there appears to be a significant impairment of folic acid absorption in patients with hiv disease. the virus can cause an enteropathy in the absence of opportunistic infection. folinic acid may also not be absorbed as well since it is absorbed by the same gut mechanisms as folic acid. folate absorption is abnormal in early and late hiv disease. some of the neurologic manifestations of children with aids disease are due to folate deficiency. folic acid hypersupplementation and intravenous ( rather than oral ) folinic acid supplementation may be desirable in patients affected with human immunodeficiency virus. folic acid absorption in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus, revell, p., et al, journal of internal medicine, 1991 ; 230 : 227 - 231. anencephaly, spina bifida anencephaly, spina bifida one of the most exciting medical findings of the last part of the 20th century is that folic acid, a simple, widely available, water soluble volume, can prevent spina bifida and anencephaly. thus begins an article by doctor godfrey p. oakley. he notes that birth defects are the leading cause of infant mortality in the united states. according to the article, the incidence of birth defects have varied by geographic location, and by personal factors such as social class and race. doses showing benefit of folic acid supplementation in the prevention of neural tube defects have been 0. 4 mg, 0. 8 mg and 4 mg. in november, an advisory committee to the food and drug administration recommended developing a policy that would permit appropriate foods to be fortified with folic acid. presently, females can take 0. 4 mgs of folic acid in a vitamin pill, or eat a serving of food such as a breakfast cereal fortified with the usda recommended daily allowance of folic acid per serving. folic acid can also be increased by eating foods rich in folates such as leafy, dark green vegetables. the author states women should, except under a physician ' s direction, keep their consumption of folic acid below 1 mg per day, since this elevated dose may cause difficulties in diagnosing pernicious anemia. the author warns of using foods fortified with vitamin a or supplements which contain vitamin a, because an excess of vitamin a can cause birth defects. by increasing the consumption of folic acid, it is believed that the prevention of spina bifida and an


author warns of using foods fortified with vitamin a or supplements which contain vitamin a, because an excess of vitamin a can cause birth defects. by increasing the consumption of folic acid, it is believed that the prevention of spina bifida and anencephaly may result worldwide among thousands of infants annually. with prevention programs, it is possible that reduction rates of these birth defects could occur within a single year. folic acid - preventable spina bifida and anencephaly, jama, march 10, 1993 ; 269 ( 10 ) : 1292 - 1293. the united states public health service recommends 0. 4 mg of folic acid per day, for the purpose of reducing the risk of neural tube defects or spina bifida. one should keep folic acid levels below 1 mg / day, so as not to obscure the diagnosis of vitamin b12 deficiency ( pernicious anemia ). recommendations for the use of folic acid to reduce number of spina bifida cases and other neural tube defects, jama, march 10, 1993 ; 269 ( 10 ) : 1233 - 1238 / morbidity and mortality weekly report, 1992 ; 41 : rr - 14. anemia, alcohol abuse and redcell anemia, alcohol abuse and red cell redistribution width an increase in red cell distribution width ( rdw ) may indicate alcoholism and iron deficiency anemia alcohol abuse may be seen when the red cell distribution width is high combined with the normal mcv. a high mcv and rdw may indicate an immune hemolytic anemia or vitamin b12 or folic acid deficiency. red cell distribution width in alcohol abuse and iron deficiency anemia, seppa, kaija, m. d. and sillanaukee, pekka, m. s. c, jama, february 26, 1992 ; 267 ( 8 ) : 1070. cancer lung, bowel and cervix cancer ( lung, bowel and cervix ) and inflammatory bowel disease there is a belief that folic acid concentration may be higher in some tissues than others, thereby resulting in a localized deficiency in spite of normal blood levels. evidence for localized folic acid deficiency includes : ( 1 ) lower circulating folate levels in smokers compared with nonsmokers, ( 2 ) lower circulating levels in smokers with bronchial metaplasia, ( 3 ) lower folate levels in scrapings of buccal mucosa of smokers than nonsmokers, (


identify incomplete adherence to gfd as the reason for nonimprovement of the nutritional status in patients with cd. corazza gr et al., subclinical coeliac disease : an anthropometric assessment. j intern med, 236 : 183 - 7, 1994 aug. celiac disease and epilepsy celiac disease and epilepsy folic acid deficiency with neurologic abnormalities should be considered among atypical clinical presentations of patients with celiac disease. celiac disease, folic acid deficiency and epilepsy with cerebral calcifications, ventura, a., et al, acta pediatrica scandinavica, 1991 ; 80 : 559 - 562. women infected with the human papilloma virus may be able to reduce their increased risk of cervical cancer by increasing daily folic acid intake. encourages an increase in the daily recommended allowance of folic acid back to 400 mcg / d, up from 180 mcg / d, in women, and 200 mcg / d in men. liver, pinto beans, broccoli, spinach and orange juice are rich sources of folic acid. there is no evidence that increasing folic acid intake prevents cancer, but increasing amounts of the vitamin in the diet may prevent the initial cervical epithelial changes that are caused by the human papilloma virus. thirty percent of sexually active women in their 20 ' s have been exposed to hpv. it was noted by a spokesperson from the national cancer institute that other nutrient deficiencies may also play a role. folic acid lack and hpv increase cervical cancer risk, medical tribune, february 13, 1992 ; 11. the prevalence of human papilloma virus type 16 infection was initially 16 % among subjects in the upper tertile of red blood cell folate, versus 37 % of the lower tertile. folate deficiency may be involved as a cocarcinogen during the initiation of cervical dysplasia, but after a viral genome has been incorporated into the host, dna folic acid supplements have little or no effect on the course of the infection. oral folic acid supplementation for cervical dysplasia : a clinical intervention trial, butterworth, c. e., jr., m. d., et al, american journal of obstetrics and gynecology, march 1992 ; 166 ( 3 ) : 803 - 809. cognitive impairmentcolon cancer vitamin b12 contributed significantly to the variance in the mini - mental


. d., et al, american journal of obstetrics and gynecology, march 1992 ; 166 ( 3 ) : 803 - 809. cognitive impairmentcolon cancer vitamin b12 contributed significantly to the variance in the mini - mental state examination ( mmse ). there was no correlation between the mmse and serum, red cell folate, or b12 in the other dementias or the cognitively impaired nondementia group, and no significant correlation between mmse and other nutritional indices in any group. folate, vitamin b12 and cognitive impairment in patients with alzheimer ' s disease, levitt, a. j., et al, acta pshychiatr scand, 1992 ; 86 : 301 - 305. high dietary folic acid was inversely related to the risk of colorectal adenoma in women and men. those who consume more than 30 gms of alcohol daily ( 2 drinks ) had an elevated risk of adenoma compared to nondrinkers. methionine intake was inversely related to the risk of adenomas 1 cm or larger. folate, alcohol and methionine might influence methyl group availability. a methyl - deficient diet may be a risk factor for the early stages of colorectal neoplasia. this supports efforts to increase folate in segments of the population having diets with low intakes of this nutrient. folate, methionine, and alcohol intake and risk of colorectal adenoma, giovannucci, edward, et al, journal of the national cancer institute, june 2, 1993 ; 85 ( 11 ) : 875 - 881. dietary modification in crohn ' s disease can lead to symptom reduction and relief of inflammation. low folic acid levels due to sulphasalazine therapy suggests the need for folate supplementation. nutrition and crohn ' s disease, lennard - jones, j. e., m. d., annals of the royal college of surgeons of england, 1990 ; 72 : 152 - 154. patients with crohn ' s disease have nutritional deficiencies from lack of food intake and / or malabsorption. red blood cell folic acid status was assessed. patients were given 400 ug / d or 800 ug / d for 6 - 16 weeks. it was found that folate levels were low even after tpn with 400 ug / d and in those receiving 800 ug / g folate levels tended to


ug / d or 800 ug / d for 6 - 16 weeks. it was found that folate levels were low even after tpn with 400 ug / d and in those receiving 800 ug / g folate levels tended to increase but were not in the normal range. the authors recommend a dosage of 800 ug / d or greater in amafda formulations for crohn ' s disease patients on long - term tpn. folate is important for intestinal mucosa turnover and healing. red cell folate concentrations in patients with crohn ' s disease on parenteral nutrition, tominaga, masaya, et al, postgraduate medical journal, 1989 ; 65 : 818 - 820. the majority of nonsupplemented elderly had adequate folate levels. low red cell folate levels ( less than 140 ng / ml ) were observed in 8 % of free - living women, versus 11 % of institutionalized women ; and low levels were found in 14 % of free - living men, versus 22 % of institutionalized men. sixteen per cent of elderly women and 12 % of elderly men took folate supplements, and none had plasma red blood cell folate levels below 3. 0 ng / ml and 140 ng / ml respectively. observations on the folate status of self - elected group of institutionalized and free - living elderly canadians, hoppner, k., et al, journal of the canadian dietetic association, summer 1991 ; 52 ( 2 ) : 93 - 96. serum folic acid levels in the epileptic mothers were significantly lower than controls. decreased serum folic acid concentrations are related to congenital malformations in the offspring of epileptic mothers. it is known that folic acid plays a major role in the metabolism of the developing fetus since it is crucial in dna synthesis of growing cells. folate supplements should be given to mothers on antiepileptic medications starting before conception and during pregnancy. the reduced form of folic acid, 5formyltetrahydrofolate is recommended ; it has fewer neurotoxic effects than folic acid itself. serum folic acid levels in epileptic mothers and their relationship to congenital malformations, ogawa, yoshihiro, et al, epilepsy research, 1991 ; 8 : 75 - 78. in the fall of l992, the centers for disease control and prevention recommended that all women of child bearing age consume at least. 4 mg of f


