in response to the question about the plaster sculpture lesson - - - my grade 8 students are doing a non objective, subtractive sculpture for a specific place. they will use plaster blocks made by pouring plaster into lunchroom sized milk cartons. i start the lesson by presenting the kids with 50 or so laminated magazine photos of " public places. " we talk about public art and look at a power point presentation of some of the public art sculpture in our city. we identify sculpture that enhances the environment and some that does not. a commissioned sculpture in front of our central library has caused much controversy. we talk about the pros and cons of this work of art. we talk about material used for sculpture indoors and out. we talk about what it means when a work of art is commissioned. each student selects a laminated photo of a special place for which he / she will design a maquette for a non objective, " site specific " sculpture. students are encouraged to begin by eliminating the boxy " milk carton look " of their form. they may choose to use the electric drill, with a large bit, to drill one hole, after putting much thought into where it should go. we use a variety off kitchen tools for carving, but the favorite is a tool i made using the metal straps used to bind bundles of lumber. i cut a diagonal end and wrapped the handle with duct tape. completed sculpture will be displayed with the photo of the special place for which it was designed. we usually have terrific critiques of these


while research and development of algal biofuels are currently receiving much interest and funding, they are still not commercially viable at today ’ s fossil fuel prices. however, a niche opportunity may exist where algae are grown as a by - product of high rate algal ponds ( hraps ) operated for wastewater treatment. in addition to significantly better economics, algal biofuel production from wastewater treatment hraps has a much smaller environmental footprint compared to commercial algal production hraps which consume freshwater and fertilizers. algae, during production, reduce chemical oxygen demands ( cod ) and biological oxygen demands ( bod ) of wastewater through photosynthesis process and utilize dissolved solids for production of its biomass. algae can produce > 20 times more oil per hectare than terrestrial oilseed crops such as soy and canola. therefore growing algae on these waste streams appears to be a win - win situation. in the end, the water comes out purified and energy - rich biomass is created. national aeronautics and space administration ( nasa ) has taken serious initiatives for this technology and probably omega ( offshore membrane enclosure for growing algae ) is the largest project of its kind for algal production in floating plastic bags filled with wastewater on a sea surface ( to maximize surface area ). however, apart from sustainable outcomes, wastewater treatment with algae production is still not that popular among municipalities, mainly because of absence / lag of biofuel reform, resulting due to no social media marketing and branding for environmental design in this sector worldwide. do you think, without taking biofuels into account, treatment of wastewater with algae would be a better option for municipalities / councils to treat their domestic wastewater? credits : images and data linked to sources.


us 7093956 b2 a method of lighting to protect sea turtles comprises providing in a housing both a white light source, for example a low - voltage incandescent source, and a red led source that is visible to humans but that does not interfere with the normal nesting and hatching behavior of sea turtles, and selectively energizing the latter source during turtle nesting season. 1. a method of lighting for protecting sea turtles comprising providing a housing containing first and second selectively operable low - voltage light sources and switch means for selectively energizing either light source, wherein the first low - voltage light source is a source of white light that is usefully visible to humans but interferes with the normal nesting and hatching of sea turtles, and wherein the second low - voltage light source is an led source that is usefully visible to humans but does not interfere with the normal nesting and hatching of sea turtles, that has a peak wavelength greater than 590 nm but not greater than 650 nm, and that comprises at least one string of from six to nine led ' s in series, and selectively energizing the second light source rather than the first light source during turtle nesting season. 2. the method of 3. the method of 4. the method of 5. the method of this application claims the benefit of prior u. s. provisional application no. 60 / 538, 652, filed jan. 23, 2004. this invention relates to lighting and lighting fixtures, and more particularly to outdoor lighting, which may be seen by animals. eight out of twelve species of sea turtle are on the endangered species list. a large part of the problem is that the hatchlings crawl toward lights along the beach instead of toward the moonlight reflecting off of the water and are killed. lights may also discourage female turtles from coming ashore to nest. turtle nesting season runs from march 1 to november 1. florida has mandated that beachfront illumination must be turned off or blacked out during this period. this presents a potential hazard for pedestrians negotiating dark walkways. there is gathering evidence that turtles cannot see red and / or yellow wavelengths well. the present application uses leds of such peak wavelengths, preferably red leds, as turtle friendly lights. in an implementation, a light also may use an incandescent or fluorescent white light and red leds with the same power source switchable between emitting white light and red light. due to the nature of color vision, monochromatic red light may be used. filtered ( incande


use an incandescent or fluorescent white light and red leds with the same power source switchable between emitting white light and red light. due to the nature of color vision, monochromatic red light may be used. filtered ( incandescent ) white lights may look red to humans while still emitting a significant portion of yellow, green and even blue light. these shorter wavelengths of light do not significantly impact the perception of red color to humans, but may still be visible to turtles. low - pressure sodium vapor lamps emit nearly monochromatic yellow light that has been shown not to interfere with the nesting behavior of some species of turtles. this color may be unappealing and can exhibit poor color rendering properties. due to their size, power supply requirements and expense, it is difficult to integrate these lamps with another more traditional light source to provide flexible and appropriate landscape and decorative lighting. the low - pressure sodium lamps are more suited to area illumination of parking lots and highway interchanges. traditional landscape lighting uses incandescent or fluorescent lighting fixtures. both of these light sources emit significant amounts of light at wavelengths less than 570 nm, which has proven to be disorienting to both nesting adult turtles and hatchlings. while these light sources could be rendered more ecologically compatible in turtle nesting areas by use of filters, significant labor is required to install and uninstall these filters at the beginning and end of turtle nesting season. further, high quality filters that block all light emission at wavelengths below 570 nm and will not degrade in the temperatures and humidity typical of turtle nesting beaches are expensive and are not available in useful shapes. therefore, filtering will be an expensive and inconvenient solution. the present disclosure provides methods and techniques for protecting wildlife. the techniques provide for lighting that may be switched between light sources. one light source can emit white light, which contains wavelengths of light that are visible to a particular animal species, and another light source can and does emit a substantially monochromatic wavelength that is not visible to the particular species. both light sources can be visible to humans and provide lighting for ornamental, functional, safety and other uses. in one aspect, the techniques include providing an incandescent light source in a housing ; providing light emitting diode light sources in the housing, all of the diodes emitting a substantially monochromatic wavelength of light ; energizing either the light emitting diode light sources or incandescent light sources, wherein the light emitted from the light emitting di


sources in the housing, all of the diodes emitting a substantially monochromatic wavelength of light ; energizing either the light emitting diode light sources or incandescent light sources, wherein the light emitted from the light emitting diode light sources is not visible to a selected species of animal. the details of one or more embodiments of the invention are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description below. other features, objects, and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the description and drawings, and from the claims. the present disclosure provides resorts, public parks as well as homeowners with an aesthetically pleasing landscape light that is ecologically compatible and that will not interfere with the normal nest and hatching behavior of sea turtles. the present invention provides lighting fixtures that may be switched from white light to a monochromatic light that is not visible to a selected animal species. the white light can be from any source, including incandescent, fluorescent and led. if the white source is one or more led ' s, simple switching between white and monochromatic led ' s is all that is required. otherwise differences on operating voltages must be taken into account, as will be explained utilizing incandescent lighting as the source of white light. incandescent landscape lights may be designed to operate at voltages between 12 and 18 volts. although the red leds that are most compatible for use in turtle nesting areas operate at approximately 2 volts, operating multiple leds in a series of 6 to 9 devices results in a fixture that can operate at the same voltages as incandescent lights. the use of monochromatic red leds for landscape lighting may not be aesthetically pleasing. alternatively, neon bulbs may be used to radiate a red light that is not visible to sea turtles. the monochromatic leds may have a peak wavelength greater than 590 nanometers ( nm ), preferably in the range of 590 – 650 nm, more preferably 630 – 650 nm, and most preferably 640 – 650 nm. a preferred configuration of the device is a fixture that comprises an incandescent or fluorescent light, one or more strings of red ( or possibly yellow ) leds connected in series and a voltage sensing circuit that can switch the current between the incandescent light or the leds depending on the line voltage. a simple switch located at the transformer providing the power to the light fixtures allows step changes in the operating voltage that can be used to switch between operating


can switch the current between the incandescent light or the leds depending on the line voltage. a simple switch located at the transformer providing the power to the light fixtures allows step changes in the operating voltage that can be used to switch between operating modes. this system allows for owners to choose between operating lighting fixtures with either a broad - spectrum white light or a nearly monochromatic red led without the need for installation and removal of filters or changing light bulbs. incandescent lights are typically operated using ac power supplies, while leds are typically operated using a dc power supply. this dichotomy can be resolved by using a simple rectifier circuit for the leds or by using pairs of led strings set in parallel, but with opposite polarity. a variety of commonly known circuit designs exist that can allow easy switching between incandescent and led operation. such switching could be accomplished by means of a mechanical switch, input voltage, or a control signal in an rs - 232, rs - 485 or other electronic control system. a number of embodiments of the invention have been described. nevertheless, it will be understood that various modifications may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. for example, all - led or fluorescent - led circuits may be utilized. accordingly, other embodiments are within the scope of the following claims.


