( 1902 - 1972 ) became interested in the native people of the eastern sierra as a student at deep springs college. he spent much of his life studying them and recording this information. by talking to older members of the tribal community and observing their lives, steward learned what people ate, where they camped, and how they interacted before europeans arrived. he used this information to reconstruct the traditional lifeway that had disappeared two generations before. steward, indian life in the owens valley of the eastern sierra was different from neighboring places. populations were bigger and denser because there was more to eat in this rich environment. as a result, people lived in permanent villages with as many as 200 people. each of these villages controlled a particular part of the valley and the rights to hunt and gather food there. in fact, some pine nut areas may have been “ owned ” by individual families, like land is today. some villages also flooded plots of land to increase the growth of seed and nut irrigation and other village managed by a headman, who served a little like a mayor, but inherited the office from his father or other relative. the life that steward described for owens valley is more complex than other parts of the great basin and many hunter - gatherer anthropologists have debated the reason for this since steward wrote it in the 1930s. archaeological work at sites has also provided evidence that some of the things steward reported happened only in historic times, not


people get over most minor sad moods as a matter of course, but clinical depression is another thing entirely. it can come on without warning or as a response to difficult situations and experiences. it can hang around for several weeks and remit spontaneously, or it can linger for years. if it does remit, it can come back to bite again at a later time. it is not an overstatement to say that depression can be utterly disabling in its severe forms. scientists have labored for years to find effective remedies for depression, and some very significant treatment approaches have been developed. the first of these to become available was psychotherapy, which emerged at the turn of the last century. the original format of psychotherapy ( psychoanalysis a la freud ) was limited in its efficacy and availability. it was expensive, involving frequent sessions with the therapist, focused on people ' s past more than their present symptoms, and was only capable of truly helping a minority of patients. but these failings did not take away from the core truth to be found therein : that some forms of mental difficulty, minor depressions among them, were caused by ' inner conflicts ' and that fixing those ' inner conflicts ' through talking could produce symptom relief. the watchword for any treatment is how well it works ; how much it can help fix a problem. psychotherapy went through an evolutionary process throughout the next hundred years, changing in format and focus, and undergoing systematic scientific study. what has emerged are modern forms, some specialized just for depression, and known to work well for many of people who undertake them. cognitive behavioral therapy for depression, for instance is one such result. it is practical, short term in duration and symptom - focused, aimed at helping people to feel better now rather than repair their damaged childhoods. its designers wanted to isolate the active ingredients of effective therapy and concentrating them into an easier to swallow ( and afford ) package, and in this goal they succeeded. therapy is still expensive and still demanding on the attention span, but today it also largely works. a pharmaceutical revolution occurred during this therapy evolutionary process. the ' tricyclics ' – the first widely available medicines with anti - depressant effects - went on the market at mid - century. these medicines came complete with a range of side effects and were fairly lethal when taken en - mass ( as in an overdose or suicide attempt ) but they did help lift depressed mood in many cases and so were utilized. where previously people had seen depression as a moral


came complete with a range of side effects and were fairly lethal when taken en - mass ( as in an overdose or suicide attempt ) but they did help lift depressed mood in many cases and so were utilized. where previously people had seen depression as a moral failing, or weakness, over time it became to be seen as a biological illness. a newer and safer generation of such medicines – the ssri ' s – was introduced in the 1980s and became even more widely used. in addition to being safer, the newer generation of medicines were also in some ways more focused on specific brain chemical systems implicated for depression. their name says it all – “ selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors ”. they were, in fact, a class of medicines designed specifically to target the neurotransmitter serotonin. still another approach to treating depression was developed during the 1930s and 40s when it was noted that some psychiatric patients seemed to show symptom improvements after experiencing seizures similar to those that occur naturally in epilepsy. at first the seizures were initiated through chemical means ( e. g., by manipulating patient ' s insulin levels ), but very shortly on it was found to be safer and easier to produce the required seizures with electricity. thus was born electro convulsive therapy or ect. ect remains very much in use today, but for the most part it is reserved for the most severe, treatment resistant cases of depression. though safer than ever, it still involves induction of seizures, and this is still less safe than psychotherapy, and anti - depressant medication. useful as they are, anti - depressant medications, psychotherapy, and ect are blunt instruments, in large part having their effect across the entire brain. what is needed for the future are more precisely targeted treatments that can effect specific areas and subsystems of the brain primarily responsible for allowing depression ( and similar illnesses ) to develop and be maintained while sparing others. for example, antidepressant side - effects like erectile dysfunctional and dampening of sexual arousal might be avoided with a more specifically targeted formulation. progress towards more targeted treatments is ongoing. just this past week, a news report suggests that a next step towards that destination may have arrived. a team of scientists in canada have successfully treated several patients with highly treatment resistant depressions by using direct deep brain stimulation. instead of broadly treating patients with talk, chemicals or electricity, these doctors have implanted electrodes into a particular region of several patient ' s brains - the subgen


successfully treated several patients with highly treatment resistant depressions by using direct deep brain stimulation. instead of broadly treating patients with talk, chemicals or electricity, these doctors have implanted electrodes into a particular region of several patient ' s brains - the subgenual cingulate ( ba25 ) region – they believe to be most responsible for sustaining severe depression. wires connect the implanted electrodes to a power source which continually drips small amounts of electrical stimulation directly into that specific part of the brain, forcing it and areas it connects to within the brain to activate differently. though electricity is involved, this is not like ect. no seizures are created. rather, direct application of electricity stimulates the tissues at ba25 to activate in a more normal pattern than before. because the whole brain is connected together, the whole brain changes how it activates for the better as a result of the beneficial changes at ba25. six patients were treated with this electrode approach. according to the report ( appearing this month in the journal ' neuron ' ), four of the patients have benefited considerably. this remarkable finding is all the more remarkable because these same patients were not responsive to more commonly available treatments. the strong suggestion is that faulty activity at ba25 is a cause of the more general brain dysfunction involved in severe depression, but knowing this for sure will require a lot more research and replication. this direct stimulation of ba25 technique is a research protocol for the time being. it is not available at your local doctor ' s office. much research needs to be done to understand the risks and the benefits of such a treatment. in all likelihood, direct ba25 stimulation will never be a widely available treatment. for one thing, brain surgery is involved ; not something you ' d want to go through if there were alternatives. for another, the area that seems to be dysfunctional in severe treatment resistant depression may not be dysfunctional in more run of the mill depressions. to the extent that this becomes an available treatment it will likely be reserved for those patients who aren ' t helped by other means, just as gastric stapling surgery is reserved for those obese people who cannot lose weight through other means. more likely to be available in the near future are similar brain stimulation techniques including electrical vagus nerve stimulation and ' transcranial ' magnetic stimulation. like the ba25 technique, these other experimental techniques apparently produce antidepressant effects by stimulating focal areas of the brain with current ( magnetic fields ). although they are not quite so targeted as described in the


there are some simple habits you can adopt that, if performed consistently, may dramatically reduce the chances that the information on your computer will be lost or corrupted. how can you minimize the access other people have to your information? you may be able to easily identify people who could, legitimately or not, gain physical access to your computer — family members, roommates, co - workers, members of a cleaning crew, and maybe others. identifying the people who could gainremote access to your computer becomes much more difficult. as long as you have a computer and connect it to a network, you are vulnerable to someone or something else accessing or corrupting your information ; however, you can develop habits that make it more difficult. - lock your computer when you are away from it. even if you only step away from your computer for a few minutes, it ' s enough time for someone else to destroy or corrupt your information. locking your computer prevents another person from being able to simply sit down at your computer and access all of your information. - disconnect your computer from the internet when you aren ' t using it. the development of technologies such as dsl and cable modems have made it possible for users to be online all the time, but this convenience comes with risks. the likelihood that attackers or viruses scanning the network for available computers will target your computer becomes much higher if your computer is always connected. depending on what method you use to connect to the internet, disconnecting may mean disabling a wireless connection, turning off your computer or modem, or disconnecting cables. when you are connected, make sure that you have a firewall enabled ( see understanding firewalls for more information ). - evaluate your security settings. most software, including browsers and email programs, offers a variety of features that you can tailor to meet your needs and requirements. enabling certain features to increase convenience or functionality may leave you more vulnerable to being attacked. it is important to examine the settings, particularly the security settings, and select options that meet your needs without putting you at increased risk. if you install a patch or a new version of the software, or if you hear of something that might affect your settings, reevaluate your settings to make sure they are still appropriate ( see understanding patches, safeguarding your data, and evaluating your web browser ' s security settings for more information ). what other steps can you take? sometimes the threats to your information aren ' t from other people but from natural or technological causes. although


see understanding patches, safeguarding your data, and evaluating your web browser ' s security settings for more information ). what other steps can you take? sometimes the threats to your information aren ' t from other people but from natural or technological causes. although there is no way to control or prevent these problems, you can prepare for them and try to minimize the damage. - protect your computer against power surges and brief outages. aside from providing outlets to plug in your computer and all of its peripherals, some power strips protect your computer against power surges. many power strips now advertise compensation if they do not effectively protect your computer. power strips alone will not protect you from power outages, but there are products that do offer an uninterruptible power supply when there are power surges or outages. during a lightning storm or construction work that increases the odds of power surges, consider shutting your computer down and unplugging it from all power sources. - back up all of your data. whether or not you take steps to protect yourself, there will always be a possibility that something will happen to destroy your data. you have probably already experienced this at least once — losing one or more files due to an accident, a virus or worm, a natural event, or a problem with your equipment. regularly backing up your data on a cd or network reduces the stress and other negative consequences that result from losing important information ( see real - world warnings keep you safe online for more information ). determining how often to back up your data is a personal decision. if you are constantly adding or changing data, you may find weekly backups to be the best alternative ; if your content rarely changes, you may decide that your backups do not need to be as frequent. you don ' t need to back up software that you own on cd - rom or dvd - rom — you can reinstall the software from the original media if necessary. both the national cyber security alliance and us - cert have identified this topic as one of the top tips for home users. authors : mindi mcdowell, allen householder


