ’ re keeping in mind that the best rewards will come later, when messenger becomes the first spacecraft to orbit mercury and begins a year - long study of the planet. therefore, the most crucial element of the flyby is that mercury ’ s gravity will act as a brake for the probe, setting it on a trajectory to enter orbit in one and a half years. explains mission scientist eric finnegan : “ slowing the spacecraft by [ 5, 900 miles per hour ], messenger ’ s orbital period around the sun will be decreased by 13 days, closely matching the 88 - day orbital period of the innermost planet ” [ bbc news ]. 80beats : mercury flyby reveals magnetic twisters and ancient magma oceans 80beats : mercury close - ups reveal the planet ’ s ancient volcanic eruptions 80beats : brand new postcards from mercury, courtesy of messenger space probe 80beats : mercury is shrinking and cooling, space probe reveals image : nasa / johns hopkins university applied physics laboratory / carnegie institution of washington. messenger took this picture yesterday on its approach to mercury.


comedy, explained aristotle, has a vague history, because at first no one took it seriously. we cannot know for certain if aristotle was deadpanning, but his observation would amuse saul austerlitz. according to austerlitz, american film comedy has not been taken seriously, either. in fact, the author quips, it is american film ’ s “ bastard stepchild. ” with his latest book “ another fine mess : a history of american film comedy, ” austerlitz gives us a broad survey of the genre, hoping to spark debate. there were few jewish comedians in aristotle ’ s day, but in american comedy, austerlitz notes, jews are “ the only minority group overrepresented. ” the title of his book is taken from a catch phrase by the gentile comic geniuses laurel and hardy, but on the cover of the book, it is jewish comedians, the marx brothers, who are making a mess. for austerlitz, the marx brothers are the embodiment of jewish humor — “ anarchic, absurdist, and ebullient ” — existing in the face of a hostile or dismissive power structure. you ' ve successfully signed up! thank you for subscribing. please provide the following optional information to enable us to serve you better. the forward will not sell or share your personal information with any other party. thank you for signing up. close


global environmental challenges ibm supercomputer reuses heat to warm buildings high - tech giants from microsoft to google are eager to cut the huge amounts of power used to run their data centers, particularly now that the recession has companies leaving no stone unturned to slash costs and global warming is driving them to think green. developed by ibm jointly with the swiss federal institute of technology ( eth ) — a sort of swiss version of the massachusetts institute of technology — the new supercomputer ’ s microchips avoid cooling with energy - sucking air conditioning. thanks to a network of water - carrying “ micro - capillaries ” that take water very close to the microchips, the system is cooled at a temperature of 60 degrees celsius, rather than a “ normal coolant ” that requires a temperature of about 20 degrees celsius, or air at around 6 to 12 degrees celsius, according to ibm researcher dr. thomas brunschwiler. “ typically you would use air conditioning, which is very intensive, and this is eliminating that by using water to take the heat and transfer it away from the chips, ” brunschwiler said. according to ibm, the computer, dubbed aquasar, will reduce overall energy consumption by 40 percent and save up to 30 tons of carbon dioxide a year, about the same as driving an average car around the world 10 times. in addition, the excess heat from the computer will be piped into the building ’ s heating. the 25 kilowatt system will account for just “ a small fraction ” of the building ’ s overall energy demand, but researchers said future applications are promising. “ in a future system if you run an entire data center in this mode then it will be a large fraction of the energy demand of an entity like this, ” said dr. bruno michel of ibm research in zurich. it could be a while, however, before that happens. the eth supercomputer won ’ t start operation until 2010, and the company would not estimate how much it will cost to build except to say that it will be more than a supercomputer with a traditional cooling system. the return on investment, however, is within one year, ibm said, given the system ’ s efficiency. photo credit : ibm ( a water - cooled blade used in ibm ’ s aquasar supercomputer. the two microchannel coolers at the center are attached directly to the processors. )