us 4088828 a a printed circuit board wherein a conductor pattern is printed on an insulating base, first solder resist layers are formed on the surface of the conductor pattern remaining lands which are for soldering thereon, second solder resist layers for prevention of bridging for preventing bridging of solder are formed at least at portions where the gap between the lands is narrow, and thereby electronic parts such as an ic can be reliably assembled on the printed circuit board. 1. a printed circuit board comprising an insulating base, a conductor pattern printed on said insulating base, a first solder resist layer formed on the entire surface of the conductor pattern remaining lands which are for soldering thereon, and a second solder resist layer for prevention of bridging of interland gaps by solder, said second solder resist layer being formed on said first solder resist layer at least over portions thereof where interland gaps are narrow. 2. a printed circuit board according to claim 1, wherein said second solder resist layer is formed over the entire area of the part for mounting electronic parts such as semiconductor integrated circuits. 3. a printed circuit board according to claim 1, wherein said second solder resist layer is printed with a mark print ink simultaneously with the printing of marks or symbols of assembled electronic parts. this invention relates to printed circuit boards suitable for mounting electronic parts such as integrated circuit parts, having lead terminals provided at very small pitch intervals. generally, the surface of a printed circuit board on which surface a conductor pattern of copper or like conductor is formed is dipped through a fused solder bath or in a jet type solder bath after the electronic parts are assembled on the printed circuit board, and solder is attached to the conductive pattern surface. thus, the leads of the electronic parts are electrically and mechanically connected to the conductor pattern. the printed circuit board is used after making these connections. in the conductor pattern as mentioned above a layer for the resisting solder ; that is the so - called solder resist layer, is formed so that solder may be attached to only fixed portions of the conductor pattern. in the meantime, there is a trend for the gap between adjacent lands of the conducting pattern to be reduced with a tendency toward reduction in the size of electric apparatus and the use of many semiconductor integrated circuit parts, which use has been made possible with the progress of techniques concerning electronic parts ; in fact it is often the case in these days that interland gaps less than the minimum gap of 0


size of electric apparatus and the use of many semiconductor integrated circuit parts, which use has been made possible with the progress of techniques concerning electronic parts ; in fact it is often the case in these days that interland gaps less than the minimum gap of 0. 5 millimeter prescribed in the japanese industrial standard ( jis c - 5010 ) are required. for example, when soldering lead terminals arranged in a row such as those in a semiconductor integrated circuit component arranged at a pitch of 2. 5 millimeters to the circular portion of conductor lands arranged in correspondence with the row, solder resist layers are printed with space between the layers of 0. 5 millimeter or less. fig. 1 is a fragmentary sectional view showing a prior art printed circuit board in the state being used ; fig. 2 is a fragmentary sectional view showing an embodiment of the printed circuit board according to the invention in the state being used ; and figs. 3 and 4 are fragmentary top views showing alternative forms of the same printed circuit board. fig. 1 shows an example of prior art, in which the solder lead terminals of an electronic part such as a semiconductor circuit component are arranged in a row. designated at 1 is an insulating base, at 2 conductors printed on one surface of the insulating base 1, at 3 holes for mounting lead terminals of electronic parts to be provided on the insulating base 1, at 4 solder resist layers, at 5 an electronic part such as a semiconductor integrated circuit, at 6 lead terminals of the electronic part 5, and at 7 solder portions. in this structure, when the gap between adjacent lands of the conductor 2 becomes 0. 5 mm or less, even if the solder resist layer 4 is formed, short - circuiting between the adjacent lands of the conductor or solder portions 7 on the lands occurs often due to bridging of adjacent solder portions 7 over the intervening solder resist layer 4. this is thought to occur as the result of insufficient thickness of the solder resist layer 4. accordingly, it has heretofore been necessary as a correction step to separate the bridging portion 8 by means such as soldering iron, but this has been an extreme disadvantage in view of productivity. besides, when the correction is made in this way, the conductor 2 or electronic part 5 is heated twice, and this causes thermal deterioration of the conductor or electric part and hence reduction of its life ; thus, this correction is one which causes great problems. this invention solves the


made in this way, the conductor 2 or electronic part 5 is heated twice, and this causes thermal deterioration of the conductor or electric part and hence reduction of its life ; thus, this correction is one which causes great problems. this invention solves the above drawbacks inherent in the prior art. the invention will now be described in conjunction with an embodiment thereof with reference to figs. 2 to 4. designated at 9 is an insulating base consisting of a synthetic resin. a pattern of copper conductors 10 is formed by means of etching on one surface of the insulating base 9. in the insulating base 9 holes 13 are provided for receiving lead terminals 12 of an electronic part 11. of course the conductor 10 is formed around the holes 13. a layer 15 for the resisting solder, or so - called solder resist layer, is formed on the surface of the conductor 10 remaining circular lands 14 on which soldering is possible around the respective holes 13. further, a solder resist layer 16 for preventing the bridging is formed where the gap between adjacent lands 14 is small, for example, 0. 5 millimeter. the solder resist layer 16 for the prevention of bridging may be formed only over areas where it is actually required as shown in fig. 3, or it may be formed over the entire area of the part where the semiconductor integrated circuit components are mounted as shown in fig. 4. further, in view of the manufacturing process, in order to avoid an increase in the number of printing step, after the printing of the solder resist layer 15 which is the first layer, the solder resist layer 16 for the prevention of bridging is printed simultaneously with the printing of symbols indicating the mounted electronic parts, using an epoxy resin having the property of resisting solder as the printing ink. in this case, the positional precision is substantially the same as that in the printing of the solder resist layer 15 which is the first layer ; therefore, a sufficient positional precision can be obtained, and also it is possible to print the solder resist layer having substantially the same thickness as that of the solder resist layer 15. of course, the printing ink used must not be inferior in electric properties and moisture resistance to the first solder resist layer 15. by providing these two solder resist layers 15 and 16, even when soldering is done, a solder 17 will never bridge the adjacent solder portions 17. further, for the purpose of preventing bridging, one may


resist layer 15. by providing these two solder resist layers 15 and 16, even when soldering is done, a solder 17 will never bridge the adjacent solder portions 17. further, for the purpose of preventing bridging, one may print a plurality of bridging prevention layers instead of a single layer. while the above embodiment is concerned with a single side or surface printed circuit board, the same effects may be obtained in the case of the double sided printed circuit board as well. now an example of a test will be described. semiconductor integrated circuit parts each having two rows of seven terminal lead pins are mounted by means of the flow soldering method. for one semiconductor integrated circuit part, all lead pins are soldered to respective lands on a printed circuit board. in this case, interland gaps are made at two rows of 6 portions, and the total of interland gaps is 12. the table below shows the results of tests for 100 semiconductor integrated circuit parts, i. e., for 1200 soldering gaps. the soldering was carried out at 260 circuit board set to 50 cm / sec. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ number of occurrence oftest example solder bridge _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ without solder resist layer 587with ordinary solderresist layer 38example according to theinvention 2 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ as has been shown, with the printed circuit board construction according to the invention, the number of occurrence of bridging of the solder layers formed by soldering can be greatly reduced even where the interland gap is very narrow. thus, a correction step is hardly required, and as a result thermal deterioration of the conductor pattern or electronic part is reduced and therefore, reliability of the device can be increased. further, it permits cost reduction owing to increased productivity. therefore, the invention is very valuable in industry. citas de patentes


why residence event and not address? the discussion of how to enter addresses in gramps pops up from time to time, especially with new users. let ' s give some reasoning on why to use the residence event for genealogical research, and not address. you find a definition of an address in glossary, as well as for place. so the address is for mailing, while the place is to indicate a point on a map. mailing is in general not very useful for deceased people, the main focus of your research. so : - what is an address? - the gramps concept of an address is a particular location with an associated time frame. think of it as a mailing address. it is intended to represent where a person lived and when the person lived there. - what is a place? - the gramps concept of a place is a particular location independent of time. over time, the same place may have different address information due to changing borders and political situation. for example, leningrad and st. petersburg represent the same place, but with different names. gramps offers the alternate locations tab in the place editor, allowing to enter different address information of the place. apart from this, an event is important here : a defining moment in a person ' s life. events can be coupled to places and are a central object in genealogy research, together with people, families and sources. they give a timeline on the life of a person, a timeline on which it is important to also indicate where a person lives. why residence events? so, what are the advantages of residence events then? well : - you can attach a place to it. this place will then be the effective address, with possible alternate locations ( see the place dialog ) indicating how eg this place is called today as opposed to when the event happened. - you can share that place between people and families. with addresses there is no way to check if an address is already in your database - unless you remember it. that makes it unlikely to discover that two people actually lived at the same address. you can also filter on place city, eg give me all residence events that are in a place with city berlin. - hence, you can search places and see not just what happened in a certain city, but also who lived ( resided ) there. that ' s also not possible using the ' address ' system. this is a timeline of a place with all events that happened there. - on a timeline of a person you can see the event and infer


also who lived ( resided ) there. that ' s also not possible using the ' address ' system. this is a timeline of a place with all events that happened there. - on a timeline of a person you can see the event and infer details, eg a person marries before or after moving to a new house. - using a place for the address allows you to use this place for other events. eg suppose jim marries at home, then the marriage event can be linked to the place indicating his home, just like the residence event does. - just like the address field, events have full time control, so time spans and periods can be used and are recognized for reports. - individual attributes on residence event are handled on gedcom export. what is a disadvantage : - for a change in streetname, the address changes but the position on the map is the same. gramps allows you to store this information in an alternate location, but alternate location has no date span, so you cannot indicate during which time frame an address for a place was in use. note that some researchers on the mailing list have expressed they like to store address changes in notes connected to a place, instead of in the alternate location tab. this because in general notes are exported to gedcom correctly and understood in other programs you might want to use the information. it is important to note that you could use the location event also, or make a custom event with a naming that suits you more. try it out there is no standard method of storing addresses in gramps. try out the two methods, and use what works for you. note the following : - address is not always well supported in other genealogy applications. - alternate location of place used in gramps is not present in many other applications. you might consider recording this in notes instead. - events are supported by all programs you use, as is the default place location.