did nasa have a dirty little secret about the apollo 12 mission? a team of researchers have located and reviewed nasa ' s archived apollo - era 16 millimeter film - - and have come up with a definitive answer to the persistent claim in both the press and on the web that a microbe survived 2. 5 years on the moon. apollo 12 was launched at 11 : 22 : 00 a. m. est on november 14, 1969. the mission plan called for a landing in the oceanus procellarum - ocean of storms - area. this site was near the surveyor iii and other earlier unmanned missions to the moon. it landed there almost five days after their launch. they collected rock samples, mostly basalt and igneous rocks. the surveyor iii camera - team thought they had detected a microbe that had lived on the moon for all those years, " but they only detected their own contamination, " rummel added. rummel, along with colleagues judith allton of nasa ’ s johnson space center and don morrison, a former space agency lunar receiving laboratory scientist, recently presented their co - authored paper : " a microbe on the moon? surveyor iii and lessons learned for future sample return missions. " elsewhere, while the apollo moon " microbes " were being debunked, research by a team of scientists at the university of london reinforced a theory that evidence of life on the early earth might be found in rocks on the moon that were ejected during the late heavy bombard period - - about four billion years ago when the earth was subjected to a rain of asteroids and comets. given that material from early mars has been found in meteorites on earth, it certainly seems reasonable that tens of thousands of tons of terrestrial meteorites may have arrived there during the late heavy bombardment. research by a team under ian crawford and emily baldwin of the birkbeck college school of earth sciences at the university of london in 2008 used sophisticated technology to simulate the pressures any such terrestrial meteorites might have experienced during their arrival on the lunar surface. in many cases, the pressures could be low enough to permit the survival of biological markers, making the lunar surface a productive place to look for evidence of early terrestrial life. any such markers are unlikely to remain on earth, where they would have been erased long ago by more than three billion years of volcanic activity, later meteor impacts, or simple erosion by wind and rain. however, meteorites arriving on earth are decelerated by passing through our atmosphere. as a result, while the surface of the meteorite may


more than three billion years of volcanic activity, later meteor impacts, or simple erosion by wind and rain. however, meteorites arriving on earth are decelerated by passing through our atmosphere. as a result, while the surface of the meteorite may melt, the interior is often preserved intact. could a meteorite from earth survive a high - velocity impact on the lunar surface? crawford and baldwin used finite element analysis to simulate the behavior of two different types of meteors impacting the lunar surface. crawford and baldwin ' s group simulated their meteors as cubes, and calculated pressures at 500 points on the surface of the cube as it impacted the lunar surface at a wide range of impact angles and velocities. in the most extreme case they tested ( vertical impact at a speed of some 11, 180 mph, or 5 kilometers per second ), crawford reports that " some portions " of the simulated meteorite would have melted, but " the bulk of the projectile, and especially the trailing half, was subjected to much lower pressures. " at impact velocities of 2. 5 kilometers per second or less, " no part of the projectile even approached a peak pressure at which melting would be expected. " crawford concluded that biomarkers ranging from the presence of organic carbon to " actual microfossils " could have survived the relatively low pressures experienced by the trailing edge of a large meteorite impacting the moon. crawford suggests that the key to finding terrestrial material is to look for water locked inside, these hydrates, can be detected using infrared ( ir ) spectroscopy. many minerals on earth are formed in processes involving water, volcanic activity, or both. by contrast, the moon lacks both water and volcanoes. crawford and his co - authors believe that a high - resolution ir sensor in lunar orbit could be used to detect any large ( over one meter ) hydrate meteorites on the lunar surface, while a lunar rover with such a sensor " could search for smaller meteorites exposed at the surface. " crawford suggests that it might be necessary to dig below the surface to find terrestrial meteorites. he adds that collecting samples, observing them on the lunar surface, and picking those that warrant a return to earth for detailed analysis " would be greatly facilitated by a human presence on the moon. " the last u. s. astronaut to set foot on the moon, dr. harrison schmitt, was a geologist. with nasa ' s plans for a return to the moon later in this century shelved, it looks like it will be


basic facts about giraffes giraffes ( giraffa camelopardalis ) are the world ' s tallest mammals. they are well known for their long necks, long legs, and spotted patterns. © giraud patrick / wikimedia commons their long necks help giraffes eat leaves from tall trees, typically acacia trees. if they need to, giraffes can go for several days without water. instead of drinking, giraffes stay hydrated by the moisture from leaves. giraffes are non - territorial, social animals. they travel in large herds that are not organized in any way. herds may consist of any combination of sexes or ages. giraffes have small " horns " or knobs on top of their heads that grow to be about five inches long. these knobs are used to protect the head in fights. female giraffes typically give birth to one calf after a fifteen - month gestation period. during the first week of its life, the mother carefully guards her calf. young giraffes are very vulnerable and cannot defend themselves. while mothers feed, the young are kept in small nursery groups. giraffes are hunted for their meat, coat and tails. the tail is prized for good luck bracelets, fly whisks and string for sewing beads. the coat is used for shield coverings. habitat destruction and fragmentation are also threats to giraffe populations. height : male giraffes can be up to 19 feet tall ; females around 16 feet. weight : males weigh between 2, 400 and 3, 000 pounds ; females between 1, 600 and 2, 600 pounds. lifespan : healthy giraffes live about 25 years in the wild.


professor robert edwards awarded the 2010 nobel prize for medicine. cambridge physiologist prof edwards, now 85, and the late patrick steptoe, a gynaecologic surgeon, developed ivf technology in which egg cells are fertilised outside the body and implanted in the womb. dr steptoe died in 1988. the groundbreaking work led to the birth of the world ’ s first test tube baby, louise brown, in 1978. mike macnamee, chief executive of bourn hall, near cambridge, the ivf clinic which prof edwards founded, said : ” bob edwards is one of our greatest scientists. his inspirational work in the early ’ 60s led to a breakthrough that has enhanced the lives of millions of people worldwide. ” bob edwards is held in great affection by everyone that has worked with him and was treated by him. i am really pleased that my great mentor, colleague and friend has been recognised in this way. ” prof edwards has previously said : ” the most important thing in life is having a child. nothing is more special than a child. ” one of his proudest moments was discovering that 1, 000 ivf babies had been born at bourn hall since louise brown. he recalled the thrill of relaying this to a seriously ill dr steptoe, shortly before dr steptoe ’ s death. ” i ’ ll never forget the look of joy in his eyes, ” prof edwards said. article courtesy of telegraph. co. ok


there hasn ’ t been a ton of news coming our of the phoenix mars mission, which landed in late may and is still struggling with soil delivery to on - board labs. scientists worked with engineers last weekend, examining how the icy soil on mars interacts with the scoop on the lander ’ s robotic arm. they are experimenting with various techniques to deliver a sample to one of the instruments. “ it has really been a science experiment just learning how to interact with the icy soil on mars — how it reacts with the scoop, its stickiness, whether it ’ s better to have it in the shade or the sunlight, ” said phoenix principal investigator peter smith of the university of arizona. a month ago, it was announced that initial chemistry experiments had yielded useful information. “ we are awash in chemistry data, ” said michael hecht of nasa ’ s jet propulsion laboratory, lead scientist for the microscopy, electrochemistry and conductivity analyzer, or meca, instrument on phoenix. “ we ’ re trying to understand what is the chemistry of wet soil on mars, what ’ s dissolved in it, how acidic or alkaline it is. ” three more wet - chemistry cells are still available for use later in the mission. the martian soil appears to be an analog to soils found in the upper dry valleys in antarctica. the soil just below the surface on the landing site is described as very basic, with a ph of between eight and nine. compounds of salts found there include magnesium, sodium, potassium and chloride. another analytical instrument, the thermal and evolved - gas analyzer ( tega ), has baked its first soil sample to 1, 000 degrees celsius ( 1, 800 degrees fahrenheit ). tega scientists have begun analyzing the gases released at a range of temperatures to identify the chemical make - up of soil and ice. analysis is a weeks - long process. would the conditions present support life? well, nothing has been discovered yet that would rule that out.