u. s. author robert wright traces the history of god and suggests that it might all point to the unfolding of something divine, though perhaps not in the sense that most people of faith would envision. in his just published “ the evolution of god, ” wright takes his readers on a thought - provoking journey through the spiritual beliefs of our hunter - gatherer ancestors to the development of the three abrahamic faiths : judaism, christianity and islam. you can see my interview with wright here. wright ’ s engaging book covers a lot of ground and it certainly raises many questions that may be of interest to readers of this blog. i ’ m just going to throw a few of them out here — trust me, there could be many, many more. 1. religion and science : has religion in the past given rise to science? the polynesians that captain james cook encountered in the 18th century tried to predict the weather by looking at the night sky – and often succeeded. they believed this was divinely inspired but as wright notes : “ the apparent explanation is that both the night sky and the prevailing winds change seasonally. so there was indeed a correlation between stars and weather ; the polynesians just had the wrong explanation … still, this is the way scientific progress often starts : finding a correlation between two variables and positing a plausible if false explanation. in this sense, ‘ science ’ dates back to preliterate times. ”


a boston globe study of over a hundred boston - area seafood restaurants found that 48 percent of the fish was mislabeled. when asked about the discrepancies, some restaurant owners shrugged saying that everyone does it. the most common kinds of fraud are mislabeling a fish as wild when it ’ s not, such as salmon, or selling a completely different fish than the one named, for instance selling a rockfish as a red snapper. in the high priced world of caviar from threatened sturgeon, fraud exists on several levels, from directly misrepresenting the fish as farmed when it ’ s actually wild to counterfeit labels on the fish or the caviar tins. seafood fraud not only cheats consumers but it could also adversely affect catch data that form the basis of sustainable fisheries management. in some cases, seafood fraud could undermine healthy choices. consumer reports found many samples labeled as grouper were in fact tilefish, which contains much more mercury than grouper. the food and drug administration recommends that pregnant women, women of child bearing age, and children avoid eating tilefish because of high levels of mercury. government agencies that have the authority to enforce rules around seafood fraud have not made it a priority. while an estimated 86 percent of all the seafood that americans consume is imported, the fda inspects less than about two percent of it. one of the challenges to combating seafood fraud, aside from the lack of dna testing out in the field and slack government agencies, is the supply chain. seafood often changes hands repeatedly from net to consumer. determining where the fraud begins can be difficult. 3 things you can do to fight seafood fraud : 1. buy whole fish. 2. be wary of very inexpensive seafood. 3. ask questions : where was this fish caught? is it in season? other great ways you can make a difference. links & videos seafood fraud overview – oceana caviar caveats – science news mystery fish – consumer reports feds to fight massive fraud in seafood sizes – huff post don ’ t be fooled – fresh buyer beware : wild salmon scams run rampant, randy hartnell, vital choice blog fish as food in an age of globalization, university of british columbia bait and switch : how seafood fraud hurts our oceans, our wallets, and our health, oceana trade secrets : renaming and mislabeling of seafood, university of british columbia government falls short on seafood inspections, food and water watch how seafood fraud works, boston globe fish is often mislab


below are the first 10 and last 10 pages of uncorrected machine - read text ( when available ) of this chapter, followed by the top 30 algorithmically extracted key phrases from the chapter as a whole. intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter - representative searchable text on the opening pages of each chapter. because it is uncorrected material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages. do not use for reproduction, copying, pasting, or reading ; exclusively for search engines. ocr for page 203 oil in the sea iii : inputs, fates, and effects e inputs of petroleum hydrocarbons into the oceans due to transportation activities petroleum hydrocarbon inputs into the oceans from transportation activities are developed herein. significant sources include operational discharges from ships, oil spills from tankers and non - tank vessels, operational discharges from recreational craft, and discharges from aircraft. inputs due to atmospheric deposition of volatile organic compounds ( voc ) vented from tankers are covered in appendix h. inputs to the sea from maritime transportation operational discharges in international waters oil inputs into the sea from marine sources are naturally correlated to the number and types of vessels in operation in the marine environment. the number of tankers is significant because tankers are permitted discharges related to both cargo and propulsion machinery. the number of other ships is significant because they are permitted machinery related discharges. table e - 1 shows the comparison of the world ’ s seagoing merchant fleet of ships not less than 100 gt for 1971, 1980, 1989, and 1999 ( imo, 1990 and lloyd ’ s register, 1999 ). the international convention for prevention of pollution from ships ( marpol 73 / 78 ) regulates the design, construction, and operation of commercial vessels 100 gross tons ( gt ) and over worldwide with the goal of reducing or eliminating the discharge of oil and other pollutants into the sea. many aspects of marpol ( 73 / 78 ) are of particular relevance during the calculations of estimates of input of petroleum hydrocarbon to the sea associated with marine transportation, including : all commercial vessels between 100 and 400 gross tons are required to retain all oily waste on board, unless discharged at sea through special discharge control equipment as described below. tankers above 150 gross tons and all other commercial vessels over 400 gross tons are required to have installed oil / water separators ( ows ) and oil discharge monitoring systems ( odms ), which continuously record the oil