tips for nipping the flu in the bud learn how to prevent your family from being bitten by the h1n1 bug. by pia hinckle the advent of the h1n1 ( or swine ) flu last year raised most people ’ s awareness — and fear — of the influenza virus. now flu season has hit hard and early on the playground and in the office. to offer but one example, michigan recently announced that 194 schools had shut down because of h1n1 outbreaks. it ’ s only natural to want to take some sort of precautions for your kids. but what can parents do? just getting vaccinated is easier said than done. although regular flu vaccinations are widely available nationwide, the h1n1 vaccine has not arrived in every corner of the country — nor is it available to every demographic. what ’ s more, the vaccine requires two doses one month apart, so even if you rush your little ones to a clinic tomorrow, it will be another 30 days before they are no longer vulnerable to the virus. the key to nipping the bug before it bites both types of flu viruses are spread person - to - person through airborne contact ( coughs and sneezes ) and physical contact ( close contact or touching infected items and then touching your face ). here are some tips and resources to keep your family healthy this flu season : don ’ t worry, just wash often : always wash your hands before eating and after sneezing, coughing, going to the restroom, or shaking hands. french researchers found that just one healthcare worker with dirty hands could infect an entire hospital. as it turns out, most people do not wash their hands correctly. here ’ s how : wet your hands. use soap and lather for 15 seconds. rinse. towel or air - dry hands. use a towel to turn off the faucet. if water is not available, use a hand sanitizer with at least 60 % ethyl alcohol ( which kills germs ) or antimicrobial towelettes. cover your mouth : if you sneeze or cough, do so in a tissue or into your elbow or shirtsleeve. this prevents germs from spreading to other people. avoid touching your face : your nose, mouth, and eyes are easy entry points for viruses to invade your body. try not to touch them, and make sure you always wash your hands before you do. clean surface areas : wipe down conference tables and airplane armrests and trays


, mouth, and eyes are easy entry points for viruses to invade your body. try not to touch them, and make sure you always wash your hands before you do. clean surface areas : wipe down conference tables and airplane armrests and trays with disinfecting wipes before using them. the lowdown on flu vaccines h1n1 : looking for the h1n1 vaccine in your town? go to www. flu. gov and search the interactive map by state. wondering how to determine the truths and tall tales behind the h1n1 flu and vaccine? go here. not sure if your child ’ s sore throat warrants a trip to the emergency room? take the h1n1 self - evaluation and make an informed decision. regular influenza : more than 30, 000 people still die in the united states each year from the seasonal flu. get vaccinated by your doctor or at your local pharmacy : influenza vaccines contain the preservative thimerosal, which contains ethylmercury. while thimerosal has been used in most vaccines since the 1930s, its use in childhood vaccines was discontinued in 1999. concerned about thimerosal? learn more about it on the centers for disease control and prevention ' s website. there are limited supplies of influenza vaccine without thimerosal — contact your physician to see if it is available. what if you still get sick? stay home until you have been fever - free without medication for at least 24 hours. flu symptoms vary but may include fever, cough, chills, sore throat, body aches, and fatigue. drinks lots of fluids and get plenty of rest. for detailed information on the flu and prevention efforts, visit the cdc ' s flu page. this article was adapted from the fruitguys almanac.


eating organic is not only beneficial to your health, but it is beneficial to the environment as well. at greenling we aim to bring you the best available organically - grown products and feel that everyone should be aware of why organic is the way to go. here are some key facts you should be aware of when selecting produce : conventional produce contains harmful chemicals. conventionally - grown fruits and vegetables are covered in a stew of toxic chemicals. even after rinsing that conventionally - grown pear, there will still be up to 50 poisonous chemicals engrained beneath skin. blech. check out the environmental working group ' s report on the most polluted fruits and vegetables : www. foodnews. org let ' s antagonize for a bit..... so what if there are chemicals in the fruit? that doesn ’ t mean our bodies actually absorb it.... you can get where i ’ m going with this one, right? www. organic - center. org and it turns out our kids get it worst! us grownups can be full of toxins and not be quite as affected ( still affected ) as a growing kid : more on toxins there are so many studies on the harmful effects of pesticides. this particular study shows a link between pesticides and autism : pesticides and autism... it ' s just plain healthier. organic fruits and vegetables are grown in nutrient - rich soil. vitamins and minerals are kept intact instead of being depleted, as in conventional produce. studies prove organic produce is more nutritious ( read more ). organic milk and meat enhance breast milk nutrition ( more info ). what ' s better for the earth is better for you. toxic chemicals are not doing anyone any good, including mother earth. while organic farms rely on natural biological systems and actually improve the quality of the soil, chemicals on conventional farms are zapping the soil of any nutrients, deadening the earth. www. organic - center. org we need to create sustainability. deadening it! doesn ' t that word scare anyone else? supporting organic produce is supporting sustainable, healthy environments that are thriving and full of life, replenishing the earth with nutrients, and continually growing vitamin - rich fruits and veggies. environmental conditions are suffering. by using toxic chemicals and sewage sludge on conventional farms, the falling of dominoes is in full effect ; these chemicals get into not only the land ( yes - deadening it ), but the air and water as well, including


drought may be the new norm for the uk, with drastic measures including growing genetically modified crops likely to be considered as part of the solution, the environment secretary has said. with large parts of the south and south - east of england officially in drought, and areas of the midlands at risk, caroline spelman warned that households across the south - east were likely to face water usage restrictions this spring, starting with hosepipe bans. reservoirs have reached record lows in some places and rainfall would need to be more than a fifth higher than normal in the next three months to relieve the drought, but forecasters have said this is unlikely. " two very dry winters – this may be the new norm, " the secretary of state for environment, food and rural affairs told the national union of farmers annual conference on tuesday. " we asked the question at the drought summit [ on monday ] – what if this is what climate change means and this is the new normal? " she said the uk had to look at how to make plants resistant to drought, pointing to an australian project to develop drought - resistant genetically modified rice. " this technology, if used responsibly, may be one of the tools in terms of food security that we need going forward. " she predicted gm rice would be an important crop in areas where rice was a staple food, but made it clear that similarly modified crops should be considered for the uk. " it could be one of the tools in the tool kit to help us with food security. the key thing is to keep investing in the science base. " the union president, peter kendall, said it was " desperately worrying " that genetically modified crops were not being developed in europe at the same rate as in china, the us and other countries. spelman warned that households would bear the brunt of water restrictions this year, as the drought has worsened. last year, the government and water companies focused on reducing the water use of businesses and farmers, some of whom had their licences to draw water from rivers and underground sources changed or revoked. despite drought being declared across large areas last year, there were no hosepipe bans. but spelman said this was unlikely to last this year. she insisted households should take more responsibility for saving water : " what came out of the drought summit was how much it ' s about individuals making decisions. " she said the most important counter - drought measure for the whole country was to capture the rain and store it, and pledged that changes to the planning system would make it easier to build


drought summit was how much it ' s about individuals making decisions. " she said the most important counter - drought measure for the whole country was to capture the rain and store it, and pledged that changes to the planning system would make it easier to build reservoirs. farmers were changing some of their cropping patterns this year to cope with the expected drier conditions. but this would not stop food prices rising, kendall warned. " as sure as night follows day, if it doesn ' t rain, food is going to cost more money. " he said farmers had recently lost a tax break on building reservoirs for their own use, making it more expensive to store water on farms and causing more farmers to rely on shared public water sources. spelman said drought was the biggest issue for the water industry for the next 20 years, and used the term " new norm " five times to describe current conditions, underling the depth of her concern. the conference also heard that the government is to accept 159 of about 215 recommendations made by a farming deregulation taskforce, with most of the others only rejected because they were outside defra ' s remit. chief among the changes will be fewer inspections in order to cut duplication, and measures to ensure they do not need to file the same information to the government more than once. spelman said less regulation would not mean weaker regulation. " the government ' s red tape challenge is to lighten the burden of regulation without compromising the integrity – [ there will be ] no loss of environmental protection or animal welfare. " but the environmental group wwf warned that current farming subsidies under the eu ' s common agricultural policy ( cap ) risked encouraging the destruction of the environment, and applauded moves to ensure farmers had to undertake certain environmental measures in order to receive subsidies. " nobody wants to see farmers tied up in red tape, but equally it ' s wrong to see greening measures in cap reform as a threat. it ' s essential that direct payments [ to farmers ] are linked to environmental improvements, " said mark driscoll of wwf. some farmers are concerned that reforms to the cap being proposed by brussels to tie environmental protection more closely to subsidies could actually mean worse environmental protection in the uk. that is because some farmers have taken a lead in implementing measures such as preserving field margins, woodlands and permanent pasture, but under the proposals some measures already taken might not receive full credit. one issue scarcely mentioned inside the birmingham conference hall, but the focus of a vociferous protest outside was badgers, which


