was appointed deputy minister of defense in kabbah ' s government and head of the cdf, with the government providing the cdf with training, weapons and food. 14 the cdf movement consists of groups of traditional hunters and young men who were used by the government to defend their native areas. the kamajors operate mainly in the south and east, the tamaboros in the far north, the gbettis in the north and the donzos in the far east. civilians who joined the cdf underwent initiation ceremonies, which were said to bestow magical powers, making them immortal and invincible. 15 units of fighters were initially deployed only in their own chiefdoms to ensure their loyalty and discipline and make the best use of their superior bush knowledge. the cdf, in contrast to the sla and the ruf, had the support of the local civilians and were very effective, overrunning main ruf camps in late 1996 with the support of e. o. and the army. in january 1996, strasser was overthrown by his deputy, brigadier julius maada bio. bio initiated peace negotiations with the ruf, which had begun to suffer a number of defeats, as well as a program to return sierra leone to civilian rule. in march 1996, elections were held, and ahmad tejan kabbah of the slpp, who pledged to bring about an end to the war, became president of sierra leone. in november 1996, the ruf and kabbah ' s government signed the abidjan peace accord, which provided for a ceasefire, disarmament, demobilization, an amnesty to the ruf, and the withdrawal of all foreign forces. the ceasefire was broken in january 1997, however, when serious fighting broke out in southern moyamba district. in january 1997, sankoh was arrested in nigeria on an arms charge and imprisoned by the nigerian government. in may 1997, fourteen months after assuming power, president kabbah was overthrown in a coup led by major johnny paul koroma, who formed a new government called the armed forces revolutionary council ( afrc ). koroma had escaped from prison, where he had been held following an earlier attempted coup in september 1996. the afrc suspended the constitution, banned political parties, and announced rule by military decree. days of looting by soldiers followed the coup, which also ushered in a period of political repression characterized by arbitrary arrests and detention. an attempt by nigerian and guinean troops ( who had been in sierra leone since 1995


, and announced rule by military decree. days of looting by soldiers followed the coup, which also ushered in a period of political repression characterized by arbitrary arrests and detention. an attempt by nigerian and guinean troops ( who had been in sierra leone since 1995 as part of bilateral security accords to give support to the nprc ), supported by south african mercenaries, to oust koroma failed. 16 the afrc consisted primarily of disgruntled ex - sla soldiers who had become disillusioned by president kabbah ' s decision to cut back support for the military. koroma also cited the government ' s failure to implement the peace agreement as the reason for the coup. the sla accused kabbah of having put greater confidence for the country ' s defense in and giving more economic resources to the cdf than to the army. formalizing an alliance between the army and the rebels based on joint opposition to president kabbah and the slpp, the afrc invited the ruf to join its government in june 1997. from exile in guinea, president kabbah mobilized international condemnation for and a response to the coup makers. in response to a plea from kabbah, hundreds of nigerian troops based in liberia as part of the economic community of west african states monitoring group ( ecomog ) moved to freetown, reinforcing ecomog colleagues already based at the freetown airport to defend it from attacks by the ruf. nigerian vessels stationed off freetown shelled the city, reportedly killing at least fifty people. nigerian forces were, however, eventually forced to withdraw from around the capital. in august 1997, following the afrc ' s announcement of a four - year program for elections and return to civilian rule, which represented a breakdown in negotiations initiated by the economic community of west african states ( ecowas ), ecowas established a strict economic embargo against sierra leone. in october 1997, the u. n. security council adopted a resolution also imposing mandatory sanctions on sierra leone, including an embargo on arms and oil imports, which ecomog forces were mandated to enforce. after negotiations in guinea under the auspices of ecowas, the kabbah government - in - exile and the ruf / afrc signed an agreement on october 23, 1997, providing for the return to power of president kabbah by april 1998. the ruf / afrc, however, undermined the implementation of the accord by stockpiling weapons and attacking the positions of ecomog forces


october 23, 1997, providing for the return to power of president kabbah by april 1998. the ruf / afrc, however, undermined the implementation of the accord by stockpiling weapons and attacking the positions of ecomog forces. in february 1998, ecomog forces together with kamajor militia launched an operation that drove the ruf / afrc forces from freetown. in march 1998, president kabbah was reinstated. over the succeeding months ecomog forces were able to establish control over roughly two - thirds of the country, including all regional capitals : as of mid - 1998, the ecomog contingent in sierra leone was composed of approximately 12, 500 troops, predominantly nigerian with support battalions from guinea, gambia, ghana and niger. 17 sankoh was transferred to sierra leone from nigeria and incarcerated in july 1998. in october 1998, the supreme court of sierra leone tried and sentenced sankoh to death for his role in the 1997 coup. once expelled from freetown, the afcr / ruf rebels tried to consolidate their own positions in other parts of the country. the kabbah government, which had negligible forces of its own, had to rely on ecomog to stay in power. through a series of offensives, the ruf / afrc managed to gain control of the diamond - rich kono district and several other strategic towns and areas. by late 1998, the rebels had gained the upper hand militarily and were in control of over half of the country, including all the mineral - rich areas. from this position, the ruf / afrc launched a major offensive on freetown in january 1999. the battle for freetown and ensuing three - week rebel occupation of the capital were characterized by the systematic and widespread perpetration of a wide range of abuses against the civilian population, and marked the most intensive and concentrated period of human rights abuses and international humanitarian law violations in sierra leone ' s ten - year civil war. at least five thousand civilians were killed and one hundred civilians had limbs amputated, including twenty - six double arm amputations. thousands of women and girls, including girls as young as eight, were raped and subjected to other forms of sexual violence. in addition, the rebels used civilians as human shields, both while advancing towards ecomog positions and as a defense against ecomog air power. they also burnt whole neighborhoods, often with the residents in their houses. government and the nigerian - led ecomog forces also committed serious human rights


shields, both while advancing towards ecomog positions and as a defense against ecomog air power. they also burnt whole neighborhoods, often with the residents in their houses. government and the nigerian - led ecomog forces also committed serious human rights abuses, though on a lesser scale, including over 180 summary executions of rebels and their suspected collaborators. prisoners taken by ecomog, some of who had surrendered and many of whom were wounded, were executed on the spot often with little or no effort to establish their guilt or innocence. officers to the level of captain were present and participated in the executions. ecowas officials have yet to initiate a formal investigation into these killings. as the ruf / afrc were driven out of freetown in february 1999, they abducted thousands of civilians, who were used to carry looted goods and ammunition, forcibly conscripted into fighting or used for forced labor. thousands of girls and women were used as sex slaves by the rebels and forced to " marry " rebel husbands. as they moved eastward, the rebels continued to commit egregious human rights abuses, including killings and amputations, particularly in the villages around the towns of masiaka, lunsar, and port loko. 18 in the months following the january invasion, and as a result of intense international pressure, kabbah ' s government and ruf rebels signed a ceasefire agreement on may 18, 1999, 19 followed by a peace agreement in lome, togo, on july 7, 1999. 20 sankoh was released from prison by the sierra leonean government to participate in the peace negotiations. the accord, brokered by the u. n., the organization of african unity ( oau ), and ecowas, committed the ruf / afrc to lay down its arms in exchange for representation in a new government. sankoh was given the chairmanship of the board of the commission for the management of strategic resources, national reconstruction and development ( cmrrd ) and the status of vice - president. 21 johnny paul koroma was made the chairman of the commission for the consolidation of peace ( ccp ), provided for under article 6 of the peace agreement. 22 the peace agreement also included a general amnesty for all crimes committed by all parties during the civil war until the signing of the peace agreement. 23 at the last minute, the u. n. secretary - general ' s special representative attending the talks added a hand - written caveat that the u. n. held the understanding that the amnesty and pardon provided


the signing of the peace agreement. 23 at the last minute, the u. n. secretary - general ' s special representative attending the talks added a hand - written caveat that the u. n. held the understanding that the amnesty and pardon provided for in article 9 did not apply to international crimes of genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes and other serious violations of international humanitarian law. in addition, the peace agreement mandated the establishment of a truth and reconciliation commission ( trc ) and a national human rights commission. the united nations observer mission in sierra leone ( unomsil ), initially established in july 1998 to monitor the military and security conditions, was transformed into a much larger peacekeeping mission. 24 in october 1999, months later than had been planned, unomsil, which at its maximum deployment included 192 military observers as well as a small human rights unit of four persons, was transformed into the united nations mission in sierra leone ( unamsil ). unamsil was mandated to maintain the peace and monitor the ceasefire and had a maximum authorized strength of 6, 000 military personnel, including 260 military observers. 25 the human rights unit was authorized to expand to a total of fourteen human rights officers. two further security council resolutions followed, increasing the authorized troop strength to 11, 10026 and then 13, 000. 27 the peace process was marred by cease - fire violations, missed deadlines and infighting within rebel ranks. the ruf / afrc failed to comply with several commitments, including the release of all civilian abductees. there was a relative decrease in human rights abuses following the peace agreement, although the ruf / afrc continued to terrorize the civilian population in the north and east, which largely remained under its control. sexual violence, in particular against the thousands of abducted women and girls, continued. in addition, a splinter group of the afrc known as the west side boys established numerous bases in the occra hills near freetown, from where they staged looting raids. the west side boys abducted hundreds of civilians, including girls and women, whom they raped and kept as sex slaves. in august 1999, they took hostage for one week forty - two members of a u. n. - led delegation composed of ecomog soldiers, religious leaders, aid workers, and journalists, who had gone to the occra hills to have abducted children released to them. the disarmament, demobilization and reintegration ( ddr ) program progressed slowly, with only 25, 000 out of a total 45