american university researchers are considering how a common medicine can assist women to lose weight and keep diabetes at bay. women ’ s health professor susan davis is leading a study into how metformin affects women ' s health. it is a long - established drug which could have a new purpose in enabling overweight women to reset their metabolism. being overweight can alter your metabolism, which can make losing weight even harder, with those who are obese being more susceptible to becoming diabetic. it is possible to help those who are considerably overweight, yet have not developed high blood sugar, to turn round their metabolism and enabled them to lose weight. metformin has been used for treatment of hormonal problems and diabetics, so there would appear to be no safety issues. the researchers consider that this medication enhances healthy metabolism. prof davis needs 120 non - diabetic women 35 to 65 with a body mass index 30 to 40, or a waist measurement of 88cm plus. metabolism is a key issue for diabetes tue, 23 aug 2011 recommended linksdiabetic travel insurance quote for a single person diabetic travel insurance quote for a couple diabetic travel insurance quote for a family diabetic travel insurance quote for a single parent blood sugar level ranges low carb diet using insulin abroad travelling long haul holiday travel insurance hot dog intake related to very high risk of developing diabetes how to mangage pre diabetes more effectively new zealand is a hotbed for diabetes diabetes can cause the brain to shrink research study relates diabetes to coeliac disease middle age spread increases your risk of diabetes increasing muscle mass can reduce risk of diabetes the menopause does not affect diabetes vitamin d reduces likelihood of diabetes low body fat might not keep you protected from diabetes high statin doses raises likelihood of developing diabetes diabetes research indicates that life takes a tumble at 41 diabetes linked to heart problems just twenty per cent of diabetics are in control of their diabetes drug for diabetes could fight dementia bmi indicates diabetes later in life slight changes in diet can reduce risk of diabetes diabetes could increase risk of cancer diabetes during pregnancy can cause autism pre emptive pills to be given pregnant mums to keep diabetes at bay


australian kyle cummings had found a small collection of eggs in his garden, which later hatched into a mass of deadly snakes. reptile carer trish prendergast said that cummings could have been killed if he had handled the eastern brown snakes - the world ' s most venomous species on land after australia ' s inland taipan. she went on to say : " he had no idea what kind of eggs they were. " he put the eggs into a plastic takeout food container and stashed them in his bedroom cupboard, where his horrified mother, donna sim, found them. " seven had hatched, but the snakes remained trapped under the container ' s lid. the remaining two eggs were probably infertile and were rotten. " eastern brown snakes, which may grow to more than six and a half feet long, usually stay with their eggs but sometimes leave for short periods in order to feed. prendergast said : " he ' s very lucky he didn ' t encounter the mother while he was taking her eggs. that also could have been fatal. " the boy ' s mother told the townsville bulletin newspaper : " i was pretty shocked, particularly because i don ' t like snakes. " > schoolboy rescues terrapin from ice > snake discovered on plane in glasgow


| part of a series on the | | history of ireland | | peoples and polities | northern ireland is today one of the four countries of the united kingdom, ( although it is also described by official sources as a province or a region ) situated in the northeast of the island of ireland, having been created as a separate legal entity on 3 may 1921, under the government of ireland act 1920. the new autonomous northern ireland was formed from six of the nine counties of ulster : four counties with unionist majorities, and fermanagh and tyrone, two of the five ulster counties which had nationalist majorities. in large part unionists, at least in the northeast, supported its creation while nationalists were opposed. subsequently, on 6 december 1922, the whole island of ireland became an independent dominion known as the irish free state but northern ireland immediately exercised its right to opt out of the new dominion. resistance to home rule once the bedrock of irish resistance to the advance of the english state in ireland, the plantation of ulster by scottish and english colonists resulted in northern ireland following a different economic, religious and cultural trajectory to the rest of the island. from the late 19th century, the majority of people living on the island of ireland wanted the british government to grant some form of self - rule to ireland. the irish nationalist party sometimes held the balance of power in the house of commons in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a position from which it sought to gain home rule, which would have given ireland autonomy in internal affairs, without breaking up the united kingdom. two bills granting home rule to ireland were passed by the house of commons in 1886 and 1893, but rejected by the house of lords. with the passing of the parliament act 1911 by the liberal party government ( which reduced the powers of the lords from striking down parliamentary bills to delaying their implementation for two years ) it was apparent that home rule would probably come into force in the next five years. the home rule party had been campaigning for this for almost fifty years. however, a significant minority was vehemently opposed to the idea and wished to retain the union in its existing form. irish unionists had been agitating successfully against home rule since the 1880s, and on 28 september 1912, the leader of the northern unionists, edward carson, introduced the ulster covenant in belfast, pledging to exclude ulster from home rule. the ulster covenant was signed by 450, 000 men, some in their own blood. whilst precipitating a split with the unionist community in the south and west ( including a particularly


covenant in belfast, pledging to exclude ulster from home rule. the ulster covenant was signed by 450, 000 men, some in their own blood. whilst precipitating a split with the unionist community in the south and west ( including a particularly sizeable community in dublin ), it gave the northern unionists a feasible goal to aim for. by the early 20th century, belfast ( the largest city in ulster ) had become the largest city in ireland. its industrial economy, with strong engineering and shipbuilding sectors, was closely integrated with that of great britain. belfast was a substantially protestant town with a catholic minority of less than 30 %, concentrated in the west of the city. a third home rule bill was introduced by the liberal minority government in 1912. however, the conservative party was sympathetic to the unionist case, and the political voice of unionism was strong in parliament. after heavy amendment by the house of lords, the commons agreed in 1914 to allow four counties of ulster to vote themselves out of its provisions and then only for six years. throughout 1913 and 1914, paramilitary " volunteer armies " were recruited and armed, firstly the unionist ulster volunteer force, and in response, the nationalist irish volunteers. but events in europe were to take precedence : in what was to be the opening shot of world war i, gavrilo princip assassinated archduke franz ferdinand of austria in sarajevo. home rule was delayed for the duration of what was expected to be a short war and unionist and nationalist leaders agreed to encourage their volunteers to join the british army. the 36th ( ulster ) division, which was to suffer so severely at the somme in 1916, was formed predominantly from the uvf. nationalists joined in great numbers as well, with " old " irish regiments from munster and leinster being greatly strengthened by these recruits. 1916 rising and aftermath during world war i, tensions continued to mount in ireland. hardline irish separatists ( known at the time as irish irelanders and later as republicans ) rejected home rule entirely because it involved maintaining the connection with britain. they retained control of one faction of the irish volunteers, and in easter, 1916 led by thomas clarke and james connolly and others attempted a rebellion in dublin. after summary trials, the british government had the leaders executed for treason. the government blamed the small sinn fein party, which had had little to do with it. the execution of the leaders of the rebellion turned out to be a propaganda coup for militant republicanism, and sinn fein ' s previously negligible popular support grew. the surviving leaders of the irish


party, which had had little to do with it. the execution of the leaders of the rebellion turned out to be a propaganda coup for militant republicanism, and sinn fein ' s previously negligible popular support grew. the surviving leaders of the irish volunteers infiltrated the party and assumed leadership in 1917. ( the irish volunteers themselves would later become the irish republican army in 1919. ) republicans gained further support when the british government attempted to introduce conscription to ireland in 1918. sinn fein was at the forefront of organising the campaign against conscription. when the veterans of world war i, on both sides of the political divide, returned from the front in 1918 and 1919, they came back as battle - hardened soldiers rather than the rag - tag yeomanry they had emerged from at the start of the war. in the general election of 1918, the irish parliamentary party lost almost all of its seats to sinn fein. unionists won 23 of 30 seats in the future northern ireland, and five of the six ipp members returned in ireland were elected in ulster as a result of local voting pacts with sinn fein. guerrilla warfare raged across ireland in the aftermath of the election, leading to the anglo - irish war. although lower in intensity in the north than in the south, the conflict was complicated by involving not only the irish republican army ( ira ) and the british army and royal irish constabulary but the ulster volunteer force ( uvf ) as well. the fourth and final home rule bill ( the government of ireland act 1920 ) partitioned the island into northern ireland ( six northeastern counties ) and southern ireland ( the rest of the island ). some unionists such as sir edward carson opposed partition, seeing it as a betrayal of unionism as a pan - irish political entity. most nationalists also opposed partition. for three days from 6 december 1922 northern ireland stopped being part of the united kingdom and became part of the newly created irish free state. this remarkable constitutional episode arose because of the anglo - irish treaty and the legislation introduced to give that treaty legal effect. the treaty was given effect in the united kingdom through the irish free state constitution act 1922. that act established a new dominion for the whole island of ireland but also allowed northern ireland to opt out. under article 12 of the treaty, northern ireland could exercise its opt out by presenting an address to the king requesting not to be part of the irish free state. once the treaty was ratified, the parliament of northern ireland had one month to exercise this opt out during which month the irish free state government could not legislate for northern


an address to the king requesting not to be part of the irish free state. once the treaty was ratified, the parliament of northern ireland had one month to exercise this opt out during which month the irish free state government could not legislate for northern ireland, holding the free state ’ s effective jurisdiction in abeyance for a month. on 7 december 1922 ( the day after the establishment of the irish free state ) the parliament of northern ireland demonstrated its lack of hesitation by resolving to make the following address to the king so as to opt out of the irish free state : " most gracious sovereign, we, your majesty ' s most dutiful and loyal subjects, the senators and commons of northern ireland in parliament assembled, having learnt of the passing of the irish free state constitution act, 1922, being the act of parliament for the ratification of the articles of agreement for a treaty between great britain and ireland, do, by this humble address, pray your majesty that the powers of the parliament and government of the irish free state shall no longer extend to northern ireland. " on 13 december 1922 prime minister craig addressed the parliament of northern ireland informing them that the king had responded to the parliament ’ s address as follows : " i have received the address presented to me by both houses of the parliament of northern ireland in pursuance of article 12 of the articles of agreement set forth in the schedule to the irish free state ( agreement ) act, 1922, and of section 5 of the irish free state constitution act, 1922, and i have caused my ministers and the irish free state government to be so informed. " early years of home rule northern ireland having received self - government within the united kingdom, under the government of ireland act was in some respects left to its own devices. the first years of the new autonomous region were marked by bitter violence, particularly in belfast. the ira was determined to oppose the partition of ireland and the authorities created the ( mainly ex - uvf ) ulster special constabulary to aid the royal irish constabulary ( ric ) and introduced emergency powers to put down the ira. many died in political violence from 1920, which petered out after the signing of the anglo - irish treaty in 1922 and through 1923. the continuing violence created a climate of fear in the new region, and there was migration across the new border. as well as movement of protestants from the free state into northern ireland, some catholics fled south, leaving some of those who remained feeling isolated. despite the mixed religious affiliation of the old royal irish constabulary and the transfer of many catholic