these women. folate fortification of staple foods such as white bread, could make an important contribution to achieving the experts ' advisory recommendations for folate intake in women of child - bearing age. fortification would have specific importance for those at risk for low levels of intake including smokers, young mothers, those in low socioeconomic status or families with 6 or more members. fortified foods and folate intake in women of child - bearing age, schorah, c. j. and wild, j., the lancet, may 29, 1993 ; 341 : 1417. the food and drug administration has proposed that b - vitamin folic acid be added to flour, breads and other grain products to aid in the prevention of birth defects. the agency also proposed to allow manufacturers of folate supplements to label their products with a health claim. folic acid fortified foods would apply to flours, breads, rolls, grits and macaroni products already enriched with other nutrients. however, increased intakes of folic acid can mask the symptoms of pernicious anemia, a vitamin - b12 deficiency that could result in nerve damage. fda proposes to add folic acid to food supply, nutrition week, october 8, 1993 ; 2. food fortification of staple foods is more likely to succeed than wholesale distribution of vitamin pills. multi - vitamins for the prevention of neural tube defects : how convincing is the evidence?, smithells, r. w., drugs, 1989 ; 38 ( 6 ) : 849 - 854. this trial was to determine whether folic acid supplement or a mixture of 7 other vitamins ( a, d, b1, b2, b6, c and nicotinamide ) around the time of conception prevented neural tube defects. over 1195 females completed their pregnancies, with 27 known to have delivered infants with neural tube defects, 6 in the folic acid group and 21 from 2 other groups. this was a 72 % protective effect. the other vitamins showed no significant protective effect. there was no harm from the folic acid supplementation which was given in a 4 mg capsule. the vitamins contained vitamin a 4000 units, vitamin d 400 i. u., b1 1. 5 mg, b2 1. 5 mg, b6 1. 0 mg, vitamin c 40 mg and nicotinamide 15 mg. in the controlled capsules there was dried ferrous sulfate 120 mgs and di - calcium phosphate 240 mgs. the authors conclude that folic acid


, b6 1. 0 mg, vitamin c 40 mg and nicotinamide 15 mg. in the controlled capsules there was dried ferrous sulfate 120 mgs and di - calcium phosphate 240 mgs. the authors conclude that folic acid supplementation that is started before pregnancy can now be definitely recommended for all women who have had an effected pregnancy. public health measures should be taken to provide adequate amounts of folic acid to all pregnant females. some consideration should be given to extending fortification of staple foods with folic acid. prevention of neural tube defects : results of the medical research council vitamin study, the mrc vitamin study research group, the lancet, july 20, 1991 ; 338 : 131 - 137. recommends that women who have had a previously affected fetus should be given folic acid supplements if they intend to have another pregnancy, and therapy should begin before conception. this should take place at prenatal clinics and / or at the birth of infants with malformations. the dosage utilized was 4 mgs per day of folic acid and the question is whether a lesser dose could have as much benefit. another question concerns the length of time that the supplement is needed preceding conception. risk to folic acid supplementation needs to be assessed at the 2 different doses used,. 36 mgs a day which was in the original multivitamin preparation, or 4 mgs per day in this most recent study. green leafy vegetables are a good source of folic aicd but cooking can reduce their folic acid content. folic acid and neural tube defects, the lancet, july 20, 1991 ; 338 : 153 - 154. reviews the recent suggestion by the british medical research council vitamin study group that daily supplementation with folic acid before conception and during early pregnancy substantially reduces the recurrence of neural tube defects ( lancet, 1991 ; 338 : 131 - 7, 153 - 4 ). women in the united states who have had their pregnancy resulting in an infant or a fetus with a neural tube defect have a 2 to 3 % risk for having another pregnancy result in neural tube defects. approximately 4, 000 infants with neural tube defects are born in the united states annually and worldwide the number is approximately 400, 000. because of these findings the cdc has recommended the use of folic acid supplementation of 4 mg / d for women who previously had an infant or fetus with spina bifida, anencephaly or encephalocele. it is noted that in an


has recommended the use of folic acid supplementation of 4 mg / d for women who previously had an infant or fetus with spina bifida, anencephaly or encephalocele. it is noted that in an earlier study. 36 mg / d of folic acid was associated with a substantial reduction in neural tube defects. since the 4 mg dosage is a large dose, the food and drug administration regards folic acid at this dose to require an approved new drug application. it is noted that 4 mg / d of folic acid may mask vitamin b12 deficiency while neurologic manifestations progress. if there are no contraindications, 4 mg / d of folic acid should be taken from at least 4 weeks before conception through the first 3 months of pregnancy. one mg folic acid tablets are available as a prescription item. multi - vitamin and mineral preparations which contain folic acid should not be used to get the 4 mg / d dose since there will be harmful levels of vitamins a and d. use of folic acid for the prevention of spina bifida and other neural tube defects - 1983 - 1991, morbidity and mortality weekly report, august 2, 1991 ; 40 ( 30 ) : 513 - 516. epidemiologic studies have identified hyperhomocysteinemia as a possible risk factor for atherosclerosis. we determined the risk of carotid - artery atherosclerosis in relation to both plasma homocysteine concentrations and nutritional determinants of hyperhomocysteinemia. elderly subjects ( 418 men and 623 women ; age range, 67 to 96 years ) from the framingham heart study were examined for the relation between the maximal degree of stenosis of the extracranial carotid arteries ( as assessed by ultrasonography ) and plasma homocysteine concentrations, as well as plasma concentrations and intakes of vitamins involved in homocysteine metabolism, including folate, vitamin b12, and vitamin b6. the prevalence of carotid stenosis was 43 percent in the men and 34 percent in the women. high plasma homocysteine concentrations and low concentrations of folate and vitamin b6, through their role in homocysteine metabolism, are associated with an increased risk of extracranial carotid - artery stenosis in the elderly. selhub - j et al., association between plasma homocysteine concentrations and extracranial car


homocysteine metabolism, are associated with an increased risk of extracranial carotid - artery stenosis in the elderly. selhub - j et al., association between plasma homocysteine concentrations and extracranial carotid - artery stenosis [ see comments ]. n - engl - j - med. 1995 feb 2 ; 332 ( 5 ) : 286 - 91. the addition of vitamin b - 12 to folic acid supplements or enriched foods may enhance the reduction of homocysteine, thereby increasing the effectiveness of these supplements in the prevention of vascular disease and neural tube defects. folic acid, in amounts 1 - 2 times the rda, has been shown to lower plasma homocysteine levels. the study compared the homocysteine - lowering potential of a folic acid supplement with that of 2 supplements containing different doses of vitamin b - 12 in addition to folic acid. significant reductions in plasma homocysteine were observed in all groups receiving vitamin treatment. the effect observed with the combination of folic acid + vitamin b - 12was significantly larger than that with a supplement containing folic acid alone. br? onstrup a ; hages m ; prinz - langenohl r ; pietrzik kp : effects of folic acid and combinations of folic acid and vitamin b - 12 on plasma homocysteine concentrations in healthy, young women, am j clin nutr, 1998 nov ; 68 ( 5 ) : 1104 - 10 folate adequacy and homocysteine level folate adequacy and homocysteine levels those with coronary artery disease had lower plasma folate levels and higher plasma homocysteine levels than controls. folate was inversely associated with homocysteine levels for both cases and controls. there was a threshold for elevated homocysteine when folate levels were less than the world health organization recommended lower limit of 13. 8 nmol / l. plasma folate levels at the lower range of those considered to be normal in the united states ( greater than 6. 8 mmol / l ) were inadequate to prevent elevations in homocysteine levels. over 50 % of the american population have folate values in the range associated with elevated homocysteine levels. the high prevalence of folate inadequacy addresses the need to reassess what levels of folate are needed to prevent disease and maintain health. plasma folate adequacy as determined by


associated with elevated homocysteine levels. the high prevalence of folate inadequacy addresses the need to reassess what levels of folate are needed to prevent disease and maintain health. plasma folate adequacy as determined by homocysteine levels, lewis, charles a., m. d., m. p. h., et al, beyond deficiency : new views on the function and health effects of vitamins, new york academy of sciences, february 9 - 12, 1992 ; 15529. it has been reported that there is increased pentane and carbon disulphide concentrations in the breath of schizophrenic patients. alkanes in the breath may come from sites of cellular injury when oxygen free radicals peroxidate membrane lipids. acute exposure to high concentrations of carbon disulphide can result in psychosis possibly by interfering with dopamine b - hydroxylase. the greatest concentration of carbon disulphide in schizophrenic patients comes from the metabolic activity of the large - bowel flora. schizophrenia and the gut, again, the lancet, november 6, 1993 ; 342 : 1128 - 1129. hungarian researchers have stated that approximately 75 % of all neural tube defects could be eliminated by giving folic acid supplements. the u. s. criteria is to wait for a first time neural tube defect before giving folic acid supplementation. the fact is that 95 % of babies with a defect are born to women who have never had an affected pregnancy. folic acid could cut 75 % of all neural tube defects, mckeown, l. a., medical tribune, june 11, 1992 ; 21. one mg of oral folic acid is routinely given to premature infants receiving enteral feedings. a since there was a lack of evidence for any physiologic effect of very high dose folic acid given to nonerythroblastic infants, it might be wise to limit oral folate supplementation in preterm infants to 50 - 200 ug per day. high folate intakes related to zinc status in preterm infants, fuller, n. j., et al, european journal of pediatrics, 1992 ; 151 : 51 - 53. preterm infants ( # 104 ) were evaluated for the effects of folic acid supplementation. these infants were given 1 mg oral supplement of folic acid in the form of pteroylglutamic acid once they began enter