and journalists, who had gone to the occra hills to have abducted children released to them. the disarmament, demobilization and reintegration ( ddr ) program progressed slowly, with only 25, 000 out of a total 45, 000 combatants demobilized by may 2000. 28 there was also considerable delay in the deployment of u. n. peacekeeping forces, with only 8, 700 peacekeepers deployed by the same month. the peace process then broke down completely, when, in early may, the ruf captured over five hundred unamsil peacekeepers and military observers deployed in the north and the east, holding them for several weeks. 29 the conflict erupted again throughout the country and many of the combatants, including child combatants, who had been disarmed and demobilized, were re - conscripted. the human rights situation deteriorated sharply with numerous reports of ruf abuses, including murder, widespread rape, abduction, forced labor, and looting. during a demonstration in freetown to protest the collapse of the peace process and hostage taking of the peacekeepers, twenty - two civilians were killed outside the house of the ruf leader, sankoh. on may 17, 2000, several days after the demonstration, sankoh was arrested by the government and held in custody, together with over 125 members of the ruf, without charge, using powers under a state of emergency declared in 1998. there was also a disturbing intensification of abuses by pro - government forces. the sierra leonean government caused numerous civilian casualties through helicopter gunship attacks during may and june 2000 against the ruf strongholds of makeni, magburaka, and kambia. abuses by both the government forces and the ruf caused the displacement of some 330, 000 civilians from behind rebel lines. civilians leaving ruf territory were often captured and accused of being rebel sympathizers by the cdf. whereas previously sexual violence against women had been very uncommon among the cdf, numerous cases of sexual violence were reported, including gang rape by kamajor militiamen and commanders. when, in may 2000, it seemed as though the fighting would threaten freetown again, several hundred british soldiers were rapidly deployed to sierra leone - in the first instance to evacuate foreign nationals who wished to leave, but also to secure the airport, allow reinforcement of the u. n. contingent, and assist in the reorganization of the pro - government forces as an effective fighting force. at their maximum, there were more than 1, 200 british soldiers in sierra leone


but also to secure the airport, allow reinforcement of the u. n. contingent, and assist in the reorganization of the pro - government forces as an effective fighting force. at their maximum, there were more than 1, 200 british soldiers in sierra leone, though they began to withdraw within two months of the first deployment. unamsil was rapidly brought up to strength : by june 5, 2000 there were 11, 350 u. n. troops in the country. at the behest of johnny paul koroma, the west side boys in may 2000 briefly fought on the government side to prevent the ruf from entering freetown. however, they continued to commit human rights abuses, and in august 2000 abducted eleven british soldiers of the international military advisory and training team ( imatt ) and one sla officer. in september 2000, the west side boys bases were destroyed during an operation by british paratroopers to free the captured soldiers. numerous west side boys, including their leader, were arrested and incarcerated. from september 2000 through april 2001, ruf rebels and liberian government forces acting together attacked refugee camps and villages accommodating several hundred thousand sierra leonean and liberian refugees just across the border with guinea. following the attacks, guinean security forces and the local population retaliated against the refugees, frequently looting, raping, and unlawfully detaining them. guinean forces also responded to these ruf raids by killing and wounding dozens of sierra leoneans in indiscriminate helicopter and artillery attacks in the rebel - held areas in the north of sierra leone. guinean troops conducted several ground attacks during which several civilians were gunned down and girls and women were raped. in november 2000, the government and ruf signed a cease - fire, which committed both parties to restarting the disarmament process, the reestablishment of government authority in former rebel - held areas, and the release of all child combatants and abductees. on march 30, 2001, the u. n. security council authorized the further expansion of unamsil to 17, 500 military personnel, including 260 military observers. these forces, contributed by bangladesh, ghana, guinea, kenya, nepal, nigeria, pakistan, ukraine, and zambia, were deployed into ruf strongholds, including the diamond - rich kono district. 30 the ddr program recommenced in may 2001, and by the end of 2001 over three thousand child soldiers, abductees, and separated children had been released by the ruf and


, including the diamond - rich kono district. 30 the ddr program recommenced in may 2001, and by the end of 2001 over three thousand child soldiers, abductees, and separated children had been released by the ruf and the cdf. during this period, serious human rights abuses continued to be committed, though on a reduced scale. fighting between the ruf and the cdf broke out in the east of the country in june through august 2001, leaving tens of civilians dead. ruf forces committed scores of serious abuses including rape, murder, and abduction. the victims of these abuses included sierra leoneans returning from refugee camps in guinea ; guinean civilians who were attacked during the cross - border raids by the ruf from september 2000 through april 2001 ; and liberians fleeing renewed fighting in lofa county of liberia from april 2001. while the ruf released or demobilized more than 1, 500 male child combatants, they were reluctant to release sierra leonean and guinean female abductees, most of whom are believed to have been sexually abused. the human rights situation continued to improve in 2002, with the disarmament and demobilization phases declared completed. by january 2002, 47, 710 combatants had been disarmed and demobilized. on january 18, 2002, the armed conflict was officially declared to be over in a public ceremony attended by many dignitaries. in addition, the state of emergency was lifted for the first time in four years on february 28, 2002. following the end of the state of emergency, the government charged sankoh, and the other ruf and west side boys members held in custody since may 2000, with a number of crimes, including murder and related charges. the resettlement of internally displaced persons ( idps ) and returnees from guinea and liberia was ongoing as of the writing of this report. by july 2002, approximately 250, 000 refugees and idps had been resettled. the ruf transformed itself into a political party and nominated presidential and parliamentary candidates for elections held on may 14, 2002. in the elections, president kabbah ' s slpp was re - elected for a second term and faced the challenge of rebuilding the country and its economy. after a decade of war, sierra leone ranks last out of 162 countries in terms of life expectancy at birth ; adult literacy ; combined enrolment in primary, secondary and tertiary education ; and gdp per capita. 31 fifty - seven percent of sierra leone ' s population struggles to survive on only u. s


162 countries in terms of life expectancy at birth ; adult literacy ; combined enrolment in primary, secondary and tertiary education ; and gdp per capita. 31 fifty - seven percent of sierra leone ' s population struggles to survive on only u. s. $ 1 per day. 32 unemployment is rampant and the current economy is driven by the presence of unamsil and other international organizations. investors who could create desperately needed jobs remain cautious given the rampant corruption that permeates all levels of sierra leonean society and their concerns about regional security. the sierra leonean legal system only a small number of women, primarily those who reside in the western area ( where freetown is located ) and women with sufficient funds, have access to the formal court system. as many general law provisions have not been updated since colonial days, the protection that general law affords women is often only marginally better than that provided under customary or islamic law. as the majority of sierra leoneans live in the provinces, customary law governs at least 65 percent of the population in relation to issues not reserved by statute to the magistrates courts or high court. in practice, issues that should be dealt with in the magistrates courts and high court are also dealt with under customary law. in addition to problems accessing the formal court system, rural sierra leoneans, in particular, have historically always preferred to administer justice amongst themselves to ensure that good community relations are maintained in villages where the other residents are invariably relatives by marriage or descent, rather than turning to outsiders. although customary law is not applied in the formal court system, it is recognized and there is some interaction between the two systems. there is the right of appeal from the local courts to the district appeal court, where a magistrate sits with two assessors who are chiefdom councilors from the given area of the local court and are knowledgeable about the customary law in their respective areas. 38 the assessors advise the magistrate on questions of customary law, with the decision remaining with the magistrate. likewise, a decision of the district appeal court can be appealed to the high court, with the high court judge being advised by assessors with expertise in customary law. 39 constitutional status of women a married woman ' s position under customary law is comparable to that of a minor : a woman is generally represented by her husband who has the right to prosecute and defend actions on his spouse ' s behalf. 46 sierra leonean women can gain status through marriage as well as through their role as mothers : a woman ' s status within society and the poly


represented by her husband who has the right to prosecute and defend actions on his spouse ' s behalf. 46 sierra leonean women can gain status through marriage as well as through their role as mothers : a woman ' s status within society and the polygynous household increases with the number of children she bears. sierra leone has one of the highest birth rates in the world, with the average number of children born to each woman estimated at 6. 5. 47 most households are polygynous, apart from the monogamous christians ( approximately 30 percent of the population ) ; under customary law, a husband can marry as many wives as he wishes. muslims ( 60 percent of the population ) can marry up to four wives. under customary law, a girl is considered of marriageable age once her breasts have developed, her menses have started and she has been initiated, which could mean as young as twelve. marriages are usually arranged, and the consent of the bride - to - be is not considered essential in most ethnic groups, but the consent of the girl ' s / woman ' s family is required. 48 the fact that a girl is considered " ready " for marriage at such a young age and her consent is not sought has contributed to the common practice of early forced marriages. men wishing to marry do not need to seek consent from their own parents. the statutory age of marriage under general law is twenty - one years. under islamic law, a male or female dependant can be given in marriage against his or her will, and the legal guardian of an adult woman has the right to object to her choice of husband if the prospective husband is not of equal birth. 49 under customary law, a dowry is usually paid to the wife ' s family. under islamic law, the dowry is paid to the bride, although the contract is concluded with the legal guardian of the bride - to - be. 50 under customary law, a wife can only refuse to have sexual intercourse with her husband if she is physically ill, menstruating or suckling a young child. she can also refuse intercourse during the daytime, in the bush or during ramadan. under customary law, a wife ' s decision - making powers are limited since she is obliged to always obey her husband. this lack of decision - making power means that women in families where the breadwinner is the man find it very difficult to influence decisions on how the ( generally ) little income that the family makes is disbursed. under customary law, a married woman must ask her husband