as described below. tankers above 150 gross tons and all other commercial vessels over 400 gross tons are required to have installed oil / water separators ( ows ) and oil discharge monitoring systems ( odms ), which continuously record the oil content of all overboard discharges from the bilges and, in the case of tankers, from any cargo slop tanks. for vessels above 10, 000 gross tons, if oil content in the discharge stream is 15 parts per million ( ppm ) or greater, an alarm is supposed to sound and the discharge is terminated. no tanker is permitted to discharge cargo oil effluent, even when using an odms, unless the vessel is underway between ports and more than 50 nautical miles from the nearest land. therefore, for the purposes of this report all operational discharges of cargo oil are table e - 1 summary of the world ’ s merchant fleet 1971 1980 1989 1999 number of merchant ships 55, 014 73, 832 76, 100 86, 817 number of tankers 6, 292 7, 112 6, 383 7, 270 total deadweight tonnes ( for tankers ) 169, 354, 743 339, 801, 719 247, 556, 000 298, 731, 000 note : non - propelled ships, ships of less than 100 gross tonnage, pleasure craft, naval auxiliaries, and ships restricted to harbor service or river / canal service are not included in the above. ocr for page 204 oil in the sea iii : inputs, fates, and effects presumed to occur outside the waters of the united states or any other nation. marpol has been adopted by nations with authority over 95 percent of the world ’ s merchant vessels. in the united states, marpol has been adopted through the act to prevent pollution from ships ( 33 u. s. code 1901 et seq. ) discharges of bilge water and certain cargo tank washings from tankers are the only permitted discharges under marpol. discharge of fuel oil sludge is prohibited. in order to assist vessels in complying with these prohibitions against discharge of excess quantities of oil and oil sludge into the water, waterfront facilities ( where commercial vessels are received ) are required to establish and maintain oil waste reception facilities. these oil waste reception facilities are suppose to have sufficient capacity to receive and process all oily wastes generated by all vessels calling at the facility. failure to have reception facility capability is supposed to result in vessels being denied entry to the facility.


facilities. these oil waste reception facilities are suppose to have sufficient capacity to receive and process all oily wastes generated by all vessels calling at the facility. failure to have reception facility capability is supposed to result in vessels being denied entry to the facility. for example, international maritime organization ’ s ( imo ) 1998 list of waste reception facilities includes 1047 such facilities in various ports in the united states. operational discharges from cargo tanks of oil tankers regulatory background during normal operations, certain tankers may discharge into the sea an amount of oil contained in the ballast and tank washings. under regulation 13 of marpol 73 / 78, tankers of 20, 000 tonnes deadweight and above are required to have segregated ballast tanks ( sbt ), dedicated clean tanks ( cbt ), and / or crude oil washing systems ( cow ), depending on the vessel type, when they were built and their size. regulation 13f adopted in 1992 restricts routing of ballast piping through cargo tanks and vice versa. these measures are designed to reduce operational and accidental pollution from tankers due to ballasting and tank washing. generally, crude oil carriers of 20, 000 deadweight and above and product tankers of 30, 000 tonnes deadweight and above delivered since 1983 must have sbt. segregated ballast tanks are ballast tanks that are completely separated from the cargo oil and fuel oil systems, and which are permanently allocated to the carriage of water ballast. sbt greatly reduces the likelihood of oily ballast discharge, as there are sufficient segregated ballast tanks for normal operation in ballast. for these vessels, ballast may be allocated to cargo tanks only when needed to insure the safety of the vessel in particularly severe weather. unlike sbt, the piping systems for clean ballast tanks ( cbt ) may be common or connected with the cargo oil pump and piping systems. there are only a few cbt tankers operating today. crude oil washing is a system of cleaning cargo tanks using the dissolving action of crude oil to reduce clingage and sludge. crude oil washing eliminates or reduces water washing, and thereby reduces operational oil pollution. regulation 9 of marpol limits the amount of oil that may be discharged into the sea to 1 / 15, 000 of the total cargo oil volume for tankers built prior to the implementation of marpol73 ( commonly referred to as pre - marpol tankers ), and 1 / 30, 000 of the total cargo oil volume for marpol tankers. the requirement that the oil content of discharged e


