encouraged printing in many ways because it allowed for the dissemination of bibles and government information, works of dissent and criticism could also circulate rapidly. as a consequence, governments established controls over printers across europe, requiring them to have official licenses to trade and produce books. the notion that the expression of dissent or subversive views should be tolerated, not censured or punished by law, developed alongside the rise of printing and the press. areopagitica, published in 1644, was john milton ' s response to the parliament of england ' s re - introduction of government licensing of printers, hence publishers. church authorities had previously ensured that milton ' s essay on the right to divorce was refused a license for publication. in areopagitica, published without a license, milton made an impassioned plea for freedom of expression and toleration of falsehood, stating : " give me the liberty to know, to utter, and to argue freely according to conscience, above all liberties. " milton ' s defense of freedom of expression was grounded in a protestant worldview and he thought that the english people had the mission to work out the truth of the reformation, which would lead to the enlightenment of all people. but milton also articulated the main strands of future discussions about freedom of expression. by defining the scope of freedom of expression and of " harmful " speech milton argued against the principle of pre - censorship and in favor of tolerance for a wide range of views. as the " menace " of printing spread, governments established centralized control mechanism. the french crown repressed printing and the printer etienne dolet was burned at the stake in 1546. in 1557 the british crown thought to stem the flow of seditious and heretical books by chartering the stationers ' company. the right to print was limited to the members of that guild, and thirty years later the star chamber was chartered to curtail the " greate enormities and abuses " of " dyvers contentyous and disorderlye persons professinge the arte or mystere of pryntinge or selling of books. " the right to print was restricted to two universities and to the 21 existing printers in the city of london, which had 53 printing presses. as the british crown took control of type founding in 1637 printers fled to the netherlands. confrontation with authority made printers radical and rebellious, with 800 authors, printers and book dealers being incarcerated in the bastille in paris before it was stormed in 1789. a succession of english thinkers was at


founding in 1637 printers fled to the netherlands. confrontation with authority made printers radical and rebellious, with 800 authors, printers and book dealers being incarcerated in the bastille in paris before it was stormed in 1789. a succession of english thinkers was at the forefront of early discussion on a right to freedom of expression, among them john milton ( 1608 – 74 ) and john locke ( 1632 – 1704 ). locke established the individual as the unit of value and the bearer of rights to life, liberty, property and the pursuit of happiness. however lockes ideas evolved primarily around the concept of the right to seek salvation for one ' s soul, and was thus primarily concerned with theological matters. locke did not support a universal toleration and freedom of speech, some groups, like atheists, should not be allowed according to his ideas. by the second half of the 17th century philosophers on the european continent like baruch spinoza and pierre bayle developed ideas encompassing a more universal aspect freedom of speech and toleration than the early english philosophers. by the 18th century the idea of freedom of speech was being discussed by thinkers all over the western world, especially by french philosophes like denis diderot, baron d ' holbach and claude adrien helvetius the idea began to be incorporated in political theory both in theory as well as practice ; the first state edict in history proclaiming complete freedom of speech was the one issued december 4, 1770 in denmark - norway during the regency of johann friedrich struensee. however struensee himself imposed some minor limitations to this edict in october 7, 1771, and it was even further limited after the fall of struensee with legislation introduced in 1773, although censorship was not reintroduced. john stuart mill ( 1806 – 1873 ) argued that without human freedom there can be no progress in science, law or politics, which according to mill required free discussion of opinion. mill ' s on liberty, published in 1859 became a classic defence of the right to freedom of expression. mill argued that truth drives out falsity, therefore the free expression of ideas, true or false, should not be feared. truth is not stable or fixed, but evolves with time. mill argued that much of what we once considered true has turned out false. therefore views should not be prohibited for their apparent falsity. mill also argued that free discussion is necessary to prevent the " deep slumber of a decided opinion ". discussion would drive the onwards march of truth and by considering false views


out false. therefore views should not be prohibited for their apparent falsity. mill also argued that free discussion is necessary to prevent the " deep slumber of a decided opinion ". discussion would drive the onwards march of truth and by considering false views the basis of true views could be re - affirmed. furthermore, mill argued that an opinion only carries intrinsic value to the owner of that opinion, thus silencing the expression of that opinion is an injustice to a basic human right. for mill, the only instance in which speech can be justifiably suppressed is in order to prevent harm from a clear and direct threat. neither economic or moral implications, nor the speakers own well - being would justify suppression of speech. in evelyn beatrice hall ' s biography of voltaire, she coined the following phrase to illustrate voltaire ' s beliefs : " i disapprove of what you say, but i will defend to the death your right to say it. " hall ' s quote is frequently cited to describe the principle of freedom of speech. in the 20th century noam chomsky states that : " if you believe in freedom of speech, you believe in freedom of speech for views you don ' t like. stalin and hitler, for example, were dictators in favor of freedom of speech for views they liked only. if you ' re in favor of freedom of speech, that means you ' re in favor of freedom of speech precisely for views you despise. " professor lee bollinger argues that " the free speech principle involves a special act of carving out one area of social interaction for extraordinary self - restraint, the purpose of which is to develop and demonstrate a social capacity to control feelings evoked by a host of social encounters. " bollinger argues that tolerance is a desirable value, if not essential. however, critics argue that society should be concerned by those who directly deny or advocate, for example, genocide ( see limitations, below ). the notion of freedom of expression is intimately linked to political debate and the concept of democracy. the norms on limiting freedom of expression mean that public debate may not be completely suppressed even in times of emergency. one of the most notable proponents of the link between freedom of speech and democracy is alexander meiklejohn. he argues that the concept of democracy is that of self - government by the people. for such a system to work an informed electorate is necessary. in order to be appropriately knowledgeable, there must be no constraints on the free flow of information and ideas. according to mei


concept of democracy is that of self - government by the people. for such a system to work an informed electorate is necessary. in order to be appropriately knowledgeable, there must be no constraints on the free flow of information and ideas. according to meiklejohn, democracy will not be true to its essential ideal if those in power are able to manipulate the electorate by withholding information and stifling criticism. meiklejohn acknowledges that the desire to manipulate opinion can stem from the motive of seeking to benefit society. however, he argues, choosing manipulation negates, in its means, the democratic ideal. eric barendt has called this defence of free speech on the grounds of democracy " probably the most attractive and certainly the most fashionable free speech theory in modern western democracies ". thomas i. emerson expanded on this defence when he argued that freedom of speech helps to provide a balance between stability and change. freedom of speech acts as a " safety valve " to let off steam when people might otherwise be bent on revolution. he argues that " the principle of open discussion is a method of achieving a more adaptable and at the same time more stable community, of maintaining the precarious balance between healthy cleavage and necessary consensus. " emerson furthermore maintains that " opposition serves a vital social function in offsetting or ameliorating ( the ) normal process of bureaucratic decay. " research undertaken by the worldwide governance indicators project at the world bank, indicates that freedom of speech, and the process of accountability that follows it, have a significant impact in the quality of governance of a country. " voice and accountability " within a country, defined as " the extent to which a country ' s citizens are able to participate in selecting their government, as well as freedom of expression, freedom of association, and free media " is one of the six dimensions of governance that the worldwide governance indicators measure for more than 200 countries. social interaction and community richard moon has developed the argument that the value of freedom of speech and freedom of expression lies with social interactions. moon writes that " by communicating an individual forms relationships and associations with others – family, friends, co - workers, church congregation, and countrymen. by entering into discussion with others an individual participates in the development of knowledge and in the direction of the community. " according to the freedom forum organization, legal systems, and society at large, recognize limits on the freedom of speech, particularly when freedom of speech conflicts with other values or rights. limitations to freedom of speech may follow the " harm principle "


community. " according to the freedom forum organization, legal systems, and society at large, recognize limits on the freedom of speech, particularly when freedom of speech conflicts with other values or rights. limitations to freedom of speech may follow the " harm principle " or the " offense principle ", for example in the case of pornography, or hate speech. limitations to freedom of speech may occur through legal sanction or social disapprobation, or both. in " on liberty " ( 1859 ) john stuart mill argued that "... there ought to exist the fullest liberty of professing and discussing, as a matter of ethical conviction, any doctrine, however immoral it may be considered. " mill argues that the fullest liberty of expression is required to push arguments to their logical limits, rather than the limits of social embarrassment. however, mill also introduced what is known as the harm principle, in placing the following limitation on free expression : " the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others. " in 1985 joel feinberg introduced what is known as the " offence principle ", arguing that mill ' s harm principle does not provide sufficient protection against the wrongful behaviours of others. feinberg wrote " it is always a good reason in support of a proposed criminal prohibition that it would probably be an effective way of preventing serious offense ( as opposed to injury or harm ) to persons other than the actor, and that it is probably a necessary means to that end. " hence feinberg argues that the harm principle sets the bar too high and that some forms of expression can be legitimately prohibited by law because they are very offensive. but, as offending someone is less serious than harming someone, the penalties imposed should be higher for causing harm. in contrast mill does not support legal penalties unless they are based on the harm principle. because the degree to which people may take offense varies, or may be the result of unjustified prejudice, feinberg suggests that a number of factors need to be taken into account when applying the offense principle, including : the extent, duration and social value of the speech, the ease with which it can be avoided, the motives of the speaker, the number of people offended, the intensity of the offense, and the general interest of the community at large. the internet and information society jo glanville, editor of the index on censorship, states that " the internet has been a revolution for censorship as much


of people offended, the intensity of the offense, and the general interest of the community at large. the internet and information society jo glanville, editor of the index on censorship, states that " the internet has been a revolution for censorship as much as for free speech ". international, national and regional standards recognise that freedom of speech, as one form of freedom of expression, applies to any medium, including the internet. the communications decency act ( cda ) of 1996 was the first major attempt by the united states congress to regulate pornographic material on the internet. in 1997, in the landmark cyberlaw case of reno v. aclu, the u. s. supreme court partially overturned the law. judge stewart r. dalzell, one of the three federal judges who in june 1996 declared parts of the cda unconstitutional, in his opinion stated the following : " the internet is a far more speech - enhancing medium than print, the village green, or the mails. because it would necessarily affect the internet itself, the cda would necessarily reduce the speech available for adults on the medium. this is a constitutionally intolerable result. some of the dialogue on the internet surely tests the limits of conventional discourse. speech on the internet can be unfiltered, unpolished, and unconventional, even emotionally charged, sexually explicit, and vulgar – in a word, " indecent " in many communities. but we should expect such speech to occur in a medium in which citizens from all walks of life have a voice. we should also protect the autonomy that such a medium confers to ordinary people as well as media magnates. [... ] my analysis does not deprive the government of all means of protecting children from the dangers of internet communication. the government can continue to protect children from pornography on the internet through vigorous enforcement of existing laws criminalizing obscenity and child pornography. [... ] as we learned at the hearing, there is also a compelling need for public educations about the benefits and dangers of this new medium, and the government can fill that role as well. in my view, our action today should only mean that government ’ s permissible supervision of internet contents stops at the traditional line of unprotected speech. [... ] the absence of governmental regulation of internet content has unquestionably produced a kind of chaos, but as one of the plaintiff ’ s experts put it with such resonance at the hearing : " what achieved success was the very chaos that the