- 53. preterm infants ( # 104 ) were evaluated for the effects of folic acid supplementation. these infants were given 1 mg oral supplement of folic acid in the form of pteroylglutamic acid once they began enteral feeding. with the high folate levels attained by 1 mg per day supplementation along with evidence that high folate intakes may impair zinc absorption, their recommendations of folate supplementation remain at the ranges described previously (. 05 -. 2 mg ). plasma folate levels in preterm infants, with and without a 1 mg daily folate supplement, fuller, n. j., et al, european journal of pediatrics, 1992 ; 151 : 48 - 50. lithium and folic acid lithium and folic acid bipolar patients on lithium therapy do not have a folate deficiency. serum and red cell folate an affective morbidity in lithium prophylaxis, mckeon, p., et al, acta psychiatr. scand., 1991 ; 83 : 199 - 201. folate deficiency is uncommon among chinese psychiatric patients but high folate levels enhance lithium ' s benefits. folate concentration in chinese psychiatric patients on long term lithium treatment, lee, sing, et al, journal of affective disorders, 1992 ; 24 : 265 - 270. heavy alcohol intake leads to inadequate food intake, malabsorption due to folic acid deficiency and / or maldigestion secondary to pancreatic insufficiency. these patients need energy requirements 25 kcal / kg / day, protein intake of 30 - 70g / d and fat calories less than 30 % and the remainder can be carbohydrate. urea production, the main mechanism for ammonia disposal, may be reduced in the alcoholic liver. those with hepatic encephalopathy should increase calories from carbohydrate and decrease protein ingestion and also take 1. 5 oz. of lactulose several times daily which will produce acidy stools decreasing colonic ammonia absorption. folic acid deficiency is common and can lead to intestinal malabsorption. raw, leafy green vegetables, oranges, bananas are good sources. 5 mg folic acid may be taken once or twice weekly. nutrition and liver disease, feinman, l., m. d. and lieber, c. s., m. d., hospital medicine, april 1990 ; 150 - 166. maternal heat exposure


may be taken once or twice weekly. nutrition and liver disease, feinman, l., m. d. and lieber, c. s., m. d., hospital medicine, april 1990 ; 150 - 166. maternal heat exposure maternal heat exposure a cohort of over 23, 000 women who had serum alphafetoprotein screening and amniocentesis were evaluated for the risk of neural tube defects from heat exposure. heat exposure in the first trimester of pregnancy to hot tub, sauna, or fever resulted in an increased risk of neural tube defect. hot tub exposure appeared to have the strongest effect of any single heat exposure. maternal heat exposure and neural tube defects, milunsky, aubrey, mbbch, et al, jama, august 19, 1992 ; 268 ( 7 ) : 882 - 885. there was a definite increased risk to neural tube defects with elevated body temperature from taking hot baths during the first gestational month, as well as reported illness and the use of medications during pregnancy. there were significant dietary factors, which included the reduction in neural tube defects with a higher intake of vitamin a / beta - carotene rich fruits and vegetables. neural tube defect etiology : new evidence concerning maternal hyperthermia, health and diet, sandford, m. k., et al, developmental medicine and child neurology, 1992 ; 34 : 661 - 665. maternal vitamin intake maternal vitamin intake this study demonstrated no relationship between maternal serum folate, vitamin b12, or retinol levels and the risk of neural tube defects. conclude that folate supplementation in high risk populations is warranted, but vitamin supplements may not be beneficial in general obstetric populations and low risk areas. maternal vitamin levels during pregnancies producing infants with neural tube defects, mills, james l., m. d., ms, et al, journal of pediatrics, june 1992 ; 120 ( 6 ) : 863 - 871. maternal zinc levels maternal zinc levels women ( # 17 ) with neural tube defect offspring were evaluated for midtrimester maternal toenail zinc levels, utilizing neutron activation analysis. there was an overall increased risk for neural tube defect with increasing toenail zinc levels. those with elevated zinc levels had a 3. 1 odds ratio of developing neural tube defects, compared to those with normal toenail zinc levels. maternal zinc and fetal neural tube defects, milunsky, aubrey, et al, teratology, 1992 ; 46 : 341 - 34


a 3. 1 odds ratio of developing neural tube defects, compared to those with normal toenail zinc levels. maternal zinc and fetal neural tube defects, milunsky, aubrey, et al, teratology, 1992 ; 46 : 341 - 348. maternal serum folate and zinc concentrations were evaluated at 18 and 30 weeks gestation in 285 pregnant women. there was a weak linear relationship between maternal serum folate and zinc concentrations at 30 weeks gestation. folic acid supplementation had favorable effects on birth weight and apgar scores of newborns, and reduced prevalence of fetal growth retardation and maternal infections. there was no significant correlation found between serum zinc concentrations and birth weight of infants. the concept that folic acid supplementation has an inverse effect on maternal zinc nutriture and pregnancy outcome is not supported. maternal serum folate and zinc concentrations and their relationship to pregnancy outcome, tamura, tsunenobu, et al, american journal of clinical nutrition, 1992 ; 56 : 365 - 370. folic acid is a cofactor in the synthesis of cellular dna, which is important in the production of tissues in the bone marrow, small intestines, and colon where there is a rapid turnover of cells. nutrients ingested, along with dietary polyglutamate, may have an effect on its obligatory intestinal surface digestion and subsequent assimilation. legumes, tomatoes and oranges appear to inhibit human brush - border folate hydrolase, while cereal grain flours, milk, cabbage, cauliflower, and lettuce are not inhibitory. in miniature pigs which have high amounts of folate hydrolase, similar to those in humans, chronic alcohol ingestion inhibits folate hydrolase by 50 % but it does not depress the monoglutamate transport process. zinc does increase folate hydrolase activity, while paradoxically interfering with the final pteglu transport. polyglutamate hydrolase is a large macromolecule. dietary folate - the digestible vitamin, gray, gary m. : western journal of medicine, december 1991 ; 155 ( 6 ) : 660 - 662. it was found that those who supplemented with folic acid had significantly lower toxicity from methotrexate without sacrificing efficacy. recommend 1 mg of folic acid daily during low dose therapy as a useful adjunct to reduced toxicity without altering efficacy. the effect of folic acid supplementation on the toxicity of lowdose methotrexate in patients with rheuma


. recommend 1 mg of folic acid daily during low dose therapy as a useful adjunct to reduced toxicity without altering efficacy. the effect of folic acid supplementation on the toxicity of lowdose methotrexate in patients with rheumatoid arthritis, morgan, sarah l., et al, arthritis and rheumatism, january 1990 ; 33 ( 1 ) : 9 - 18. folate depletion may be a cause of some of the undesirable side effects from methotrexate supplementation. this evidence tentatively recommends folate supplementation and / or using fewer toxic antifolate medications in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. rheumatology. koopman, w. j. jama, june 1991 ; 265 ( 23 ) : 3169 - 3170. evaluated patients at a mood disorder clinic for red cell folic acid, vitamin b12 and thyroid hormone levels. the patients were free of antidepressant medications for at least 2 months, and free of lithium for 3 months. they had no history of drug abuse. there was a significant negative correlation between red cell folate, t4 and free thyroxine index persisting. other than that, there were other relationships found. there was another significant negative correlation between thyroid hormones and both b12 and red cell folate levels. the correlation with red cell folate persisted after antidepressant treatment. folate, vitamin b12 and thyroid function in depression, levitt, a. j. and joffe, r. t., biological psychiatry, 1993 ; 33 : 52 - 53. neural tube defects neural tube defects pregnant women should supplement with synthetic folic acid or fortified foods to prevent neural tube defects such as spina bifida or anencephaly, and those women with prior pregnancies may need a larger dose of folate to increase blood folate levels equivalent to the general population. the public health service of the united states recommends that all women capable of childbearing consume 0. 4 mg ( 400 microg ) folic acid per day to decrease the risk neural tube defects. neuhouser ml ; beresford sa ; hickok de ; monsen er : absorption of dietary and supplemental folate in women with prior pregnancies with neural tube defects and controls, j am coll nutr, 1998 dec ; 17 ( 6 ) : 625 - 30 daily periconceptional intake of 0. 4 mg of folic acid ( generally a


in women with prior pregnancies with neural tube defects and controls, j am coll nutr, 1998 dec ; 17 ( 6 ) : 625 - 30 daily periconceptional intake of 0. 4 mg of folic acid ( generally a multivitamin ) reduced the risk of neural tube defect by approximately 60 %. the authors note that a high dietary intake of folic acid may also reduce the risk of neural tube defects. periconceptional folic acid exposure and risk of occurrent neural tube defects, werler, m et al., jama, march 10, 1993 ; 269 ( 10 ) : 1257 - 1261. residents of a veterans home were evaluated for fasting serum folic acid levels. 29 % were taking folic acid supplements. six percent were taking phenytoin, a folate antagonist. none of the residents who consumed folic acid at 400 mcgs per day had a low serum folic acid level. of the individuals who did not receive folic acid supplements, 3 % had low folic acid levels less than 2. 5 ng / ml. supplementing with a multivitamin that contains 400 mcgs of folic acid per day is warranted in nursing homes since this level can prevent low serum folate levels. low serum folic acid levels in a nursing home population : a clinical experience. drinka, paul j., m. d., et al, journal of the american college of nutrition, 1993 ; 12 ( 2 ) : 186 - 189. nutrition and environment nutrition and environment of 22, 000 + pregnancies, 49 ended in neural tube defects. the prevalence of neural tube defect was 3. 5 per 1, 000 among women who had never used periconceptual multivitamins or used them only prior to conception. the prevalence of neural tube defects in those females who used multivitamins containing folic acid during the first 6 weeks of pregnancy was 0. 9 / 1, 000, which shows a 73 % protective effect of the combined supplementation. in further analysis, zinc was evaluated in toenail clippings in the second trimester of pregnancy in over 1, 700 women with normal offspring and 13 with neural tube defects. there was an odds ratio of 3. 2 found for elevated toenail zinc in neural tube defects. these individuals were also evaluated for heat exposure and there was found a significant crude relative risk of 2. 9 for hot tub use and neural tube defects. the relative risk for neural tube defects is 1. 9


elevated toenail zinc in neural tube defects. these individuals were also evaluated for heat exposure and there was found a significant crude relative risk of 2. 9 for hot tub use and neural tube defects. the relative risk for neural tube defects is 1. 9 with only 1 heat exposure and 6. 2 when exposed to 3 heat sources. nutrition and other environmental factors in the etiology of neural tube defects, milunsky, a : beyond deficiency : new views on functioning and health effects of vitamins, new york academy of sciences, february 9 - 12, 1992 / abstract 12. preconception health care preconception health care a general review for family physicians on appropriate components of preconception health care. with regards to nutrition, obviously starvation increases the risk of congenital anomalies. two factors associated with low birth weight infants are the mother ' s prepregnant weight and her weight gained during pregnancy. maternal nutrition before conception also plays a very important role. it has been shown through the supplemental food program for women, infants and children ( wic ) that supplemental food definitely produces larger infants and mothers with higher hemoglobins and lower risks of obesity. review the use of folic acid or multi - vitamins in the prevention of neural tube defects and conclude that the evidence is still debateable. preconception health care : a critical task for family physicians, gjerdingen, dk & fontaine, p, j of the american board of family physician, 1991 ; 4 : 237 - 50 this is a general review on the role of nutrition prior to pregnancy. it is noted that, in addition to folic acid and zinc, the diets of american women are likely to be low in iron, magnesium, calcium and vitamin b6. improved dietary patterns prior to pregnancy should be encouraged. research in the area of preconceptual nutrition definitely suggests that, in the attempt to prevent infant mortality, we need to pay more attention to the time prior to conception. results of preconceptional nutrition intervention provide additional encouragement to include nutrition assessment and counseling as part of postpartum and gynecologic care. preconceptional nutrition, dimperio, d : the j of pediatric and perinatal nutrition, 1990 ; 2 ( 2 ) : 65 - 78. folic acid is needed for the production of red and white blood cells, central nervous system integrity, gastrointestinal function and growth of fetus. it is important in the synthesis of pyrimidine and purine bases for the