the immune system | why should everyone be vaccinated? | how and when are vaccines given? | how safe are vaccines? a vaccine is a biologically active substance designed to protect children and adults from infections caused by bacteria and viruses. vaccines are also called because they take advantage of our natural immune system ’ s ability to prevent infectious illness. to understand how vaccines work, we need to consider how our immune system protects us from infections. the immune system our bodies are armed with a variety of methods to protect against infectious microorganisms like bacteria and viruses. the most sophisticated of these methods involve activating specific immune system cells, some of which make proteins called antibodies. for the immune system to effectively respond to an infectious microorganism, the invader must carry some sort of identification that immune cells can recognize and respond to. these identifying markers are called antigens. both bacteria and viruses carry their own antigens. in fact, different varieties, or strains, of the same microorganism possess their own unique antigen. immune cells are able to recognize these highly specific antigens, appropriately identify their owners as threatening, and respond accordingly. the immune system ’ s response actually consists of two parts. first, in the presence of a particular antigen, special immune cells, called become active and take steps against the antigen and its owner, either by unleashing a direct assault on the invader or discharging antibodies to do the job. this usually works quite well, but the full response can take awhile, sometimes days to weeks, during which time we suffer the symptoms of the infectious illness. symptoms can include discomforts like fever, sore throat,, or rash. it ’ s only after the immune system gains the upper hand that we begin to recover. the second, and equally important, part of the immune system response involves creating memory. not all of the immune cells and antibodies initially stimulated are destined to destroy the invader. a portion of them are held back so they can fight another day. the purpose of these are to attack promptly and overwhelmingly, and to destroy the invader if it were to attack again. in most cases, this memory capability is so efficient that when the same antigen reappears again in the future, we are completely unaware that we ’ ve been exposed. the term is used to describe the situation in which an effective memory response has attacked the antigen of a particular microorganism. consider the example of ( varicella ), a common viral infection. if you were born prior to the early


. the term is used to describe the situation in which an effective memory response has attacked the antigen of a particular microorganism. consider the example of ( varicella ), a common viral infection. if you were born prior to the early 1990s, when the was first introduced, you probably remember staying home from school for about a week with a fever and rash. you probably have also noticed that the same illness never reoccurred. this is true even though you ’ ve almost certainly been exposed to the virus many times since. your immune system successfully remembers the chickenpox antigen from its initial encounter with the virus and reliably responds each time it is confronted with the identical antigen. now consider the flu. why is it possible, even likely, to suffer from the flu winter after winter despite a healthy immune response every time? well, unlike the varicella virus, different strains of influenza infect humans each season. being immune to last year ’ s flu strain may protect you for the duration of the season, but it will be of little use when next year ’ s strains come around. there is only one strain of varicella that infects humans. so, where do vaccines fit in? the concept behind vaccinations is to stimulate a memory response without producing an actual illness. if successful, a vaccinated individual can enjoy the benefits of immunity without having to suffer through the original illness. to accomplish this, a vaccine must contain at least one antigen from the bacteria or virus of interest. the antigen may take many forms : a part of the toxin responsible for the ill effects of the infection, as in tetanus tiny components of killed bacteria, as in pertussis viral protein produced by biotechnology, as in hepatitis b killed viruses or parts of viruses, as in inactivated live viruses that have been rendered harmless by a process called attenuation, as in rubella, or chickenpox once the vaccine enters the body, its antigen ( s ) begins to stimulate the development of immune cells and antibodies, which build up over the course of several weeks. since the immune response produced by vaccines is not as robust as the immune response produced by an actual infectious microorganism, a single vaccine dose usually only provides limited protection. this is why almost all vaccines require multiple doses to insure that the recipient is sufficiently immune. for example, until recently, the vaccine for measles was only given one time in early childhood. when outbreaks of measles began to appear in previously vacci


all vaccines require multiple doses to insure that the recipient is sufficiently immune. for example, until recently, the vaccine for measles was only given one time in early childhood. when outbreaks of measles began to appear in previously vaccinated adolescents, it became clear that a second, or booster, dose was necessary. now all children are recommended to receive a booster dose. it is important to point out that vaccine antigens are often combined with other components for a variety of reasons. to increase the magnitude of the immune response, particularly in young children whose immune systems have yet to mature, antigens are often chemically combined with so - called substances such as aluminum salts. in addition, a vaccine may contain by - products from the medium in which it was produced, such as egg protein, as well as substances to preserve the effectiveness of the antigen and keep it sterile, such as antibiotics. an apparent allergy to a vaccine may actually result from these additives rather than the antigen itself. the discussion so far has focused on so - called which occurs when a person is exposed to an actual infection or receives a vaccination instead. in either case, the immune system responds by activating its own supply of cells and creating its own antibodies. there is, however, an alternative way to become immune. passive immunity, a person can benefit from someone else ’ s immune response by receiving their pre - manufactured antibodies. this occurs naturally in the womb. prior to birth, babies receive their mother ’ s antibodies, which cross the placenta and protect the newborn from the hostile, germ - laden, environment they encounter in the outside world. were it not for these antibodies, infants would have a difficult time surviving the many months it would take for them to actively build up their own immunity. passive immunity can also be created artificially by administering antibodies retrieved from individuals who have already acquired active immunity to a particular infection. passive vaccines contain immunoglobulins, which is another term for antibodies. passive immunity is most commonly used in individuals who have recently been exposed to a serious infection, or who are at high risk for such an exposure, and may not be fully protected. this is because the protection afforded by passive immunization is immediate, whereas active immunization takes weeks or even months to become fully protective. an example of this could be an infant who has not yet received the measles vaccine. the infant may be given the passive measles immunoglobulin in the event of a household exposure,


even months to become fully protective. an example of this could be an infant who has not yet received the measles vaccine. the infant may be given the passive measles immunoglobulin in the event of a household exposure, such as an older sibling with a measles infection. while passive immunizations are useful in selected cases, only active immunizations are used routinely. this is because passive immunity lasts a few months at best, whereas the protective effects of active immunity, with proper booster doses, should last a lifetime. all vaccines are designed to target infections. however, two commonly recommended vaccines have the added benefit of protecting against cancer. this is true because of the close association of certain viruses with the development of certain cancers. hepatitis b is the first example of a vaccine ( introduced in 1982 ) that also reduces the risk of cancer. hepatitis b is a major cause of primary liver cancer, with others being alcoholic cirrhosis hepatitis c. by essentially eliminating the risk of hepatitis b, the vaccine protects against its associated cancer, but has no affect on the risk of liver cancer associated with excessive alcohol consumption or hepatitis c. a more recent example of an anticancer immunization is the human papillomavirus ( hpv ) vaccine, introduced in 2006. since hpv is the leading cause of cervical cancer, immunized women should experience a lower risk of pap smear abnormalities including pre - cancers ( cervical dysplasia ) and cancer. based on a number of studies documenting the vaccine ’ s effectiveness, the us centers for disease control and prevention ( cdc ) currently recommends that all girls aged 11 - 12 years receive the three - dose vaccination. females aged 13 - 26 years should still get vaccinated if they missed getting vaccinated at age 11 - 12 years. the cdc also recommends the hpv vaccination series in boys. in males, different types of hpv can cause genital warts. others types can cause cancers in the penis, anus, and back of the mouth and throat. why should everyone be vaccinated? imagine for a moment a disease contracted every year by more than 50 million people worldwide. thirty percent die of this disease and the majority of those that survive are left with disfiguring skin lesions ( most prominently on the face ), rendered totally blind, or both. now imagine this same disease, which has been in existence for at least 3, 000 years, being completely eliminated from the face of the earth in as


infection. another consideration involves the need for booster doses. most vaccines do not stimulate an adequate immune response after the first dose and must be repeated with booster doses at optimal intervals to insure adequate protection for a lifetime. this increases considerably the number of doses a child must receive before he is fully immunized. fortunately, multiple vaccines can be administered simultaneously without compromising safety and effectiveness. this is particularly important now that children routinely receive 14 different immunizations by the time they reach age seven. with the rapid growth in the number of recommended vaccines, the schedule has become quite complicated. here is a timetable of all routine vaccines in children up through age six. recommended vaccine schedule : aged 0 - 6 years ( 2013 ) | indicates age range to administer dose ( s ) | | vaccine | | birth | | 1 month | | 2 months | | 4 months | | 6 months | | 9 months | | 12 months | | 15 months | | 18 months | | 19 - 23 months | | 2 - 3 years | | 4 - 6 years | | hepatitis b | | hepatitis b | | hepb | | hepb | | hepb | | diptheria, tetanus, pertussis | | dtap | | dtap | | dtap | | dtap | | dtap | | dtap | | haemophilus influenza type b | | hib | | hib | | hib | | | measles, mumps, rubella | | mmr | | mmr | | mmr | | hepatitis a | | hepatitis a | | hepa series | centers for disease control and prevention. available at 1 second dose needed for children aged 6 months to 8 years who are getting the vaccine for the first time ( at least 4 weeks must pass between first and second dose ) recommended vaccine schedule : aged 7 - 18 years ( 2013 ) | indicates age range to administer dose ( s ) | | indicates vaccines only recommended for certain high risk groups | | vaccine | | 7 - 10 years | | 11 - 12 years | | 13 - 18 years | | diptheria, tetanus, pertussis | | tdap | | tdap | | tdap | | human papillomavirus | | hpv ( 3 doses ) | | hpv series | | meningococcal | | mcv4 | | mcv4 | | mcv4 | | booster at age 16 | | hepatitis a | | hep a series |