built prior to the implementation of marpol73 ( commonly referred to as pre - marpol tankers ), and 1 / 30, 000 of the total cargo oil volume for marpol tankers. the requirement that the oil content of discharged effluent cannot exceed 15 ppm has the practical effect of limiting operational discharge to amounts much less than these maximum values. table e - 2 gives the number and average deadweight for tankers in year 1999, and table e - 3 presents the age profile. more than two - thirds of the current fleet has sbt or double hull ( dh ) arrangements. marpol regulation 13g requires mandatory retirement for single hull tankers at 30 years of age. a revision to regulation 13g currently under review will phase out all pre - marpol tankers by 1 january 2007, at which time all marpol compliant tankers will have either sbt or dh arrangements. sbt and double hull crude oil carriers according to industry sources ( intertanko, unpublished ), sbt and double hull crude oil carriers will water wash 3 - 4 cargo tanks twice a year for inspection purposes. intertanko estimates an average of 6, 000 m3 of wash water per tanker per year is discharged. assuming an oil content of 15 ppm of oil, operational oil discharge is approximately 90 liters ( 0. 08 tonnes ) per year per tanker. assuming 2 / 3 of the 1, 782 crude oil carriers have sbt or dh arrangements, the total estimated discharge per year is as follows : sbt and dh crude oil carriers : 1, 782 • ( 2 / 3 ) • 0. 08 = 95 tonnes for non - compliance vessels, where the odms is not working properly or intentionally bypassed, the estimated average discharge is 38 tonnes per year per tanker. table e - 2 summary of number and deadweight of tankers for year 1999 ( lloyd ’ s register, 1999 ) no. of tankers deadweight ( millions of tonnes ) average deadweight ( tonnes ) crude oil tanker 1, 782 238. 5 133, 838 product tanker 5, 269 43. 5 8, 256 bulk dry / oil tanker 219 16. 7 76, 256 7, 270 298. 7 41, 087 ocr for page 205 oil in the sea iii : inputs, fates, and effects table e - 3 age profile of tankers as a function of tonnes deadweight ( world fleet statistics, 1999 ) crude oil carriers product tankers dry bulk / oil carriers total all tankers 0−4 years