78. folic acid is needed for the production of red and white blood cells, central nervous system integrity, gastrointestinal function and growth of fetus. it is important in the synthesis of pyrimidine and purine bases for the production of dna and rna. absorption mostly occurs in the proximal third of the small intestine. one percent of dietary folate is excreted in the urine. serum folate levels are valuable markers for folate status. red blood cell folate levels reflect tissue ( hepatic stores ) better than serum folate. vitamin b 12 deficiency creates intracellular folate deficiency. sources of folic acid include the liver, kidney, wheat bran, yeast, spinach, asparagus, black - eyed peas, lentils, lima, navy beans, green leafy vegetables, whole grains, beef, almonds, peanuts, corn, beets, potatoes, turnips, turnip greens and broccoli. the rda is 400 ug / d for adults, 800 ug / d for lactating women, 500 ug / d for pregnant women, 30 - 45 ug / d for infants and 100 - 300 ug / d for children. alcoholics are frequently folate deficient. nitrous oxide inhalation may reduce folate levels. folic acid levels are reduced due to hemodilution and increased need during pregnancy. diseases which may cause deficiency include sideroblastic and hemolytic anemias, chronic myelofibrosis, hyperthyroidism, exfoliative dermatitis and chronic hemodialysis. medications such as dilantin, sulfasalazine, triamterene, trimethoprim, pyrimethamine, methotrexate and neomycin affect folate metabolism. folate deficiency signs include headaches, fatigue, megaloblastic anemia, thrombocytopenia, glossitis, hair loss, poor growth, weight loss, oral ulcers, nausea, anorexia, diarrhea, insomnia, irritability, forgetfulness, fever, jaundice, dyspnea, palpitations, pigmentation and vitiligo. commercial products contain tablets from 0. 25 to 1 mg of folic acid generally. folic acid supplementation from i 00 to 1, 000 ug / d in the first six months of pregnancy may reduce neural tube defects, though this is debated


commercial products contain tablets from 0. 25 to 1 mg of folic acid generally. folic acid supplementation from i 00 to 1, 000 ug / d in the first six months of pregnancy may reduce neural tube defects, though this is debated. one hundred times the rda of folic acid may cause breakthrough epilepsy in patients on dilantin ( phenytoin ) therapy. in animal models mega doses may preciptate in kidneys. folic acid supplements have been reported at 350 ug / d during pregnancy to reduce zinc absorption. folic acid, 199 1 : an update, with new recommended daily allowances, kones, r, southern medical journal, december 1990 ; 83 ( 12 ) : 1454 - 1458. folic acid status was evaluated in 79 patients with spontaneous abortion of unknown etiology and compared to healthy controls ( # 1 12 ). the serum and erythrocyte folate concentrations of the abortion group were significantly lower than controls. folate status and pregnancy outcome, pietrzik, k et al., beyond deficiency : new views on the function and health effects of vitamins, n y academy of sciences, february 9 - 12, 1992 ; p - 1 8. ideally, folic acid intake should be increased in the general u. s. population by increasing the intake of fresh vegetables, to the quantity that would make supplements unnecessary. it is a fact that marginal intakes appear to be widespread, with biochemical evidence of low folate status seen in 13 to 15 % of women between 20 and 44 years of age, but deficiencies are much less common among users of supplements than nonusers. in some low income adolescent females, low folate status may be almost 50 %. folic acid fortification of flour is an option folic acid may be of benefit in the reduction of homocysteine levels, which is an emerging independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease, and also to help prevent cervical cancer. even though the reason for the reduction of neural tube defects over the last half of the century in the united states is not certain, it is suspected that the widespread use of multivitamin / mineral supplements, general improvement in the diet, and fortification of breakfast cereals with folic acid have contributed. the author notes that this is a simple, safe, nutritional intervention. folic acid and neural tube defect : can ' t we come to closure? willett, wc : am. j of public health, may 1992 ; 82 ( 5 )


. the author notes that this is a simple, safe, nutritional intervention. folic acid and neural tube defect : can ' t we come to closure? willett, wc : am. j of public health, may 1992 ; 82 ( 5 ) : 666 - 668. purchasing vitamin supplements purchasing vitamin supplements with the myriad of different products, it can be confusing. it is noted that almost all supplement makers buy most of their raw vitamins and minerals very cheaply from a small group of multinational firms. generally speaking, companies are ftee to put any amount of nutrient into their pills and capsules with few exceptions, such as in california, where vitamin a is limited, and folic acid is restricted to 400 mcgs in order not to mask a b 12 deficiency. vitamins 101 : how to buy them, schardt, d : nutrition action health letter, jan / feb 1993 evaluated rbc and serum folate levels in schizophrenic patients. there were significantly lower concentrations of folate in both the rbc and serum in patients who were treated with neuroleptic medication compared with those not being treated with neuroleptics. there were lower levels of folate found in patients who were on more than 1 drug than those on a single medication. folic acid deficiency did not cause schizophrenia but folate deficiency is related to the severity of the disease, the chronicity of the disease and the medications use. folate supplements should be given to schizophrenic patients along with their other medications. rbc and serum folate concentrations in neuroleptic - treated and neuroleptic - free schizophrenic patients, ramchand, cn et al., j of nutritional medicine, 1992 ; 3 : 303 - 309. twenty - two female patients with anorexia nervosa, restricted type, 14 - 35 years old, were treated with a 4 - month course of combined cognitive - behavioral therapy, nutritional counselling and antidepressant drugs ( nortriptyline for 7, fluoxetine for 15 ). patients were monitored for body mass index ( bmi ), for eating disorder symptoms by the eating disorder inventory ( edi ) and the bulimic investigation test ( bite ) and for depression and anxiety by the hamilton rating scales for depression and for anxiety ( hrs - d and - a ). the scores were determined before and after 1, 2 and 4 months of therapy. bmi, depression, anxiety and edi scores


for depression and anxiety by the hamilton rating scales for depression and for anxiety ( hrs - d and - a ). the scores were determined before and after 1, 2 and 4 months of therapy. bmi, depression, anxiety and edi scores improved significantly and equally in both groups during the 4 months of therapy, while bite scores did not change. brambilla f et al., combined cognitive - behavioral, psychopharmacological and nutritional therapy in eating disorders. 1. anorexia nervosa - - restricted type. neuropsychobiology, 1995, 32 : 2, 59 - 63. research was conducted to obtain a profile of nutrition therapy currently in practice for patients with anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and anorexia / bulimia ( mixed diagnosis ) and to identify the areas of dietetics education and research regarding eating disorders that need more attention. nutrition therapy administered varied among dietitians treating inpatients, outpatients, and both. three community groups were identified as most important to reach for prevention of eating disorders : junior high school students, coaches, and parents. crucial areas of research were perceived by 94 dietitians to be comparative effectiveness of techniques of medical nutrition therapy ( n = 55 ) and of techniques of prevention ( n = 26 ) and increased understanding of etiology in relation to identification of high - risk groups and prevention ( n = 21 ). dietitians desired further information on multiple topics related to eating disorders. medical nutrition therapy for eating disorders is a specialization that requires education and training beyond the minimum required for dietetic registration. some of the techniques required are unique to this specialization due, in part, to the psychological nature of the disorders. all dietitians, however, must be able to recognize and refer patients with eating disorders ; these skills must be included in basic undergraduate programs and internships. whisenant sl & smith ba : eating disorders : current nutrition therapy and perceived needs in dietetics education and research. j am diet assoc, 1995 oct, 95 : 10, 1109 - 12. reviews the toxicologic manifestations of ethanol abuse. hepatotoxicity of ethanol results from alcohol dehydrogenase - mediated excessive hepatic generation of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide and acetaldehyde. alcohol also alters the degradation of key nutrients, thereby promoting deficiencies as well as toxic interactions with vitamin a and beta - carotene. conversely, nutritional


of folate and cyanocobalamin status in a spanish elderly group, ortega, rm et al., international j of vitamin and nutrition research, 1993 ; 63 : 17 - 2 1. review of the roles of vitamin b 12 and folic acid in neuropsychiatric disorders in geriatric patients. vitamin b 12 and folic acid are important in the synthesis of serotonin, norepinephrine and myelin. normalizing serotonin synthesis helps regulate mood, sleep and appetite. they also are important in acetylcholine metabolism via s - adenosylmethione. poor vitamin b 12 and folic acid status in the geriatric population may be caused by poor absorption, decreased intrinsic factor, achlorhydria or dysfunction of coenzyme utilization. specifically at risk for deficiency are depressed and demented elderly psychiatric patients. vitamin b 12 and folate in acute geropsychiatric in patients, bell, ir : the nutrition report, january 1991 ; 9 ( l ) : i, 8. patients with vitiligo have been noted to have reduced levels of folic acid. b 12 is known to facilitate the reduction of folic acid to tetrahydrofolic acid, a necessary prerequisite for the participation of folic acid enzyme reactions. vitamin b 12 and folic acid require each other ' s presence for biological reactions, and will not proceed without one another. the action of vitamin b 12 in assisting in pigmentation may be due to its ability to enhance myelin synthesis, which would support the neural basis for vitiligo considered by many investigators. ascorbic acid may be of value since it increases the stability of folic acid. in the case of scurvy, folic acid reduction may occur as a secondary alteration. ascorbic acid is important for the conversion of folic acid to folinic acid. deficiencies of both folic acid and ascorbic acid induced an abnormality in tyrosine and phenylalanine metabolism. doses of folic acid up to 10 mgs / d. it was also noted that, with the addition of vitamins c and b 1 2, the repigmentation process was enhanced over folic acid alone. folic acid and vitamin b 12 in vitiligo : a nutritional approach, montes, l et al., cutis, july 1992 ; 50 : 39 - 42. zinc supplementation ( 1 ) india determined whether daily zinc supplement