.. ] the absence of governmental regulation of internet content has unquestionably produced a kind of chaos, but as one of the plaintiff ’ s experts put it with such resonance at the hearing : " what achieved success was the very chaos that the internet is. the strength of the internet is chaos. " just as the strength of the internet is chaos, so that strength of our liberty depends upon the chaos and cacophony of the unfettered speech the first amendment protects. " the world summit on the information society ( wsis ) declaration of principles adopted in 2003 makes specific reference to the importance of the right to freedom of expression for the " information society " in stating : " we reaffirm, as an essential foundation of the information society, and as outlined in article 19 of the universal declaration of human rights, that everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression ; that this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers. communication is a fundamental social process, a basic human need and the foundation of all social organisation. it is central to the information society. everyone, everywhere should have the opportunity to participate and no one should be excluded from the benefits of the information society offers. " according to bernt hugenholtz and lucie guibault the public domain is under pressure from the " commodification of information " as item of information that previously had little or no economic value, have acquired independent economic value in the information age, such as factual data, personal data, genetic information and pure ideas. the commodification of information is taking place through intellectual property law, contract law, as well as broadcasting and telecommunications law. freedom of information freedom of information is an extension of freedom of speech where the medium of expression is the internet. freedom of information may also refer to the right to privacy in the context of the internet and information technology. as with the right to freedom of expression, the right to privacy is a recognised human right and freedom of information acts as an extension to this right. freedom of information may also concern censorship in an information technology context, i. e. the ability to access web content, without censorship or restrictions. freedom of information is also explicitly protected by acts such as the freedom of information and protection of privacy act of ontario, in canada. internet censorship the concept of freedom of information has emerged in response to state sponsored censorship, monitoring and surveillance of the internet. internet censorship includes the control or suppression of


acts such as the freedom of information and protection of privacy act of ontario, in canada. internet censorship the concept of freedom of information has emerged in response to state sponsored censorship, monitoring and surveillance of the internet. internet censorship includes the control or suppression of the publishing or accessing of information on the internet. the global internet freedom consortium claims to remove blocks to the " free flow of information " for what they term " closed societies ". according to the reporters without borders ( rwb ) " internet enemy list " the following states engage in pervasive internet censorship : china, cuba, iran, myanmar / burma, north korea, saudi arabia, syria, turkmenistan, uzbekistan, and vietnam. a widely publicized example of internet censorship is the " great firewall of china " ( in reference both to its role as a network firewall and to the ancient great wall of china ). the system blocks content by preventing ip addresses from being routed through and consists of standard firewall and proxy servers at the internet gateways. the system also selectively engages in dns poisoning when particular sites are requested. the government does not appear to be systematically examining internet content, as this appears to be technically impractical. internet censorship in the people ' s republic of china is conducted under a wide variety of laws and administrative regulations. in accordance with these laws, more than sixty internet regulations have been made by the people ' s republic of china ( prc ) government, and censorship systems are vigorously implemented by provincial branches of state - owned isps, business companies, and organizations. najat vallaud - belkacem a french socialist minister of women ' s rights proposed that the french government force twitter to filter out hate speech that is illegal under french law, such as speech that is homophobic. jason farago, writing in the the guardian praised the efforts to " restrict bigotry ' s free expression. " see also - article 19 of the international covenant on civil and political rights, office of the united nations high commissioner for human rights, adopted and opened for signature, ratification and accession by un general assembly resolution 2200a ( xxi ) of 16 december 1966, entry into force 23 march 1976 - using courts to enforce the free speech provisions of the international covenant on civil and political rights – australia & oceania – australia & new zealand from all business... - smith, david ( 2006 - 02 - 05 ). " timeline : a history of free speech ". the guardian ( london ). retrieved 2010 - 05 - 02. - "


& oceania – australia & new zealand from all business... - smith, david ( 2006 - 02 - 05 ). " timeline : a history of free speech ". the guardian ( london ). retrieved 2010 - 05 - 02. - " timeline : a history of free speech " the guardian. february 5, 2006. - universal declaration of human rights - andrew puddephatt, freedom of expression, the essentials of human rights, hodder arnold, 2005, pg. 128 - brett, sebastian ( 1999 ). limits to tolerance : freedom of expression and the public debate in chile. human rights watch. pp. xxv. isbn 978 - 1 - 56432 - 192 - 3. - sanders, karen ( 2003 ). ethics & journalism. sage. p. 68. isbn 978 - 0 - 7619 - 6967 - 9. - " timeline : a history of free speech " the guardian. february 5, 2006. - raaflaub, kurt ; ober, josiah ; wallace, robert ( 2007 ). origins of democracy in ancient greece. university of california press. p. 65. isbn 0 - 520 - 24562 - 8 - " laura robinson : freedom of speech in the roman republic. pp. xiv + 93. baltimore : j. h. furst company, 1940. paper. " - " 6. henric van cuyck, bishop of roermond ( 1546 – 1609 ). panegyricae orationes septem. louvain : philippus zangrius, 1596. ". ecclesiastical censorship, “ heresy and error ” : the ecclesiastical censorship of books, 1400 - 1800. bridwell library. exhibition september 20 – december 17, 2000. retrieved 26 june 2011. - de sola pool, ithiel ( 1983 ). technologies of freedom. harvard university press. p. 14. isbn 978 - 0 - 674 - 87233 - 2. - macqueen, hector l ; charlotte waelde and graeme t laurie ( 2007 ). contemporary intellectual property : law and policy. oxford university press. p. 34. isbn 978 - 0 - 19 - 926339 - 4. - castillo, anastasia ( 2010 ). banned books : censorship in eighteenth - century england. grin verlag. p. 12. isbn 978 - 3 - 640 - 71688 - 3. - " the index of expurgations ". “ heresy and error ” : the ecclesiastical censorship of books, 1400 -


- century england. grin verlag. p. 12. isbn 978 - 3 - 640 - 71688 - 3. - " the index of expurgations ". “ heresy and error ” : the ecclesiastical censorship of books, 1400 - 1800. bridwell library. exhibition september 20 – december 17, 2000. retrieved 26 june 2011. - " 52. jacobus de voragine ( c. 1230 – 1298 ). legenda aurea sanctorum. madrid : juan garcia, 1688 ". the index of expurgations, “ heresy and error ” : the ecclesiastical censorship of books, 1400 - 1800. bridwell library. exhibition september 20 – december 17, 2000. retrieved 26 june 2011. - sanders, karen ( 2003 ). ethics & journalism. sage. p. 66. isbn 978 - 0 - 7619 - 6967 - 9. - " 13. john milton ( 1608 – 1674 ). areopagitica ; a speech of mr. john milton for the liberty of unlicenc ’ d printing, to the parlament of england. london : [ s. n. ], 1644 ". early censorship in england, “ heresy and error ” : the ecclesiastical censorship of books, 1400 - 1800. bridwell library. exhibition september 20 – december 17, 2000. retrieved 26 june 2011. - de sola pool, ithiel ( 1983 ). technologies of freedom. harvard university press. p. 15. isbn 978 - 0 - 674 - 87233 - 2. - jonathan israel, radical enlightenment, oxford university press, 2002, p. 265ff. - jonathan israel, radical enlightenment, oxford university press, 2002, p. 267. - jonathan israel, enlightenment contested, oxford university press, 2006, p. 155ff, 781ff. - jonathan israel, a revolution of the mind, princeton university press, 2010, p. 76. - h. arnold barton, scandinavia in the revolutionary era – 1760 - 1815, university of minnesota press, 1986, p. 90 - 91. - sanders, karen ( 2003 ). ethics & journalism. sage. p. 67. isbn 978 - 0 - 7619 - 6967 - 9. - warburton, nigel ( 2009 ). free speech : a very short introduction. oxford. pp. 24 – 29. isbn 978 - 0 - 19 - 923235 - 2. - evelyn beatrice hall quotes, brainyquote. com - boller, jr