power means that women in families where the breadwinner is the man find it very difficult to influence decisions on how the ( generally ) little income that the family makes is disbursed. under customary law, a married woman must ask her husband for permission to work outside the house or visit her family. in families where the woman has been given permission to work outside the house and is the breadwinner, it seems that the added responsibility has not necessarily come with increased decision - making power. a wife, especially in rural communities, is expected to cultivate food for herself and her children, whilst the husband ' s responsibility is limited to providing accommodation and clothing. 51 a wife residing in an urban area is generally given a lump sum of money by her husband to start a small business, usually petty trading. if the business fails, the wife must refund the capital to her husband. given the heavy work burden on women, however, there is little opportunity for women to seek remunerated work outside the house. under customary law, the dowry is refundable upon divorce. dowries paid to poor families are sometimes set purposely excessively high to ensure that the wife ' s family will not sanction a divorce given their inability to repay the dowry, again highlighting how little control women married under customary law have over their lives. 55 under general law, a husband is expected to pay alimony for his wife and children on divorce, which both parties may initiate. 56 when a husband dies, the widow is expected under customary law to undergo a mourning period and rituals. 57 it is only after these rituals that widows are considered purified and can remarry. some ethnic groups still insist that if the widow remarries, she does so within her deceased husband ' s family, otherwise all marriage payments are refundable. 58 as sierra leone is a patrilineal society and the husband has custodial rights over children, children are handed over to the husband ' s family head upon his death. 59 under islamic law, the mother has the right to care for a boy child until the age of nine and a girl child until she comes of age. 60 under customary matrimonial property law, a wife is generally only able to keep her own possessions and her self - acquired property in the event of divorce or death. a wife is generally not entitled to keep property acquired through the joint efforts of husband and wife and has no rights over the matrimonial home. 61 nor can a wife inherit under islamic law : either


property in the event of divorce or death. a wife is generally not entitled to keep property acquired through the joint efforts of husband and wife and has no rights over the matrimonial home. 61 nor can a wife inherit under islamic law : either the eldest son or brother or the official male administrator of the deceased inherits. 62 under general law, a wife is also only entitled to one third of her deceased husband ' s property, if he has not made a will. this denial of inheritance rights of women is a major problem given the large number of war widows who are now able to return to their villages of origin, but have no access to land. rape as a crime under general law nor is the age of consent explicitly stated, although it is presumably by necessary implication sixteen years old. marital rape does not exist under sierra leonean statutory law, and most sierra leoneans firmly believe that it is the duty of a wife to have sex with her husband even if she does not want to. 69 unlawful carnal knowledge of a girl under the age of thirteen, whether with or without her consent, is a felony and carries a maximum sentence of fifteen years of imprisonment. 70 unlawful carnal knowledge of a girl between the ages of thirteen and fourteen, whether with or without her consent, is, however, only considered a misdemeanor and carries a maximum sentence of two years. 71 the language " with or without her consent " refers only to cases of unlawful carnal knowledge that do not constitute rape ; for example, an eighteen - year - old man who has sexual intercourse with a thirteen - year - old girl with her consent. the police and judiciary seem to have misconstrued the meaning of the law. when an offence of rape against a girl under the age of fourteen is reported, the police and judiciary turn to either section 6 or 7 - depending on the age of the victim - of the prevention of cruelty to children act and determine that the girl did not consent. based on her age, they then charge unlawful carnal knowledge and not rape. this misinterpretation therefore leads to a lesser charge for the rape of a child than for the rape of an adult. 72 rape of a person over the age of sixteen is considered a felony and carries a maximum sentence of life imprisonment. 73 indecent assault - sexual assault without penetration - on or attempts to have carnal knowledge of girls under the age of fourteen years carry the same maximum sentence as unlawful carnal knowledge of girls between the age of thirteen and fourteen i


life imprisonment. 73 indecent assault - sexual assault without penetration - on or attempts to have carnal knowledge of girls under the age of fourteen years carry the same maximum sentence as unlawful carnal knowledge of girls between the age of thirteen and fourteen i. e. only two years of imprisonment. 74 no person can be convicted of unlawful carnal knowledge, indecent assault or attempted unlawful carnal knowledge " upon the evidence of one witness, unless such witness be corroborated in some material particular by evidence implicating the accused. " 75 the law pertaining to the abduction of girls for immoral purposes applies to any unmarried girls under the age of sixteen. 76 abduction of girls for immoral purposes is a misdemeanor, carrying a maximum sentence of two years of imprisonment. in addition to the legal confusion that exists in general law concerning rape, attempts by women to obtain the prosecution of rapists are frustrated by the collapsed state of the judiciary and the lack of effective law enforcement, which has contributed to the ongoing climate of impunity for offenders. prosecution of sexual violence under customary law under customary law, when a case is brought to the local court, the perpetrator is generally required to pay a substantial fine to the victim ' s family as well as to the chiefs. " virgin money " is payable to the victim ' s family if the victim was a virgin. in some communities, in particular muslim communities, the victim is forced to marry the offender, as a girl who is not a virgin is considered less eligible for marriage. traditionally, in some ethnic groups, both the victim and the perpetrator will be made to undergo a purification ceremony. for the victim, the purification ceremony is supposed to restore her virginity and for the perpetrator to cleanse the guilt. any man who invades the husband ' s exclusive sexual rights over a wife compensates the husband, and not the wife, for " woman damage. " 78 in addition to applying discriminatory laws, the local court system is problematic as women of some ethnic groups do not have direct access to the local courts, but must be represented by a male guardian. 79 the situation is further exacerbated as the chairmen and chiefdom councilors of the local courts are generally all male, which makes it difficult for women to bring cases of sexual violence as the women are often embarrassed and their cases are generally dealt with insensitively by the male court staff. the local courts are also prone to interference by the chiefs as well as the concerned


makes it difficult for women to bring cases of sexual violence as the women are often embarrassed and their cases are generally dealt with insensitively by the male court staff. the local courts are also prone to interference by the chiefs as well as the concerned parties, especially in cases dealing with sexual violence. many people in rural areas prefer to settle the case between the families and do not go to court. in cases settled between the two families, money or goods are given to compensate the victim ' s family. paradoxically, the giving of gifts or money to a rape victim may even elevate her status within her family. some families turn to the local chiefs who can arbitrate between the two families but have no right to impose any fines. in practice, however, the local chiefs have been known to impose fines. discrimination against women and girls in practice the high illiteracy rate among women can in part be explained by the higher demand for female labor in the family. girls are required to work in the house at an early age given that their mothers have to take care of the household and the children and do farm work. another contributing factor to women ' s illiteracy is the harmful traditional practice of early forced marriage, which is very common in the provinces ( see below ). sierra leone ' s rural population is primarily engaged in subsistence farming, with women constituting 80 percent of the labor that produces 70 percent of the nation ' s food. 84 this agricultural labor is generally not remunerated by cash wages and women have unequal access to land or technology. in sierra leone, the different ethnic groups continue to operate under communal and family land holding systems. women can use the land for subsistence farming but the control and management of the land and any property on it is vested in the male head of the family. with the post - war resettlement process underway, war widows returning to their villages of origin often lack the legal means or community support to reclaim their families ' properties. as women have little or no property to offer as collateral, their access to credit is limited. women therefore tend to rely on traditional sources of credit such as rotating savings, which only provide small loans. 85 due to the limited number of educated women, which is partly the result of the high demand for girls to perform household tasks at a young age, the preference of sending boys to school, and early forced marriages, few women are represented in the better remunerated professional or managerial jobs. sierra leone ' s crushing poverty and high unemployment have also meant that positions that


household tasks at a young age, the preference of sending boys to school, and early forced marriages, few women are represented in the better remunerated professional or managerial jobs. sierra leone ' s crushing poverty and high unemployment have also meant that positions that in the west are perceived as women ' s jobs are often held by men in sierra leone, leaving even fewer openings for women. in the formal employment sector, women therefore constitute only 40 percent of the clerical staff and a mere 8 percent of the administrative and managerial cadre. 86 in the informal sector outside agriculture, where the cash returns are low, women are mainly involved in petty trading, soap making and tie - dying. given the lack of opportunities for remunerated work, women tend to be heavily dependent on their husbands. the breakdown of community values as the result of the war, combined with cultural practices, also serves to make girls and women vulnerable to abuse and sexual exploitation, which has historically been rampant in sierra leone. 87 many women and girls have been driven to prostitution as a result of the increased poverty caused by the conflict and their lack of other opportunities and skills. in the political arena under the new block voting system which was introduced for the 2002 elections, 112 parliamentary seats are elected by popular vote. an additional twelve parliamentary seats are reserved for paramount chiefs who are elected in separate elections by chiefdom councilors. there are presently only eighteen female parliamentarians, including two female paramount chiefs. this does represent an increase over the previous government, which had a total of eight women parliamentarians, including two female paramount chiefs. at government level, there are only three female ministers and three female deputy ministers, which is a marginal increase from president kabbah ' s previous cabinet. 89 early forced marriages early forced marriage is one of the factors contributing to sierra leone ' s high maternal mortality rate, since young girls have several children before their bodies are fully mature. at 1, 800 maternal deaths per 100, 000 live births, sierra leone ' s maternal mortality rate is one of the highest in the world. this mortality rate translates to approximately 4, 000 maternal deaths per year based on a total population of five million. 91 female genital cutting traditionally, initiation for girls entailed spending an extended period ( up to two years ) in the bush with girls of the same age, being taught various cultural skills ( dancing, singing, drama, arts and craft, how to use local herbs, how to respect elders, etc. ) and being a good wife ( cooking, cleaning, child welfare, hygiene,