hpv ( 3 doses ) | | hpv series | | meningococcal | | mcv4 | | mcv4 | | mcv4 | | booster at age 16 | | hepatitis a | | hep a series | | hepatitis b | | hep b series | | inactivated poliovirus | | ipv series | | measles, mumps, rubella | | mmr series | centers for disease control and prevention. available at children who fall off the recommended schedule and those in certain high - risk groups may receive these and other vaccines on a modified schedule. parents and caregivers of children who have missed doses on the recommended schedule should discuss with their child ' s pediatrician an alternate vaccination schedule. there are catch - up schedules for children who miss doses. you can find the catch up schedule on the cdc website. there is also a vaccination schedule for adults age 19 years and older. this can be found at the cdc website. how safe are vaccines? vaccines are one of the safest and most effective medical interventions every devised. consider measles. the risk of a life - threatening reaction to the measles - mumps - rubella ( mmr ) vaccine is approximately 1 - 2 per 1, 000, 000 doses given. conversely, the risk of death from measles itself is 1 - 3 per cases, which means that a child who contracts measles is approximately 500 times more likely to die from the infection than a child who is immunized against it ( children receive two mmr vaccines ). all routinely administered vaccines have a similar mortality rate measured in cases per million. the fact that vaccines are rarely life threatening does not, of course, mean they are completely safe. vaccines are associated with a variety of adverse effects ranging from mild discomfort at the injection site to serious neurologic complications. the vast majority of unwanted reactions are mild and transient. these include localized pain, redness and swelling, as well as low - grade fever and rash. the benefits of the routine vaccinations far outweigh the risks of these mild, self - limited and unavoidable reactions. however, since routine vaccines are given to perfectly healthy individuals who only have a small risk of future infection, any potential for significant, long - term harm must be taken extremely seriously. as the potential for adverse reactions increase, at some point the risk of harming a healthy child in the present no longer outweigh the benefits of protecting him or her


, any potential for significant, long - term harm must be taken extremely seriously. as the potential for adverse reactions increase, at some point the risk of harming a healthy child in the present no longer outweigh the benefits of protecting him or her in the future. despite repeated assurances from numerous government agencies and independent research scientists that routine vaccinations meet the highest standards of safety and effectiveness, a small yet vocal group of parents and consumer advocacy organizations remain unconvinced. they have raised concerns about connections between various vaccines and a variety of serious health conditions including sudden infant death syndrome ( sids ), and cancer. one reason this controversy persists is that it can be difficult to prove a causal connection between vaccines, which are given often, and most of these conditions, which occur rarely. even if a child develops, say, autistic behavior soon after receiving a vaccine, it does not mean the vaccine was responsible. to date, there has been no convincing study published that supports a cause and effect relationship between vaccines and a substantially increased risk of these chronic conditions. nevertheless, serious adverse reactions do rarely take place, and it is essential to monitor these events carefully. the national childhood vaccine injury act of 1986 requires healthcare providers who administer vaccines to maintain permanent immunization records and to report serious adverse reactions to the vaccine adverse event reporting system ( vaers ). consistent reporting by physicians nationwide provides clues to unanticipated adverse reactions from all vaccines, but particularly the newer ones for which there is relatively limited experience. in addition, vaers can monitor the frequency of known reactions, identify possible risk factors for these reactions, and help locate a bad vaccine batch. if you are concerned your child may have developed a serious reaction to a recently administered vaccine, contact your child ’ s pediatrician. in addition, you may report your concerns directly to vaers, where patient - identifying information is kept confidential. in the event of serious injury or death thought to be caused by a vaccination, patients and their families can be compensated through the national vaccine injury compensation program, a no fault system covering most of the vaccines given routinely to children and adults. contraindications refer to situations in which a vaccine or vaccines should not be administered to an individual under any circumstances because the risks clearly outweigh the benefits. precautions refer to a situation where the vaccine may be safely given, but the benefits and risks must be carefully weighed before proceeding. contraindications and precautions may be temporary or permanent, and they may apply to all vaccines


outweigh the benefits. precautions refer to a situation where the vaccine may be safely given, but the benefits and risks must be carefully weighed before proceeding. contraindications and precautions may be temporary or permanent, and they may apply to all vaccines or only certain ones. a severe, life - threatening allergic reaction to a particular vaccine is a contraindication to its further use, although, the same individual may receive other vaccines safely. as a rule of thumb, precautions should be observed if a recipient has ever had a serious, but non - life - threatening reaction from which he completely recovered. examples of these include high fever, seizure, or persistent inconsolable crying. future precautions are, of course, unnecessary in situations where the recipient experienced minor, transient reactions that are not unexpected. furthermore, if a recipient arrives for a vaccine with acute moderate or severe illness, it is usually best to wait until the illness resolves before administering the vaccine. however, precautions are generally unnecessary for minor illnesses ; vaccines can generally be administered safely even in the presence of a low - grade fever. special considerations are necessary for patients with compromised immune systems. the safety and effectiveness of immunizations will depend on the severity and cause of the immunodeficiency, such as aids or congenital conditions, and the type of vaccine being considered. vaccines containing live viruses, for example, may actually cause the infectious illness in such patients, and even perfectly safe vaccines may not produce a sufficiently protective immune response. in some cases, the household contacts of immunocompromised patients should not receive live vaccines since the virus can be spread on rare occasions. in addition to immunodeficiencies, other illness, or medications to treat them, can impair vaccine safety and effectiveness. for example, children receiving corticosteroids, which at high doses can have profound effects on the immune system, may require special precautions. the same may be true for children with a history of seizures. many children have their immunization unnecessarily delayed or even forgone due to common misconceptions among both physicians and parents regarding when vaccines are contraindicated. routinely administered vaccines are generally contraindicated under the following common circumstances : - mild acute illness with or without low - grade fever in an otherwise well child - a child in the recovery phase of illness - current use of antibiotics - recent exposure to an infectious illness - reaction to a previous vaccine dose involving only localized soreness, redness, or swelling - infants born prematurely - breast


in an otherwise well child - a child in the recovery phase of illness - current use of antibiotics - recent exposure to an infectious illness - reaction to a previous vaccine dose involving only localized soreness, redness, or swelling - infants born prematurely - breastfeeding mother - history of nonspecific allergies or relatives with allergies - history of allergies to penicillin or any other antimicrobial agent, except anaphylactic reactions to neomycin or streptomycin - family history of seizures, sudden infant death syndrome, or adverse events after immunization 2013 recommended immunizations for children from birth through 6 years old. centers for disease control and prevention website. available at : http : / / www. cdc. gov / vaccines / schedules / easy - to - read / child. html. updated january 29, 2013. accessed february 28, 2013. 2013 recommended immunizations for children from 7 through 18 years old. centers for disease control and prevention website. available at : http : / / www. cdc. gov / vaccines / who / teens / downloads / parent - version - schedule - 7 - 18yrs. pdf. updated january 29, 2013. accessed february 28, 2013. about the vaers program. vaccine adverse event reporting system website. available at : http : / / vaers. hhs. gov / about / index. accessed february 28, 2013. bosch fx, tsu v, vorsters a, et al. reframing cervical cancer prevention. expanding the field towards prevention of human papillomavirus infections and related diseases. vaccine. 2012 ; 30 suppl 5 : f1 - f11. carrillo - marquez m, white l. current controversies in childhood vaccination. s d med. 2013 ; spec no : 46 - 51. centers for disease control and prevention. national, state, and local area vaccination coverage among children aged 19 - 35 months - - united states, 2011. chang mh. hepatitis b virus and cancer prevention. recent results cancer res. 2011 ; 188 : 75 - 84. childhood vaccines : what they are and why your child needs them. american academy of family physicians family doctor website. available at : http : / / familydoctor. org / familydoctor / en / kids / vaccines / childhood - vaccines - what - they - are - and - why - your - child - needs - them. html. updated december 2010. accessed february 28, 2013. contraindication