( 2009 ). free speech : a very short introduction. oxford. pp. 24 – 29. isbn 978 - 0 - 19 - 923235 - 2. - evelyn beatrice hall quotes, brainyquote. com - boller, jr., paul f. ; george, john ( 1989 ). they never said it : a book of fake quotes, misquotes, and misleading attributions. new york : oxford university press. pp. 124 – 126. isbn 0 - 19 - 505541 - 1. - manufacturing consent : noam chomsky and the media, 1992 - lee bollinger, the tolerant society, oxford university press, oxford, 1988 - marlin, randal ( 2002 ). propaganda and the ethics of persuasion. broadview press. pp. 226 – 227. isbn 978 - 1551113760. - marlin, randal ( 2002 ). propaganda and the ethics of persuasion. broadview press. p. 226. isbn 978 - 1551113760. - marlin, randal ( 2002 ). propaganda and the ethics of persuasion. broadview press. pp. 228 – 229. isbn 978 - 1551113760. - a decade of measuring the quality of governance - marlin, randal ( 2002 ). propaganda and the ethics of persuasion. broadview press. p. 229. isbn 978 - 1551113760. - when may speech be limited? - " freedom of speech ". stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. 17 april 2008. retrieved 29 may 2011. - church members enter canada, aiming to picket bus victim ' s funeral - philosophy of law - glanville, jo ( 17 november 2008 ). " the big business of net censorship ". london : the guardian. - godwin, mike ( 2003 ). cyber rights : defending free speech in the digital age. mit press. pp. 349 – 352. isbn 0 - 262 - 57168 - 4. - stanford university - klang, mathias ; murray, andrew ( 2005 ). human rights in the digital age. routledge. p. 1. isbn 978 - 1 - 904385 - 31 - 8. - guibault, lucy ; bernt hugenholtz ( 2006 ). the future of the public domain : identifying the commons in information law. kluwer law international. p. 1. isbn 9789041124357. - protecting free expression online with freenet – internet computing, ieee - pauli, darren


the future of the public domain : identifying the commons in information law. kluwer law international. p. 1. isbn 9789041124357. - protecting free expression online with freenet – internet computing, ieee - pauli, darren ( january 14, 2008 ). industry rejects australian gov ' t sanitized internet measure. the industry standard. - martin, robert ; g. stuart adam ( 1994 ). a sourcebook of canadian media law. mcgill - queen ' s press. pp. 232 – 234. isbn 0886292387. - deibert, robert ; palfrey, john g ; rohozinski, rafal ; zittrain, jonathan ( 2008 ). access denied : the practice and policy of global internet filtering. mit press. - " mission ". global internet freedom consortium. retrieved 2008 - 07 - 29. - internet enemies, reporters without borders, paris, march 2011 - watts, jonathan ( february 20, 2006 ). " war of the words ". london : the guardian. - " ii. how censorship works in china : a brief overview ". human rights watch. retrieved 2006 - 08 - 30. - chinese laws and regulations regarding internet - " in praise of vallaud - belkacem, or why not to tolerate hate speech on twitter ". retrieved 4 january 2013. further reading - cram, ian ( 2006 ). contested words : legal restrictions on freedom of speech in liberal democracies. ashgate publishing. isbn 0754623653. - curtis, michael kent ( 2000 ). free speech, " the people ' s darling privilege " : struggles for freedom of expression in american history. duke university press. isbn 0822325292. - godwin, mike ( 2003 ). cyber rights : defending free speech in the digital age. mit press. isbn 0262571684. - grossman, wendy m. ( 1997 ). net. wars. new york university press. isbn 0814731031. - krotoszynski, ronald j. ( 2009 ). the first amendment in cross - cultural perspective : a comparative legal analysis of the freedom of speech. nyu press. isbn 0814748252. - lewis, anthony ( 2007 ). freedom for the thought that we hate : a biography of the first amendment. basic books. isbn 9780465039173. oclc 494134545. - mcleod, kembrew ; lawrence lessig ( foreword


( 2007 ). freedom for the thought that we hate : a biography of the first amendment. basic books. isbn 9780465039173. oclc 494134545. - mcleod, kembrew ; lawrence lessig ( foreword ) ( 2007 ). freedom of expression : resistance and repression in the age of intellectual property. university of minnesota press. isbn 0816650314. - nelson, samuel p. ( 2005 ). beyond the first amendment : the politics of free speech and pluralism. the johns hopkins university press. isbn 0801881730. | find more about freedom of speech at wikipedia ' s sister projects | | definitions and translations from wiktionary | | media from commons | | learning resources from wikiversity | | news stories from wikinews | | quotations from wikiquote | | source texts from wikisource | | textbooks from wikibooks | | travel information from wikivoyage | - free speech hosting companies - speaking out for free expression : 1987 – 2007 and beyond - timeline : a history of free speech - un - resolution 217 a iii – ( meinungsfreiheit. org ) - article19. org, global campaign for free expression - dissent gets dangerous in the usa ( the first post ) - free speech debate - banned magazine, the journal of censorship and secrecy. - free speech internet television - international freedom of expression exchange - index on censorship - irrepressible. info – amnesty international ' s campaign against internet repression - organization of american states – special rapporteur - original meaning of freedom of speech ( u. s. a ) - " free speech in the age of youtube " in the new york times, 22 september 2012


the feeding system pushes a strip of metal ( as it unrolls from a coil ) through all of the stations of a progressive stamping die. each station performs one or more operations until a finished part is made. the final station is a cutoff operation, which separates the finished part from the carrying web. the carrying web, along with metal that is punched away in previous operations, is treated as scrap metal. both are cut away, knocked down ( or out of the dies ) and then ejected from the die set, and in mass production are often transferred to scrap bins via underground scrap material conveyor belts. the progressive stamping die is placed into a reciprocating stamping press. as the press moves up, the top die moves with it, which allows the material to feed. when the press moves down, the die closes and performs the stamping operation. with each stroke of the press, a completed part is removed from the die. since additional work is done in each " station " of the die, it is important that the strip be advanced very precisely so that it aligns within a few thousandths of an inch as it moves from station to station. bullet shaped or conical " pilots " enter previously pierced round holes in the strip to assure this alignment since the feeding mechanism usually cannot provide the necessary precision in feed length. progressive stamping can also be produced on transfer presses. these are presses that transfer the components from one station to the next with the use of mechanical " fingers ". for mass production of stamped parts which do require complicated in - press operations, it is always advisable to use a progressive press. one of the advantages of this type of press is the production cycle time. depending upon the part, productions can easily run well over 800 parts / minute. one of the disadvantages of this type of press is that it is not suitable for high precision deep drawing which is when the depth of the stamping exceeds the diameter of the part. when necessary, this process is performed upon a transfer press, which run at slower speeds, and rely on the mechanical fingers to hold the component in place during the entire forming cycle. in the case of the progressive press, only part of the forming cycle can be guided by spring loaded sleeves or similar, which result in concentricity and ovality issues and non uniform material thickness. other disadvantages of progressive presses compared to transfer presses are : increased raw material input required to transfer parts, tools are much more expensive because they are made in blocks with very little independent


in concentricity and ovality issues and non uniform material thickness. other disadvantages of progressive presses compared to transfer presses are : increased raw material input required to transfer parts, tools are much more expensive because they are made in blocks with very little independent regulation per station ; impossibility to perform processes in the press that require the part leave the strip ( example beading, necking, flange curling, thread rolling, rotary stamping ect ). the cost is determined by the number of features, which determine what tooling will need to be used. it is advised to keep the features as simple as possible to keep the cost of tooling to a minimum. features that are close together produce a problem because it may not provide enough clearance for the punch, which could result in another station. it can also be problematic to have narrow cuts and protrusions. an excellent example of the product of a progressive die is the lid of a beverage can. the pull tab is made in one progressive stamping process and the lid & assembly is made in another, the pull tab simultaneously feeding at a right angle into the lid & assembly process. see also - kalpakjian, serope ; schmid, steven r. ( 2006 ). manufacturing engineering and technology. upper saddle river, nj : pearson prentice hall. p. 474. isbn 0 - 13 - 148965 - 8. | | this article needs additional citations for verification. ( november 2008 ) |


walter jackson freeman ii | walter jackson freeman ii | | born | | november 14, 1895 philadelphia, pennsylvania, united states | died | | may 31, 1972 ( aged 76 ) | university of pennsylvania medical school | known for | | popularizing the lobotomy invention of the " ice pick " lobotomy | children | | walter jackson freeman iii | | parents | | walter jackson freeman i | | relatives | | william williams keen, grandfather | biography and early years walter j. freeman was born on november 14, 1895 to a privileged family. he was raised in philadelphia, pennsylvania by his parents. freeman was also known for being a bit of an oddball and he complemented his theatrical approach to demonstrating surgery by sporting a cane, goatee, and a wide - brimmed hat. working in the field of medicine ran in his family and his grandfather, william williams keen, was well known as a surgeon in the civil war. his father was also a very successful doctor. freeman attended yale university, which at the time was yale college, beginning in 1912 and graduated with his undergraduate degree in 1916. he then moved on to study neurology at the university of pennsylvania medical school. while attending medical school he studied the work of william spiller and idolized his groundbreaking work in the new field of the neurological sciences. william spiller also worked in philadelphia and was credited by many in the world of psychology as being the founder of neurology. freeman applied for a coveted position working alongside spiller in his home town of philadelphia, but was rejected. shortly afterward, in 1924, freeman relocated to washington d. c. and started practicing as the first neurologist in the city. upon his arrival in d. c., walter freeman began work directing labs at st. elizabeth ’ s hospital. working at the hospital and witnessing the pain and distress suffered by the patients encouraged him to continue his education in the field. freeman earned his phd in neuropathology within the following few years and secured a position at george washington university as head of the neurology department. the first systematic attempt at human psychosurgery is commonly attributed to the swiss psychiatrist gottlieb burckhardt. burckhardt ' s experimental surgical forays were largely condemned at the time and in the subsequent decades psychosurgery was attempted only intermittently. on november 12, 1935, a new psychosurgery procedure was performed in portugal under the direction of the neurologist and physician egas moniz. his new “