across the new border. as well as movement of protestants from the free state into northern ireland, some catholics fled south, leaving some of those who remained feeling isolated. despite the mixed religious affiliation of the old royal irish constabulary and the transfer of many catholic ric police officers to the newly formed royal ulster constabulary ( 1922 ), northern catholics did not join the new force in great numbers. many nationalists then came to view the new police force as sectarian, adding to their sense of alienation from the state. 1925 to 1965 under successive unionist prime ministers from sir james craig ( later lord craigavon ) onwards, the unionist establishment practised what is generally considered a policy of discrimination against the nationalist / catholic minority. this pattern was firmly established in the case of local government, where gerrymandered ward boundaries rigged local government elections to ensure unionist control of some local councils with nationalist majorities. in a number of cases, most prominently those of the corporation of londonderry, omagh urban district, and fermanagh county council, ward boundaries were drawn to place as many catholics as possible into wards with overwhelming nationalist majorities while other wards were created where unionists had small but secure majorities, maximising unionist representation. voting arrangements which gave commercial companies multiple votes according to size, and which restricted the personal franchise to property owners, primary tenants and their spouses ( which were ended in england in the 1940s ) continued in northern ireland until 1969, became increasingly resented. disputes over local government gerrymandering were at the heart of the civil rights movement in the 1960s. in addition, there was widespread discrimination in employment, particularly at senior levels of the public sector and in certain sectors of the economy, such as shipbuilding and heavy engineering. emigration to seek employment was significantly more prevalent among the catholic population. as a result, northern ireland ' s demography shifted further in favour of protestants leaving their ascendancy seemingly impregnable by the late 1950s. the abolition of proportional representation in 1929 meant that the structure of party politics gave the ulster unionist party a continual sizable majority in the parliament of northern ireland, leading to fifty years of one - party rule. while nationalist parties continued to retain the same number of seats that they had under proportional representation, the northern ireland labour party and various smaller leftist unionist groups were smothered, meaning that it proved impossible for any group to sustain a challenge to the ulster unionist party from within the unionist section of the population. in 1935, the worst violence since partition convulsed belfast. after an orange order parade decided to


the troubles the troubles ( irish : na triobloidi ) was a period of ethno - political conflict in northern ireland which spilled over at various times into england, the republic of ireland, and mainland europe. the duration of the troubles is conventionally dated from the late 1960s and considered by many to have ended with the belfast " good friday " agreement of 1998. violence nonetheless continues on a sporadic basis. in the 1960s, moderate unionist prime minister terence o ' neill ( later lord o ' neill of the maine ) tried to reform the system, but encountered strong opposition from both fundamentalist protestant leaders like ian paisley and within his own party. the increasing pressures from nationalists for reform and opposition by loyalists to compromise led to the appearance of the civil rights movement, under figures such as austin currie and joint - winner of the nobel peace prize, john hume. it had some moderate protestant support and membership, and a considerable dose of student radicalism after northern ireland was swept up in the worldwide student revolts of 1968. clashes between marchers and the royal ulster constabulary led to increased communal strife, with elements both among the police and student radicals actively seeking to up the temperature, culminating in an attack by a unionist mob ( which included police reservists ) on a march, at burntollet, outside derry on 4 january 1969. wholescale violence erupted after an apprentice boys march was forced through the nationalist bogside area of derry on 12 august 1969 by the ruc, which led to large scale disorder known as the battle of the bogside. rioting continued until the 14 august, and in that time 1, 091 canisters, each containing 12. 5g of cs gas and 14 canisters containing 50g of cs gas, were released by the ruc. even more severe rioting broke out in belfast and elsewhere in response to events in derry ( see northern ireland riots of august 1969 ). the following thirty years of civil strife came to be known as " the troubles ". at the request of the unionist government, the british army was deployed by the uk home secretary james callaghan two days later on 14 august 1969. two weeks later, control of security in northern ireland was passed from the stormont government to lieutenant - general ian freeland ( goc ). at first the soldiers received a warm welcome from nationalists, who hoped they would protect them from loyalist attack ( which the ira, at that point a marxist organisation, had for ideological reasons declined to do ). however, tensions rose throughout the following years,


at first the soldiers received a warm welcome from nationalists, who hoped they would protect them from loyalist attack ( which the ira, at that point a marxist organisation, had for ideological reasons declined to do ). however, tensions rose throughout the following years, with an important milestone in the worsening relationship between the army and nationalists being the falls curfew of 3 july 1970 when 3, 000 british troops imposed a three day curfew on the lower falls area. after the introduction of internment without trial for suspected ira men on 9 august 1971, even the most moderate nationalists reacted by completely withdrawing their co - operation with the state. the sdlp members of the parliament of northern ireland withdrew from that body on 15 august and a widespread campaign of civil disobedience began. tensions were ratcheted to a higher level after the killing of fourteen unarmed civilians in derry by the parachute regiment on 30 january 1972, an event dubbed bloody sunday. throughout this period, the modern constellation of paramilitary organisations began to form. after bloody sunday, their full fury was unleashed, and 1972 was the most violent year of the conflict. the appearance in 1970 of the provisional ira, a breakaway from the increasingly marxist official ira, and a campaign of violence by loyalist paramilitary groups like the ulster defence association and others brought northern ireland to the brink of civil war. on 30 march 1972, the british government, unwilling to grant the unionist northern ireland government more authoritarian special powers, and now convinced of its inability to restore order, pushed through emergency legislation that prorogued the northern ireland parliament and introduced direct rule from london. in 1973 the british government dissolved the parliament of northern ireland and its government under the northern ireland constitution act 1973. the british government held talks with various parties, including the provisional ira, during 1972 and 1973. ( the official ira declared a ceasefire in 1972, and eventually ended violence altogether, although a breakaway group, the irish national liberation army, continued with a campaign of violence. the provisional ira, however, remained the largest and most effective nationalist paramilitary group. ) on 9 december 1973, after talks in sunningdale, berkshire, the ulster unionist party, sdlp and alliance party of northern ireland reached the sunningdale agreement on a cross - community government for northern ireland, which took office on 1 january 1974. the provisional ira was unimpressed, increasing the tempo of its violence, while many unionists were outraged at the participation of nationalists in the government of northern ireland and at the cross - border council of ireland. although the pro - sunningdale parties


the provisional ira was unimpressed, increasing the tempo of its violence, while many unionists were outraged at the participation of nationalists in the government of northern ireland and at the cross - border council of ireland. although the pro - sunningdale parties had a clear majority in the new northern ireland assembly, the failure of the pro - agreement parties to co - ordinate their efforts in the general election of 28 february, combined with an ira - sponsored boycott by hardline republicans, allowed anti - sunningdale unionists to take 51. 1 % of the vote and 11 of northern ireland ' s 12 seats in the uk house of commons. emboldened by this, a coalition of anti - agreement unionist politicians and paramilitaries encouraged a general strike on 15 may. the strikers brought northern ireland to a standstill by shutting down power stations, and after prime minister harold wilson refused to send in troops to take over from the strikers, the power - sharing executive collapsed on 28 may 1974. some british politicians, notably former british labour minister tony benn, advocated british withdrawal from ireland, but many opposed this policy, and called their prediction of the possible results of british withdrawal the doomsday scenario, anticipating widespread communal strife. the worst fear envisaged a civil war which would engulf not just northern ireland, but also the republic of ireland and scotland, both of which had major links with either or both communities. later, the feared possible impact of british withdrawal was the balkanisation of northern ireland. the level of violence declined from its early 1970s peak from 1972 onwards, stabilising at 50 to 100 deaths a year. the provisional ira, using weapons and explosives obtained from the united states and libya, bombed england and various british army bases in europe, as well as conducting ongoing attacks within northern ireland. these attacks were not only on " military " targets but also on protestant - frequented businesses, unaffiliated civilian commercial properties, and various city centres. arguably the signature attack would involve cars packed with high explosives being driven directly to key areas for maximum effect. at the same time, loyalist paramilitaries largely ( but not exclusively ) focused their campaign within northern ireland, ignoring the uninvolved military of the republic of ireland, and instead claiming a ( very ) few republican paramilitary casualties. they also targeted catholics working in protestant areas, and ( in a parallel to the ira tactic of car - bombing ) attacked catholic - frequented pubs using automatic fire weapons. such attacks were euphemistically known as " spray jobs "


paramilitary casualties. they also targeted catholics working in protestant areas, and ( in a parallel to the ira tactic of car - bombing ) attacked catholic - frequented pubs using automatic fire weapons. such attacks were euphemistically known as " spray jobs ". both groups would also carry out extensive " punishment " attacks against members of their own communities for a variety of perceived, alleged, or suspected " crimes ", regardless of the reality of the situation. various fitful political talks took place from then until the early 1990s, backed by schemes such as rolling devolution, and 1975 saw a brief provisional ira ceasefire. the two events of real significance during this period, however, were the hunger strikes ( 1981 ) and the anglo - irish agreement ( 1985 ). despite the failure of the hunger strike, the republican movement gained its first taste of electoral politics with modest electoral success on both sides of the border, including the election of bobby sands to the house of commons. this convinced republicans to adopt the armalite and ballot box strategy and gradually take a more political approach. while the anglo - irish agreement failed to bring an end to political violence in northern ireland, it did improve co - operation between the british and irish governments, which was key to the creation of the belfast agreement a decade later. at a strategic level the agreement demonstrated that the british recognised as legitimate the wishes of the republic to have a direct interest in the affairs of northern ireland. it also demonstrated to paramilitaries their ultimate political impotence vis a vis sovereign states. unlike the sunningdale agreement the anglo - irish agreement withstood a much more concerted campaign of violence and intimidation, as well as political hostility, from the loyalists. republicans were left in the position of rejecting the only significant all - ireland structures created since partition. by the 1990s, the perceived stalemate between the ira and british security forces, along with the increasing political successes of sinn fein convinced a majority inside the republican movement that greater progress towards republican objectives might be achieved through negotiation rather than violence at this stage. this change from paramilitary to political means was part of a broader northern ireland peace process, which followed the appearance of new leaders in london ( john major ) and dublin ( albert reynolds ). the good friday agreement and beyond increased government focus on the problems of northern ireland led, in 1993, to the two prime ministers signing the downing street declaration. at the same time gerry adams, leader of sinn fein, and john hume, leader of the social democratic and labour party, engaged in talks. a new