. org / familydoctor / en / kids / vaccines / childhood - vaccines - what - they - are - and - why - your - child - needs - them. html. updated december 2010. accessed february 28, 2013. contraindications. world health organization website. available at : http : / / www. who. int / immunization / policy / contraindications. pdf. accessed february 28, 2013. giraldi g, de luca d ' alessandro e. the hpv infection in males : an update. ann ig. 2012 ; 24 ( 6 ) : 497 - 506. human papillomavirus vaccine. ebsco dynamed website. available at : http : / / www. ebscohost. com / dynamed / what. updated february 7, 2013. accessed february 28, 2013. immunizations. ebsco dynamed website. available at : http : / / www. ebscohost. com / dynamed / what. updated february 7, 2013. accessed february 28, 2013. immune system. national institute of allergy and infectious disease website. available at : http : / / www. niaid. nih. gov / topics / immunesystem / pages / whatisimmunesystem. aspx. updated december 19, 2011. accessed february 28, 2013. immunity types. centers for disease control and prevention website. available at : http : / / www. cdc. gov / vaccines / vac - gen / immunity - types. htm. updated february 11, 2011. accessed february 28, 2013. recommended immunization schedule for persons aged 0 through 18 years - 2013. american academy of family physicians family doctor website. available at : http : / / familydoctor. org / dam / familydoctor / documents / 2013 % 20child % 20and % 20adolescent % 20immunization % 20schedule. pdf. accessed february 28, 2013. std facts - hpv and men. centers for disease control and prevention website. available at : http : / / www. cdc. gov / std / hpv / stdfact - hpv - and - men. htm. updated february 23, 2013. accessed february 28, 2013. vaccines & immunizations. center for disease control and prevention website. available at : http : / / www. cdc. gov / vaccines / default. htm. updated february 7


meningococcemia is a bacterial infection caused by the neisseria meningitides bacteria. this is the same type of bacteria that causes some types of meningitis. when the bacteria infect the membranes ( meninges ) that cover the brain and spinal cord, the infection is called meningitis. when the infection remains in the blood, but does not infect the brain or spinal cord, it is called meningococcemia. neisseria meningitides bacteria are common in your upper respiratory tract and do not necessarily cause illness. the disease spread from person to person when someone infected with the bacteria sneezes or coughs. although anyone can get meningococcemia, it is most common in babies, children, and young adults. an infection by neisseria meningitidis, whether it becomes meningitis or meningococcemia, is considered a medical emergency and requires immediate medical attention. neisseria meningitidis, the bacteria that causes meningococcemia, can harmlessly live in your upper respiratory tract. however, simply being exposed to this germ is not enough to cause this disease. according to the indiana state department of health, up to 10 percent of people may carry these bacteria ( isdh ) — and not all of these people become sick. an infected person can spread these bacteria through coughing and sneezing. you will generally only have a few symptoms at first. these symptoms are common and include : - a fever - a headache - a rash consisting of small spots you might also feel irritable or anxious. as the disease progresses, you will develop more serious symptoms. these include blood clots and patches of bleeding under your skin. as the condition progresses, you may be lethargic or slip into a stupor. you may also go into shock. meningitis is usually diagnosed through blood tests. your doctor will take a sample of your blood and then do a blood culture on it to determine if bacteria is present. your doctor might perform the same test using fluid from your spine instead of your blood. in this case, the test is called a cerebrospinal fluid ( csf ) culture. he or she will get csf from a spinal tap ( lumbar puncture ). blood is usually drawn from a vein in your arm or hand. other tests your doctor might perform are : - skin biopsy - blood clotting tests - complete blood count ( cbc ) he or she might also perform tests


##r puncture ). blood is usually drawn from a vein in your arm or hand. other tests your doctor might perform are : - skin biopsy - blood clotting tests - complete blood count ( cbc ) he or she might also perform tests on your urine. meningococcemia must be treated immediately. you will be admitted to the hospital and possibly kept in an isolated room to stop the bacteria from spreading. you will be given antibiotics through a vein ( intravenously ) to begin fighting the infection. you will probably also receive intravenous fluids. other treatments depend on the symptoms you have developed. if you have blood clots, for example, you will receive care to treat them. if you are having difficulty breathing, you will receive oxygen. if your blood pressure becomes too low, you will receive medication to help treat that issue. meningococcemia can sometimes lead to bleeding disorders. if this occurs, your doctor or healthcare provider might give you platelet replacement therapy. in some cases, your doctor might also wish to give your close contacts antibiotics, even if they show no symptoms. this can help prevent them from developing the disease. according to the illinois department of public health, around half of the total number of cases of meningococcal disease ( which includes meningococcal meningitis and meningococcemia ) occur in children under 4 years old ( idph ). if you have recently moved into a group living situation ( such as a dormitory ) you are more likely to develop these conditions. if you are planning to enter into such a living situation, your doctor may tell you to get vaccinated against this condition. you are also at greater risk if you live with or have been in very close contact with someone who has the disease. consider speaking to your doctor if this is the case. he or she may choose to give you preventive antibiotics. there is no sure way to prevent meningococcemia. a vaccine exists, but it is only effective against some types of the bacteria that cause this condition. furthermore, most doctors only give this vaccine to people in certain categories such as teenagers and people about to move into a dormitory for the first time. you can help reduce your risk of meningococcemia by avoiding people who are coughing, sneezing, or showing other signs of illness. this means not sharing anything that comes into contact with the mouth unless it has been washed after it was last used.


though john deere designated its new - for - 1937 workhorse the model g, a more obvious name choice might have been model p - - as in, the first letter of the word uttered most by farmers with work to do... power. deere designed the g to be a three - plow tractor with 34 horsepower at the belt. power came from a 412. 5 - cubic - inch, two - cylinder, all - fuel engine that ran on kerosene and distillates. famously, the model g ' s engine was so much larger than the powerplants offered in the rest of the company ' s lineup, that the tractor ' s frame had to be customized with the addition of a bulge to accommodate its girth. another widely known fact about the g is that its bigger, more powerful two - cylinder proved to be too much for the tractor ' s radiator to keep cool - - a problem that led to more than 2, 000 of the first tractors off the assembly line being recalled. later versions used a taller radiator, with a coolant capacity some two gallons larger than the original, to alleviate the problem. a larger upper radiator pipe was also installed on model gs in late 1938. in the early 1940s, the model g received the stylized hood and front - end treatment pictured on the tractor here. in 1941, a six - speed transmission replaced the earlier tractor ' s four - speed gearbox, and electric start was added in 1947. with modest changes, the model g plowed on until 1953, when the numbered series deere tractors took over. all told, moline built about 64, 000 model gs and g variants, like the gh high - crop tractor and the gm - - which was what deere called the tractor briefly during ww ii. as with virtually all john deere tractors, model gs are highly sought after and collectible today. the parts availability is excellent, and support from clubs and enthusiasts is typically strong. due perhaps to their relative scarcity, the early low - radiator tractors are prized more highly among collectors than the more efficient high - radiator tractors. prices for model gs in excellent condition can range from $ 7, 000 - $ 10, 000, and hopeful collectors can expect to pay upwards of $ 4, 000 for restorable units. discuss this article in our forums this article originally appeared in the may, 2007 issue of hemmings motor news. order backissues of hemmings motor news subscribe to


sagapenum is a gum - resin obtained from a species of ferula, said by some authorities to be ferula persica, willd., and by others f. szoritsiana, dc. ( n. o. umbelliferae ), growing in arabia and persia. it is imported in varying quantities into india by the persian gulf and coasts of arabia, generally arriving in masses of 4 to 10 pounds in weight and tied up in coarse cloth, but occasionally parcels of fine, separate tears are to be seen ; most of it, however, comes to london. sagapenum occurs in yellow or yellowish - red, semi - transparent, agglomerated granules, resembling galbanum, but having a darker colour. when fresh some of the tears have a greenish tinge and are more or less opaque ; but on keeping they become brownish - yellow and translucent. the odour is alliaceous, somewhat similar to but less disagreeable than that of asafetida, and more powerful than that of galbanum, becoming more pronounced on heating. the taste is bitter and acrid. on breaking a tear the fractured surface does not appear pink as in the case of asafetida. it softens with the heat of the hand, but does not completely melt at a higher temperature. on dry distillation it yields umbelliferone, and on fusion with potassium hydroxide resorcin. it is only partially soluble in alcohol and in ether, and tire ethereal solution is not clouded by the addition of alcohol. ferric chloride colours its solutions black. the volatile oil is very fluid, lighter than water, pale yellow, and has the characteristic odour of the gum - resin. constituents. — it contains from 50 to 60 per cent. of resin, 23 to 30 per cent. of gum, 3 to 11 per cent. of volatile oil containing sulphur, and 1 to 4 per cent. of bassorin, together with calcium malate and phosphate, and small amounts of sulphur and impurities ; the resin contains sagaresinotannol and umbelliferone. although it resembles galbanum in many ways it may be distinguished by its solubility in petroleum spirit, sagapenum yielding a much larger also amount of resin than galbanum, the volatile oil contains sulphur, that of galbanum being free from it. a mixture of galbanum and asafetida is sometimes sold as saga


from carpeting to cork e - mail this page to your friendsx a link to % this page % was e - mailed need help in selecting environmentally friendly flooring? think green. no, we ' re not talking astroturf here. in this case, " green " means the use of environmentally friendly materials that are either readily renewable or made from recycled products. several green certification programs and directories are available to help remodelers, builders and homeowners make that selection. for example, the national wood flooring association looks to the forest stewardship council to certify wood flooring products as green when the material comes from forests operated under sustainable forest management practices. other organizations, such as buildinggreen inc. ( http : / / www. buildinggreen. com ), publisher of the greenspec® directory and environmental building news, qualify and list other green flooring alternatives, such as natural linoleum, cork and concrete. carpeting. the carpet and rug industry uses a labeling system to identify materials with fewer lovolatile organic compounds ( vocs ) in the carpet fiber or in the adhesives used in installation. such carpeting improves indoor air quality, a major consideration of green building. the green label plus program, directed by the carpet and rug institute, certifies environmentally friendly carpeting products and recently received a 2004 certificate of recognition from the california governor ' s environmental and economic leadership award program. the award program is a collaborative effort by the carpet industry and partners of california state and local government agencies. cri, says alex wilson, executive editor with buildinggreen inc., brattleboro, vt., has done a great deal reduce carpet emissions. he compares their efforts with building codes that define minimum standards for construction. " both are situations where organizations raise the floor, rather than the ceiling. " linoleum. natural linoleum is widely promoted and specified in the green building community, alex says. natural linoleum is made primarily from linseed oil, pine resin, sawdust, cork dust, limestone and jute. it is an all - natural alternative to resilient flooring, including sheet vinyl and vinyl composition tile, which are made from polyvinyl chloride. it can get confusing, however, since the word linoleum is still used by some people to refer to vinyl flooring. proponents of natural linoleum say it does not require the same level of care that other sheet flooring.. however, alex says,