and in the subsequent decades psychosurgery was attempted only intermittently. on november 12, 1935, a new psychosurgery procedure was performed in portugal under the direction of the neurologist and physician egas moniz. his new “ leucotomy ” procedure was used to treat patients with mental illness. moniz became a mentor and idol for freeman who modified the procedure renaming it the “ lobotomy. ” one year after the first leucotomy, on september 14, 1936 walter j. freeman performed the very first prefrontal lobotomy in the united states on housewife alice hood hammatt of topeka, kansas beginning his now infamous career as a neurosurgeon in the united states. freeman ’ s lobotomy procedure was assisted by fellow neurosurgeon and research partner, james watts. by november after only two months performing their first lobotomy surgery, freeman and watts had already worked on 20 cases including several second, follow - up operations. by 1942, the duo had performed over 200 lobotomy procedures and had published results claiming sixty three percent improved, 23 percent were reported to be unchanged and fourteen percent were worse after the surgery. after almost ten years of performing lobotomies freeman heard of a doctor in italy named amarro fiamberti who operated on the brain through his patients ’ eye sockets, allowing him to access the brain without drilling through the skull. after experimenting with novel ways of performing these brain surgeries, freeman formulated a new procedure called the transorbital lobotomy. this new procedure became known as the icepick lobotomy and was performed by inserting a metal pick into the corner of each eye - socket and moving it back and forth, severing the connections to the prefrontal cortex in the frontal lobes of the brain. he performed the transorbital lobotomy surgery for the first time in washington d. c. on a housewife named sallie ellen ionesco. this transorbital lobotomy method did not require a neurosurgeon and could be performed outside of an operating room without the use of anesthesia by using electroconvulsive therapy to induce seizure. the modifications to his lobotomy allowed freeman to broaden the use of the surgery, which could be performed in state mental hospitals throughout the united states that were overpopulated and understaffed. in 1950 walter freeman ’ s longtime partner james watts left their practice and split from freeman due to his


broaden the use of the surgery, which could be performed in state mental hospitals throughout the united states that were overpopulated and understaffed. in 1950 walter freeman ’ s longtime partner james watts left their practice and split from freeman due to his opposition to the cruelty and overuse of the transorbital lobotomy. following his development of the icepick lobotomy, freeman began traveling across the country visiting mental institutions in his personal van, which he called the " lobotomobile. " he toured around the nation performing lobotomies and spreading their use by educating and training staff to perform the operation. freeman ’ s name gained popularity despite the widespread criticism of his methods following a lobotomy on president john f. kennedy ’ s sister rosemary kennedy, which left her with severe mental and physical disability. a memoir written by former patient howard dully, called my lobotomy documented his experiences with freeman and his long recovery after undergoing a lobotomy surgery at 12 years old. walter freeman charged just $ 25 for each procedure that he performed. after four decades freeman had personally performed as many as 3, 400 lobotomy surgeries in 23 states, despite the fact that he had no formal surgical training. in february 1967, freeman performed his final surgery on helen mortensen. mortensen was a longterm patient and was receiving her third lobotomy from freeman. she died of a cerebral hemorrhage as did many of his other patients [ quantify ] and he was finally banned from performing surgery. at age 57, freeman retired from his position at george washington university and opened up a modest practice in california. contributions to psychiatry however controversial his techniques may have been, walter freeman did make a number of important contributions to the studies of psychiatry and neurology. walter freeman nominated his mentor antonio egas moniz for a nobel prize and in 1949 moniz won the nobel prize in physiology and medicine. he pioneered and helped open up the psychiatric world to the idea of neurosurgery as a possible treatment for severe mental illness. he also supported and helped to demonstrate the idea that mental events have a physiological basis. despite his interest in the mind, freeman was “ uninterested in animal experiments or understanding what was happening in the brain ”. freeman was also co - founder and president of the american board of psychiatry and neurology from 1946 to 1947 and a contributor and member of the american psychiatric association. it is interesting to mention that, up to this day, the


the brain ”. freeman was also co - founder and president of the american board of psychiatry and neurology from 1946 to 1947 and a contributor and member of the american psychiatric association. it is interesting to mention that, up to this day, the very idea of " biological " psychiatry and the physiological problems of mentally ill people remain controversial for the vast majority of mental illnesses. - freeman, w. and watts, j. w. psychosurgery. intelligence, emotion and social behavior following prefrontal lobotomy for mental disorders, charles c. thomas publisher, springfield ( ill. ) 1942, pp. 337. - " the lobotomist ". american experience. retrieved 07 / 10 / 2011. " in the 1940s dr. walter freeman gained fame for perfecting the lobotomy, then hailed as a miracle cure for the severely mentally ill. but within a few years, lobotomy was labeled one of the most barbaric mistakes of modern medicine. " - rowland, lewis ( april 2005 ). " walter freeman ' s psychosurgery and biological psychiatry : a cautionary tale ". neurology today 5 ( 4 ) : 70 – 72. retrieved 07 / 09 / 2011. - " guide to the walter freeman, class of 1916, yale college, photograph albums documenting life at yale ". yale university library manuscripts and archives. retrieved 07 / 08 / 2011. - for example, whitaker, h. a. ; stemmer, b. ; joanette, y. ( 1996 ). " a psychosurgical chapter in the history of cerebral localization : the six cases of gottlieb burkhardt ". in code, christopher ; wallesch, c. - w. ; joanette, y. ; roch, a. classic cases in neuropsychology. hove : psychology press. p. 276. isbn 978 - 0 - 86377 - 395 - 2. stone, james l. ( 2001 - 01 ). " dr. gottlieb burckhardt the pioneer of psychosurgery ". journal of the history of the neurosciences 10 ( 1 ) : 79 – 92. doi : 10. 1076 / jhin. 10. 1. 79. 5634. issn 0964 - 704x. pmid 11446267. retrieved 2011 - 08 - 12. text " d404a21c5bb053405b1a640affd44ae3 " ignored ( help )


0964 - 704x. pmid 11446267. retrieved 2011 - 08 - 12. text " d404a21c5bb053405b1a640affd44ae3 " ignored ( help ) manjila, s. ; s. rengachary, a. r xavier, b. parker, m. guthikonda ( 2008 ). " modern psychosurgery before egas moniz : a tribute to gottlieb burckhardt ". journal of neurosurgery : pediatrics 25 ( 1 ) : 1. however, kotowicz notes a difference, irregularly observed, among medical historians and medical practitioners in their location of the origin of psychosurgery. the latter group, he contends, tend to favour beginning the narrative with burckhardt whilst the former group favour starting with moniz. kotowicz, zbigniew ( 2005 ). " gottlieb burckhardt and egas moniz – two beginnings of psychosurgery ". gesnerus 62 ( 1 - 2 ) : 78 – 9. in the context of early psychosurgery, berrios unusually also refers to the operations performed in 1889 by a surgeon ( harrison cripps ) at the behest of the british psychiatrist thomas claye shaw in which fluid was drawn from the brain of a patient diagnosed with general paralysis of the insane. while the purpose of the operation was aimed towards the alleviation of mental symptoms attendant on the condition the procedure did not aim to interfere directly with brain tissue and therefore it has been excluded from most conventional accounts of psychosurgery. berrios, german e. ( 1991 ). " psychosurgery in britain and elsewhere : a conceptual history ". in berrios, german e. ; freeman, hugh. 150 years of british psychiatry, 1841 - 1991. gaskell. pp. 181 – 5. isbn 978 - 0 - 902241 - 36 - 7. - kotowicz, zbigniew ( 2005 ). " gottlieb burckhardt and egas moniz – two beginnings of psychosurgery ". gesnerus 62 ( 1 - 2 ) : 79. - " a lobotomy timeline ". npr. retrieved 07 / 10 / 2011. - cordingley, gary. " walter freeman ' s lobotomies at athens state hospital ". retrieved 07 / 12 / 2011. -


working effectively in an it environment if you ' re stuck for a photo, search on flickrcc from the official document : - " this unit defines the competency required to work effectively within the it environment of an organisation by researching and assembling information about the organisation ' s it systems, equipment, software, policies and governance arrangements. " basically, that means... ( translate above into plain english ) you can read more about this unit on the national training information systems official document for icaw2001a. this unit is a pre - requisite for the following qualifications : how this unit will help you after learning and applying the skills required by this unit you ' ll be able to demonstrate your skills in : | 1. identify it in an organisation and related relevant policies and procedures | | | 2. identify it equipment, software and operating systems used by the organisation | | - translate the above elements and performance criteria into plain english and summarise here... ideas for learning the required skills it is critical that you have some hands on experience. a great start would be a virtual machine. watching videos pertaining to a specific device or course. reading on the subject can only help understand it. ideas for demonstrating this unit the best way to demonstrate these skills is... if you are demonstrating this unit as part of a formal course, you might find that the unit is graded ( meaning you can not only demonstrate your competence, but can also gain a credit or distinction ). your facilitator may already have set criteria that your college uses. if not, here are some ideas for possible credit / distinction activities that you can discuss with your facilitator : notes and discrepancies


when it comes to leatherback turtles, the world ' s largest species of sea turtle, there ' s a conundrum : the species itself is critically endangered, but at least one leatherback population is stable — on the rise, even — while others plummet. now, researchers may have discovered why some of these turtles are doing better than others. studying two leatherback turtle populations, one that is declining and one that seems to be increasing, the researchers say the answer might be simple : food. " we saw very big differences in their traveling speeds from their nesting beaches to their foraging grounds, " said helen bailey, an ecologist at the university of maryland center for environmental science who led the study. " we take that to mean one population is stopping to forage on a nice dense patch of prey, while the other group keeps moving because it ' s constantly in search of food. " these differences in swimming and eating habits may hold important clues for helping leatherback turtles around the world recover and thrive, bailey told ouramazingplanet. dine in or drive - through? atlantic leatherback turtles seem to be doing ok, but the pacific population could be extinct in the near future, bailey said. leatherback turtles everywhere are often victims of bycatch, the unintentional netting and killing of turtles while fishing for other animals, but leatherbacks in the pacific ocean face another problem. climate patterns like the el nino - southern oscillation cause huge variations in temperature and productivity in the pacific ocean, making it hard for some animals to find reliable food supplies. these challenges, combined with leatherbacks ' advanced breeding age ( around 15 years for females ), mean that the pacific leatherback turtle population has taken a serious hit over the last two decades. to figure out the difference between these two groups, bailey looked at how the turtles swim. using data from leatherbacks that had been tagged and tracked by satellite, she found that atlantic leatherbacks have two modes of travel : fast ( 12 - 28 miles per day, or 20 - 45 kilometers per day ) and slow ( less than 9 miles per day, or 15 km per day ). pacific leatherbacks, on the other hand, have only one : a cruising speed of about 13 miles per day ( 21 km per day ). atlantic leatherbacks seem to run from one smorgasbord to another, stopping at a dense patch of jellyfish ( their main food source ) to eat until it ' s gone. pacific leatherbacks never find dense patches of jellyfish,