. folic acid and vitamin b 12 in vitiligo : a nutritional approach, montes, l et al., cutis, july 1992 ; 50 : 39 - 42. zinc supplementation ( 1 ) india determined whether daily zinc supplementation reduces the incidence and prevalence of acute diarrhea, especially in those with zinc deficiency. children 6 - 35 mo of age were randomly assigned to zinc ( n = 286 ) and control ( n = 293 ) groups and received a supplement daily for 6 mo. zinc gluconate ( 10 mg elemental zn ) was given, with both zinc and control groups also receiving multivitamins. the primary outcome measures determined by home visits every fifth day and physician examinations were the number of acute diarrheal episodes ( incidence ) and total diarrheal days ( prevalence ). zinc supplementation had no effect in children 6 - 11 mo old. in children aged > 11 mo there was significantly less diarrhea in the zinc group. in boys > 11 mo old, supplementation resulted in a 26 % lower diarrheal incidence and a 35 % lower prevalence. in zinc - supplemented girls > 11 mo of age, the incidence was 17 % lower and the prevalence was 19 % lower. overall, zinc supplementation resulted in a 17 % lower diarrheal incidence in children with plasma zinc concentrations < 9. 18 mumol / l at enrollment and a 33 % lower incidence in children with concentrations < 50 mumol / l. zinc supplementation had a significant effect on acute diarrheal morbidity in children > 11 mo old and in children with low plasma zinc concentrations. sazawal s et al., efficacy of zinc supplementation in reducing the incidence and prevalence of acute diarrhea - - a community - based, double - blind, controlled trial. am j clin nutr, 66 : 413 - 8, 1997 aug. zinc supplementation ( 2 ) ( guatemala ) measure the impact of zinc supplementation on young guatemalan children ' s morbidity from diarrhea and respiratory infections. high rates of diarrhea and respiratory infections were reported. children from the placebo group had a 20 % episodic prevalence of diarrhea, with 8 episodes / 100 d, and a 7 % episodic prevalence of respiratory infections, with 3 episodes / 100 d. the median incidence of diarrhea among children who received zinc supplementation was reduced by 22 % ( wilcoxon rank test ), with larger reductions among boys and among children


% episodic prevalence of respiratory infections, with 3 episodes / 100 d. the median incidence of diarrhea among children who received zinc supplementation was reduced by 22 % ( wilcoxon rank test ), with larger reductions among boys and among children with weight - for - length at baseline lower than the median of the sample ( 39 % reductions in both subgroups ). zinc supplementation also produced a 67 % reduction in the percentage of children who had one or more episodes of persistent diarrhea. no significant effects were found on the episodic prevalence of diarrhea, the number of days per episode, or the episodic prevalence or incidence of respiratory infections. the large impact of zinc supplementation on diarrhea incidence suggests that young, rural guatemalan children may be zinc deficient and that zinc supplementation may be an effective intervention to improve their health and growth. ruel mt et al., impact of zinc supplementation on morbidity from diarrhea and respiratory infections among rural guatemalan children. pediatrics, 99 : 808 - 13, 1997 jun. hyperhomocysteinemia in the elderly hyperhomocysteinemia in the elderly elderly people who do not consume enough folic acid due to high alcohol use or lack of supplementation have high homocysteine levels, according to this cross - sectional study conducted on 278 men and women older than 65 years during 1993. subjects with high folate intakes due to supplementation exhibited the lowest homocysteine levels. people who drank 60 alcoholic drinks / month or more had low folate levels and high homocysteine levels. also, homocysteine levels increased as doses of coffee and tea increased. koehler km, et al : association of folate intake and serum homocysteine in elderly persons according to vitamin supplementation and alcohol use, am j clin nutr 2001 mar ; 73 ( 3 ) : 628 - 37 risk of miscarriage risk of miscarriage folic acid supplements taken before and during early pregnancy do not seem to increase a mother ' s risk of miscarriage, according to this population - based study of chinese women. the women asked to participate in this study had taken part in a folic acid campaign before their first pregnancy to reduce the incidence of neural tube defects in their unborn children. the miscarriage rate of women who had taken pills containing 400 mg folic acid before and during early pregnancy was compared to those who had not. the rate of miscarriage among women who had taken f


of neural tube defects in their unborn children. the miscarriage rate of women who had taken pills containing 400 mg folic acid before and during early pregnancy was compared to those who had not. the rate of miscarriage among women who had taken folic acid was 9. 0 % compared to 9. 3 % for women who had not taken the supplement. this finding suggests that daily consumption of 400 mg folic acid before pregnancy and during the first trimester does not heighten risk for miscarriage. gindler j : folic acid supplements during pregnancy and risk of miscarriage, lancet 2001 sep 8 ; 358 ( 9284 ) : 796 - 800 breast cancer risk breast cancer risk high dietary intake of folate may be inversely associated with the risk of breast cancer, according to this study on women in urban shanghai. the dietary habits of 1321 women and 1382 controls, all between the ages of 25 and 64, were assessed using food frequency questionnaires administered in person. none of the participants ever drank alcohol regularly or used vitamin supplements. dietary folate intake was highest among those women with the lowest risk of breast cancer according to unconditional logistic regression models used to analyze the questionnaire data. this correlation was most pronounced in women who consumed high levels of folate cofactors, including : methionine, vitamin b12, and vitamin b6. shrubsole mj, jin f, dai q, shu xo, potter jd, hebert jr, gao yt, zheng w : dietary folate intake and breast cancer risk : results from the shanghai breast cancer study, cancer res 2001 oct 1 ; 61 ( 19 ) : 7136 - 41 alzheimer ' s & folic acid folic acid deficiency may impede dna repair in neurons and leave them vulnerable to oxidative damage that leads to alzheimer ' s disease, according to this study. human cells from the hippocampal region of the brain were incubated in folic acid - deficient medium, in the presence of methotrexate, or homocysteine. each of these media induced cell death and rendered neurons vulnerable to mortality induced by amyloid beta - peptide, the major component of the amyloid plaques that characterize alzheimer ' s. amyloid precursor protein mutant transgenic mice given a folic - acid deficient diet also had increased cellular dna damage and hippocampal neurodegeneration, an effect not seen in wild - type mice. the levels of amyloid beta - peptide


precursor protein mutant transgenic mice given a folic - acid deficient diet also had increased cellular dna damage and hippocampal neurodegeneration, an effect not seen in wild - type mice. the levels of amyloid beta - peptide in the brains of the folate - deficient mice remained static. kruman ii, et al : folic acid deficiency and homocysteine impair dna repair in hippocampal neurons and senstitize them to amyloid toxicity in experimental models of alzheimer ' s disease, j neurosci 2002 mar 1 ; 22 ( 5 ) : 1752 - 62 coronary artery disease & folic acid coronary artery disease according to this study, folic acid supplementation in the elderly diet may be a good way to reduce homocysteine levels, which are associated with coronary artery disease, peripheral vascular disease, and venous thrombosis. this randomized, double - blind, placebo - controlled trial tested the effects of 0, 50, 100, 200, 400 and 600 micrograms folic acid on plasma homocysteine in 368 participants aged 65 to 75. plasma homocysteine levels were measured at three and six weeks during the six - week long trial. homocysteine levels were only significantly lowered by the 400 and 600 microgram supplements. the results indicated that a total daily folic acid intake of 926 micrograms per day, as calculated by multiple linear regression, would be necessary to avoid cardiovascular risk from folate deficiency in 95 % of the elderly population. since this intake amount is relatively high to take in by diet alone, it is suggested that supplementation and fortification of food with folic acid would be beneficial to the elderly. rydlewicz a, simpson ja, taylor rj, bond cm, golden mh : the effect of folic acid supplementation on plasma homocysteine in an elderly population, qjm 2002 jan ; 95 ( 1 ) : 27 - 35 diarrhea & folic acid folic acid may have a use as adjunctive therapy in diarrhea that affects children, according to this study conducted in long - evans rats. a total of ten rats were given a raw red kidney bean - based diet containing lectin to induce diarrhea for ten days - five were given folic acid supplements ( 160 microg / g feed ) during and ten days before the experiment. the effects of folic acid were judged based on evaluations of fecal matter,