, however, since the word linoleum is still used by some people to refer to vinyl flooring. proponents of natural linoleum say it does not require the same level of care that other sheet flooring.. however, alex says, natural linoleum does have some negatives, such as a higher cost than most sheet vinyl products and a relatively high rate of vocs. wood. sustainable forest management makes it possible to harvest wood without any serious impact on the environment, because trees are a renewable resource that can be replaced time and time again, according to ed korczak, executive director of nwfa ( www. woodfloors. org ). cork. cork flooring has become very popular with environmentalists and designers alike. cork can be harvested every nine years from the same tree — a much faster rate of renewal than waiting for a seedling to grow large enough to replace another. it ' s tough, too, according to buildinggreen ' s alex. " i have been in a home where a cork floor was installed in 1950 and was still in good condition. the cork floor is comfortable for walking and cushions sound. " concrete. yet another option for green flooring is to make the concrete slab the finished for by using various types of decorative concrete techniques. besides a concrete floor ' s obvious attributes of stability and durability, it can contribute to a home ' s energy efficiency as part of a passive solar system : it absorbs heat during the day and releases it as temperatures drop at night. remodelers even can offer several green flooring surfaces in the same home. a smooth surface, such as wood or concrete, could be used in active living areas and possibly partially covered with area rugs. natural linoleum could be used in the kitchen, while carpeting is ideal for bedrooms, where it deadens sound and provides a soft, warm surface for bare feet.


ancient greek, roman and chinese myths feature fanciful accounts of transplants performed by gods and healers, often involving cadavers or animals. while these tales are considered apocryphal, by 800 b. c. indian doctors had likely begun grafting skin — technically the largest organ — from one part of the body to another to repair wounds and burns. italian surgeon gasparo tagliacozzi, sometimes known as the father of plastic surgery, reconstructed noses and ears using skin from patients ’ arms. he found that skin from a different donor usually caused the procedure to fail, observing the immune response that his successors would come to recognize as transplant rejection. european doctors attempted to save patients dying of renal failure by transplanting kidneys from various animals, including monkeys, pigs and goats. none of the recipients lived for more than a few days. eduard zirm, an austrian ophthalmologist, performed the world ’ s first corneal transplant, restoring the sight of a man who had been blinded in an accident. transplant pioneer alexis carrell received the nobel prize for his work in the field. the french surgeon had developed methods for connecting blood vessels and conducted successful kidney transplants on dogs. he later worked with aviator charles lindbergh to invent a device for keeping organs viable outside the body, a precursor to the artificial heart. ukrainian doctor yu yu voronoy transplanted the first human kidney, using an organ from a deceased donor. the recipient died shortly thereafter as a result of rejection. in the late 1940s and early 1950s, a team of doctors at boston ’ s peter bent brigham hospital carried out a series of human kidney grafts, some of which functioned for days or even months. in 1954 the surgeons transplanted a kidney from 23 - year - old ronald herrick into his twin brother richard ; since donor and recipient were genetically identical, the procedure succeeded. british immunologist peter medawar, who had studied immunosuppression ’ s role in transplant failures, received the nobel prize for his discovery of acquired immune tolerance. soon after, anti - rejection drugs enabled patients to receive organs from non - identical donors. the first successful lung, pancreas and liver transplants took place. in 1967, the world marveled when south african surgeon christiaan barnard replaced the diseased heart of dentist louis washkansky with that of a young accident victim. although immunosuppressive drugs prevented rejection, washkansky died of pneumonia 18 days later. as transplants became less risky and more prevalent


if you have a group of rocks as a landscape feature in your yard, you can show it off with appropriate plantings. here are some ideas for what to plant, plus tips for planting near the rocks : choose plantings that show off the group of rocks. plant low - growing plants like alyssum, bleeding hearts ( dicentra ), catmints ( nepeta ), stonecrop ( sedum ) and hens and chicks ( sempervivum ), corsican mint, lungworts ( pulmonaria ) and other pretty little plants that will splash the group with bits of color but stay low enough that the rocks will remain visible. if you plant shrubs behind the group of rocks, use dark green evergreens like false cypress ( chamaecyparis obtusa ‘ nana gracilis ’ ) and interesting deciduous shrubs like harry lauder ’ s walking stick ( corylus avellana ‘ contorta ’ ) with its twisty branches. redtwig dogwood ’ s ( cornus stolonifera ) red branches will look good in winter when snow adorns the rocks, if you live in a snowy area. when siting rocks on a slope, make planting pockets. if you have a slope or berm, you can make very attractive arrangements of rocks that provide spaces for alpines or other small or cascading plants. let ’ s say you ’ ve installed two large rocks about two feet apart at the base of a slope. if you then fill the space between them with a smaller rock that ’ s slightly lower, you can fill the space behind the smaller rock with good garden soil and set in an alpine or other small plant. you can stagger rocks this way up the slope, making small, level planting areas behind them as you go. the effect, when planted with alpines, is beautiful. avoid the thought of topping the slope or berm with a dominant rock. it ’ s much better to choose a plant with a horizontal habit. for a large slope or berm, viburnum plicatum tomentosum ‘ mariesii ’ comes to mind. read more tips


this series of articles will teach you basic guitar chords and then show you how to play these guitar chords at different positions on the fretboard to give different chords. we will start off with basic major chord patterns first. take a look at the chord below. this is the chordbook version of the e major chord, usually abbreviated to just e. the fingering i prefer to use is shown below this leaves my first finger floating above the strings. i can then move this chord to any position on the fretboard and lay my first finger down forming a bar across the first, second, and sixth strings one fret below my second finger. the root note of this chord is the note being played on the sixth string. by knowing all the notes on the sixth string, you can play any major chord on the guitar. just in case you don ’ t know the notes on the sixth string, here they are : using this principle, we can move the first finger up to the third fret to play a g major chord or the fifth fret to play an a major chord. the g chord is shown below. the problem with this is that if you want to change from a g chord to d chord, you have to slide from the third fret right up to the tenth fret. this is where the next chord shape comes in handy. this is an a major, or just a, chord. note the x at the sixth string showing that this string isn ’ t played. this isn ’ t the text book fingering for this chord. you usually see variations of the first, second, and third fingers being used but i find it a bit cramped so i would use the fingering above if i was going to press each string with a different finger. played like this, you still have the first finger floating over the strings so you can slide it up the fretboard and hold down the first and fifth strings with your first finger bar. the root note of this chord is the note being played on the fifth string. in the example above, it ’ s the open a note. here ’ s the fifth string notes to learn just in case you don ’ t already know them : the problem is that you might have trouble changing from this chord shape to the previous one and back quickly. this is my lazy man ’ s a chord : here, you ’ ve replaced the second, third, and fourth fingers with a third finger bar. this might take some practice to get the finger pressed down on the strings and bent at


back quickly. this is my lazy man ’ s a chord : here, you ’ ve replaced the second, third, and fourth fingers with a third finger bar. this might take some practice to get the finger pressed down on the strings and bent at the joint so that the first string still sounds clean and not muted. notice, that i ’ ve also shown the sixth string being played. in theory, the lowest note played should be the root note of the chord, in this case a. the open sixth string, e is actually part of the a major chord, but in theory again, this chord would be called a / e. this means it ’ s an a major chord with e being the lowest note played. whether you play the sixth string or not is up to you, see how it sounds. even if you can ’ t get the first string to play, you will still get the e note from the note played on the fourth string. it all depends on your playing style. if you ’ re going to strum and play properly, you want all the notes to sound cleanly. if you ’ re going to thrash and turn up the distortion, it doesn ’ t matter whether you play the sixth string or not or whether the first string note is playing clean. just practice at it and find what ’ s best for you. using this chord shape, the diagram below shows it moved up to the third fret to produce a c chord. you ’ ll now see that changing from a g chord to a d chord doesn ’ t need moving from the third fret to the tenth, just to the fifth. here ’ s a tip to change from one chord shape to the other and back quickly. when you change from the first chord shape, lift the fourth finger off the string and rotate the third finger tip off the fifth string and lay it down flat on the second, third, and fourth strings. changing back is the opposite. roll the third finger up so that the tip is back on the fifth string and drop the fourth finger back on to the fourth string. you don ’ t have to even move the second finger off the third string. try it out. this first article has showed you how you can play any major guitar chord by just knowing two chord shapes and the notes on the fifth and sixth strings of your guitar. there are other shapes but this should give you a good start. we will take a look at minor chords in the next article.