of northern ireland led, in 1993, to the two prime ministers signing the downing street declaration. at the same time gerry adams, leader of sinn fein, and john hume, leader of the social democratic and labour party, engaged in talks. a new leader of the ulster unionist party, david trimble, initially perceived as a hardliner, brought his party into all - party negotiations that in 1998 produced the belfast agreement ( " good friday agreement " ), signed by eight parties on 10 april 1998, although not involving ian paisley ' s democratic unionist party or the uk unionist party. a majority of both communities in northern ireland approved this agreement, as did the people of the republic of ireland, both by referendum on 22 may 1998. the republic amended its constitution, to replace a claim it made to the territory of northern ireland with an affirmation of the right of all the people of ireland to be part of the irish nation and a declaration of an aspiration towards a united ireland ( see the nineteenth amendment of the constitution of ireland ). under the good friday agreement, properly known as the belfast agreement, voters elected a new northern ireland assembly to form a parliament. every party that reaches a specific level of support gains the right to name members of its party to government and claim one or more ministries. ulster unionist party leader david trimble became first minister of northern ireland. the deputy leader of the sdlp, seamus mallon, became deputy first minister of northern ireland, though his party ' s new leader, mark durkan, subsequently replaced him. the ulster unionists, social democratic and labour party, sinn fein and the democratic unionist party each had ministers by right in the power - sharing assembly. the assembly and its executive operated on a stop - start basis, with repeated disagreements about whether the ira was fulfilling its commitments to disarm, and also allegations from the police service of northern ireland ' s special branch that there was an ira spy - ring operating in the heart of the civil service. it has since emerged that the spy - ring was run by mi5 ( see denis donaldson ). northern ireland was then, once more, run by the direct rule secretary of state for northern ireland, peter hain, and a british ministerial team answerable to him. hain was answerable only to the cabinet. the changing british position to northern ireland was represented by the visit of queen elizabeth ii to stormont, where she met nationalist ministers from the sdlp as well as unionist ministers and spoke of the right of people who perceive themselves as irish to


the cabinet. the changing british position to northern ireland was represented by the visit of queen elizabeth ii to stormont, where she met nationalist ministers from the sdlp as well as unionist ministers and spoke of the right of people who perceive themselves as irish to be treated as equal citizens along with those who regard themselves as british. similarly, on visits to northern ireland, the president of ireland, mary mcaleese, met with unionist ministers and with the lord lieutenant of each county — the official representatives of the queen. however, the assembly elections of 30 november 2003 saw sinn fein and the democratic unionist party ( dup ) emerge as the largest parties in each community, which was perceived as making a restoration of the devolved institutions more difficult to achieve. however, serious talks between the political parties and the british and irish governments saw steady, if stuttering, progress throughout 2004, with the dup in particular surprising many observers with its newly discovered pragmatism. however, an arms - for - government deal between sinn fein and the dup broke down in december 2004 due to a row over whether photographic evidence of ira decommissioning was necessary, and the ira refusal to countenance the provision of such evidence. the 2005 british general election saw further polarisation, with the dup making sweeping gains, although sinn fein did not make the breakthrough many had predicted. in particular, the failure of sinn fein to gain the sdlp leader mark durkan ' s foyle seat marked a significant rebuff for the republican party. the uup only took one seat, with the leader david trimble losing his and subsequently resigning as leader. on july 28, 2005, the ira made a public statement ordering an end to the armed campaign and instructing its members to dump arms and to pursue purely political programmes. while the british and irish governments warmly welcomed the statement, political reaction in northern ireland itself demonstrated a tendency to suspicion engendered by years of political and social conflict. in august the british government announced that due to the security situation improving and in accordance with the good friday agreement provisions, operation banner would end by 1 august 2007. on october 13, 2006 an agreement was proposed after three days of multiparty talks at st. andrews in scotland, which all parties including the dup, supported. under the agreement, sinn fein would fully endorse the police in northern ireland, and the dup would share power with sinn fein. all the main parties in northern ireland, including the dup and sinn fein, subsequently formally endorsed


, supported. under the agreement, sinn fein would fully endorse the police in northern ireland, and the dup would share power with sinn fein. all the main parties in northern ireland, including the dup and sinn fein, subsequently formally endorsed the agreement. on 8 may 2007, devolution of powers returned to northern ireland. dup leader ian paisley and sinn fein ' s martin mcguinness took office as first minister and deputy first minister, respectively. ( bbc ). " you raise me up ", the 2005 track by westlife, was played at their inauguration. see also - flag of northern ireland - history of ireland - history of the united kingdom - northern irish murals - history of the british isles - " the countries of the uk ". 11 november 2005. archived from the original on 11 november 2009. retrieved 11 november 2009. " the top - level division of administrative geography in the uk is the 4 countries — england, scotland, wales and northern ireland. " - " countries within a country ". 10 downing street. 10 january 2003. archived from the original on 9 september 2008. retrieved 10 october 2012. " the united kingdom is made up of four countries : england, scotland, wales and northern ireland. " - " ' normalisation ' plans for northern ireland unveiled ". 10 downing street. 1 august 2005. archived from the original on 8 august 2005. retrieved 10 october 2012. " plans to reduce troops and abolish watchtowers in northern ireland to ' normalise ' the province, have been outlined by the government. " - " the european sustainable competitiveness programme for northern ireland 2007 – 2013 " ( pdf ). northern ireland executive. 4 october 2007. p. 16. retrieved 28 march 2010. " ni ( ni ) is a region of the united kingdom ( uk ) that operates in an island economy sharing a land border with ireland. " - statutory rules & orders published by authority, 1921 ( no. 533 ) ; additional source for 3 may 1921 date : alvin jackson ( 2004 ). home rule — an irish history. oxford university press. p. 198. - " the irish election of 1918 ". ark. ac. uk. northern ireland social and political archive. - nicholas whyte ( march 25, 2006 ). " the irish election of 1918 ". ark. retrieved 2012 - 10 - 25. - " ulster in the free state, voting - out today, memorial to the king ". the times. 6 december 1922. - " the boundary question – debate resumed


the irish election of 1918 ". ark. retrieved 2012 - 10 - 25. - " ulster in the free state, voting - out today, memorial to the king ". the times. 6 december 1922. - " the boundary question – debate resumed ". dail eireann - volume 7. 20 june, 1924. retrieved 2012 - 10 - 25. - " northern ireland parliamentary report ". ahds. ac. uk ( stormont papers ). 7 december 1922. pp. 1147 and 1150. - " northern ireland parliamentary report ". ahds. ac. uk 2 ( stormont papers ). 13 december 1922. pp. 1191 – 1192. - fionnuala mckenna ( 14 january 2012 ). " ' how much discrimination was there under the unionist regime, 1921 - 1968? ' by john whyte ". ark. retrieved 2012 - 10 - 25. - " cain chronology ". entry under 25 november 1969. " the electoral law act ( northern ireland ) became law. the main provision of the act was to make the franchise in local government elections in northern ireland the same as that in britain. " - walker, graham. a history of the ulster unionist party : protest, pragmatism and pessimism ( manchester studies in modern history ). p. 162. isbn 978 - 0 - 7190 - 6109 - 7. - curley, helen. local ireland almanac and yearbook of facts 2000 ( local ireland almanac & yearbook of facts ). p. 17. isbn 978 - 0 - 9536537 - 0 - 6. - trimble, david ( december 10, 1998 ) ). " the nobel lecture given by the nobel peace prize laureate 1998 ". oslo. - marc mulholland ( 2000 ). " assimilation versus segregation : unionist strategy in the 1960s ". twentieth century brit hist. retrieved 2012 - 10 - 25. - kennedy - pipe, caroline ( 1997 - 01 ). the origins of the present troubles in northern ireland. longman. isbn 978 - 0 - 582 - 10073 - 2. - mcgarry, john ; brendan o ' leary ( 1995 - 06 - 15 ). explaining northern ireland. wiley - blackwell. p. 18. isbn 978 - 0 - 631 - 18349 - 5. - dermot keogh, ed. ( 2294 - 01 - 28 ). northern ireland and the politics of reconciliation. cambridge university press. pp. 55 – 59. isbn 978 - 0 - 521 - 459