of the same age, being taught various cultural skills ( dancing, singing, drama, arts and craft, how to use local herbs, how to respect elders, etc. ) and being a good wife ( cooking, cleaning, child welfare, hygiene, fishing, etc. ) by older women. girls who undergo initiation through the secret societies are treated with deference after having completed the ritual and are feted by their communities. 92 today, the duration of the initiation ceremony has been greatly reduced, minimizing the skills transfer aspect, and thus focusing on the cutting itself. because it was not always possible to hold the ceremonies during the war, initiation rites are now often practiced on adults, girl mothers, and pregnant girls - whereas traditionally it was seen as a rite of passage into adulthood for adolescent girls, who had to be virgins. in recent years, girls and / or adult women who do not wish to be initiated have been abducted and circumcised by force by female members of the community. ninety percent of sierra leonean women have undergone female genital cutting, which can have major health repercussions, including pain, injury to adjacent tissue of the urethra, hemorrhage, shock, acute urine retention, and infection. 93 longer - term health effects include recurrent urinary tract infections, pelvic infections, infertility, keloid scar, and problems during childbirth. 94 the high prevalence of conflict - related sexual violence, which causes trauma to the genital area, can only have served to aggravate these health repercussions and both have in turn contributed to the increased spread of sexually transmitted diseases, including human immunodeficieny virus / acquired immunodeficiency syndrome ( hiv / aids ). this harmful traditional practice, which is contrary to provisions of several international human rights instruments, continues to be practiced due to the significant societal pressure exerted by adults as well as peers. 95 girls who have not been initiated are seen as less eligible for marriage and many future husbands sponsor the initiation of their bride - to - be. societal attitudes to sexual violence against women and girls given the lack of statistics about rape cases before the war, it is impossible to establish the historical prevalence of sexual violence, but several doctors reported to human rights watch that, before the war, they only treated a limited number of young girls who generally had been raped by older men. 96 according to the doctors interviewed, many cases of rape before the war occurred within the extended family and were considered family


human rights watch that, before the war, they only treated a limited number of young girls who generally had been raped by older men. 96 according to the doctors interviewed, many cases of rape before the war occurred within the extended family and were considered family matters. they were rarely discussed or reported, in order to ensure that the victim ' s chances of marriage and obtaining a good dowry were not destroyed. rape was also apparently unlikely to occur within a village community, where everyone knew each other and the shame attached to the offender would be too great. rape outside the extended family was more likely to be committed in environments where there were mixed ethnic groups, such as in mining areas or larger towns. the cultural definition of rape and lack of reporting, however, may have led to the understanding that rape rarely occurred before the war. sexual exploitation, however, has always been rampant in sierra leone, where economic options for women are limited and which has traditionally condoned a high level of promiscuity, despite the high value placed on virginity. with the increased poverty caused by the war, sex has become even more of a commodity. 97 the societal attitudes to rape and the low status of women have meant that no cases of conflict - related sexual violence and few cases of non - conflict - related sexual violence are prosecuted. 98 ( see also below at p. 61 for a discussion on the amnesty included in the lome peace agreement. ) 10 paul richards, fighting for the rainforest : war, youth and resources in sierra leone ( london : the international african institute in association with james currey and heinemann, 1996 ), p. 7. when the ruf first invaded from liberia, villagers in kailahun were ordered to cut palm fronds - the symbol of the slpp - " in support " of the rebels. 15 ibid. this is a throwback to the venerated esoteric mende cult of invincible traditional hunters who were given power through initiation ceremonies. these powers enabled the hunters, inter alia, to turn into an animal in order to catch their prey. 16 see human rights watch / africa, " getting away with murder, mutilation and rape, " a human rights watch short report, vol. 11, no. 3 ( a ), june 1999, p. 8 for a discussion of the role of foreign mercenaries in the armed conflict. see human rights watch / africa, " transition or travesty? nigeria ' s endless process of return to civilian rule, " a human rights watch short report,


p. 8 for a discussion of the role of foreign mercenaries in the armed conflict. see human rights watch / africa, " transition or travesty? nigeria ' s endless process of return to civilian rule, " a human rights watch short report, vol. 9, no. 6, october 1997, for a discussion of the nigerian intervention in sierra leone. 23 lome peace agreement. under article 9 ( 1 ) of this agreement, the government of sierra leone was required to grant sankoh absolute and free pardon. article 9 ( 3 ) refers to the amnesty granted to all combatants of the ruf / sl, ex - afrc, ex - sla or cdf for any crimes they may have committed in pursuit of their objectives ( see below, p. 61, for a discussion on the amnesty ). 28 u. n. office for the coordination of humanitarian affairs ( ocha ), sierra leone humanitarian situation report, may 29, 2001. see http : / / www. relief. int / w / rwb. nsf / s / 4a58557840970841c1256a5c0050441b. 29 the hostages in the north were released on may 28, 2000. the hostages in the east, however, were not released until june 29, 2000. two hundred and thirty - three peacekeepers and military observers who had been encircled by the ruf were finally freed by the u. n. military operation " khukri " on july 15, 2000. 40 the mohammedan marriage act ( cap. 96 of the revised laws of sierra leone, 1960 ) deals with marriage, divorce, and intestate succession. joko smart, sierra leone customary family law, p. 20. intestate successions occur when the deceased did not leave a will. 41 the constitution of sierra leone ( 1991 ), chapter ii - fundamental principles of state policy, section 6 ( 2 ). see http : / / www. sierra - leone. org / constitution - ii. html. under section 8 ( 2 ) ( a ), "... [ e ] very citizen shall have equality of rights, obligations, and opportunities before the law.... " and specific safeguards of equality before the law in terms of health care, employment and education are provided under section 8 ( 3 ) ( d ) ; section 8 ( 3 ) ( a ), ( c ), ( e ) and section 9 ( 1 ) ( a ), ( b ) and (


of health care, employment and education are provided under section 8 ( 3 ) ( d ) ; section 8 ( 3 ) ( a ), ( c ), ( e ) and section 9 ( 1 ) ( a ), ( b ) and ( 2 ) respectively. 42 ibid., chapter iii - the recognition and protection of fundamental human rights and freedoms of the individual, section 15. see http : / / www. sierra - leone. org / constitution - iii. html. section 15 provides that " every person in sierra leone is entitled to the fundamental human rights and freedoms of the individual, that is to say, has the right, whatever his race, tribe, place of origin, political opinion, colour, creed or sex, but subject to respect for the rights and freedoms of others and for the public interest, to each and all of the following - ( a ) life, liberty, security of person, the enjoyment of property, and the protection of law ; ( b ) freedom of conscience, of expression and of assembly and association ; ( c ) respect for private and family life, and ( d ) protection from deprivation of property without compensation. " 43 ibid., section 27. subsection 27 ( 1 ) provides that " subject to the provisions of subsections ( 4 ), ( 5 ), and ( 7 ), no law shall make provision which is discriminatory either of itself or in its effect. " under subsection 4, however, the protection provided under subsection 1 does not apply "... ( d ) with respect to adoption, marriage, divorce, burial, devolution of property on death or other interests of personal law, or ( e ) for the application in the case of members of a particular race or tribe or customary law with respect to any matter to the exclusion of any law with respect to that matter which is applicable in the case of other persons. " discrimination is also permitted against persons who are not citizens of sierra leone or naturalized sierra leoneans. according to dr. tucker, former chairperson of president ' s kabbah ' s advisory committee, the original intent of section 27 was " to preserve certain areas of segregation which are embedded in traditional practices and are generally acceptable to both sexes, such as the segregation between male and female secret societies. what was taken up in the constitution was more extensive than what was intended. " human rights watch interview with dr. tucker ( consultant on the law development program funded by the u. k. ' s department for international development ( d