dairy industry provides big contribution to rural economies nebraska ' s dairy industry produced about 1 billion pounds of milk last year, and in the process it helped drive the economy in many rural communities through employment, taxes, purchasing feed and equipment and more. " the state ' s dairy receipts totaled about $ 200 million last year, but when you figure in the impact that reverberates through the economy based on those dollars, the true economic impact is in the neighborhood of $ 500 million, " said randy klein of the nebraska corn board. klein noted that for each 75 cows a dairy has, it directly employs one person. that means a 300 - head dairy would employ about four people. a 1, 200 cow dairy would employ about 16 people. " really, employment goes well beyond the dairy farm because a dairy needs feed, veterinary care, equipment, trucking, milk processing and more. dairies are incredible at boosting rural economies, " klein said. an average cow consumes about $ 1, 000 in feed each year, which means nebraska ' s 58, 000 dairy cattle consume about $ 58 million in feed. " a portion of that feed is corn and distillers grains, the corn ethanol feed product, " said mark jagels, a member of the nebraska corn board and a farmer from davenport. " dairies add a lot of value to those products and many others, and it would be great to see nebraska ' s dairy industry strengthen and grow. " one way the nebraska corn board supports the dairy industry is by backing the alliance for the future of agriculture in nebraska, or a - fan. when farmers are looking to expand or add a livestock operation, a - fan can help by providing guidance. over the last year, however, a - fan has produced a series of videos that highlight agriculture in nebraska, including several that pertain specifically to the dairy industry. dairy - focused videos take viewers on a tour through a modern dairy and examine issues like cow care, food safety, how a dairy recycles its water, the economic impact of a dairy and other relevant subjects that viewers may find fascinating. " these videos offer a tremendous insight into dairy farms, and some even include the reaction by people who had never been on a large dairy before, " jagels said. " i ' d encourage anyone to go to a - fan ' s website and take a look at these videos and all the other videos a - fan has posted. " the nebraska corn board is a self - help program, funded and managed by nebraska


hardboard, exterior siding that has vertical grooves made to simulate separate boards. a work table with an adjustable circular saw blade protruding through and opening in the surface. a device that measures rotational speed in revolutions per second. an application of asphalt onto an existing paved surface that is to receive a new coat of asphalt. the tack coat bonds the new coat to the existing surface. a hammer with a magnetized head that holds a tack in place. a special cloth used to clean a wood surface before paint is applied. a small, temporary weld applied to hold parts in place until a permanent weld is made. adding a period of time onto another. ropes and pulleys used for lifting heavy loads. a strip of wood with small, sharp fasteners pointing upwards used to secure wall - to - wall carpeting around the edges of a room. sticky - for example, adhesive or paint that hasn ' t completely dried. a joist with one end resting on a wall and the other on a header. a cut made on an overhanging rafter. a short joist. a vertical cut on the end of a rafter to reduce it to the same size as the other rafters. undesirable painting result where heavy bands of paint have been applied instead of an even coat. the end of a lathe that holds the work without spinning. list and quantity of materials required for a construction project. a commitment to provide permanent financing following construction of a planned project. the takeout commitment is generally predicated upon specific conditions, such as a certain percentage of unit sales or leases, for the permanent loan to " takeout " the construction loan. act of obtaining land through condemnation. usually, the government will exercise its right to " take " only after it is determined that the owners of the acquired property are unwilling to settle for a reasonable price. to compress or force down a material, squeezing out any air. a device used to compact soil. also refers to a tool used to compact wet concrete. multiple objects connected in a series. government program of providing low interest rate mortgages to low - income qualified buyers. in the tandem program, the federal national mortgage association ( fnma ) purchases low interest rate mortgages at a discount from the government national mortgage association ( gnma ). in doing this, gnma subsidizes the low - income homebuyer and incurs a loss on the transaction. a projection in an object that is used to connect to another object. a line that intersects


gnma ). in doing this, gnma subsidizes the low - income homebuyer and incurs a loss on the transaction. a projection in an object that is used to connect to another object. a line that intersects a curve at a single point along the surface. anything that has physical substance and form, such as land and buildings. items of real estate and personal property that usually have a long life, such as housing and other real estate. a liquid storage container. a paint designed for use on exterior metal surfaces. 1. to connect into a water supply. 2. a water faucet or spigot. 3. a tool used to cut threads into the inside of a pre - drilled hole. a drill used to make a hole that will be threaded by a tap. fees charged for hooking up utilities. a tool used to turn a tap while it cuts threads into an object. 1. a thin strip of material with adhesive applied to one or both sides, used for joining materials. 2. a drywall finishing procedure where paper " tape " is applied to the joints and covered with joint compound. a defect in drywall finishing. a measuring device with a long, flexible strip with distance markings. some tape measures retract into a metal casing. defect in drywall application where the joint tape or the shadow of the joint tape shows through the wallboard. high humidity which delays the drying of the second and third coats, dry tape having absorbed too much moisture from the joint compound and excess joint compound left under the joint tape are some of the causes of this condition. also called joint photographing, this condition can be corrected by sanding the compound, which covers the tape, feathering it out into the drywall surface, and then covering it with thin coats of joint compound. a gradual reduction in thickness. a lathe attachment that allows cutting at an angle. also called hollow ground, this way of grinding a blade to taper from a thicker cutting edge to a thinner section toward the hub to keep it from binding in the material being cut. a reamer that i also referred to as a putty knife or a drywall knife, it ' s flat - bladed and s tapered from one end to the other. used for widening holes in a material. applying tape. usually refers to drywall finishing procedure where paper tape is applied and covered with joint compound. comes in various widths. various tools used in taping drywall and applying joint compound.


the civil war in 1961, sierra leone gained its independence from the united kingdom. for most of the next three decades, sierra leone was governed by the all people ' s congress ( apc ), dominated by the northern temne and limba ethnic groups, which came into power in 1967. 9 the corruption, nepotism and fiscal mismanagement under the one - party rule of the apc led to the decay of all state institutions and the impoverishment of sierra leone ' s population, notwithstanding the country ' s large deposits of diamonds, gold, rutile, and bauxite. frustration with government corruption and mismanagement led to the formation of the revolutionary united front ( ruf ) in 1984. the ruf claimed to be a political movement with the aim of salvaging the country and overthrowing the apc. its invasion of sierra leone from liberia on march 23, 1991 triggered the civil war that was to last ten years. at its inception, the ruf consisted of a mixture of middle class students with a populist platform, unemployed and alienated youths, and liberian fighters from charles taylor ' s national patriotic front of liberia ( npfl ), who had helped charles taylor in his quest to become the president of liberia. a lesser - known covert sponsor of the ruf was the sierra leone people ' s party ( slpp ), with its ethnic base among the mendes from the south, which also sought the overthrow of the apc. 10 the ruf was led by foday sankoh, a former army corporal who had been imprisoned in 1971 for his alleged involvement in an attempted coup against the apc. sankoh had also reportedly received training in libya with taylor. 11 the ruf initially consisted of two small groups of only 150 combatants in total. as the ruf captured border towns and villages in kailahun and pujehun districts, they used tactics similar to those used to terrorize civilians during the liberian civil war : seizing and summarily executing chiefs, village elders, traders, government agents and suspected sla collaborators. 12 the violence and looting or " jah - jah, " especially by the liberian mercenaries within the ruf, was sanctioned by sankoh who justified them as reward for the mercenaries ' support. 13 the ruf ' s ideology of salvation quickly degenerated into a campaign of violence whose principal aim was to gain access to the country ' s diamond and other mineral wealth. from the very beginning, the ruf ' s campaign of


support. 13 the ruf ' s ideology of salvation quickly degenerated into a campaign of violence whose principal aim was to gain access to the country ' s diamond and other mineral wealth. from the very beginning, the ruf ' s campaign of terror included sexual violence and sexual slavery, committed on a widespread and systematic basis. in april 1992, apc president joseph momoh was overthrown in a military coup by twenty - six - year - old army captain valentine strasser, who formed the national provisional ruling council ( nprc ). strasser vowed to end corruption and create opportunities for all sierra leoneans. the new regime, however, was as corrupt as the old. the ruf continued to gain strength and was joined by numerous soldiers from the sierra leone army ( sla ) who were disgruntled with their poor conditions. these soldier - rebels or " sobels " discarded their uniforms at night to loot but wore government uniforms and continued to work for the government during the day. the " sobels, " who included officers, also provided weapons, ammunition, and intelligence to ruf forces. starting in january 1991, momoh and later strasser embarked on a recruitment drive that swelled the army ' s ranks to approximately twelve thousand, aiming to dislodge the ruf including by offering its youthful constituency a lucrative alternative. many of the new soldiers were unemployed drifters, petty criminals, and street children as young as twelve. given the inability of the undisciplined and ill - trained sla to drive out the ruf, in march 1995, strasser invited executive outcomes ( e. o. ), a south african private security company, to fight the ruf and guard the mining areas, in return for concessions over their production. the ruf was by that time approaching freetown and controlled most of the diamond mining areas. by december 1995, e. o. had retaken a number of key diamond areas and began to collaborate with the pro - government militia known as the civil defense forces ( cdf ), of which the kamajors are the largest and most powerful. the cdf movement began with the establishment of the eastern region defence committee in 1993 - 4 and was greatly expanded in 1996 when regent chief hinga norman was appointed deputy minister of defense in kabbah ' s government and head of the cdf, with the government providing the cdf with training, weapons and food. 14 the cdf movement consists of groups of traditional hunters and young men who were