. atlantic leatherbacks seem to run from one smorgasbord to another, stopping at a dense patch of jellyfish ( their main food source ) to eat until it ' s gone. pacific leatherbacks never find dense patches of jellyfish, so they swim at the same rather fast speed the whole time, bailey said. " they ' re constantly searching for food, " bailey said. " if you have to keep moving, you ' re not gaining quite as much energy because even if you manage to eat along the way, you ' re still expending some energy by traveling. " in other words, the main difference between the two populations is that atlantic turtles can dine in and chow down, while pacific leatherbacks have to settle for the drive - through window and eating on the run. adults are important bailey ' s findings, detailed in the may issue of the journal plos one, point to new leatherback turtle conservation strategies. " it ' s really highlighted very strongly the importance of protecting adult leatherbacks, " bailey said in an interview. because leatherback turtles have long life spans ( about 30 years ), they ' ve adapted to survive jellyfish shortages by waiting to build nests and lay eggs after they ' ve found a stable food supply. so far, most efforts have focused on protecting leatherbacks ' nesting beaches. that ' s still important, bailey said, but it may be even more important to protect adult turtles that are old enough to reproduce. " they really have not adapted in any way to being harvested, " bailey said. " so when adults are killed by, for example, getting caught in fishing nets, then that does have a huge impact on the population and its ability to increase. "


pregnancy and gestational diabetes gestational diabetes is a condition characterized by high blood sugar ( glucose ) levels that is first recognized during pregnancy. the condition occurs in approximately 4 % of all pregnancies. what causes gestational diabetes in pregnancy? almost all women have some degree of impaired glucose intolerance as a result of hormonal changes that occur during pregnancy. that means that their blood sugar may be higher than normal, but not high enough to have diabetes. during the later part of pregnancy ( the third trimester ), these hormonal changes place pregnant woman at risk for gestational diabetes. during pregnancy, increased levels of certain hormones made in the placenta ( the organ that connects the baby by the umbilical cord to the uterus ) help shift nutrients from the mother to the developing fetus. other hormones are produced by the placenta to help prevent the mother from developing low blood sugar. they work by stopping the actions of insulin. over the course of the pregnancy, these hormones lead to progressive impaired glucose intolerance ( higher blood sugar levels ). to try to decrease blood sugar levels, the body makes more insulin to get glucose into cells to be used for energy. usually the mother ' s pancreas is able to produce more insulin ( about three times the normal amount ) to overcome the effect of the pregnancy hormones on blood sugar levels. if, however, the pancreas cannot produce enough insulin to overcome the effect of the increased hormones during pregnancy, blood sugar levels will rise, resulting in gestational diabetes. what are the complications of gestational diabetes? diabetes can affect the developing baby throughout the pregnancy. in early pregnancy, a mother ' s diabetes can result in birth defects and an increased rate of miscarriage. many of the birth defects that occur affect major organs such as the brain and heart. during the second and third trimester, a mother ' s diabetes can lead to over - nutrition and excess growth of the baby. having a large baby increases risks during labor and delivery. for example, large babies often require caesarean deliveries and if he or she is delivered vaginally, they are at increased risk for trauma to their shoulder. in addition, when fetal over - nutrition occurs and hyperinsulinemia results, the baby ' s blood sugar can drop very low after birth, since it won ' t be receiving the high blood sugar from the mother. however, with proper treatment, you can deliver a healthy baby despite having diabetes. who is at risk for gestational diabetes


s blood sugar can drop very low after birth, since it won ' t be receiving the high blood sugar from the mother. however, with proper treatment, you can deliver a healthy baby despite having diabetes. who is at risk for gestational diabetes? the following factors increase the risk of developing gestational diabetes during pregnancy : • being overweight prior to becoming pregnant ( if you are 20 % or more over your ideal body weight ). • being a member of a high risk ethnic group ( hispanic, black, native american, or asian ). • having sugar in your urine. • impaired glucose tolerance or impaired fasting glucose ( blood sugar levels are high, but not high enough to be diabetes ). • family history of diabetes ( if your parents or siblings have diabetes ). • previously giving birth to a baby over 9 pounds. • previously giving birth to a stillborn baby. • having gestational diabetes with a previous pregnancy. • having too much amniotic fluid ( a condition called polyhydramnios ). many women who develop gestational diabetes have no known risk factors. type 1 diabetes ( part1 ) type 1 diabetes ( part2 ) type 2 diabetes causes of type 2 diabetes symptoms of type 2 diabetes type 2 diabetes in children ( part1 ) type 2 diabetes in children ( part2 )


pacific southwest, region 9 serving : arizona, california, hawaii, nevada, pacific islands, tribal nations epa and the recovery act the region 9 water division is responsible for providing clean and safe surface water, ground water, and drinking water and protecting and restoring aquatic ecosystems in the pacific southwest. we oversee state and tribal implementation of core programs to accomplish these goals. we encourage use of a watershed approach to protect public health and water resources including lakes, rivers, estuaries, oceans, and wetlands. primary authority for epa water programs was established by the 1986 amendments to the safe drinking water act ( sdwa ) and the 1987 amendments to the clean water act ( cwa ). programs & resources - about us region 9 ' s water division priorities for water protection and restoration - compliance & enforcement compliance and enforcement of water regulations - drinking water programs, security, funding issues, tribal drinking water, resources, partnerships - grants, loans & resources financial assistance grants, to support drinking water projects. - ground water underground injection control, source water protection, tribal ground water, newsletter, projects - low impact development treating stormwater as a resource, not a waste - monitoring, assessment and total maximum daily loads assessment, monitoring, reporting and tmdl program under section 303 ( d ) of the clean water act - national pollutant discharge elimination system ( npdes ) wastewater and storm water permits, pretreatment - nonpoint source pollution polluted runoff, state water quality limited segment lists required under cwa 303 ( d ). - oceans, coastlines, estuaries ocean disposal sites | coral reefs & grants - sustainable water infrastructure - tribal water protection ground water, clean water act, safe drinking water program - water archive outdated but still relevant information - water conservation can wastewater and water facilities conserve water? absolutely! - water quality standards | california water projects work with states and tribes to regulate discharges into surface waters - watershed priorities region 9 ' s active watershed partnerships, targeted watershed grants program. regional wetlands & related habitat, regulatory program, grants - us - mexico border water quality projects along the u. s. - mexico border. - state and local resources water resources for arizona, california, hawai ' i, nevada | pacific southwest newsroompacific southwest programs | | grants & fundingus - mexico border | | media centercareers | | about epa pacific southwesta - z index |


king george island ( kgi, isla 25 de mayo ) is located within one of the most rapidly warming regions on earth at the north - western tip of the antarctic peninsula. since 1991 hydrographical characteristics and phytoplankton dynamics were monitored at two stations in potter cove, a fjord - like environment on the south - eastern kgi coastline. seawater temperature and salinity, total suspended particulate matter ( tspm ) and chlorophyll - a ( chl - a, a proxy for phytoplankton biomass ) concentrations were measured in summer and winter over a 19 year period, together with local air temperature. mean air temperatures rose by 0. 39 and 0. 48 ºc per decade in summer and winter, respectively. positive anomalies characterised wind speeds during the decade between the mid ’ 90 and the mid 2000 years, whereas negative anomalies were observed from 2004 onwards. day of sea ice formation and retreat, based on satellite data, did not change, although total sea ice cover diminished during the studied period. surface water temperature increased during summer ( 0. 36 ºc per decade ), whereas no trend was observed in salinity. summer chl - a concentrations were around 1 mg m - 3 chl - a with no clear trend throughout the study period. however, summer chl - a correlates positively with water column stratification, which in turn resulted from high air temperature and lower salinity in front of the melting glacier. tspm increased in surface waters of the inner cove during the spring - summer months. the southern annular mode ( sam ) climate signal was apparent in the fluctuating interannual pattern of the hydrographic variables in the outer potter cove and bottom waters whereas surface hydrography was strongly governed by the local forcing of glacier melt. the results show that global trends have significant effects on local hydrographical and biological conditions in the coastal marine environments of western antarctica.


everyone knows that rockets are huge, expensive, complicated and impractical. everyone knows that rockets use ridiculous amount of fuel. ok. challenging concept time : the underlying costs of space travel are not much more than that of air travel. space travel is ' cheap ' ; or atleast it will be. first, rockets need a lot of fuel. the amount of fuel is determined by the rocket equation. if you plug in the figures into the rocket equation you find that for every pound of rocket, you need maybe 20x that mass of fuel! and in fact, typical modern - day rockets manage nearer to 50x that. that ' s outrageous ; it ' s obvious where the cost goes right? but it turns out that fuel is cheap. for example liquid oxygen ( lox ) and kerosene, lox is pennies per pound, aviation fuel ( kerosene ) isn ' t much more expensive and you need a lot less mass of that than you do lox, because lox is pretty heavy. the propellent only costs a few tens of dollars per pound of rocket max. therefore if we can get to the point where the fuel is the only thing we need to use up, a 140 lb ( 70kg ) person can get launched for just a few tens of thousand of dollars - hardly any more than the cost of an airflight ; a little bit more than a supersonic airflight. so the fuel is too cheap to be relevant. let ' s look at the rocket itself. here we get into more costs. the costs of the rocket come from 3 main areas : - development costs - buying the rocket - ground support development costs - these add to the price divided proportionally to how often you launch. the more you launch, the cheaper it gets. ( that ' s one thing that went wrong with the space shuttle - they weren ' t able to launch as much as they ' d hope and so it ' s turned out really expensive. ) paying for the rocket - right now of course much of the rocket is thrown away each time ( expendable launchers - elvs ) so you need to build a new one each time ( except for the space shuttle ' s orbiter which is so expensive it might as well be. ) now, there are several designs such as the roton concept that are fully reusable ; and there is no known reason why they wouldn ' t work. the point is that each time you reuse a vehicle, the cost of the vehicle goes down