iii : inputs, fates, and effects table e - 3 age profile of tankers as a function of tonnes deadweight ( world fleet statistics, 1999 ) crude oil carriers product tankers dry bulk / oil carriers total all tankers 0−4 years 22 percent 13 percent 7 percent 20 percent 5−9 years 25 percent 11 percent 19 percent 22 percent 10−14 years 11 percent 10 percent 21 percent 11 percent 15−19 years 8 percent 21 percent 25 percent 11 percent 20−24 years 28 percent 25 percent 24 percent 27 percent 25 + years 6 percent 20 percent 14 percent 9 percent total 100 percent 100 percent 100 percent 100 percent pre - marpol crude oil carriers as discussed previously, these tankers carry ballast in their cargo tanks. based on the lloyd ’ s register ( 1999 ) statistics, the average deadweight of crude oil carriers is 133, 844 tonnes. assuming 30 percent of the deadweight is discharged as arrival ballast with an oil content of 15 ppm, the average quantity of water ballast per voyage is 40, 153 tonnes and the average oil discharge is 588 liters or 0. 528 tonnes. an industry survey undertaken by intertanko indicates that 70 percent of all tankers carry a full load of cargo and 30 percent are partially loaded to an average of 60 percent of capacity. consumables equaling about 5 percent of deadweight are also carried. therefore, it is assumed that on the typical voyage a tanker carries cargo oil equal to approximately 80 percent of its deadweight. the average cargo oil moved on a crude oil carrier is 80 percent of 133, 844 tonnes or about 107, 075 tonnes, and the outflow factor, expressed as a fraction of the cargo oil moved, equals 0. 0528 / 107, 075 = 1 / 202, 797. a rounded value of 1 / 200, 000 is assumed for these calculations. this is a conservative estimate, as it assumes ballast is discharged at the maximum permissible oil content of 15 ppm, and also neglects the fact that many pre - marpol tankers carry a portion of their ballast in segregated ballast tanks. as reported by concordia maritime ab, an operator of a large fleet of pre - marpol vlccs ( very large crude carriers ), the average oil discharge from their pre - marpol vlccs is 300 liters per voyage. the average cargo volume for their vlccs is approximately 300, 000 m3. thus, the outflow factor attained by the concordia fleet is ( 300 / 1, 000 ) /


pre - marpol vlccs is 300 liters per voyage. the average cargo volume for their vlccs is approximately 300, 000 m3. thus, the outflow factor attained by the concordia fleet is ( 300 / 1, 000 ) / 300, 000 = 1 / 1, 000, 000. this is significantly better than the assumed factor of 1 / 200, 000, but the performance level achieved by concordia maritime is believed to exceed standard practice. for a crude oil washing system to be marpol certified, the oil found floating on top of the departure ballast after crude oil washing cannot exceed 0. 00085 times the volume of the tanks containing ballast. on this basis, the oil content in the ballast tanks for this average size tanker is 33. 3 tonnes. assuming non - compliance where the odms is not working properly or intentionally bypassed, the oil outflow factor becomes 33. 3 / 107, 075 = 1 / 3, 216. a rounded value of 1 / 3, 000 is assumed for these calculations. as summarized in table e - 4, the total outflow from non - sbt crude oil carriers is calculated as follows : the crude oil carriers are divided into the following size ranges : less than 20, 000 dwt 20, 000 to 125, 000 dwt ( includes panamax and aframax tankers ) 125, 000 to 175, 000 dwt ( includes suezmax tankers ) greater than 175, 000 dwt ( includes vlccs and ulccs ) within each size range, the number of crude oil carriers and the average deadweight are derived from 1999 statistics ( lloyd ’ s register, 1999 ). the number of voyages per annum for each size is estimated from industry sources ( intertanko, unpublished ). one - third of the crude oil carriers are assumed to regularly carry ballast in cargo oil tanks. multiplying the number of tankers in each size range by 1 / 3 provides the estimated number of non - sbt tankers in 1999. multiplying the average deadweight for each size by 80 percent provides the average quantity of cargo oil carried per voyage. the product of the number of non - sbt tankers, the quantity of cargo oil carried per voyage, and the number of voyages per annum provides the total cargo oil movement for each size range. summing these figures gives the estimated cargo oil movements on non - sbt tankers of 1, 000. 8 million tonnes per year. assuming an outflow factor of 1 / 200, 000 as described above