##in to induce diarrhea for ten days - five were given folic acid supplements ( 160 microg / g feed ) during and ten days before the experiment. the effects of folic acid were judged based on evaluations of fecal matter, small intestinal bacterial overgrowth, and translocation of enteric bacteria into mesenteric lymph nodes. folic acid supplementation did not prevent weight loss or fecal output associated with diarrhea, but it did reduce the amount of enteric bacteria translocated into the mesenteric lymph nodes. it also showed signs of reducing indigenous bacteria adhering to jejunal mucosa. this mechanism may be of use in the prevention of bacterial infections that result as a complication of diarrhea in malnourished children. shoda r, mahalanabis d, islam kn, wahed ma, albert mj : folic acid supplementation on red kidney bean - induced diarrhoea and enteric bacterial translocation into mesenteric lymph nodes in rats : a pilot study, acta paediatr 2002 ; 91 ( 1 ) : 51 - 4 - product categories - amino acids & muscle health - arthritis care - brain / mood health - daily health - detox & immunity - digestive health - energy & stamina - eye health - fatty acids - heart health - hormonal health - joint & bone health - men ' s testosterone - skin, hair & nails - oahu lou ' s sun - wise - sleep support - vitamins & minerals - weight loss - popular products - cellrenew collagen hyaluronic acid - foundation blue - green algae - dream health system - go heads up - liver cleanse - reference materials - product testimonials - recent health journals - health journal archive - health briefs - health basics - frequent product q & a ' s - excellent question - med - scope ( health database ) - health conditions - natural solutions - alternative therapies - toxicity sources - foods advice - anatomy & fitness... how to naturally boost testosterone with high t. you are worth it... and so is she. like a pebble tossed in a pond, when melanoma touches life, it can ' t help but effect those around it. applied health journal ' honoring independence day ' applied health journal is a registered publication in the library of congress,


so, you ' ve created a few projects with arduino, and now it ' s time to kick it up a notch. where do you go next? with pro arduino, you ' ll learn about new tools, techniques, and frameworks to make even more ground - breaking, eye - popping projects. almost every arduino hacker or maker attempts progressively more complex projects. catering to this curiosity and yen for advancement with practical arduino engineering, harold timmis explains and helps to implement sound engineering principles, making them accessible to those who would prefer to build things rather than attend college. create your own arduino - based designs, gain in - depth knowledge of the architecture of arduino, and learn the user - friendly arduino language. get hands - on experience using a variety of projects and recipes, from home automation to test equipment. whether you are just getting started with personal 3d printing or already have a little experience, practical 3d printers explains everything you need to know to calibrate and customize your printer, and find, design, and create amazing objects from digital 3d models. beginning sensor networks with arduino and raspberry pi will teach you how to build sensor networks with arduino, raspberry pi, and xbee, and will even show you how to turn your raspberry pi into a database server for your sensor data!


stereo - b triangle ufo an odd triangle shaped object captured on video december 27 – 29 by nasa ’ s stereo - b spacecraft is the latest video which ufo hunters and conspiracy theorists believe depicts an enormous triangle ufo in outer space heading towards earth. nasa ’ s stereo - b spacecraft is one of two probes parked on either side of the sun which together produces a 360 view of the inner solar s system. ufo hunters claim that the video depicts venus, earth and on the opposite side heading towards earth ; a mysterious huge triangle shaped ufo. according to the claims of the ufo conspiracists, in comparison with the planetary objects within view the actual size of the ufo would be immense. this is not the first time that ufo hunters have discovered what they believed to be a gigantic ufo among images captured by these stereo probes. however, this time the team of scientists at nasa who work with the data from the probes decided to address the claim directly. in a nutshell, the scientists at nasa explained the ufo seen on the on the video is actually just a trick of light. the nasa scientists wrote, at the same time as the strange looking feature ( ufo ) starts becoming visible, the very bright planet venus enters the field of view from the lower left. the scientists emphasized that venus and the triangle seen opposite each other across the middle of the field remain in step as they move and this is because the strange triangle shaped object is actually an internal reflection of the planet venus within the telescope optics. in this optical phenomenon, incoming light reflects back and forth both off lenses and mirrors inside the telescope. the shapes of artifacts produced by the scattered light typically are triangles and circles of various sizes depending on the relative orientations of those lenses and mirrors within the telescope. in fact, this effect has been observed many times before, according to scientists and nasa. so what do you think was the ufo real?


pakistan ’ s federal government has decided to direct the manufacturers of the genetically modified foods to put labels on all of their products. this step has been taken to save the consumers from the malpractices and market manipulations by the food industry. this will also help the consumers to decide whether they should us gm foods or not. currently, the government is considering different viable options to regulate this sector. a concept paper entitled as “ genetically modified organisms and food labelling ’ is a centre of all the deliberations. it is hard to decide for the policy makers whether to make labelling mandatory or let it be optional — the first option will increase the production cost of the gm foods manifold. it is hoped that the government will soon come up with a feasible policy to put the gm foods sector under the ambit of hygiene and health laws. at the international level, the labelling laws for gm food vary greatly. some countries have made it compulsory while some take it as a volunteer act. there are some states which do not even bother about it. according to doctors and nutritionists, labelling must be mandatory as it is directly linked to the health of the consumers. however, the gm food producers are not ready to accept it. the government does not seem to be sparing this sector at any cost as some issues of malpractice have erupted recently. thus, the gm foods labelling is likely to become mandatory within the coming few weeks.


science in christian perspective man on a spaceship * william c. pollard oak ridge associated universities oak ridge, tennessee from : jasa 21 ( june 1969 ) : 34 - 39. the key to the twentieth century the earth, in common with the other planets of the solar system and the sun itself, was formed by condensation out of a gravitationally collapsing cloud of gas and dust some 4, 600 million years ago. its history since that time has almost certainly been much richer than that of any of the other planets. it is probable that all of them initially had rather extensive atmospheres of hydrogen, ammonia, and methane, the same as those still retained by the major planets jupiter and saturn. during the first one or two billion years of the earth ' s history, the action of ultraviolet radiation from the sun on this atmosphere, combined with electrical discharges within it, produced free radicals of nitrogen and carbon with hydrogen. reactions of these energy - rich free radicals with methane and ammonia then produced a variety of amino acids and other basic organic components of living systems. these processes must have occurred to some extent on all the planets in their early history. gradually the smaller planets, including the earth, lost their primordial atmospheres through escape of hydrogen from their gravitational fields. through volcanic activity a great deal of water of crystallization was released, and the earth acquired its oceans. as the oceans grew in volume, the organic materials produced out of its shrinking original atmosphere accumulated within them. the combination of these materials with phosphoric acid and dissolved ammonia in the primordial ocean produced in time, by processes not now understood, the elementary components of living systems. the earliest evidence of life that we have at present comes from the gunflint iron formation on the north shore of lake superior near schreiber beach, ontario. a chert in this formation, whose age is 1, 900 million years, contains the fossils of many single celled microorganisms somewhat like modern algae. thus cellular life had developed in the oceans two billion years ago. very slowly through photosynthesis these organisms replaced carbon dioxide in the atmosphere with free oxygen. in time the oxygen built up sufficiently to produce an ozone layer in the upper atmosphere which thereafter has effectively shielded out the intensive ultraviolet radiation from the sun. as a result of this and other changes in the environment, the evolution of life took a new turn some 600 million years ago. geologically the period is known as the cambrian. in it the evolution of a variety of multicellular organisms was initiated and elaborated


a result of this and other changes in the environment, the evolution of life took a new turn some 600 million years ago. geologically the period is known as the cambrian. in it the evolution of a variety of multicellular organisms was initiated and elaborated. the earth began to acquire a biosphere. by 300 million years ago the land was well covered with vegetation and populated by land reptiles and insects. in this period the great coal beds and oil fields of the earth were laid down. man in the form of our biological species homo sapiens is one of the most recent to appear on the planet, arriving a mere thirty - five thousand years ago. during the first thirty thousand years he had very little effect on the balance of nature on the earth, over and above the effect which the introduction of any other new species had on it. the emergence of human civilizations, of cities and empires, literature and science, has all taken place in the last five thousand years. even these developments, however, left vast areas of the earth largely untouched by man. our century, the twentieth, is unique in the whole history of our species on the planet, and indeed in the whole incredibly longer history of the earth itself. there is nothing in these previous histories to which it can be compared. we find ourselves in the midst of revolutionary changes of a magnitude and scope far beyond that of any other cataclysm which the earth has experienced throughout its billions of years. the genesis summary a remarkably applicable key to these questions is found in a summary statement at the end of the first chapter of genesis in the bible. although this chapter is based on the prevailing babylonian cosmology of the fifth century b. c., the summary at the end of it relating to man is, as we shall see, remarkably applicable to our present concern. this summary occurs with considerable repetition in verses 26 through 28. " so, " it begins by way of definitive summation, " so, cod created man in his own image and blessed them and said to them ; ' be fruitful and multiply and fill the earth and subdue it ; and have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the birds of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth. ' " this remarkable statement about man and his destiny in the earth has waited thirty - five thousand years to reach fulfillment, but is now with breathtaking speed being realized before our eyes. only in the twentieth century has it been at all true of man ' s status on the earth. in it


destiny in the earth has waited thirty - five thousand years to reach fulfillment, but is now with breathtaking speed being realized before our eyes. only in the twentieth century has it been at all true of man ' s status on the earth. in it we can find a key to the meaning of the twentieth century. have dominion over the earth all during the intervening twenty - four hundred or so years since this summation was written, it has not been really descriptive of man ' s status in the earth. vast areas, even whole continents, of the earth ' s surface were only sparsely if at all settled by man. man thought consciously of himself as a minority species among many other species. human settlements were for the most part tiny islands in the midst or on the edge of vast forests or jungles in which the wild beasts held sway. he exercised a limited dominion over his own flocks of sheep, herds of cattle, horse, and dog. but always there was danger and uncertainty as everwatchful tigers or wolves lurked in the shadows ready to pounce at the first opportunity. he exercised no dominion over two basic essentials, the world of microorganisms and the fertility of the soil. pestilence, plague, and famine were ever - present threats periodically actualized in terrible scourges before which man stood helpless. since he was bound to the earth ' s surface, the birds of the air remained beyond his reach. for all his cleverness as a fisherman and sailor, the sea remained vast and alien in which creatures large and small disported themselves oblivious of man and his ways. the dominion over the earth exercised by man was token and symbolic at best, and he was very, very far indeed from having subdued the whole earth to his purposes. be fruitful and multiply man had been fruitful through previous centuries, but disease and famine prevented him from multiplying. at the beginning of the christian era there were only about 300 million human beings on the earth. it required seventeen centuries to double this number to 600 million. then in 1820, for the first time, the world population of species homo sapiens passed the one billion mark. by 1930 it had doubled to two billion. just a few years ago, in the early sixties, it passed three billion. by 1977 it will have reached four billion, by 1990 five billion, and by the end of this century, in the year 2000, it will be well beyond six billion, and the world will be just twice as crowded as it is now. clearly