, there are several designs such as the roton concept that are fully reusable ; and there is no known reason why they wouldn ' t work. the point is that each time you reuse a vehicle, the cost of the vehicle goes down. now metalwork is much more expensive than fuel, thousands of dollars per kilogram is the normal rule of thumb, but if you can use a vehicle 1000 times then it only cost you 1 / 1000 of that per launch ; so expensive hardware becomes cheap. this is the rlv approach. it seems very likely, but it isn ' t necessarily true that this will be cheaper. for example, to make a rocket reusable, the rocket needs to be built more heavily. this cuts into the payload mass ; and so pushes up the cost per kilogram of the rocket. for example if the rlv were to be only reusable 10 times but costs 15x more than elvs then it would cost more ; in fact the breakeven seems to be around 10x - 15x reusability. elvs get cheaper too the more you make them, because of production line techniques meaning that the cost goes down as you increase quantities. ground support - looking beyond the launcher itself you find many other costs, launch pad, control ground crew etc. however most of these also scale well with launch rate - you launch twice as often and the costs certainly aren ' t double, nothing like. the ground support costs for the space shuttle come to about 2 / 3 of the cost per mission. so let ' s assume you launch a lot to bring the costs down. right now it looks like doubling the rate of launch can almost halve the cost. the underlying per trip costs ( fuel mainly ) are relatively small, and mass production reduces the cost of even expendable launchers. the asymptotic cost of getting into orbit seems to be way down around $ 50 / kg, but we are very, very far from that at present.


written in 1609 obtained from x. j. kennedy and dana gioia, literature : an introduction to fiction, poetry, and drama. 8th ed., longman thou may ' st in me behold when yellow leaves, or none, or few, do hang upon those boughs which shake against the cold, bare ruined choirs where late the sweet birds in me thou see ' st the twilight of such day as after sunset fadeth in the west, which by - and - by black night doth take away, ' s second self that seals up all in rest. in me thou see ' st the glowing of such fire that on the ashes of his youth as the deathbed whereon it must expire, consumed with that which it was nourished this thou perceiv ' st, which makes thy love more strong, to love that well which thou must leave ere long. in this sonnet shakespeare shows that love will not die as everything else must. shakespeare was an old man when he wrote this sonnet and it seems very personal, but that can only be speculated upon. he uses metaphors to show that death touches everything and to illustrate the time of death drawing closer. he writes in the poetic form of the sonnet and uses it effectively to illustrate his message. he flows through the form, weaving a picture that shows the permanence of love. the narrator of this sonnet could arguably be william shakespeare himself. shakespeare ' s death was in the year 1616. this sonnet was written in 1609. he senses his time drawing near and writes a sonnet to a loved one. he wants to express his feelings about his nearing death. it is unclear who his loved one is, but he writes to show just how strong the love between them is. he wants to express the beauty of that love and its defiance in the face of death. only in the last two lines do we realize he is addressing his loved one. in line thirteen he writes, " this thou perceiv ' st which makes thy love more strong, ". near the end of shakespeare ' s own life he writes this sonnet to someone dear to his heart. shakespeare expresses a tone of sadness and reluctance through the diction he uses in his sonnet. his reluctance can be felt in line three when he writes, " upon those boughs which shake against the cold ". against is a very strong word choice. according to the american heritage dictionary, second college edition, against is defined as, " in a direction or course


in line three when he writes, " upon those boughs which shake against the cold ". against is a very strong word choice. according to the american heritage dictionary, second college edition, against is defined as, " in a direction or course opposite to. " cold is the coming winter, which is the metaphor shakespeare is using to illustrate death in the first four lines of his sonnet. the boughs shaking against the cold are shakespeare poised in opposition to his death. we can also sense his feeling of impotence in line seven, when he writes, " which by - and - by black night doth take away, ". he is now speaking of a closing day, which is his second metaphor in the sonnet. the phrase shakespeare chooses invokes the picture of having it snatched, unwillingly, from his grasp. life is being taken away from him by death, just as night steals all the sky when the day has finished. in line twelve he shows us a dying fire as his third metaphor. he writes, " consumed by that which it was nourished by ". again the word choice is very deliberate. consumed gives the feeling of having been engulfed or maybe even wasted. his life is not simply fading away, but instead is being consumed. shakespeare chooses his words carefully to show us his feelings about his waning life. shakespeare uses metaphors from the natural world to effectively describe his own passing. he chooses them carefully to give the reader vivid images that invoke emotion. shakespeare begins his sonnet by telling of a fading season in the year. he writes, " that time of year thou may ' st in me behold ", telling the reader that the season he is speaking of reflects his own situation. in line two he writes, " when yellow leaves, or none, or few, do hang " and we see a common picture in autumn ; when trees are clinging to the last bit of evidence showing a life once lived. in line four he writes, " bare ruined choirs where late the sweet birds sang ". once perches for things full of beautiful song, the branches are lofty choirs deserted in death. the song of life has left shakespeare ' s soul and only lives the memory of the time song filled it. in line five shakespeare writes, " in me thou see ' st the twilight of such day ", comparing his life to the fading day. in line six he writes, " as after sunset fadeth in the west ". using this he paints an even more brilliant picture


writes, " in me thou see ' st the twilight of such day ", comparing his life to the fading day. in line six he writes, " as after sunset fadeth in the west ". using this he paints an even more brilliant picture in the reader ' s head of standing and looking westward at the gloaming. shakespeare chooses to make the metaphors very vivid so that the feelings and ideas he is having about death are imparted to the reader. the third and final metaphor shakespeare uses is of a dying fire. in lines nine through twelve he writes, in me thou see ' st the glowing of such fire that on the ashes of his youth doth lie, as the deathbed whereon it must expire, consumed with that which it was nourished by. he compares his life to a fire burning out its final embers. the warmth of life is fading from him. shakespeare makes an effective use of all these metaphors to accurately describe how his life too must surrender to the passing of time. shakespeare uses the form of the sonnet to organize his metaphors into a coherent picture of time fading. all of the metaphors he uses relate well to each other on the grounds that they all depict periods of time. the sonnet form uses quatrains rhymed in three different sets. shakespeare uses a different metaphor for each of those sets. what is extremely effective is the order in which he chooses to write them in. the first metaphor depicts a season in the year. the second metaphor ends a single day. the third metaphor shows a single moment. this order is extremely important to give the reader the impression of time running out. passing from a large time period to a small time period illustrates that time is growing shorter and shorter in the shakespeare ' s life. all of the metaphors come together perfectly to bring shakespeare ' s dwindling life to the forefront of the reader ' s imagination. shakespeare chooses to use contrast to show the permanence of love in the face of the transience of life. in lines thirteen through fourteen he writes, " this thou perceiv ' st, which makes thy love more strong to love that well which thou must leave ere long ". instead of his loved one ' s affection ending, it is growing in contrast to his shrinking time. these last two lines are used to show that love is not affected by time as other things are. time only serves to make love stronger. their love will still persist even though he must die. shakespeare wants this


back (? ), n. [ f. bac : cf. arm. bak tray, bowl. ] 1. a large shallow vat ; a cistern, tub, or trough, used by brewers, distillers, dyers, picklers, gluemakers, and others, for mixing or cooling wort, holding water, hot glue, etc. hop back, jack back, the cistern which receives the infusion of malt and hops from the copper. - - wash back, a vat in which distillers ferment the wort to form wash. - - water back, a cistern to hold a supply of water ; esp. a small cistern at the back of a stove, or a group of pipes set in the fire box of a stove or furnace, through which water circulates and is heated. a ferryboat. see bac, 1 © webster 1913. back (? ), n. [ as baec, bac ; akin to icel., sw., & lg. bak, dan. bag ; cf. ohg. bahho ham, skr. bhaj to turn, oslav. bg flight. cf. bacon. ] in human beings, the hinder part of the body, extending from the neck to the end of the spine ; in other animals, that part of the body which corresponds most nearly to such part of a human being ; as, the back of a horse, fish, or lobster. an extended upper part, as of a mountain or ridge. [ the mountains ] their broad bare backs upheave into the clouds. the outward or upper part of a thing, as opposed to the inner or lower part ; as, the back of the hand, the back of the foot, the back of a hand rail. methought love pitying me, when he saw this, gave me your hands, the backs and palms to kiss. the part opposed to the front ; the hinder or rear part of a thing ; as, the back of a book ; the back of an army ; the back of a chimney. the part opposite to, or most remote from, that which fronts the speaker or actor ; or the part out of sight, or not generally seen ; as, the back of an island, of a hill, or of a village. the part of a cutting tool on the opposite side from its edge ; as, the back of a knife