cargo oil movement for each size range. summing these figures gives the estimated cargo oil movements on non - sbt tankers of 1, 000. 8 million tonnes per year. assuming an outflow factor of 1 / 200, 000 as described above, the projected operational discharge in tonnes per year is as follows. non - sbt crude oil carriers : 1, 000, 800, 000 / 200, 000 = 5, 004 tonnes product tankers for 1999, the lloyd ’ s register data show a total of 5, 269 product tankers with an average deadweight of 8, 256 tonnes. their average cargo cubic is approximately 10, 000 m3. assuming the volume of the slop tanks equals 3 percent of the ocr for page 206 oil in the sea iii : inputs, fates, and effects table e - 4 calculation of operational cargo oil discharge from pre - marpol ( non - sbt ) crude oil carriers — worldwide less than 20, 000 dwt 20, 000 to 125, 000 dwt 125, 000 to 175, 000 dwt greater than 175, 000 dwt all non - sbt crude tkrs total no. of crude oil carriers 154 923 256 449 1, 782 assumed percent non - sbt 33. 3 percent 33. 3 percent 33. 3 percent 33. 3 percent 33. 3 percent no. of non - sbt crude oil carriers 51 308 85 150 594 average deadweight ( tonnes ) 5, 811 76, 561 144, 857 289, 235 133, 844 cargo oil as percent of deadweight 80 percent 80 percent 80 percent 80 percent — cargo oil per voyage ( tonnes ) 4, 649 61, 249 115, 885 231, 388 72, 732 voyages ( per year ) 40 30 15 8 23. 2 total cargo oil moved ( millions tonnes ) 9. 5 565. 9 147. 8 277. 7 1, 000. 8 discharge as percent of cargo oil moved 1 / 200, 000 1 / 200, 000 1 / 200, 000 1 / 200, 000 1 / 200, 000 estimated discharge ( tonnes / year ) 47 2, 830 739 1, 388 5, 004 oil carrying capacity of the ship, the average slop tank capacity is 300 m3. assuming the slop tanks when charged with water have sufficient water for tank washing without introduction of additional water into the system, and that the full contents of the slop tanks are discharged at 15 ppm oil content, the projected operational oil discharge


m3. assuming the slop tanks when charged with water have sufficient water for tank washing without introduction of additional water into the system, and that the full contents of the slop tanks are discharged at 15 ppm oil content, the projected operational oil discharge per voyage is about 4. 5 liters. this corresponds to an outflow factor less than 1 / 2, 000, 000. applying this factor for product tankers with sbt is a conservative assumption, as tank cleaning is not required in all circumstances, and cleaning is often carried out alongside a refinery where the slops can be transported ashore. in the case of non - sbt product tankers where ballast is carried in cargo tanks, the outflow factor of 1 / 200, 000 as applied for non - sbt crude oil carriers is appropriate. annual discharges for non - sbt product tankers are developed similar to the crude carriers, and are summarized in table e - 5. the projected operational discharge in tonnes per year is as follows. non - sbt product tankers : 382, 700, 000 / 200, 000 = 1, 914 tonnes assuming 0. 02 percent of the cargo oil remains onboard after offloading cargo, the average amount of oil remaining table e - 5 calculation of operational cargo oil discharge from pre - marpol ( non - sbt ) product tankers — worldwide less than 20, 000 dwt 20, 000 to 125, 000 dwt all non - sbt product tkrs total no. of product tankers 4, 545 724 5, 269 assumed percent non - sbt 33. 3 percent 33. 3 percent 33. 3 percent no. of non - sbt product tankers 1515 241 1756 average deadweight ( tonnes ) 2, 894 41, 911 8, 255 cargo oil as percent of deadweight 80 percent 80 percent — cargo oil per voyage ( tonnes ) 2, 315 33, 529 5, 643 voyages ( per annum ) 40 30 38. 6 total cargo oil moved ( millions tonnes ) 140. 3 242. 4 382. 7 discharge as percent of cargo oil moved 1 / 200, 000 1 / 200, 000 1 / 200, 000 estimated discharge ( tonnes / year ) 702 1, 212 1, 914 ocr for page 207 oil in the sea iii : inputs, fates, and effects onboard the product tankers is 2 m3 or about 1. 8 tonnes. for non - compliance where the odms is not working properly or intentionally bypassed, the oil outflow