female secret societies. what was taken up in the constitution was more extensive than what was intended. " human rights watch interview with dr. tucker ( consultant on the law development program funded by the u. k. ' s department for international development ( dfid ) ), freetown, april 25, 2002. 48 consent is a very relative term, as girls generally will find it very difficult to disobey their parents ' wishes, which can result in severe punishment, including ostracism from the immediate and extended family. 51 full maintenance of his wife is only the responsibility of the husband during the rainy season ( approximately between the months of may and november ) or when his wife is sick or nursing a baby. joko smart, sierra leone customary family law, pp. 106 - 7. 57 a widow must mourn for forty days. her head is shaved or, in some chiefdoms, disheveled and her body is washed with the same water used to wash her husband ' s corpse. in some chiefdoms her body is smeared with mud to indicate her mourning. after either one week or forty days for strict muslims, widows are taken to a stream to be ceremonially washed. 58 the mende, krim, sherbro, vai, karonko and yalunka adhere to this custom, whereas the temne, susu, limba, loko, kissi and kono allow a widow to select her own husband and do not require a refund of the marriage payments if she marries outside her deceased husband ' s family. joko smart, sierra leone customary family law, p. 138. 61 as customary marriages are generally polygynous, a divorce with one of the wives would result in the dissolution of the whole household if she were to ask for a refund for her contribution to building the house. joko smart, sierra leone family customary law, pp. 113 - 120. 65 offences against the person act, 1861 ( 24 & 25 vict. c 100 ), s. 63. unlawful carnal knowledge refers to sexual intercourse between unmarried persons. the law does not actually forbid or make sexual intercourse between unmarried persons a punishable crime, but it only recognizes the right to sexual intercourse for married couples. 68 human rights watch interviews with abdul tejan - cole ( human rights lawyer and acting coordinator for the national nongovernmental organization campaign for good governance ), freetown, february - may, 2002. 69 as the right to have intercourse between a husband and wife


watch interviews with abdul tejan - cole ( human rights lawyer and acting coordinator for the national nongovernmental organization campaign for good governance ), freetown, february - may, 2002. 69 as the right to have intercourse between a husband and wife is recognized, a husband cannot be guilty of raping his wife unless he has been legally separated from his wife. see also phr report, p. 55. 72 human rights watch interview with bill roberts and anne hewlett ( respectively crime adviser and criminal investigation trainer with the commonwealth community safety and security project ), freetown, may 1, 2002. 74 prevention of cruelty to children act, s. 9. section 9 stipulates that " whosoever commits an indecent assault or attempts to have carnal knowledge shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall on conviction before the supreme court be liable for imprisonment, with or without hard labour, for any period not exceeding two years. " consent is no defense to a charge of indecent assault of a child under fourteen years. 77 under section 13 ( 1 ) of the 1963 local courts act, the local courts have no jurisdiction in seduction actions, which includes any act intended to lead the wife astray. joko smart, sierra leone family customary law, footnote 34, p. 121. 81 government of sierra leone, the status of women and children in sierra leone : a household survey report ( mics - 2 ) ( freetown : 2000 ), p. 30. the literate population includes those who are able to read " easily " or " with difficulty. " only 30 percent of the total population over fifteen years is literate. 82 multilateral convention ( no. 29 ) concerning forced or compulsory labor, as modified by the final articles revision convention, june 28, 1930, 39 u. n. t. s. 55 ( entered into force may 28, 1947 ) ; multilateral convention ( no. 105 ) concerning the abolition of forced labor, june 25, 1957, 320 u. n. t. s. 291 ( entered into force january 17, 1959 ) ; multilateral convention ( no. 100 ) concerning equal remuneration for men and women workers for work of equal value, june 29, 1951, 165 u. n. t. s. 303 ( entered into force may 23, 1953 ) ; multilateral convention ( no. 111 ) concerning discrimination in respect of employment and occupation, june 25, 1958, 362 u. n. t. s. 31 ( entered


t. s. 303 ( entered into force may 23, 1953 ) ; multilateral convention ( no. 111 ) concerning discrimination in respect of employment and occupation, june 25, 1958, 362 u. n. t. s. 31 ( entered into force june 15, 1960 ). sierra leone has not signed convention 47 ( 40 hour week ), multilateral convention ( no. 95 ) concerning the protection of wages, july 1, 1949 ( entered into force september 24, 1952 ), multilateral convention ( no. 102 ) concerning minimum standards of social security, june 28, 1952, 210 u. n. t. s. 131 ( entered into force april 27, 1955 ) or multilateral convention ( no. 182 ) concerning the worst forms of child labor, although a social security system for both the public and private sector was recently established. 88 only persons paying tax can contest and participate in elections for paramount chiefs who are elected from ruling houses. the paramount chieftaincy system was introduced by the british colonial administration to administer the various chiefdoms in the protectorate ( i. e. the whole of sierra leone excluding the western area ). although there is reportedly no law against women paying taxes, women in the northern province have historically not done so probably due to lack of opportunities to find remunerated work. the tax is a negligible amount that women are willing to pay to ensure their eligibility for these elections. human rights watch interview with joseph hall and honerin muyoyatta from the national democratic institute ( ndi ), freetown, march 22 and 23, 2002. 89 the three ministerial posts are minister for social welfare, gender and children ' s affairs, minister for trade and industry, and minister of health and sanitation. the three female deputy ministers are in the ministry of social welfare, gender and children ' s affairs, the ministry of trade and industry, and the ministry of works, housing and technical maintenance. the new government was sworn in on july 12, 2002. 90 early forced marriages are marriages whereby the consent of either party is not sought or more commonly whereby the consent of the girl is not sought and whereby one or both spouses is / are under the age of consent ( which under international law should not be less than fifteen years of age ). this harmful traditional practice contravenes article 16 ( 3 ) of the convention on the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women ( cedaw ), which states that the betrothal and marriage of a child shall have no legal effect, article 16 ( 1


practice contravenes article 16 ( 3 ) of the convention on the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women ( cedaw ), which states that the betrothal and marriage of a child shall have no legal effect, article 16 ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) of the universal declaration of human rights, and article 23 ( 3 ) of the international covenant on civil and political rights ( iccpr ), which says that " [ n ] o marriage shall be entered into without the free and full consent of the intending spouses. " 93 dr. olayinka koso - thomas, the circumcision of women : a strategy for eradication ( london and new jersey : zed books ltd., 1992 ), p. 19. the type of female genital cutting performed in sierra leone is clitoridectomy ( removal of the prepuce of the clitoris ) and excision ( removal of the prepuce, the clitoris and all or part of the labia minora ). the extreme form of infibulation is not practiced in sierra leone. 95 female genital cutting violates the right to be free from violence ( article 1 of the cedaw ) and the right to bodily integrity ( article 6 of the crc ). under article 5 ( a ) of the cedaw, states are called upon " to modify the social and cultural patterns of conduct of men and women, with a view to achieving the elimination of prejudices and customary and all other practices which are based on the idea of the inferiority or the superiority of either of the sexes or on stereotyped roles for men and women. " article 24 ( 1 ) and ( 3 ) of the crc also requires states to abolish traditional practices that are harmful to the health of children. general recommendation 19 of the cedaw committee also links traditional attitudes which subordinate women and violent practices, including female genital cutting, that "... justify gender - based violence as a form of protection or control of women. " 96 human rights watch interview with dr. olayinka koso - thomas, freetown, february 25, 2002 ; dr. noah conteh, freetown, march 1, 2002 and dr. bernard fraser, freetown, march 3, 2002. the latter two doctors practiced in the provinces as well as in freetown. 97 sex can be bought for as little as u. s. $ 0. 50. united nations high commissioner for refugees and save the children u.


now that the weather is a wee bit warmer, many of us are thinking about getting outdoors to enjoy the spring air and sunshine. may offers a welcome chance to get out there and be active, whether it ' s by taking a walk with friends ( good for the body and the soul! ), enjoying a bike ride or - - depending on the temperatures where you live - - taking a refreshing dip in the nearest body of water. all of those activities require fuel, which can come from eating healthy foods - - particularly the fruits and vegetables that are at their peak this time of year. so what are our picks for may superfoods? take a look at our list. then, as always, let us know if there are any in - season favorites you can ' t believe we overlooked. < strong > why we love them : < / strong > they ' re a cross between a raspberry and a blueberry - - both nutritious and delicious fruits ( < a href = " http : / / www. huffingtonpost. com / 2012 / 04 / 26 / cognitive - impairment - study - berries _ n _ 1453557. html " target = " _ hplink " > check out that recent study on how eating berries may help stave off cognitive decline < / a > ). the question is : what ' s not to love? < br > < br > < strong > how to enjoy : < / strong > look for berries that are plump and firm and then just eat them as - is. you can also add them to oatmeal or yogurts at breakfast, toss ' em into fruit salads or make them into jams. < strong > why we love them : < / strong > so tasty! so sweet! so superbly summery! apricots typically start to come into season in mid - may. to top that all off, this juicy fruit is a good source of vitamins a and c, as well as dietary fiber and potassium. < br > < br > < strong > how to enjoy : < / strong > apricots are another great grab - and - go option, or you can add a few to a sweet ( or savory ) salad. apricots are also great in tarts or healthy desserts. < strong > why we love them : < / strong > radishes are a crisp, low - calorie spring snacking option, which, < a href = " http : / / www.


tarts or healthy desserts. < strong > why we love them : < / strong > radishes are a crisp, low - calorie spring snacking option, which, < a href = " http : / / www. livestrong. com / article / 524874 - how - nutritious - are - radishes / " target = " _ hplink " > according to livestrong, < / a > are packed with vitamins and have a high water content. according to that site, they ' ll help keep you fuller longer. < br > < br > < strong > how to enjoy : < / strong > chop them up and toss a few radishes into a salad for a bit of peppery crunch. to shake it up a little bit, try throwing a few onto the grill. < strong > why we love them : < / strong > they ' re creamy, delicious and satisfying. plus, < a href = " http : / / www. webmd. com / diet / features / 8 - healthy - facts - about - avocados " target = " _ hplink " > as webmd reports, < / a > they ' re a great source of fiber, potassium, vitamins c and k, folate, and heart - healthy unsaturated fat. < br > < br > < strong > how to enjoy : < / strong > with so many varieties, many people find that avocados are basically in - season all year round in their grocery. however, this is may, a. k. a. the month of cinco de mayo, which brings up a great, fresh way to enjoy avocados : in guacamole. they ' re also a good option on sandwiches, providing a bit of the creaminess that we often try to get from less nutritious options, like mayonaise. < strong > why we love them : < / strong > < a href = " http : / / www. livestrong. com / article / 433633 - how - to - cook - morel - mushrooms / " target = " _ hplink " > livestrong puts it perfectly < / a > when it says : " morel mushrooms are a much - anticipated springtime treat in the united states. " while they can be a bit pricey ( meaning eating a lot in order to get serious nutritional benefits may not be a possibility ), they do supply b