or the part out of sight, or not generally seen ; as, the back of an island, of a hill, or of a village. the part of a cutting tool on the opposite side from its edge ; as, the back of a knife, or of a saw. a support or resource in reserve. should have a back or second, that might hold, if this should blast in proof. the keel and keelson of a ship. the upper part of a lode, or the roof of a horizontal underground passage. a garment for the back ; hence, clothing. a bak to walken inne by daylight. behind one ' s back, when one is absent ; without one ' s knowledge ; as, to ridicule a person behind his back. - - full back, half back, quarter back ( football ), players stationed behind those in the front line. - - to be or lie on one ' s back, to be helpless. - - to put, or get, one ' s back up, to assume an attitude of obstinate resistance ( from the action of a cat when attacked. ). [ colloq. ] - - to see the back of, to get rid of. - - to turn the back, to go away ; to flee. - - to turn the back on one, to forsake or neglect him. © webster 1913. being at the back or in the rear ; distant ; remote ; as, the back door ; back settlements. being in arrear ; overdue ; as, back rent. moving or operating backward ; as, back action. back charges, charges brought forward after an account has been made up. - - back filling arch., the mass of materials used in filling up the space between two walls, or between the inner and outer faces of a wall, or upon the haunches of an arch or vault. - - back pressure. steam engine see under pressure. - - back rest, a guide attached to the slide rest of a lathe, and placed in contact with the work, to steady it in turning. - - back slang, a kind of slang in which every word is written or pronounced backwards ; as, nam for man. - - back stairs, stairs in the back part of a house ; private stairs. also used adjectively. see back stairs, backstairs, and backstair, in the vocabulary. - - back step mil., the retrograde movement of a man or body of


in the back part of a house ; private stairs. also used adjectively. see back stairs, backstairs, and backstair, in the vocabulary. - - back step mil., the retrograde movement of a man or body of men, without changing front. - - back stream, a current running against the main current of a stream ; an eddy. - - to take the back track, to retrace one ' s steps ; to retreat. [ colloq. ] © webster 1913. back (? ), v. i. [ imp. & p. p. backed ( ) ; p. pr. & vb. n. backing. ] to get upon the back of ; to mount. i will back him [ a horse ] straight. to place or seat upon the back. great jupiter, upon his eagle backed, appeared to me. to drive or force backward ; to cause to retreat or recede ; as, to back oxen. to make a back for ; to furnish with a back ; as, to back books. to adjoin behind ; to be at the back of. a garden... with a vineyard backed. the chalk cliffs which back the beach. to write upon the back of ; as, to back a letter ; to indorse ; as, to back a note or legal document. to support ; to maintain ; to second or strengthen by aid or influence ; as, to back a friend. " parliament would be backed by the people. " have still found it necessary to back and fortify their laws with rewards and punishments. the mate backed the captain manfully. to bet on the success of ; - - as, to back a race horse. to back an anchor naut., to lay down a small anchor ahead of a large one, the cable of the small one being fastened to the crown of the large one. - - to back the field, in horse racing, to bet against a particular horse or horses, that some one of all the other horses, collectively designated " the field ", will win. - - to back the oars, to row backward with the oars. - - to back a rope, to put on a preventer. - - to back the sails, to arrange them so as to cause the ship to move astern. - - to back up, to support ; to sustain ; as, to back up one ' s friends. - - to back a warrant law, is for a justice


sails, to arrange them so as to cause the ship to move astern. - - to back up, to support ; to sustain ; as, to back up one ' s friends. - - to back a warrant law, is for a justice of the peace, in the county where the warrant is to be executed, to sign or indorse a warrant, issued in another county, to apprehend an offender. - - to back water naut., to reverse the action of the oars, paddles, or propeller, so as to force the boat or ship backward. © webster 1913. back, v. i. to move or go backward ; as, the horse refuses to back. to change from one quarter to another by a course opposite to that of the sun ; - - used of the wind. to stand still behind another dog which has poined ; - - said of a dog. to back and fill, to manage the sails of a ship so that the wind strikes them alternately in front and behind, in order to keep the ship in the middle of a river or channel while the current or tide carries the vessel against the wind. hence : ( fig. ) to take opposite positions alternately ; to assert and deny. [ colloq. ] - - to back out, to back down, to retreat or withdraw from a promise, engagement, or contest ; to recede. [ colloq. ] cleon at first... was willing to go ; but, finding that he [ nicias ] was in earnest, he tried to back out. jowett ( thucyd. ) © webster 1913. back, adv. [ shortened from aback. ] in, to, or toward, the rear ; as, to stand back ; to step back. to the place from which one came ; to the place or person from which something is taken or derived ; as, to go back for something left behind ; to go back to one ' s native place ; to put a book back after reading it. to a former state, condition, or station ; as, to go back to private life ; to go back to barbarism. ( of time ) in times past ; ago. " sixty or seventy years back away from contact ; by reverse movement. the angel of the lord... came, and rolled back the stone from the door. matt. xxvii. 2. in concealment or reserve ; in one ' s own possession ; as, to keep back


thomas hobbes ( 1588 - 1679 ) euclid ’ s elements was an important influence. the problem of making space for reason in a world based on religious authority. hobbes was writing parts of what would become leviathan when the english civil war broke out, so he thought that his prediction of “ a war of all against all ” was being confirmed before his eyes. chapter 6 : hobbes ' s materialist psychology and his non - cognitivist theory of normative and evaluative judgment positive motivators : appetite, desire, love, positive feelings : pleasure and joy, negative motivators : aversion, hate, negative feelings : pain and grief. what they explain : good, evil, and contemptible. note that hobbes begins with definitions. where do the definitions come from? is hobbes ’ s psychological theory egoistic? “ but whatsoever is the object of any man ’ s appetite or desire, that is it which he for his part calleth good : and the object of his hate and aversion, evil ; and of his contempt, vile and inconsiderable. for these words of good, evil and contemptible, are ever used with relation to the person that useth them : there being nothing simply and absolutely so : nor any common rule of good and evil, to be taken from the nature of the objects themselves ;... ” ( 97 ). the crucial equivocation : " [ o ] f the voluntary acts of every man, the object is some good to himself. " ( 122 ). " [ o ] f all voluntary acts, the object is to every man his own good. " ( 129 ) normative / evaluative cognitivism and non - cognitivism, realism and anti - realism. normative / evaluative cognitivism : normative / evaluative statements make claims that are true or false. normative / evaluative noncognitivism : normative moral statements do not make claims that are true or false. [ they may express sentiments or attitudes or in hobbes ’ s case, desires. ] for hobbes, to say that something is good [ or evil ] is not to attribute an objective property to it, but to express one ’ s desire or appetite for [ or aversion to ] it. normative / evaluative realism : some positive normative / evaluative are true. [ moral realism implies moral cogni


objective property to it, but to express one ’ s desire or appetite for [ or aversion to ] it. normative / evaluative realism : some positive normative / evaluative are true. [ moral realism implies moral cognitivism. ] because hobbes translates all normative / evaluative terms ( good, evil, justice, injustice ) into purely descriptive terms, he avoids ever asserting that any normative / evaluative statements are true. normative / evaluative anti - realism : no positive normative / evaluative statements are true. there are no objective moral values and no objective moral imperatives. hobbes is a noncognitivist about the good, not necessarily an egoist. explain. what is deliberation? what is the will? what is a voluntary action? on this account, if i threatened to kill you if you didn ’ t give me your wallet and, as a result, you gave me your wallet, was your act voluntary? hobbes ’ s geometry of sovereignty chapter 13 : the state of nature what is the state of nature? the internal security cap : the war of all against all what is a state of war, according to hobbes? what are the crucial assumptions? competition, diffidence, and glory. what does hobbes mean by “ war ”? is there justice or injustice in the state of nature? why or why not? what does he mean by " no mine and thine distinct "? hobbes ' s way out of the state of nature involves passions and reason. how does it involve passions? how does it involve reason? what is the fundamental problem that the sovereign is the solution to? conflict. since the solution is a logical solution, it must allow no possibility of conflict. hobbes ' s state of nature is a collective action problem why does hobbes predict a war of all against all? chapter 14. how reason and passion provide a way out of the state of right vs. so - called laws of nature what is the fundamental right of nature? what is the fundamental law ( so - called ) of nature? what is the second law ( so - called ) of nature? why are “ laws of nature ” not really laws? hint : do they require us to actually do anything in the state of nature? the logical problem that must be solved to escape the state of nature : how can we make binding covenants in the state of nature? contracts, pacts


really laws? hint : do they require us to actually do anything in the state of nature? the logical problem that must be solved to escape the state of nature : how can we make binding covenants in the state of nature? contracts, pacts or covenants, and gifts when are contracts or covenants binding? to be binding, does a contract or covenant have to be expressly agreed to? the need for an original contract / covenant which makes all contracts / covenants binding, including itself. what are the terms of the original contract? how does hobbes determine them? to be discussed in chapter 18. are covenants entered into from fear of death binding? why? which covenants cannot be binding? ( another way of asking this question : which rights are inalienable? ) 2 - person prisoners ' dilemma ( higher numbers represent more preferred outcomes. ) player # 1 player # 2 the sequential two - person prisoners ' dilemma. chapter 15 : the necessary conditions for justice. the many laws of nature summarized in one. what is justice? what is injustice? the fool ' s challenge : to be discussed later. how many other laws of nature are there? what are they? what is hobbes ' formula for the laws of nature : the golden rule. why is the golden rule binding only in foro interno in the state of what does hobbes mean by “ theorems concerning what conduceth to the conservation and defence of themselves ”? the message : we can determine the requirements of justice by the use of reason. but we cannot acquire the motivation to act justly from reason alone. motivation comes from sanctioning of defecters. for hobbes, what is moral philosophy? is it normative or descriptive? why are the laws of nature not true laws, according to hobbes? what are they? chapter 16 sets the stage for men in the state of nature to covenant obedience to a sovereign power. representation of many by one, based on consent. multiple representatives must abide by majority rule. why not less than a majority? why not a requirement of unanimous consent? chapter 17 explains the need for an original covenant to establish a commonwealth to escape the state of nature. what is the difference between human beings, on the one hand, and the bees and the ants, on the other? covenants without the sword " are but words ". the only way out of the state of nature what is a commonwealth? what is a sovereign? commonwealth by institution ( chap. 18