page 207 oil in the sea iii : inputs, fates, and effects onboard the product tankers is 2 m3 or about 1. 8 tonnes. for non - compliance where the odms is not working properly or intentionally bypassed, the oil outflow factor becomes 2 / 10, 000 = 1 / 5, 000. this 1 / 5, 000 factor is applied for both sbt and non - sbt product tankers. this is a conservative estimate, as it assumes that all oil remaining onboard the non - compliant tankers is discharged at sea. the oil discharge monitoring systems ( odms ) on clean product tankers have a higher degree of reliability as compared to vessels carrying persistent oils, and the discharge due to equipment failure should be less. summary of operational discharges of cargo oil from tankers table e - 6 summarizes total operational discharges assuming all tankers operate in compliance with marpol73 / 78. the estimated discharge per year is 7, 396 tonnes. in the 1990 study on inputs of petroleum into the marine environment ( imo 1990 ), the following estimates were made with regard to tankers complying with marpol maximum discharge quantities : greater than 150, 000 dwt 99 percent compliance 75, 000 to 150, 000 dwt 95 percent compliance 40, 000 to 75, 000 dwt 85 percent compliance 20, 000 to 40, 000 dwt 85 percent compliance less than 20, 000 dwt 80 percent compliance the rationale for this degree of non - compliance is that 1 ) not all tankers fly the flag of a state that is party to marpol 73 / 78, 2 ) not all tankers that fly the flag of a state party to marpol 73 / 78 operate in compliance with the discharge criteria ; 3 ) there will be equipment failures onboard ships, and, 4 ) there are not adequate reception facilities worldwide. the higher degree of compliance allocated to the larger tankers was justified on the basis that the large majority of the larger tankers fly the flag of a state party to marpol 73 / 78, and the majority of larger tankers are on longer voyages which facilitates compliance with marpol 73 / 78. since 1990, tanker operations have come under much closer scrutiny. port state oversight has increased, and regulations such as the international ship management code ( ism ) and the standards for training and certification of watchkeepers ( stcw ) have encouraged more diligent operations. in view of the above, the assumed compliance rates have been increased to the following values. greater than 125


management code ( ism ) and the standards for training and certification of watchkeepers ( stcw ) have encouraged more diligent operations. in view of the above, the assumed compliance rates have been increased to the following values. greater than 125, 000 dwt 99 percent compliance 20, 000 to 125, 000 dwt 95 percent compliance less than 20, 000 dwt 90 percent compliance table e - 7 summarizes total operational discharges assuming these levels of compliance with marpol73 / 78. the estimated discharge per year is 36, 437 tonnes ( 10, 712, 461 gallons ). these discharges are applicable to international waters. discharge of oily water within 50 nautical miles from shore is prohibited. intentional discharges within u. s. and canadian waters are believed to be small due to rigorous enforcement programs. bilge oil and fuel oil inputs machinery space bilge discharges from tankers the large majority of commercial vessels above 100 gt in size are motor ships. the 1990 international maritime organization report estimated the average production of bilge oil at 12 gallons per day for a 20, 000 hp plant. advancements in the design and manufacture of engines and pumps, fitting of coamings around pumps and other sources of oil on new vessels, locating of the purifiers into separate spaces, and other design improvements have brought about a table e - 6 calculation of operational cargo oil discharge from tankers assuming full compliance with marpol 73 / 78 crude oil carriers dh or sbt crude oil carriers without sbt product tankers dh or sbt product tankers without sbt no. of tankers 1, 188 594 3, 513 1, 756 discharge per tanker ( tonnes per year ) 0. 08 — — — oil movements ( millions of tonnes / year ) — 1, 000. 8 765. 5 382. 7 outflow factor — 1 / 200, 000 1 / 2, 000, 000 1 / 200, 000 operational discharge ( tonnes / year ) 95 5, 004 383 1, 914 total discharge ( tonnes / year ) 7, 396 ocr for page 208 oil in the sea iii : inputs, fates, and effects table e - 7 calculation of operational cargo oil discharge from tankers assuming partial non - compliance with marpol 73 / 78 — worldwide crude oil carriers dh or sbt crude oil carriers without sbt product tankers dh or sbt product tankers without sbt marpol compliant no. of tankers 1, 140 570 3, 187