by 1977 it will have reached four billion, by 1990 five billion, and by the end of this century, in the year 2000, it will be well beyond six billion, and the world will be just twice as crowded as it is now. clearly our century, the twentieth, is the one in which the biblical injunction to be " fruitful and multiply and fill the earth " is at last being fulfilled. it is true of no other time in history. to us and to our generation the lot has fallen to experience the fulfillment of the purpose asserted for man when he began to inhabit this planet thirty - five thousand years ago ; namely, that he should in the fullness of time multiply and fill the whole earth. it is a startling thought. subdue the earth but the same century, the twentieth, marks the fulfillment of the rest of the injunction as well. there are many living today whose childhood was spent in the first decade of this century before the advent of either the automobile or the airplane, electric lights or appliances, radio or tv. in just the span of a single life time they have seen the whole face of the earth transformed by the phenomenon of technology. a jet flight over almost any part of the earth today provides striking evidence of this transformation. everywhere the fields and highways, factories and cities of man stretch endlessly in every direction. the great primeval forests of the earth are rapidly shrinking and by the end of this century will have essentially disappeared. this is true not only of the developed portions of the earthjapan, america, europe, and russia - but of those areas we consider underdeveloped as wellasia, africa, and latin america. even where the people continue economically depressed, technology in the form of steel mills and factories, highways and airports, dams, power plants, and machinery is everywhere in evidence. in this century man has not only filled the whole planet but he has subdued it as well and taken effective dominion over every creature. the end of wilderness in recent years wilderness and wildlife societies have been formed with a sense of panic about them. even in africa, which we still think of as a continent teeming with wild and exotic animals in a natural state, the true situation is one of the rapidly approaching extinction of many species. with the best that these societies, or any of us, can do, by the end of this century the only wild animals left on the earth will be found in zoos or scattered national parks maintained by man for their protection. all the rest of the planet will he


these societies, or any of us, can do, by the end of this century the only wild animals left on the earth will be found in zoos or scattered national parks maintained by man for their protection. all the rest of the planet will he devoted directly to man and his needs : to the production of his food and of the water and energy to do his work ; his vast cities and the system of highways, air lanes, and seaways linking them together ; his recreation and pleasures, foibles, fancies, and vanities. occasionally he will visit a zoo or a wildlife preserve and sense the pathos of a vanished world before man took his cod - given dominion over it, and feel a sharp nostalgia for the earth as it was before man filled it and subdued it. over all the rest of the earth every square inch of arable land will be devoted to human agriculture in which all that grows and moves will be specially selected crossbreeds far removed from the wild varieties which covered the earth before man began to exercise his dominion over them. all that lives will be especially suited to the needs of man ; any creature which fails to meet this standard will be bred out of existence. yet this vast change in the status of living things on this planet is the work of but a single century in the whole 4, 600 million - year history of the earth. thirty - three years to go we have just thirty - three years to go in this century. it is a dreadfully short period in which to accommodate ourselves to the things which are so rapidly coming upon us, and to accomplish all that must be accomplished for man to continue his existence on the planet at any reasonable standard of living. in this brief period technological and social changes must somehow be achieved which dwarf in magnitude all others which have occurred in our past history and which have been accomplished over much greater time spans. it has become of the utmost importance for all of us to see as clearly as possible the character, direction, and challenges of the revolution through which the earth is passing. the most effective image i have found for this purpose is based on recognizing that the earth is fast becoming a spaceship carrying mankind on a long journey through space. i am indebted to kenneth boulding for this image, which is partly developed in his important and stimulating book, the meaning of the twentieth century. 1 recently the british economist barbara ward has employed this same image most effectively in a book entitled spaceship earth. 2 now that our astronauts completely encircle the earth in less than two


in his important and stimulating book, the meaning of the twentieth century. 1 recently the british economist barbara ward has employed this same image most effectively in a book entitled spaceship earth. 2 now that our astronauts completely encircle the earth in less than two hours, and the rest of us can get jet flights to almost any part of the earth in twelve hours, we have all come to see the earth as small enough and compact enough to be thought of as a spaceship. the atmosphere of the earth is an ideal radiation shield, transparent to light, but very effectively shielding us from the fierce ultra - violet, x - rays, and higher energy radiations of outer space. in this the earth fulfills admirably one of the primary requisites of a well - designed spaceship. during its long prehuman history, the earth has been prepared with a wealth of supplies now required by man, when he has filled the earth and subdued it, to carry him on his long journey through space from now on. over long stretches of its geologic history, the processes which have concentrated ores of iron, copper, uranium, and other vital metals have by now well stocked the earth with them for man ' s requirements. later in its history coal beds and oil fields were laid down slowly over 100 million years to provide vast reserves of fossilized fuels for man ' s utilization, primarily in the twentieth century and after. it is as though some hidden designer had been at work for the last billion years or so specifically preparing the earth to become the spaceship for this creature who is now rapidly filling the earth and subduing it to his own uses. there are several fundamental requirements for a satisfactory spaceship. first it must have an adequate source of energy which will last throughout the trip. next it must have an adequate food supply or means of producing food for the crew throughout the journey. the air and water reserves in the ship must be kept pure and adequate for all needs. wastes must be reprocessed or disposed of in ways which will not contaminate the ship. and, finally, the crew must not he allowed to increase in numbers, and it must remain unified throughout the journey. divisions into warring rival subcrews or interpersonal conflicts between crew members would be catastrophic in a spaceship on an extended voyage. energy and water all these elements of a spaceship economy face us in a particularly acute form as we move into the last third of this century. consider first the basic requirements for energy and water. these are interrelated, and the key to


voyage. energy and water all these elements of a spaceship economy face us in a particularly acute form as we move into the last third of this century. consider first the basic requirements for energy and water. these are interrelated, and the key to both is nuclear energy. as we consider the vast requirements which face us in the immediate future, it seems remarkably providential that man should have stumbled on nuclear energy and the possibility of its controlled utilization less than thirty years ago. although, spurred by the terrible threat of hitler ' s nazi germany, it was first developed destructively, its discovery has come barely in time to make our continued occupancy of our spaceship possible. until only a dozen years ago, man was exclusively dependent on chemical energy ( with the minor exception of hydroelectric power ) derived from the burning of fossilized fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, with the oxygen of the atmosphere. this form of energy is exceedingly rare, even esoteric, in the universe as a whole. there are very few spots other than the earth in the entire universe where the necessary ingredients for such energy can be found. nuclear energy, on the other hand, is extremely common and universally present throughout all creation. our sun is a natural hydrogen bomb in process of continuous explosion and so are the other so - called " main sequence " stars. our galaxy, the milky way, contains some hundred billion such stars, and all the other galaxies are equally thickly populated with them. cod has made more hydrogen bombs than he has anything else. there is nothing more common or more natural and universal in all creation. in the fullness of time it was inevitable that man in the fulfillment of the promise made at his creation would come to exercise dominion over this universal element of nature as well. to us and to our generation the lot has fallen to experience the fulfillment of the purpose asserted for man when he began to inhabit this planet thirtyfive thousand years ago ; namely, that he should in the fullness of time multiply and fill the whole earth. it is a startling thought. most discussions of nuclear energy today seem to miss completely this natural character of it. instead it is discussed as though it were a purely something introduced into the scheme of things by human technical ingenuity but not intended to he contained in the world as god prepared it for moreover, such discussions tend to concentrate almost exclusively on aspects as though its only role in human affairs were that of placing upon man the terrible burden of our arsenals of nuclear weapons. both of these


to he contained in the world as god prepared it for moreover, such discussions tend to concentrate almost exclusively on aspects as though its only role in human affairs were that of placing upon man the terrible burden of our arsenals of nuclear weapons. both of these a dangerous distortion of the true situation. hydrogen, lithium, thorium, and uranium are natural, pre - existent fuels just as much, if not more so, as are coal and oil. in the same way gasoline can be burned in a controlled manner to produce useful energy or made into napalm bombs for destructive purposes. else in nature over which man exercises dominion, he can exercise it either for a blessing or for a curse. this is the true status of nuclear energy. the true role of nuclear energy for man becomes abundantly clear when we consider the postrevolutionary status of man on this planet in the twenty - first century. with the earth then supporting a total population in excess of seven billion human beings, we are forced to contemplate a radically different world from the one we knew before the revolution in the midst of which we now find ourselves began. to support such a population in a continuous and stable way will require an immense consumption of energy on a scale far greater than any we have seen so far. it will also require vast quantities of fresh water, mainly for irrigation of great desert areas of the earth not previously required for agriculture. both the requirements for energy and for water can be met only with nuclear energy. we have already reached the danger point with water, and soon it is inevitable that we shall see more and more large nuclear - powered desalinization plants constructed along ocean shores all over the earth. whether we burn the rocks ( by extracting uranium for nuclear fission reactors ) or burn the sea ( by extracting deuterium for thermonuclear power plants ), adequate reserves of nuclear fuels are available in the earth for many millenia. coal and oil will be carefully husbanded and burned as fuel only for small mobile power systems, such as automobiles and airplanes. for electric power, desalted water, and space heating, nuclear power will be universally used. there is no other longterm alternative. thus by the end of this century nuclear power and sea water desalting plants will be commonplace in every country of the world. this is an essential requirement for the maintenance of the population which the earth will then be sustaining. considerations such as these show how essential to human welfare it is that man should now he exercising his god