, and the bees and the ants, on the other? covenants without the sword " are but words ". the only way out of the state of nature what is a commonwealth? what is a sovereign? commonwealth by institution ( chap. 18 ) commonwealth by acquisition ( chap. 20 ) chapter 18 states the terms of the original covenant that establishes a sovereign by consent ( " by institution " ). note that the same terms hold when the sovereign is established by force ( " by acquisition " ). see chap. 20. does hobbes require unanimous consent to the original covenant? can there be breach of the covenant by the sovereign? why can there be no binding covenant between sovereign and subject? why can the sovereign not do any injustice to a subject? what are the sovereign ' s powers? ( note that these powers are expanded upon in chap. 29. ) why does hobbes insist that these rights of sovereignty are " essential and inseparable "? how does hobbes justify the sovereign ' s powers? is it a moral justification? the guiding idea of hobbes ' s political philosophy : the need to avoid conflict. note : hobbes is the author of the idea that it is part of the definition of a state that it have a monopoly on the legitimate use of force. three kinds of sovereignty : monarchy, democracy, and aristocracy. which does hobbes favor? why? what is the only respect in which monarchy is inferior to democracy? chap. 20. paternal and despotical dominion what is the only difference between a commonwealth by institution and a commonwealth by acquisition? are there differences in the rights of the sovereign? how does a sovereign acquire dominion over the children of his subjects? what is the " greatest objection " to hobbes ' s account? what is hobbes ' s reply? what liberty do subjects have? do subjects have any inalienable rights? recall chap. 14. chapter 26. hobbes ' s philosophy of law why is the sovereign not subject to the law? what does hobbes mean by " law can never be against reason "? ( whose reason? ) what are the conditions for a ( 2 ) publicity ( for positive, not natural law ) ( 3 ) who interprets the law? natural law vs. positive law can the sovereign make a mistake? civil disobedience and conscientious objection to the law chap. 29. infirmities of a commonwealth the six infirmities : not enough sovereign


the law? natural law vs. positive law can the sovereign make a mistake? civil disobedience and conscientious objection to the law chap. 29. infirmities of a commonwealth the six infirmities : not enough sovereign power or the division of power. against freedom of expression and freedom of the press : the danger of " democratical writers ". hobbes ' s fear of conflict : why did he think that separation of powers would make a government less stable or that freedom of expression and freedom of the press would make a government less stable? could they make a government more stable? what is the only way for a commonwealth to be dissolved? can any law be unjust? this is the big issue between hobbes and locke. is there a standard of justice that applies to sovereigns? is there a standard of justice that applies in the state of can any law be bad? what is a good law? the fool ’ s challenge the fool says that there is no reason to keep covenants other than fear of sanctions. the example of regicide. why doesn ’ t hobbes agree with the fool? whose view better fits the psychology of chapter 6, hobbes ’ s or the fool ’ s? consider the sequential, two - person pd again. if the first person chooses to cooperate, is there any reason for the second person to defect, if s / he can do so without being sanctioned? is there moral motivation in hobbes ’ s theory? if not, why doesn ’ t he agree with the fool?


usda ' s 2007 planting intentions report, issued march 30, indicates 90. 5 million acres of corn could be planted in the u. s. this year. that would be 15 % more corn nationwide than was planted in 2006. will farmers end up planting that much corn? that ' s the big question, as much of the corn belt has started the month of april considerably colder and wetter than normal. the acreage shift to corn projected in the report was bigger than many analysts anticipated. " it was greater than i was anticipating by 3 or 4 million acres, " says bob wisner, iowa state university economist. " the biggest surprise was the shift from cotton and rice to corn in the south. we expected a million and a half acres to shift there. but we ' re looking at 3. 15 million acres of the increase in u. s. corn acreage coming in the mid - south. another 1. 2 million acres in u. s. spring wheat areas are indicating a switch to corn in 2007. " national average yield also important the acreage is important. but equally important is the national average yield you would likely get. many of the extra acres being pulled into corn production this year are on the fringe of the corn belt. they ' re not the most productive acres to grow corn. also, more corn following corn acres will be planted in 2007. " when you plant corn following corn, our agronomists tell us we should figure on a yield drag at least in a range of 9 % to 12 % on those corn on corn acres the first year they ' re in corn, " says wisner. " so, considering the fringe areas for corn and the corn following corn rotation, what we ' re looking at is the potential for a yield a little below what we would consider a trend line yield. " obviously, weather will have the final say on what the national average corn yield ends up being in 2007. that will begin with planting dates, which are becoming increasingly important now as cold and wet weather the first week of april will keep corn planting from getting an early start. also, some farmers may change their mind about planting more corn and switch some corn acres back to beans as corn prices have declined following release of the usda report. there seems to be more strength in the soybean market right now. some acres may switch back to beans " those are important factors and the bean market is trying to buy back some acres, " says wisner. " look at field conditions in the midwest now


be more strength in the soybean market right now. some acres may switch back to beans " those are important factors and the bean market is trying to buy back some acres, " says wisner. " look at field conditions in the midwest now. the last three years corn planting started in central iowa about mid - april. as it looks now, we ' ll be hard - pressed to see much planting activity in the first half of april this year. if we start running later than normal, that will tend to push some of the intended corn acres back to soybeans. " various projections on the possible size of the 2007 us corn crop are being discussed among market analysts. the largest number being floated is possibly 13. 5 billion bushels of corn being produced in the u. s. this year. wisner has crunched some numbers and that ' s a lot higher than he ' s coming up with — assuming average growing conditions for 2007. studying the 2007 usda planting intentions, he ' s looked at state - by - state acreage planted, harvested and average yield data for the past three years. based on a three - year average for yield, he calculates a possible 12. 66 billion - bushel u. s. corn crop for 2007. last year the u. s. produced a 10. 5 billion - bushel crop. the largest ever u. s. corn crop was 11. 8 billion bushels harvested in 2004. expect a lower trend line corn yield to come up with a 12. 66 billion - bushel crop for 2007 wisner is using 90. 5 million planted acres and he ' s assuming a harvested acreage of 83 million acres. " i think the weather is becoming the real key here in april in regard to the planted acreage number, " says wisner. " the last three years, we ' ve had anywhere from 25 % to 37 % of the u. s. corn crop planted by around april 25. farmers are going to be hard - pressed to do that again this year. if the weather doesn ' t cooperate with planting, and given the 50 cent or so drop in corn prices that we ' ve seen since the usda report was issued march 30, some of those intended corn acres may end up going back to soybeans. " to come up with a national average corn yield for 2007, wisner is using 152. 5 bu. per acre in his calculations to project the 12. 66 billion - bushel possible crop. " i don ' t know how


action to improve infant and young child feeding in nutrition and child health programmes a mother prepares porridge from soy - fortified bulgur in guatemala proceedings of meeting1 over 50 researchers, programme implementers, infant feeding experts and representatives of who and unicef headquarters departments and regional offices gathered in geneva in october 2008, to discuss how to fill the gap between the progress that has been made in defining principles for appropriate feeding for infants and young children from 6 to 23 months and translating these into specific policies and programmes. participants recognised that there are not enough examples of well - documented, largescale programmes that have successfully improved feeding practices in children 6 - 23 months of age and resulted in improved health outcomes. therefore, there are important weaknesses in the evidence base for effective actions. nevertheless, the evidence is strong to support the following conclusions : - recommendations for optimal infant and young child feeding include that infants should be exclusively breastfed for the first 6 months of life to achieve optimal growth, development and health, and thereafter, they should receive nutritionally adequate and safe complementary foods while breast feeding continues up to 2 years or beyond. - the global strategy for infant and young child feeding, endorsed by who member states and the unicef executive board in 2002, provides the overall framework for actions needed to protect, promote and support appropriate feeding practices in infants and young children 0 - 23 months of age. - the planning guide that accompanies the global strategy is intended to assist country teams to develop national plans of action to improve child nutrition. the guide outlines what needs to be done to protect, promote and support breastfeeding. however, it should be updated to give further clarity on what is needed to strengthen complemen tary foods and feeding practices in children 6 - 23 months of age. - acknowledging the critical contribution of continued breastfeeding to child nutrition, the meeting focused mostly on evidencebased and feasible options to improve the quality of complementary foods and on caregivers ' practices to enhance their intake. - appropriate nutrition in children 6 - 23 months of age requires interventions across the life span, from pregnancy into the first 2 years of life. they include support for maternal nutrition2, early initiation of breastfeeding, exclusive breastfeeding for 6 months, and the introduction of adequate complementary foods at 6 months with continued breastfeeding for 2 years of age or beyond. influencing appropriate feeding practices is as critical as influencing avail ability and use of adequate foods. - quality counselling of mothers and caregivers, and appropriate behavioural change communication to other family and community decisionmakers


##eding for 2 years of age or beyond. influencing appropriate feeding practices is as critical as influencing avail ability and use of adequate foods. - quality counselling of mothers and caregivers, and appropriate behavioural change communication to other family and community decisionmakers, are essential for improving infant and young child feeding practices. they should be at the centre of any strategy to improve infant and young child nutrition. - similarly, strategies should maximise the utilisation of locally produced foods in any given setting, and consider the promotion of additional products only if they can fill a critical gap in nutrients in an acceptable, feasible, affordable, sustainable and safe way, as a complement to continued breastfeeding and the local diet, not as a replacement. - where locally available foods alone will not satisfy nutritional requirements, various types of products offer promise. they may include centrally produced fortified foods, micronutrient powders, and lipid - based nutrient supplements. further research and carefully monitored applications at scale are needed to generate more evidence on which product is best for which circumstance, how best to promote their correct utilisation, and their contribution to improving nutritional, developmental and health status in different circumstances. effective programme design and delivery 1strengthening action to improve feeding of infants and young children 6 - 23 months of age in nutrition and child health programmes. geneva, 6 - 9 october 2008. who, unicef. report of proceedings. available from who website or direct link : http : / / whqlibdoc. who. int / publications / 2008 / 9789241597890 _ eng. pdf 2although not addressed at this meeting, other practices, such as delayed umbilical cord clamping to enhance newborn body iron stores and micronutrient supplementation and nutrition during pregnancy, are also very important for young child nutrition. taken from field exchange issue 36, july 2009