18349 - 5. - dermot keogh, ed. ( 2294 - 01 - 28 ). northern ireland and the politics of reconciliation. cambridge university press. pp. 55 – 59. isbn 978 - 0 - 521 - 45933 - 4. - weitzer, ronald ( 1995 - 01 ). policing under fire : ethnic conflict and police - community relations in northern ireland. state university press. isbn 978 - 0 - 7914 - 2248 - 9. - coakley, john. " ethnic conflict and the two - state solution : the irish experience of partition ". retrieved 2009 - 02 - 15. - aughey, arthur. the politics of northern ireland : beyond the belfast agreement. p. 7. isbn 978 - 0 - 415 - 32788 - 6. - holland, jack ( 1999 ). hope against history : the course of conflict in northern ireland. henry holt & company. p. 221. isbn 0 - 8050 - 6087 - 1. " the troubles were over, but the killing continued. some of the heirs to ireland ' s violent traditions refused to give up their inheritance. " - gillespie, gordon. historical dictionary of the northern ireland conflict. p. 250. isbn 978 - 0 - 8108 - 5583 - 0. - elliot, marianne ( 2007 ). the long road to peace in northern ireland : peace lectures from the institute of irish studies at liverpool university. university of liverpool institute of irish studies, liverpool university press. p. 2. isbn 1 - 84631 - 065 - 2. - goodspeed, michael ( 2002 ). when reason fails : portraits of armies at war : america, britain, israel, and the future. greenwood publishing group. pp. 44 and 61. isbn 0 - 275 - 97378 - 6. - " draft list of deaths related to the conflict. 2002 - ". retrieved 2008 - 07 - 31. - ( elliot 2007, p. 188 ) - northern ireland ( temporary provisions ) act 1972 ( c. 22 ) - " background information on northern ireland society - security and defence ". ark. 17 january 2012. retrieved 2012 - 10 - 25. - taylor, peter ( 1999 ). " 21 : stalemate ". behind the mask : the ira and sinn fein. pp. 246 – 261. isbn 1 - 57500 - 077 - 6. - lavery, brian ; cowell, alan ( 29 july 2005 ). " i. r. a. renounces use of


timothy c. hain, this document reviews the literature concerning feedback control of pitch, and also is meant to be a place where one can look at several mathematical models of central auditory feedback control in one place. fairbanks ( 1954 ) reviewed historical ideas in a concept paper concerning auditory feedback, going as far back as 1931. his servomechanism incorporated a desired signal, a storage unit, a multi - input comparator, a summing junction where the desired signal and error are added, and a plant. fairbanks recognized that there might be multisensory inputs, and implemented auditory, tactile and proproceptive inputs. this is a modern idea, reminiscent of " internal estimator " theory, although fairbanks did not discuss the problem of dealing with multiple inputs in a quantitative way. although his " model " had a memory circuit, it was used to extrapolate future performance where error was driven to zero instead of matching delays of input to output. ringel and steer ( 1963 ) examined the effect of anesthetizing the entire oral region ( using the services of an oral surgeon to administer a series of intra - oral hypodermic injections ) on the vocalizations of 13 subjects majoring in speech pathology and audiology. unsurprisingly, speech accuracy suffered. fundamental frequency also rose, suggesting that tactile feedback assists in stabilizing f0. eliott and niemoeller ( 1970 ) argued that f0 ( voice fundamental frequency ) is accomplished in part through use of auditory feedback. they used evidence based on monitoring of voice f0 made to both current and remembered auditory targets, with noise masking of 95 - 105 spl. they pointed out that the voice is most stable in a quiet environment when the target is present. it is less accurate when the target is remembered, and is least accurate when the target is remembered and noise is present. elman ( 1981 ) investigated the effect of frequency shifted feedback using a lexicon varispeech ii speech time compressor / expandor. speech f0 was shifted by 10 %. this produced a compensatory f0 which was shifted downward. kawahara ( 1993 - 1994 ) reported adaptive responses to changes in f0 using a paradigm he called " transformed auditory feedback ". he investigated f0 using a pseudorandom binary series of perturbations. | simple model of f0 control, larson et al ( 2000 ). | larson and associates ( burnett et al, 1997 ; hain et al, 1999


. he investigated f0 using a pseudorandom binary series of perturbations. | simple model of f0 control, larson et al ( 2000 ). | larson and associates ( burnett et al, 1997 ; hain et al, 1999 ; larson et al, 2000 ) studied f0 in greater detail using pitch shifting with sophisticated electronics. a harmonizer device, capable of shifting f0 similarly to the device used by elman ( 1981 ) was used to shift f0 by roughly 100 cents ( one semitone ) for steps, ramps and with daf. a clear feedback response was demonstrated, which could be either negative to compensate for the perturbation, or positive to track an external perturbation. the response was shown to have two components, one with a latency of about 150 msec, and a second with a latency of about 450 msec. the later response is under more voluntary control. a simple negative feedback model incorporating comparison of auditory input with expected auditory input, low - pass filtering and limiting, was shown to reproduce most aspects of the response. this model depends upon comparison of intended or expected f0 with perceived f0, or in other words, a connection between motor output and auditory input. miller - preuss ( 1980 ) pointed out the usefulness of such a comparison in attention to self - produced or externally produced acoustic inputs and suggest that such a direct connection might exist between cingulate vocalization areas and auditory association cortex ( superior temporal gyrus ). houde and jorden ( 1998 ) examined feedback control of f1 and f2 using a customized apparatus that allowed them to shift subjects speech in real - time. they showed that subjects could be trained over two hours to shift vowel formats significantly with retention of the shift. they defined " adaptation " as the amount of shift that was retained af the end of the experiment when auditory feedback was " blocked " by noise. guenther and associates ( 2006 ) have written a body of literature concerning a neural network model of vocal motor control. it contains the same general toplogy as the model of hain et al, 2000. while of great general interest, because it is implemented as a neural network, it has limited usefulness in experimental contexts because neural networks are sufficient to simulate nearly any output. with a delay of about 200 msec, daf causes subjects to speak more slowly, to prolong syllables or to stutter ( hanley and tiffany, 1954 : davidson, 1959 : yates, 1963 ). | model of delayed auditory feedback (


with a delay of about 200 msec, daf causes subjects to speak more slowly, to prolong syllables or to stutter ( hanley and tiffany, 1954 : davidson, 1959 : yates, 1963 ). | model of delayed auditory feedback ( from hain et al, 2001 ) | this was modeled successfully using a simple mismatch between perceived and intended f0 as shown in the model above. siegel and pick ( 1974 ) demonstrated that speakers decrease their volume when they hear their voices amplified. lane and tranel ( 1971 ) demonstrated that speakers increase their volume when their voices are attenuated. volume is also increased in the presence of noise ( lombard, 1911 ; ringel and steer, 1963 ). while the neurological localization of this reflex would seem to belong logically in the cortex, where assessments of intelligibility could be made, work in animals has suggested that neuronal mechanisms for evoking the reflex in decerebrate cats must be present in the brainstem ( nonaka et al, 1997 ). this work does not exclude the possibility of both low and higher level substrates. | model of loudness feedback ( from bauer et al, 2006 ) | bauer et al ( 2006 ) obtained additional experimental data and modeled loudness feedback control using similar mechanisms ( see above ). vocalization can be elicited from numerous areas in the brain. jurgens and ploog ( 1970 ) pointed out the " exceptional position " of the mesenphalic periaqueductal gray. in the squirrel monkey, stimulation of the pag produces the shortest latencies and the highest number of vocalizations. there are also reports of mutism after pag lesions. miller - preuss, newman and jurgens ( 1980 ) state that the anterior limbic cortex is involved in the initiation of voluntarily controlled vocalizations ( in squirrel monkey ). | © copyright april 6, 2012, timothy c. hain, m. d. all rights reserved. last saved on april 6, 2012 |


about gastroesophageal reflux disease information from the nonprofit iffgd about characteristics and treatment of gerd. information about heartburn, hiatus hernia, gastroesophageal reflux disease. ask the experts : acid - related disorders discusses several topics related to dyspepsia, gastroesophageal reflux disease, barrett ' s esophagus, gerd - related cough, and their diagnosis and treatment. from medscape. requires free registration. a detailed look at gerd or acid reflux website discussing the treatments and medication available for gastroesophageal reflux disease or acid reflux. view webcasts and read articles. emedicine - gastroesophageal reflux disease ( gerd ) dr. marco patti offers a medical review of gerd and its symptoms such as heartburn, cough, and laryngitis. families united through nissen difficulties org. parents of children who have had a difficult time since their children have had the nissen fundoplication. in some cases the reflux was not as bad as the fundo. information and discussion about causes, diagnosis and treatment of gastroesophageal reflux disease and heart burn. advice on heartburn and gastroesophageal reflux disease. place for the many gastro esophageal reflux disease sufferers out there to become educated about this disorder. gerd resource center pharmaceutical company sponsored site with information for suffers of chronic indigestion, or gastroesophageal reflux disease. the great debates : bridging the gap between expectations and results in acid - suppression therapy review articles for medical professionals discuss issues in the diagnosis and treatment of gerd, other acid - peptic disorders, and h. pylori infections. [ flash video or text - plus - slides formats. requires free registration. ] consumer health resource center providing an overview of causes, symptoms and treatment. information for heartburn, gastro esophageal reflux disease, hiatal hernia and other digestive diseases. helpheartburn. com is a complete resource for anyone who has ever suffered from heartburn, gerd ( gastroesophageal reflux disease ), acid reflux, or indigestion. laproscopic surgery for treatment of chronic indigestion this site discusses surgical treatment options for gastroesophageal reflux disease