plants will be commonplace in every country of the world. this is an essential requirement for the maintenance of the population which the earth will then be sustaining. considerations such as these show how essential to human welfare it is that man should now he exercising his godgiven dominion over nuclear fuels. in retrospect it is providential that the key discoveries which make it possible for man to use nuclear energy were made just when they were. otherwise we would be facing the gravest problems of human survival on the planet for a period just a few decades away from the present. the blessing which man derives from his exercise of dominion over nuclear fuels is far greater and more crucial than has been generally realized. on the other hand, the corollary wide - spread distribution of nuclear fuels among all countries large and small is charged with terrifying possibilities. by the end of the century nuclear fuels are bound to be as common and universal as coal is now. in such a world any country large or small can fabricate these plentiful fuels into nuclear weapons at any time it wishes to. the problem of proliferation of nuclear weapons which so concerns us now will appear very different then. the specter of vast destruction in a nuclear holocaust can only grow more acute as time goes on. this too is an essential aspect of man ' s exercise of dominion over nature. we cannot have the possibility of blessing without the possibility of curse. since it is man who exercises the dominion, it is man alone who determines whether it will be made a blessing or a curse. hydrogen and uranium are inert. like alcohol, dynamite, or morphine, they can be applied to either end by him who exercises dominion over them. the need for water is closely tied in with the need for food. we are already running dangerously short of food for the world ' s explosively increasing population. the vast surpluses of grain and other staples which have plagued our agricultural system in this country for so many years are now gone. we will never see them again. instead, restrictions on land under cultivation will be rapidly removed in the next few years, and the united states and canada will be shipping greatly increased tonnages of grain and other foods to india, pakistan, and china, and perhaps for several years to russia as well. at the same time extensive increases in world fertilizer production which are already under way will be accelerated and the productivity of land in these countries which is already under cultivation will be greatly increased. all of these steps, however, will be adequate for not much more than another five


increases in world fertilizer production which are already under way will be accelerated and the productivity of land in these countries which is already under cultivation will be greatly increased. all of these steps, however, will be adequate for not much more than another five years or so. to prepare ourselves for double the population at the end of this century, we must between now and then add an average of some thirty million acres of new land each year to that already under cultivation. since most of this new land must come from desert areas of the earth ' s surface, we must arrange to supply it with about twenty billion gallons of fresh water per day, and we must add this much new water supply each year. it is as though some hidden designer had been at work for the last billion years or so specifically preparing the earth to become the spaceship for this creature who is now rapidly filling the earth and subduing it to his own uses. this is a staggering requirement, but we at oak ridge are convinced that it is now technologically feasible. the oak ridge national laboratory has developed a prototype nuclear power reactor, the molten salt reactor, which promises to provide abundant energy at very low cost. the laboratory is also the in the united states for research and development of nuclear with very largescale installations, it is technically feasible to billion gallons of fresh water from the sea per day at a cost comparable to that for present irrigation water, with associated large - scale production power at costs well below those of tva today. nothing we do in nuclear desalinization of the sea will compare, however, with the evaporative power of that natural nuclear power plant, the sun. the action of the sun generates a known supply of 14 million billion gallons of fresh water per day which is twentyfive times the requirement of a world population of six billion people. this supply, however, is distributed very unevenly for agricultural purposes. to utilize even a small portion of it will require major engineering projects. one such project diverts three rivers in australia which used to flow to the coast and into the sea through tunnels through the snowy mountains where they will irrigate arid valleys in the interior and generate two and a half million kilowatts of electricity in addition. in this country the diversion of the colorado to the los angeles area, the imperial valley, and mexico is under consideration, together with the huge feather river project in northern california. the most ambitious project of this sort would reverse the flow of rivers in northern canada, which now flow into the arctic ocean, so


angeles area, the imperial valley, and mexico is under consideration, together with the huge feather river project in northern california. the most ambitious project of this sort would reverse the flow of rivers in northern canada, which now flow into the arctic ocean, so as to provide 160 billion gallons per day to the western deserts of the united states and mexico. russia may in time reverse the flow of the ob, the lena, and the yenisei rivers to supply tillable but arid regions there. similar major projects are possible in china. given sufficient time, the dominion which man already knows how to exercise over the earth seems adequate, therefore, to provide food for a population of around ten billion people or even more. but the tragedy of the present decade is that we do not have time enough to carry out such projects before largescale famines will set in. by 1970 famine of catastrophic proportions seems inevitable in india, pakistan, and china. it will be a calamity unparalleled in human history, involving death by starvation for numbers running into the hundreds of millions. we have somewhat longer in south america, but, unless major projects can be initiated in the next few years, famine of comparable proportions will occur there by 1980. these are some of the realities of our filling the earth and trying to achieve the means in such a short time to subdue it and convert it into our spaceship. in the long run, say thirty or forty years, we have the technological means to provide enough food. but the immediate needs are so pressing and are increasing so rapidly that there seems no possibility of avoiding short - term catastrophe. another spaceship requirement which is already becoming crucial, particularly in the united states, is the necessity for adequate reprocessing and disposal of all wastes. air pollution, particularly in los angeles and new york, has become a problem already of crisis proportions. the pollution with industrial and human wastes of our rivers and lakes has reached such levels that vigorous national programs of control seem to he imminent. in another ten or twenty years, however, the same problems will plague the whole earth. rapid world - wide industrialization will soon persuade all nations that this is a planetary, not a local, problem. the earth is a single spaceship with a single atmosphere and single water system. with a population over double that presently on the earth, waste reprocessing and pollution control will have become recognized planetary necessities requiring a world - wide system of controls. here again the technological means for achieving adequate control of atmospheric and fresh water purity


a population over double that presently on the earth, waste reprocessing and pollution control will have become recognized planetary necessities requiring a world - wide system of controls. here again the technological means for achieving adequate control of atmospheric and fresh water purity are either available now or seem assured in the next ten years. most of the industrial effluents now fouling our rivers and lakes could be processed with equipment already on the market to recover and process chemicals and pay off the initial capital investment in three to ten years. air pollution from industrial and utility plants can be similarly controlled, although at some additional cost. in time fuel cells or improved rechargeable batteries must replace gasoline for automobiles and trucks. the whole problem is now more political and economic than technical. its solution threatens deeply intrenched interests and firmly established patterns, and so will be accompanied by considerable social and political stress and strain. but the ultimate demands of a spaceship economy will in time force a solution. these problems of energy, water, food, and waste handling arise from and are created by the explosive increase in human population which is now going on. as we have seen, in the remaining third of this century man will have fulfilled the biblical injunction to be fruitful and multiply and fill the earth. but an inescapable corollary of this injunction faces us now with terrible urgency. because the earth is in fact a spaceship for man ' s journey, it is essential that once the earth has been filled by man, he must stop being fruitful and cease further multiplication. moreover, this must be accomplished within a generation, or certainly within no more than two generations. the children of today ' s college graduates must, as they approach adulthood, already have started the process which their children must complete ; namely that of separating human sexuality from procreation. all over the world this process will involve a profound religious and moral readjustment. yet there is no viable alternative to such a transformation. what god required of man during the long centuries before he filled the earth is quite different from what he will require of man after he has done so. this seems clear enough. once the crew of the spaceship has reached its full complement, there is an absolute requirement that it not be allowed any further increase. yet no other requirement calls for such a deep - seated readjustment in long - established religious, moral, and social patterns, or is more resolutely resisted by mankind. the children of today ' s college graduates must... already have started the


requirement calls for such a deep - seated readjustment in long - established religious, moral, and social patterns, or is more resolutely resisted by mankind. the children of today ' s college graduates must... already have started the process which their children must complete ; namely that of separating human sexuality from procreation. all over the world this process will involve a profound religious and moral readjustment. yet there is no viable alternative. this problem of achieving a stable human population on the planet dwarfs all others in both urgency and difficulty. yet one way or another it must and will be achieved. i am fearful that only after famines of awful proportions and their social paroxysms will sufficient pressure have been brought to bear to force men to a solution. but there is no other way out. in the end sometime in century, and hopefully early in the century, a stable planetary population will have been achieved at somewhere between six and ten billion human beings. when this has been done the requirements of that population for energy, fresh water, food, and pure air can and will be met, although most of the and scientific and technological skill of humanity will be absorbed by this task. unity in the crew the last, and certainly the most difficult problem in achieving a satisfactory occupancy of our spaceship, is the requirement of unity in the crew. it is to this aspect of the problem that barbara ward ' s book, spaceship earth, 2 to which we have already referred, is devoted. when we consider the vast social and political problems which presently confront mankind, the ultimate unification of man on the planet which must somehow he achieved seems almost unattainable. there are radical conflicts in ideology dividing the world into two vast armed camps. as we crowd closer together on the earth the way must, and, i feel confident, will be found for holding these ideologies in some kind of creative balance. other tensions arising out of deep historic hurts maintain local conflicts in the middle east, southeast asia, among african tribes, and elsewhere on the earth. america and south africa are powder kegs of racial tension between white and black. doubtless the achievement of what barbara ward calls a " balance of ideology " will involve paroxysms along the way of an intensity greater than any we have so far known. but each will, i believe, bring us closer to that unity which our spaceship status requires. each of these adjustments will involve, as miss ward so fully describes, a move toward a " balance of power " and


any we have so far known. but each will, i believe, bring us closer to that unity which our spaceship status requires. each of these adjustments will involve, as miss ward so fully describes, a move toward a " balance of power " and a " balance of wealth " in addition to the balance of ideology. all represent drastic changes in the world of warring nation states, of haves and have - nots, which we know now. yet her searching analysis of all these problems does lead to a kind of guarded optimism about the ultimate outcome. 1kenneth e. boulding, the meaning of the twentieth century ( new york : harper & row, 1965 ). 2barbara ward, spaceship earth ( new york : colombia university press, 1966 ). * " title of a special guest lecture at the annual convention of the asa at calvin college, grand rapids, michigan, august 21, 1968. dr. pollard, ph. u. in physics from rice university, became executive director of the oak ridge institute of nuclear studies in 1947, and president of the oak ridge associated universities in 1966. he was ordained a deacon in the protestant episcopal church in 1952, and a priest in 1954. dr. pollard is the author of physicist and christian, on the fermi theory of the beta roy type of radioactive disintegration, and chance and providence. this article is based on chapters 1 and 2 of his book, man on a spaceship, published in 1967 by the claremont colleges, claremont, california 91711, and reprinted here with permission of author and publisher.