: " morel mushrooms are a much - anticipated springtime treat in the united states. " while they can be a bit pricey ( meaning eating a lot in order to get serious nutritional benefits may not be a possibility ), they do supply b vitamins, potassium and phosphorus. < br > < br > < strong > how to enjoy : < / strong > use these spongy mushrooms to help flavor whatever protein you ' re serving for dinner ( the internet is chock full of recipes for morels and chicken, for example ). another option - - try throwing them on the grill. < strong > why we love them : < / strong > in case you haven ' t heard, leafy greens are seriously good for your health - - and dandelion greens pack a particularly strong punch. they ' re high in folate and magnesium, as well as phosphorus and copper. and < a href = " http : / / www. fruitsandveggiesmorematters. org / dandelion - greens - nutrition - selection - storage " target = " _ hplink " > as fruits & veggies - - more matters < / a > ( the public health initiative ) points out, these slightly peppery, bitter greens are loaded with beta - carotene. < br > < br > < strong > how to enjoy : < / strong > < a href = " http : / / www. yumsugar. com / how - enjoy - dandelion - greens - 2950313 " target = " _ hplink " > yumsugar offers up plenty of options, < / a > from just washing, trimming and tossing a few into your next salad to the slightly more involved provencal soup. other options? saute with garlic or try stewing them. < strong > why we love it : < / strong > arugula is another stand - out leafy green. < a href = " http : / / www. livestrong. com / article / 5381 - need - health - benefits - arugula / " target = " _ hplink " > as livestrong points out, < / a > arugula seriously beats out other salad bases, like iceberg lettuce. " arugula contains about eight times the calcium, fives times the vitamin a, vitamin c and vitamin k, and four times the iron as the same amount of iceberg lettuce, " that site < a


the following abstract related to women and domestic violence and is from the article ‘ risks and benefits of a gun in the home ’ written by david hemenway, published in the american journal of lifestyle medicine on 2 february 2011. whereas most men are murdered away from home, most children, older adults, and women are murdered at home. a gun in the home is a particularly strong risk factor for female homicide victimization. women in the united states are at far greater risk of homicide victimization than women in other developed countries, and the greatest danger for women in homicides that occur in the home comes from their intimate partners — especially partners with guns. a subgroup analysis of female homicide victimization from a large case - control study of homicide in the home in 3 metropolitan counties found that having a gun in the home was a large and significant risk factor for homicide. most of the women were murdered by a spouse, a lover, or a close relative, and the increased risk for homicide from having a gun in the home was attributable to these homicides. another case - control study of women murdered by intimate partners, compared with a control group of battered women, found that a gun in the home was an important risk factor for femicide. there was easy access to a firearm ( eg, a gun in the house ) for 65 % of case perpetrators versus 24 % of perpetrators of nonfatal abuse. access to a firearm by the battered woman had no protective effect. overall, domestic disputes are likely to be affected by the presence of a firearm. although many spousal homicides occur following a long history of violence in the home, spousal abusers are often impulsive and volatile. the availability of a firearm increases the likelihood that an attack will prove fatal. a review of intimate partner homicides in chicago over a 29 - year period concluded that “ an effective prevention strategy for intimate homicide of women... would be to reduce the availability of firearms in the home. ” guns can be used not only to wound and kill but also to intimidate and coerce. data on intimidation with firearms are relatively scarce. the national crime victimization surveys ( ncvs ) provide information about crime but miss much intimate partner violence and thus much of the intimidation with guns in the home. fortunately, some information about such intimidation has been picked up by other surveys. a study of battered women in emergency shelters in california ( a state in which more than 600, 000 women each year experience intimate partner violence ) found that if there were a


the gathering storm as the early months of 1939 passed by, a growing sense of uneasiness prevailed. nazi germany was on the march in europe. it had already annexed austria. czechoslovakia had been divided and the czechs subjugated. the polish situation was becoming more and more strained, seriously affecting relations between germany on the one hand and france and britain on the other. what would be the end of this tense state of affairs? the dutch government viewed it with concern, despite a reasonable hope that holland might not be drawn in. the basis for this hope lay in the fact that soon after war broke out, germany asked the netherlands to protect her interests in poland and in south africa, including the mandated territory of southwest africa, one of the former german colonies. it seemed an excellent sign of germany ' s intentions to leave holland out of the war : could one suspect that, of all the countries she might have requested to take charge of her interests there, she would have singled out this country if her secret purpose was to wage war on it? at as late a date as march 27, 1940, germany appeared to give us another token of her confidence by asking us to assume the protection of her interests in the cameroons, an ex - german colony, now under a mandate held by france. to the superficial observer, this might well have been fresh evidence of a complete absence on germany ' s part of any aggressive designs against our country. yet we set no great store by it. we knew too well that important decisions in germany are taken by very few people, if not by herr hitler alone ; all matters of routine are dealt with by bureaucrats who know nothing of any momentous decisions which may be under consideration, and those civil servants whose business it is to look after german interests abroad belong to this great majority, efficient in detail, uninformed in matters of policy. this guardianship of german interests cost many dutch diplomats and consuls a great deal of time and exertion. to us, it meant no more than that ; the only reward was to be an assault on our country. none the less, at this time, war seemed by no means certain. would germany, forcing the issue, challenge the united forces of britain, france, and poland? numerous thoughtful people in holland, as in america, doubted it. the prospect seemed too terrible, and it is a common human weakness not to believe that a disastrous development is inevitable until it is actually at hand. spring went on to early summer. holland ' s tulips bloom


as in america, doubted it. the prospect seemed too terrible, and it is a common human weakness not to believe that a disastrous development is inevitable until it is actually at hand. spring went on to early summer. holland ' s tulips bloomed as gloriously as they did in so many previous peaceful years ; the country had a look of quiet prosperity. what, except the columns of foreign news in the newspapers, seemed to point to war? it was in this atmosphere that, one day in june, my wife and i set out for berne. i had been designated some time before to take up the post of her majesty ' s minister to switzerland, where we were now proceeding in order to find a suitable residence in which to establish the legation. we soon found what we had been looking for : a delightful house in its own grounds, in the outskirts of the quaint old swiss capital. life seemed very good indeed at that moment, with the prospect of an interesting post in a beautiful country which we were fond of and knew well, among a congenial population united with the netherlands by a common love of free national institutions and by a friendship centuries old. before returning to the hague, we happily planned our future home and made all arrangements for its decoration and equipment, from carpets and curtains down to the champagne for our reception of the dutch colony on the queen ' s birthday on august 31st. we planned to move in by the middle of august. it would be a welcome change, after many consecutive years in the ministry for foreign affairs in the hague. but fate had decided otherwise. by the end of july an unexpected cabinet crisis arose. at the very moment when we were leaving our apartment at the hague, the telephone rang. the minister of state, who had been requested to form a new government, wished to see me. i shall not forget that sunday. jonkheer de geer received me in his garden and with little introduction asked me to take the portfolio of foreign affairs in the new cabinet. in spite of the honor, i felt very reluctant to accept. i had served in the foreign ministry for nearly twenty years and well knew what the burden of being at the head of that department implied. some of its chiefs, able men, animated with the best of intentions, had reaped considerable public criticism for their toils. others i had known had aged with undue rapidity under the strain. still others, excellent civil servants, reaped little success in parliament. was i to give up my attractive swiss


had reaped considerable public criticism for their toils. others i had known had aged with undue rapidity under the strain. still others, excellent civil servants, reaped little success in parliament. was i to give up my attractive swiss projects for so hazardous a charge? my doubts were not to last long. it was made abundantly clear that preferences would have to make way for duty. a week after saying goodbye to the ministry for foreign affairs, i was back again as its head - - not without courage, but filled with dark forebodings. above europe the clouds were rapidly gathering. german relations with poland, and therefore with france and britain, were going from bad to worse. the new dutch government was at once filled with serious misgivings with regard to the trend of affairs in europe. foreign affairs loomed large in its daily preoccupations. acting under the inspiring leadership of the queen, the government strove hard to leave nothing undone that might avert disaster. at the same time all measures were taken so as to be ready if the worst should happen. in belgium, king leopold and his ministers were acting on similar lines. after consultation with the dutch government, the government of belgium took a first step, in the hope that this initiative might lead to a peaceful solution. it was expected at least to ease the tension so that friendly negotiations might be possible between the powers engaged in what seemed to have become a dispute of an acutely dangerous character. realizing that a major armed conflict in europe would gravely endanger the peaceful existence and the economic welfare of the smaller european states and guided by the wish to leave no stone unturned to preserve peace, the government in brussels issued invitations to those of holland, denmark, finland, luxemburg, norway, and sweden for a conference to be held in the belgian capital, in order to discuss what might be done to influence the course of events. as a result, the ministers for foreign affairs of those countries met in brussels on august 23rd. switzerland, too, would have been welcomed at the conference, but the federal council had let it be known that the scrupulous policy of perpetual neutrality resulting from switzerland ' s international status prevented that country from taking part, in spite of its sympathy for the cause at stake. there was something profoundly moving, even dramatic, about this gathering. the able belgian premier, m. pierlot, and the minister for foreign affairs, mr. spaak, a man of transparent honesty and steadfastness of purpose, acted as hosts