compliance with marpol 73 / 78 — worldwide crude oil carriers dh or sbt crude oil carriers without sbt product tankers dh or sbt product tankers without sbt marpol compliant no. of tankers 1, 140 570 3, 187 1, 593 discharge per tanker ( tonnes per year ) 0. 08 — — — - oil movements ( millions tonnes / year ) — 965. 1 713. 3 356. 7 outflow factor — 1 / 200, 000 1 / 2, 000, 000 1 / 200, 000 operational discharge ( tonnes / year ) 91 4, 825 357 1, 783 total discharge from compliant tkrs 7, 056 non - compliant no. of tankers 48 24 326 163 discharge per tanker ( tonnes per year ) 38 — — — - oil movements ( millions of tonnes / year ) — 35. 8 52. 1 26. 1 outflow factor — 1 / 3, 000 1 / 5, 000 1 / 5, 000 operational discharge ( tonnes / year ) 1824 11, 923 10, 422 5, 211 total discharge from non - compliant tankers 29, 381 total discharge ( tonnes / year ) 36, 437 total discharge ( gallons / year ) 10, 257, 685 reduction in bilge oil generation for modern ships. for these calculations, a rate of 5 gallons per day for a 20, 000 hp plant, or 0. 25 gallons per 1, 000 hp per day is assumed. an estimation of bilge oil generation for tankers is provided in table e - 8. the number of tankers is taken from the lloyd ’ s register data for 1999, and the horsepower is estimated based on the distribution of tanker sizes. assuming 0. 25 gallons of bilge oil is generated per 1, 000 hp per day, and that the tankers operate 350 days per year, it is estimated that a total of 19, 119 tonnes ( 5. 3 million gallons ) of bilge oil is generated per year. on crude oil tankers, oily bilge water is routinely transferred to the cargo slops system, which includes an oily water separator system where most of the oil is settled out and returned for use on the tanker. periodically the water collected through this system must be discharged overboard through an oil discharge monitoring system set to alarm and shut down at 15 ppm. product tankers are not able to recycle as much oil but, in any case, oil content of all overboard discharge is restricted to 15 ppm. assuming a


an oil discharge monitoring system set to alarm and shut down at 15 ppm. product tankers are not able to recycle as much oil but, in any case, oil content of all overboard discharge is restricted to 15 ppm. assuming a 15 ppm oil content for bilge discharges, it is estimated that less than 0. 2 percent of bilge oil is discharged overboard. table e - 9 summarizes the expected bilge oil discharge for tankers. the rate of marpol compliance is assumed as described in the previous section on operation discharges, and non - compliant vessels are assumed to discharge all of their bilge oil overboard. the discharge from marpol compliant tankers is very small — a total of only 34 tonnes per year. total discharge from both compliant and non - compliant tankers is estimated at 1, 129 tonnes ( 313, 621 gallons ) per year. this is considered to provide a conservative estimate of legally permitted discharges. steam tankers generate less oil to the bilges. because steam tankers make up less than 5 percent of the world fleet, the above calculations assumed that all tankers are motorships. machinery space bilge discharges from non - tankers according to lloyd ’ s register data there were 79, 547 non - tankers above 100 gt in size operating commercially around the world in 1999. these consisted of 38, 732 commercial vessels with an average main propulsion power of about 7, 500 hp, and 40, 815 other vessels with an average power of about 500 hp. bilge oil discharges for non - tankers are summarized in table e - 10. a bilge oil generation rate of 0. 25 gallons / 1000 hp per day was applied. vessels between 100 gt and 400 gt, which comprise some 54 percent of the non - tanker fleet, are not required to have oily water discharge equipment installed. although these vessels are not permitted to discharge bilge effluent, it is believed that there is a significant level of non - compliance. to account for this, 15 percent of the commercial vessels and 30 percent of the other vessels were assumed to not comply with marpol regulations. total bilge oil discharge from both compliant and non - compliant vessels other than tankers is estimated at 15, 607 tonnes ( 4. 0 million gallons ) per year. fuel oil sludge from all vessels based on 1998 data collected by intertanko ( unpublished ), the world annual use of fuel oil from marine application is estimated to be 130 million tonnes of