##troesophageal reflux disease ), acid reflux, or indigestion. laproscopic surgery for treatment of chronic indigestion this site discusses surgical treatment options for gastroesophageal reflux disease, also known as chronic indigestion. manage your health : heartburn information about symptoms and treatments of gerd and related conditions, written and reviewed by webmd doctors. mayo clinic : heartburn / gerd the sensation of acid reflux described as well as its symptoms, causes, treatment, and prevention. reflux disease may cause sinusitis and damage teeth a new synthesis of research on esophageal reflux disease indicates that acid reflux is also related to sinus infection and to erosion of tooth enamel. reflux treatment centers of america, llc a national network of medical centers and physicians specializing in the treatment of heartburn and indigestion, medically known as gastroesophageal reflux disease or gerd. a free informational monograph on heartburn ( gerd ) for patient counseling. student health resources : rutgers university an overview of heartburn and related issues and conditions, written for the college - age audience. syracuse gastroenterological associates, p. c. solutions for acid reflux, heartburn, gastroesophageal reflux, stomach pains and hernias, and ulcers. stomach disorder doctors in the syracuse, ny area. this way up advice about living with gastroesophageal reflux disease : gerd. dedicated to help patients who suffer from heartburn and gerd. it also contains useful information for physicians who take care of them. all the web - google usenet -


what do you understand about paralegals? paralegals are not only considered as secretaries who tend to perform tasks administratively. they act as legal assistants responsible in carrying out duties, like assisting judges and attorneys. they also conduct research which can assist employers in doing their legal tasks. it means to say that they are able to play a vital role for the success of attorneys. since they have this role, earning a good education is crucial on their part. in becoming a paralegal, an associate ’ s degree or bachelor ’ s degree in any of the study is required. it may not be an absolute requirement, but still a diploma, certificate or a paralegal diploma gives the most advantage for one who is looking for a job position as a paralegal. additionally, there are different types of programs for paralegals being offered in the united states. you may choose from the programs, such as associate ’ s degree, certificate program, advanced paralegal program or 4 - year education program which will give you a much higher opportunity. however, you need to remember that when getting a paralegal diploma, choosing the right institution that has been approved by the “ american bar association ” is a must. as for the online school, it should operate for two years and should meet the requirements and guidelines set by the aba. feel free to visit the website of the aba, from where you can look for the list of paralegal programs approved by the aba. now, the question left is how can a paralegal education help you to be a certified lawyer? first, it helps develop your competencies in areas ; communication skills, computer skills, critical thinking skills, organizational skills and understanding of ethics. in the paralegal world, paralegal education can help you to land on a reputable job. you could understand legal processes, and have legal experiences in the law practice as well. with your work experience of being a paralegal, you can succeed once you continue a paralegal education in any of the reputable law schools.


by john coluccy, ph. d. those of us who are parents have mixed memories of changing diapers and being awakened in the middle of the night by a screaming baby. but imagine yourself trying to look after four, eight or even a dozen babies all at once, and in a predator - filled environment. this is exactly the situation adult waterfowl face every year. as you can imagine, brood care among waterfowl is a daunting yet critical task. adult waterfowl provide their young with many types of care, and the investment in this care varies by species and even individuals. when they hatch, for example, most waterfowl are unable to thermoregulate ( keep warm by automatically regulating their body temperature ) for several days and periodically require a parent ( the hen, in most duck species ; both parents in the case of geese and swans ) to cover them with their body and wings to help maintain normal body temperature. this behavior, known as brooding, also protects young waterfowl from extreme precipitation ( including rain, hail and snow ), sunlight, wind and from predators. another critical form of care is protection from predators. most waterfowl utter alarm calls at the first sign of approaching danger. alarm calls will either cause young birds to scatter, move closer to their parent ( s ), or freeze in place. females of many duck species will also feign injury by acting like their wing is broken to draw predators away from their broods. adult geese may actually attack intruders ( including humans ) who come too close to their offspring. another important role parent birds play is ensuring undisturbed access to feeding and loafing areas. after the young birds hatch, the parent ( s ) assist their young in finding suitable habitat with adequate food supplies. sometimes, several broods will use the same wetland, however, and although females tend to avoid one another, contact among broods frequently occurs. in these instances, parents will aggressively defend the area immediately around their brood and attack individuals that come too close. continue reading > >


programs & news | contact us | for readers | fiction | kids & teens | reference & nonfiction | movies, music, audiobooks library blogs | hours & locations | friends | foundation | gift shop | a to z index " nelle " harper lee was born on april 28, 1926, the youngest of four children of amasa coleman lee and frances cunningham finch lee. she grew up in monroeville, a small town in southwest alabama. her father was a lawyer who also served in the state legislature from 1926 - 1938. as a child, lee was a tomboy and a precocious reader. after finishing public school in monroeville, she attended huntington college, a private school for women in montgomery, for a year and then transferred to the university of alabama to study law but withdrew six months before graduation. she moved to new york in 1949 and worked as a reservations clerk for eastern air lines and british overseas airways. while in new york, she wrote several essays and short stories but none were published. her agent encouraged her to develop one short story into a novel. in order to complete it, lee quit working and was supported by friends who believed in her work. in 1957, she submitted the manuscript to j. b. lippincott company. although editors found the work too episodic, they saw promise in the book and encouraged lee to rewrite it. in 1960, with the help of lippincott editor tay hohoff, to kill a mockingbird was published. to kill a mockingbird became an instant popular success. a year after the novel was published, 500, 000 copies had been sold and it had been translated into ten languages. critical reviews of the novel were mixed ; it was only after the success of the film adaptation that many critics reconsidered to kill a mockingbird. to kill a mockingbird was honored with many awards, including the pulitzer prize for fiction in 1961, and was made into a film in 1962 starring gregory peck. lee worked as a consultant on the screenplay adaptation of the novel. the film was nominated for eight academy awards, including best picture. gregory peck won the best actor award, horton foote won the best adapted screenplay oscar and a design team was awarded an oscar for best art direction / set decoration b / w. author truman capote was lee ' s next - door neighbor from 1928 to 1933. in 1959 lee and capote traveled to garden city, kansas, to research the clutter family murders for his work, in cold blood ( 1965 ). capote dedicated in cold


##ote was lee ' s next - door neighbor from 1928 to 1933. in 1959 lee and capote traveled to garden city, kansas, to research the clutter family murders for his work, in cold blood ( 1965 ). capote dedicated in cold blood to lee and to his partner, jack dunphy. lee was the inspiration for the character idabel in capote ' s other voices, other rooms ( 1948 ). capote in turn clearly influenced the development of the character dill in to kill a mockingbird. harper lee divides her time between new york and her hometown of monroeville, alabama, where her sister alice lee practices law. though she has published no other work of fiction, this novel continues to have a strong impact on successive generations of readers. harper lee had many childhood experiences that are similar to those of scout finch, her young narrator in to kill a mockingbird. | she grew up in the 1930s in a rural southern alabama town. | | she grew up in the 1930s in a rural southern alabama town. | | her father, amasa lee, was an attorney who served in the state legislature in alabama. | | her father, atticus finch, is an attorney who serves in the state legislature in alabama. | | her older brother and young neighbor ( truman capote ) were playmates. | | her older brother ( jem ) and young neighbor ( dill ) are playmates. | | harper lee was an avid reader as a child. | | scout reads before she enters school and reads the mobile register newspaper in the first grade. | | she was six years old when the scottsboro trials were widely covered in national, state and local newspapers. | | she is six years old when the trial of tom robinson takes place. |


a public meeting friday in pagosa springs concerns the proposal to make the chimney rock archaeological area a national monument. the meeting will be held from 1 to 3 : 30 p. m. at the archuleta fairgrounds. chimney rock is perhaps the most important cultural site managed by the forest service. it is an important part of the extensive chacoan cultural build - up of puebloan people that began in the a. d. 800s and lasted more than 300 years. it is still of great importance to the living puebloan cultures of the region. with more than 200 dwellings, and several ceremonial sites, the chimney rock area is not only an impressive natural feature, but amazing historically and culturally. designated an archaeological area and national historic site in 1970, for the last decade it has been the focus of concerted effort by many people to see it designated as a national monument. lately, this effort has gained significant steam. bills proposing national monument status have been introduced by u. s. sens. michael bennet and mark udall, as well as a separate bill by u. s. rep. scott tipton, r - cortez. these bills have received overwhelming support locally. monument status would increase the visibility of the site, encouraging more visitors and help to support the regionis economy. it would also give support to efforts to properly steward the site, preserving this national treasure for future generations. archuleta county deserves the support of all of us in its efforts toward designation of the site as a national monument. the trail of the ancients covers the cultural sites in southeastern utah, northeast arizona and montezuma county in colorado. chimney rock would be a valuable addition, bringing attention to the eastern part of the area. because of the difficulties in getting any legislation through the current congress, the push for national monument status has now shifted to asking president barack obama to designate the site through the antiquities act. passed in 1906 during theodore rooseveltis presidency, the bill has been used to protect such sites as the grand tetons, chaco canyon, hovenweep and, more recently, canyons of the ancients. chimney rock, with its important historical and cultural significance, is a perfect example of what the act was intended to protect. please support national monument designation by attending the meeting friday, letting bennet, udall and tipton know your support, and urging obama to take action. chimney rock is a unique and important asset that we should all work to preserve and support, and by doing so, we will


overijssel is a province in the east of the netherlands. it borders on germany in the east, drenthe and friesland in the north, gelderland to the south and flevoland and gelderland to the west. the capital city of overijssel is zwolle. the largest towns are : in the late 18th century, overijssel became famous for it ' s textiles. english industrialists came to overijssel and brought new technologies with them. the eastern part of the province, twente, became an important production center for textiles. this continued well into the 20th century when enschede and the neighboring german region were attracting many new laborers. genealogy in overijssel for genealogical purposes, overijssel is split into two parts. the eastern part, twente, used the system of farm names before the introduction of the civil registration. the western part, consisting of salland and vollenhove, used patronymics mostly although a clear line cannot be drawn between the regions. most of the records for overijssel are kept by the overijssel historical center. unfortunately, their website is in dutch only. the marriage records from the civil registration and some of the death records can be found in genlias. emigration from overijssel people from overijssel have always migrated across the border into germany. in the middle of the nineteenth century, many members of the seceder church followed albertus van raalte and anthony brummelkamp ' s advise to emigrate to the united states. most of them ended up in michigan. another emigration wave followed at the end of the nineteenth century. the overijssel historical center has compiled a database of overijssel emigrants. there are several online sources for images about overijssel : - overijssel in kaart. website with historical maps of overijssel. select ' zoeken ', fill in the name of the town or cartographer you ' re looking for and click ' zoeken '. - overijssel provincial atlas 1865 - 1870. this atlas contains both a map of the entire province as well as maps for all of the municipalities. map of overijssel.