was something profoundly moving, even dramatic, about this gathering. the able belgian premier, m. pierlot, and the minister for foreign affairs, mr. spaak, a man of transparent honesty and steadfastness of purpose, acted as hosts. there was mr. munch, the danish foreign minister, aged in the pursuit of a policy of almost complete disarmament, which he firmly believed to be the only one open to his country ; mr. bech, for so many years at the head of the grand duchy of luxemburg ' s foreign ministry ; mr. koht, from norway, his grave and somewhat ascetic mien recalling some character of one of ibsen ' s dramas ; the resourceful and energetic personality of mr. sandler, king gustav ' s minister for foreign affairs ; the finnish representative, tall, broad - shouldered mr. erkko, whose country then still seemed so. safe and yet was to be engaged in a heroic struggle with the bolshevik hordes before the year was out ; and finally, myself. all these men had only one thought in mind : to do all in their power to prevent war from breaking out. they had the profound conviction that the result they sought to attain was the best that could be desired for europe. theirs was a voice crying and praying for peace. but at the same time their hearts were filled with fear, for the clouds darkening the horizon were blacker than ever. inexorable fate against human hope and endeavor - tragedy seemed imminent. it became clear to these men that ambitious schemes would be of no avail and were doomed to failure. the conference came to the conclusion that an urgent appeal, addressed by the king of the belgians in his own name and in the name of the other heads of state represented at the conference, was all it could usefully propose. the text of this appeal was drawn up and submitted to the king ' s approval ; that evening king leopold, surrounded by the members of the conference, representing seven small peace - loving european nations, broadcast the following appeal from the royal palace in brussels : " armies are gathering for a horrible struggle which will know neither victor nor vanquished. public opinion in all countries is alarmed. that is why, in the name of his majesty the king of denmark, the president of the republic of finland, her royal highness the grand duchess of luxemburg, his majesty the king of norway, her majesty the queen of holland, and his majesty the king of sweden, and in my own name,


of denmark, the president of the republic of finland, her royal highness the grand duchess of luxemburg, his majesty the king of norway, her majesty the queen of holland, and his majesty the king of sweden, and in my own name, each of us acting in agreement with his government, i issue this appeal. we express the hope that the other heads of states will add their voices to ours in the same hope of peace and security for their peoples. " the world is living in such a period of tension that there is a risk that all international cooperation should become impossible. the small countries are faced with the fear of a conflict into which they might be dragged in spite of their will to maintain their neutrality and their independence. lack of confidence reigns everywhere. but there is no people which wants to send its children to their deaths. all the states have the same interest. time is getting short. if we wait much longer it will become more difficult to make direct contacts. " we want peace with respect for the rights of all nations. it is our wish that the differences between nations should be submitted to conciliation in a spirit of good will. tomorrow hundreds of millions of people will be hoping that the differences which separate heads of states may be settled by means of conciliation. let those in whose hands rests the destiny of the peoples apply themselves to settle peacefully the differences which separate them. " early next morning those who had taken part in the conference hurriedly undertook the return journey to their respective capitals. it was an extraordinary departure : dense thunderclouds had settled like a pall over brussels. lightning streaked the skies in every direction ; peal after peal of thunder, burst upon our ears. the center of the storm seemed to be all around us in the very streets of the city ; in less than no time a cloudburst had flooded its lower - lying parts. in this deluge, reminiscent of some ancient cataclysm, my secretary and i set forth by car for the hague. at moments it became impossible to see more than fifty yards ahead. fiercely the storm raged ; it seemed a portent of what was to come a fortnight later. two days passed. the tension in europe was increasing daily. on saturday, august 26th, the german minister asked whether i could receive him the same day ; he had an urgent message from his government to transmit. i saw him without delay, and this was the message he had been instructed to deliver : " we are resolved to observe towards the netherlands an attitude


asked whether i could receive him the same day ; he had an urgent message from his government to transmit. i saw him without delay, and this was the message he had been instructed to deliver : " we are resolved to observe towards the netherlands an attitude according to which, in conformity with the traditional friendly relations between the two countries and with due regard for the well - known netherlands policy of independence, the inviolability and integrity of the netherlands will in no circumstances be infringed upon, and dutch territory will at all times be respected. on the other hand, we on our side expect, as a matter of course, that the netherlands will, in case of an armed conflict, observe towards us an attitude of absolute neutrality. above all other things, this implies that holland, contrary to tolerating any infringement by third parties on her neutrality, would resist any such violation with all the means at her disposal. if, however, contrary to our expectations, the attitude of the netherlands towards any such violation of her neutrality were to be different, it goes without saying that we should be obliged to safeguard our interests as dictated by the situation which then would have arisen. " on the face of it, this seemed a reassuring message with regard to the netherlands. at the same time it implied very clearly that germany, if not actually planning to provoke an armed conflict, was counting on one breaking out. on closer scrutiny, however, it could be seen to contain loopholes of the kind characteristic of nazi diplomatic documents. what, in fact, would have to be considered as an " infringement by third parties on holland ' s neutrality "? would it be enough for germany to assert that such an infringement had taken place, to justify her - - even if to an impartial observer there were no infringement at all - - in taking measures of violence against the netherlands? events later showed that the german subterfuge was even thinner than that. when hitler was about to invade holland, he did not allege that there had been an infringement of holland ' s neutrality, but merely that he knew that some form of impinging on that neutrality was about to materialize, and that the government of the netherlands was aware of this. it was clearly a case in which any question as to the real meaning of this ambiguous phraseology would have been left unanswered, unless some evasive answer were given. i therefore accepted the german minister ' s statement without any questioning. he then proceeded to inform me that, in order to give these german


meaning of this ambiguous phraseology would have been left unanswered, unless some evasive answer were given. i therefore accepted the german minister ' s statement without any questioning. he then proceeded to inform me that, in order to give these german assurances greater solemnity, he had been instructed to request that he should be allowed to repeat them to the queen in person. i could see only advantages in acceding to this request, in so far as that depended on me. if ever germany, under some pretext or other, decided to violate our neutrality, this violation would be all the more serious if the alleged will to respect our position would have been solemnly pledged in the queen ' s presence. i therefore at once asked whether her majesty was prepared to see count von zech. the reply being in the affirmative, the german minister was received by her majesty in my presence. i remember those few minutes very clearly. her majesty sat motionless while the german diplomat once more read the text he had been instructed to convey. when he had finished, the queen made no comment but merely said that she had taken cognizance of the message, and after engaging count von zech in conversation for a few minutes, brought the audience to an end. this interview left me full of uncomfortable forebodings. less than a week later, on the first of september, the british minister handed me a declaration of a similar nature from his government, in which the absence of circumlocution and qualifying terms made a happier impression : " if in the event of a european war the netherlands adopt an attitude of neutrality, his majesty ' s government will, in accordance with their traditional policy, be resolutely determined to respect this neutrality fully, provided that it is respected by other powers. " france never made a declaration of that nature. this was a reason for the dutch nazis to take me severely to task in their daily paper for not having obtained such a statement. i decided not to reply lest i should do them too much honor. two months later, however, when one of the few nazi members of parliament censured the government, and me in particular, for the same reason, i reminded them of the fact that belgium is situated between france and the netherlands, and that therefore, since belgium had obtained from france a promise of inviolability, the honorable member seemed to be victim to some strange confusion. either this nazi member believed in the value of france ' s assurance to belgium and its corollary, that france


, since belgium had obtained from france a promise of inviolability, the honorable member seemed to be victim to some strange confusion. either this nazi member believed in the value of france ' s assurance to belgium and its corollary, that france would never undertake anything against holland, or he had no faith in that promise. in the latter case, how could he attach any importance to a promise of the same kind made by the same power to holland? this brought the discussion to a close. when the appeal of the smaller european states, launched by the king of belgium at brussels on august 23rd, met with no response, queen wilhelmina and king leopold, with the concurrence of their governments, took a second step in order to leave nothing in their power undone which might possibly prevent an armed conflict from breaking out. rapid consultations took place between brussels and the hague. in the evening of august 28, the diplomatic representatives of germany, france, great britain, italy, and poland were invited, in brussels by my belgian colleague, mr. spaak, and at the hague by myself, to receive a communication. it was about midnight when i received the diplomats who had been summoned to the foreign office. i received them one by one, and told them that the queen and the king of belgium were prepared, if the powers to whom the communication was addressed should wish it, jointly to lend their good offices in order to effect a rapprochement between the prospective parties to a conflict. neither in holland nor in belgium did this offer receive any publicity at the time, so that initial discussions would not be hampered. the first press report concerning the offer came from abroad, where the initiative of the two sovereigns met with little more than polite appreciation. if, alas, they were unable to prevent war from breaking out, there is no doubt that by making this offer the queen and king leopold did everything in their power to save peace. their conscience and that of their ministers could be at rest. while preparing to be ready for any emergency of war, we were determined at the hague to leave nothing undone that could promote a return to peaceful conditions, and this determination naturally was stronger than ever when there was reason to reckon with an imminent danger for our own country. on sunday, november 5th, i was granted an audience by the queen, and placed before her majesty the idea of renewing to the belligerents the offer of good offices previously made in august, just before the outbreak of war. the queen received the idea favorably, and


, i was granted an audience by the queen, and placed before her majesty the idea of renewing to the belligerents the offer of good offices previously made in august, just before the outbreak of war. the queen received the idea favorably, and arrangements were made at once to enlist the cooperation of the belgians. as a result, king leopold hastened to the hague by car in the late evening of the following day, accompanied by mr. spaak. that same evening i made a first draft with my belgian colleague of a new offer of good offices to the belligerents. the king remained at the palace for the night, as did mr. spaak ; their arrival had been observed by a journalist, so that it was widely known the next day and caused much speculation. a newspaperman questioned me as i left the palace in the early hours of the morning, but of course i was not in a position to disclose anything as yet. next morning, the draft we had made was discussed with, and, after some alterations had been made, signed by, the two sovereigns. in the afternoon it was sent simultaneously to the king of england, the president of the french republic, and the chancellor of the german reich, each in their own language. the text of that document read as follows : " at this hour of anxiety for the whole world, before the war breaks out in western europe in all its violence, we have the conviction that it is our duty once again to raise our voice. " some time ago the belligerent parties declared that they would not be unwilling to examine a reasonable and well - founded basis for an equitable peace. " it seems to us that in the present circumstances it is difficult for them to come into contact in order to state their standpoints with greater precision and to bring them nearer to one another. " as sovereigns of two neutral states, having good relations with all their neighbors, we are ready to offer them our good offices. " if this were agreeable to them we are disposed, by every means at our disposal that they might care to suggest to us and in a spirit of friendly understanding, to facilitate the ascertaining of the elements of an agreement to be arrived at. " this, it seems to us, is the task we have to fulfil for the good of our people and in the interests of the whole world. " we hope that our offer will be accepted, and that thus a first step will be taken toward the establishment of a durable peace. " when


we have to fulfil for the good of our people and in the interests of the whole world. " we hope that our offer will be accepted, and that thus a first step will be taken toward the establishment of a durable peace. " when the news of this new offer of good offices had become known, the kings of denmark, norway, and sweden, as well as the president of finland, at once signified their warm adhesion. pope pius xii telegraphed, giving his high spiritual authority to this joint plea for peace made by the monarchs of the low countries. this was on tuesday. a few days of anxious waiting followed. what would the answers be? would the fact that the two sovereigns of the low countries once more offered their assistance in bringing about a mutually acceptable settlement induce the fuehrer to abandon such plans as we must assume he was entertaining for invading belgium and the netherlands? such indications as we received regarding germany ' s immediate military intentions remained very disquieting. tension was in the air, and it was in that atmosphere that i had to defend the estimates for the coming year for the ministry for foreign affairs. it gave me the occasion for publicly stating once again the firm determination of holland to remain neutral. i made it clear at the same time that we would defend ourselves if attacked, so that nobody could count on an invasion being a military walk - over. its favorable reception was a striking demonstration of the country ' s complete unity in its foreign policy and all its implications. very positive reports had by now come in to the effect that the german attack was to begin on sunday morning, november 12th, at dawn. i assembled the heads of departments of the foreign ministry on saturday afternoon, to discuss last measures with them. every preparation had been made. then, suddenly, messages began to come saying that something seemed to have changed in the plans of the german leaders. we looked at one another. was the attack to be abandoned after all? after another hour of doubt and uncertainty, i left my office for home, where, at 5. 30, the german minister asked if he could see me at once. his face, as he came in, wore, if anything, an expression of relief. he showed me a telegram. it merely said that the renewed offer of good offices was receiving the earnest consideration of the german government. the tension was broken ; the attack, if not abandoned, seemed at least to have been postponed. the dreaded sunday morning dawned, but brought no invasion. what it did bring


offer of good offices was receiving the earnest consideration of the german government. the tension was broken ; the attack, if not abandoned, seemed at least to have been postponed. the dreaded sunday morning dawned, but brought no invasion. what it did bring, were the answers from the king of great britain and the president of france. both referred to previous public declarations of their statesmen in which the essential conditions for peace, so the telegrams said, had been sufficiently explained. both gave to understand that it was for germany to make known whether she was prepared to enter into those views. the british reply ended by saying that if the sovereigns of the low countries were able to communicate any proposal from germany of such a character as to afford real prospects of meeting the allied desires, the governments of the british empire would give them their most earnest consideration. the german reply, which came four days later, and was conveyed orally by herr von ribbentrop to the diplomatic representatives of holland and belgium in berlin, declared on behalf of the chancellor that " after the brusque refusal of the offer of good offices by the french and british governments, the german government considered this offer as having lost its object. " since there had been no question of any brusque refusal by president lebrun or king george, it was clear that the germans would have nothing to do with the proposal. this was stressed by the unusual form in which the german reply came. hitler had spoken on october 6th, the door he had then opened almost imperceptibly had been closed again when nobody showed any desire to enter. overtures by the fuehrer are made once only. the prestige of a dictator seems to make this unavoidable. that, probably, is the reason why nothing came of the second offer of good offices. but even if it had only had the effect of postponing the attack on holland planned for november 12th, it served a good purpose ; for the defenses of holland and belgium were far less strong in the autumn than they were to be in may, 1940. the november crisis was by no means the only one in the period of holland ' s neutrality. another serious alarm was given in january, 1940 ; this time it came from belgium. there, a german military plane, manned by two officers, had made a forced landing near the frontier. immediately upon landing, they endeavored to destroy a bunch of papers they had with them. their attempt was frustrated by belgian soldiers, who took the documents into their custody. the


, manned by two officers, had made a forced landing near the frontier. immediately upon landing, they endeavored to destroy a bunch of papers they had with them. their attempt was frustrated by belgian soldiers, who took the documents into their custody. the belgians showed considerable alarm. strangely enough, the exact contents of these documents were known only to the king and a few of his most intimate military advisers. whatever these contents were, the fact remained that all military precautions in belgium were being taken once more with the greatest energy. a chief of the army staff was removed and another general put into his place ; steps were taken to increase the powers of the military authorities. i this action by our southern neighbors puzzled us. we, on our side, had no indication that there was any imminent danger. the season seemed at its most unfavorable for any large - scale military operations. a long spell of frost, which had begun in december, still confined the country in its icy bounds and was particularly severe in germany, where communications had become difficult. in addition to this, our intelligence service did not understand why the belgians were so alarmed. nevertheless, we decided to increase our vigilance to some extent in order to risk no chance of a surprise attack, but we left it at that. nothing happened, and comparative quiet set in again. life at the hague was fairly normal in those days. if it had not been for the ubiquitous military uniforms and the khaki knitting seen lying about in homes everywhere, there was little to remind one that a war was in progress. some curious situations, however, arose in the social field, since it was naturally impossible to entertain german and allied diplomats at the same time. great care had to be taken when issuing invitations. when my wife and i held our new year ' s reception - - a traditional function for the foreign minister at the hague - - matters were so arranged that the germans came during the first hour, and the allied representatives during the second. with the advent of spring, days grew longer, and the weather improved. hitler ' s armies had scarcely moved during the long and exceptionally cold winter months. could he be expected to play the waiting game forever? experts in all countries agreed that germany was not in a position to endure a long war. for her it was a matter of swift success, if she were to have a chance of winning. as the season grew more appropriate for active warfare, the chances of a violent campaign breaking out increased, and the dangers for the neutrals thereby became daily


for her it was a matter of swift success, if she were to have a chance of winning. as the season grew more appropriate for active warfare, the chances of a violent campaign breaking out increased, and the dangers for the neutrals thereby became daily more acute. ominous signs were not lacking. even before the invasion of denmark and norway ( sweden escaping only by the grace of russia ), the dutch police arrested numerous german spies. why should there be so much spying going on in the country, if the germans had no evil intentions towards it? strange things were observed. the rear windows of the german school at the hague had been pasted up with paper, but when the police searched it they discovered nothing. since the outbreak of war there had been an abnormal increase in the staff of the german legation, an increase far greater than that of the staff of any allied legation. what was the task allotted to all those secretaries and clerks? one evening, the police were handed a large envelope. it was addressed to an office of the nazi party in berlin, and was obviously destined to be taken by messenger across the german frontier where it was to have been posted. some careless person had lost it. the parcel was found near one of the buildings used by the german legation. since there was no sign of its having any diplomatic character, and as the address and the mode of transmission gave rise to suspicion, it was opened. the contents were amazing : they clearly proved that a man who had been an attache to the legation for several years was the head of german military espionage in holland. he appeared to have under him another man, whose identity was never revealed but who worked under the name of jonathan, whose task it was to coordinate the data supplied to him by a number of spies, each of whom had a serial number corresponding to the same number given to some district of the netherlands in which he was to operate. these spies obviously had been carefully trained and instructed, although it was clear that they were not all military men. they described, in incredible detail, all they were able to discover in connection with the defense of holland. they made surveys of fortified positions, inundations, trenches, cantonments, bunkers, in short everything that they could get any information about. they reported conversations overheard between young officers in some well - known restaurant. they talked with their landladies, their servants, or members of their families. these papers constituted an invaluable find for the dutch authorities, and enabled them to round up a number