| | a - b - c - d | e - f - g - h | i - j - k - l | m - n - o - p | q - r - s - t | u - v - w - x - y - z | an objective measure of sharpness which takes into account the sensitivity of the human visual system to specific spatial frequencies and the viewing distance of an image. edge acutance refers to the ability of a photographic system to show a sharp edge between contiguous areas of low and high illuminance. texture acutance refers to the ability of a photographic system to show details without noticeable degradations. artifact created by the presence of frequencies in the image that are too high compared to the sampling frequency of the sensor. staircasing - effects or moire patterns are two different forms of aliasing. ratio of effective focal length and entrance pupil diameter of a lens. same as f - number or f # or f / d. the smaller the aperture, the “ faster ” ( brighter ) the lens. image sensor approximately the size of an aps ( advanced photo system ) negative ( roughly 25. 1x16. 7 mm. ) conspicuous elements in the image that do not exist in the real scene. they may be caused by any part of the image acquisition system ( optics, sensors or processing ). illumination of a subject from the back. usually the subject is dark on a bright background. the most used pattern of photosites for color cameras, named after its creator, a researcher at kodak in 1976. photosites are grouped by four, with two sensitive to green wavelengths, one to blue wavelenghts, and one to red wavelengths. change of a standard behavior. usually exposure bias or white balance bias. set of phenomena following which a point - wise light source is not imaged on the sensor on a single pixel. it is due primarily to optical causes and sensor integration. if the light source moves during the integration time, the phenomenon is known as motion blur. estimation of the specific parameters of a device ; for example, the main calibration parameters of a sensor are sensitivity, spectral responsitivity, and noise ; the main parameters of a lens are distortion, vignetting, chromatic aberration and mtf. charge - coupled device : one family of electronic image sensors that output an analog signal. in a digital camera, this analog signal is converted to digital by a separate component. complementary metal – oxide – semiconductor : one family of electronic image sensors


mtf. charge - coupled device : one family of electronic image sensors that output an analog signal. in a digital camera, this analog signal is converted to digital by a separate component. complementary metal – oxide – semiconductor : one family of electronic image sensors that output a digital signal light source or beam whose rays are parallel. a point - wise light source positioned at a lens focal distance provides a collimated beam. a very far point - wise light source, such as a star other than the sun, can also be considered as a collimated beam. the number of colors that can be coded as digital values. a color channel coded on 8 bits can represent 256 different values. a two - dimensional array of colored filters placed on top of a sensor that allow the color of the input light to be recorded. each photosite outputs a value that depicts the light in a subset of the visible spectrum. the most - used color filter array is the bayer array. characteristic of a reflection or transmission material that does not change the spectrum ( though the color ) of the illuminant. process that transforms the color values of the captured scene into digital rgb values displayed on an output device ( screen, printer ). by extension, also designates the process that transforms raw sensor values into displayed rgb values. numerical values defined by dxo labs researchers that represent the numbers of colors that a sensor can distinguish, up to noise. read more non - uniformity of color rendering in the field : an object may not have the same color all across the image field ( see vignetting ). coordinate system representing the visible colors, under a given illuminant. the l * coordinate represents the luminance, while a * and b * represent color ( respectively the green - magenta axis and the blue - yellow axis ). the lab color space was designed to be perceptually uniform, meaning that a same distance between two colors should be perceived as the same difference whatever those colors are. numerical value characterizing the radiation spectrum of a perfect black body. high color temperature leads to a bluish light, low color temperature leads to a reddish light. csf is a functional description of the human visual system threshold sensitivity to the contrast ( i. e. peak - to - peak luminance difference ) of sine wave patterns of a range of spatial frequencies. the contrast sensitivity function ( csf ) is dependent on the viewing conditions, i. e. viewing distance, size of the displayed image and luminance viewing conditions. statistical


more information on food addiction change the way you think about food 8 tips for winning the food fight foods to eat if you overeat how to conquer your food cravings a nation addicted to food quiz : are you addicted to food? no one would become a food - devouring robot, however, if they lived in a desert or on the moon or in the year 1850, according to david kessler, m. d., former fda commissioner and author of the end of overeating ( rodale, 2009 ). we eat, he says, because we have constant, crippling access to rich, delicious foods packed with fat and sugars, both of which activate our dopamine systems. and those conditioned cues are everywhere — commercials, fast - food restaurants that we pass on our commutes, grocery stores. kessler postulates that fat and sugar, plus salt, have triggered mass overconsumption in the united states. “ we took fat, sugar and salt and put it on every corner, made it available 24 / 7, made it socially acceptable to eat anytime. we ’ re living in a food carnival, ” he says. volkow ’ s bethesda offices are a perfect microcosm of this american food environment : within one - third of a mile, a visitor can find a frozen yogurt place, a greasy - spoon diner, a mexican restaurant and at least 10 other eateries. on the first floor of the nida offices is a cafeteria with a hot buffet and snacks. vending machines, like the one volkow has a hard time resisting, live on the office floors themselves. bowls of candy lurk on desktops and in drawers. the scent of microwave popcorn pervades the office air. the continual need to say “ no! ” to these tempting foods requires the strongest will, and some people ’ s wiring seems to be working against them. in a 2008 study, volkow found that having fewer dopamine receptors ( as obese people do ) was associated with less activity in parts of the brain responsible for self - control. in other words, these people not only have to eat more to achieve the same “ reward, ” they also have a harder time stopping themselves from eating once they start. drug addicts similarly have fewer dopamine receptors, also associated with less activity in the self - control parts of the brain. in the brain of a compulsive, “ addicted ” eater, inhibition is like a picket fence trying to hold back an avalanche


similarly have fewer dopamine receptors, also associated with less activity in the self - control parts of the brain. in the brain of a compulsive, “ addicted ” eater, inhibition is like a picket fence trying to hold back an avalanche of reward and conditioning. “ joanne, ” 39, from san francisco, a member of food addicts in recovery anonymous, agrees, and says that sugar and flour are her drugs. since she was a teenager, joanne would compulsively eat for hours at a time ; in high school she learned how to make herself sick, which “ led to 15 years of insanity, ” she says. “ there was something in my brain that would light up, and it would turn into this massive craving that i could not control. ” joanne ’ s food addiction manifested as bulimia, but others in the group became obese. when she wasn ’ t purging, she was “ white - knuckling it ” through the day. “ if there was food somewhere in the vicinity, the constant conversation in my head was, ‘ should i eat that? no, don ’ t eat that. ’ back and forth, over and over, while trying to maintain a conversation, which was almost fruitless because i wasn ’ t really listening, i was focused on the food. ” studies have estimated that about 10 percent of the population is addicted to food like this, and many more of us probably fall elsewhere on the food - addiction spectrum. “ everyone understands how critical taste is [ to overeating ], but what nora has shown is the role not just of taste, but of the brain and brain circuits, ” says kessler. “ we now know that the learning, memory, habit and motivational circuits of the brain are what drive eating, and nora deserves a lot of credit for pulling back the curtain and showing us what ’ s really at the core of this [ obesity ] epidemic. ”


articles for use in professional development alignment of standards and assessments as an accountability criterion la marca, p. m., ( 2001 ). alignment of standards and assessments as an accountability criterion. practical assessment, research & evaluation, 7 ( 21 ). retrieved november 1, 2007 from http : / / pareonline. net / getvn. asp? v = 7 & n = 21 the article provides an overview of the concept of alignment and the role it plays in assessment and accountability systems. the concept of statistical significant testing thompson, b., ( 1994 ). the concept of statistical significance testing. practical assessment, research & evaluation, 4 ( 5 ). retrieved november 1, 2007 from http : / / pareonline. net / getvn. asp? v = 4 & n = 5 the short article can help provide a better understanding of the concept of significance testing. the meaning of probabilities, the concept of statistical significance, arguments against significance testing, misinterpretation, and alternatives are discussed. designing scoring rubrics for your classroom mertler, c. a., ( 2001 ). designing scoring rubrics for your classroom. practical assessment, research & evaluation, 7 ( 25 ). retrieved november 1, 2007 from http : / / pareonline. net / getvn. asp? v = 7 & n = 25 the article describes different types of scoring guides and includes seven steps to designing a scoring guide evaluating classroom communication : in support of emergent and authentic frameworks in second language assessment mantero, m., ( 2002 ). evaluating classroom communication : in support of emergent and authentic frameworks in second language assessment. practical assessment, research & evaluation, 8 ( 8 ). retrieved november 1, 2007 from http : / / pareonline. net / getvn. asp? v = 8 & n = 8 the article focuses on verbal communication or production rather than written communication and reading because verbal communication requires speakers to negotiate meaning with each other consistent with sociocultural theory. questions to ask when evaluating tests rudner, l. m., ( 1994 ). questions to ask when evaluating tests. practical assessment, research & evaluation, 4 ( 2 ). retrieved november 1, 2007 from http : / / pareonline. net / getvn. asp? v = 4 & n = 2 the article provides insight in test coverage and use, appropriate sample size, reliability, criterion validity, construct validity, content validity, test administration, test reporting, and test