the presence of opposite colored bishops can give an attack an extra edge, since one bishop can attack squares which cannot be covered by the other. - bishop pair : in open positions, two bishops are considered to have an advantage over two knights or a knight and a bishop. ( in closed positions knights may be more valuable than bishops. ) the player with two bishops is said to have the bishop pair. - blindfold chess : a form of chess in which one or both players is not allowed to see the board. - blitz chess : a form of chess with a very small time limit, usually 3 or 5 minutes per player for the entire game. with the advent of electronic chess clocks, it is often the case that the time remaining is incremented by 1 or 2 seconds per move. - blunder : a very bad move, an oversight ( indicated by "?? " in notation ). - book move : an opening move found in the standard reference books on opening theory. a game is said to be " in book " when both players are playing moves found in the opening references. a game is said to be " out of book " when the players have reached the end of the variations analyzed in the opening books or if one of the players deviates with a novelty. - bullet chess : a form of chess in which each side has less than 3 minutes for the entire game. - castling : a special move involving the king and one rook. - centre / center : the 4 squares in the middle of the board. - checkmate : a position in which a player ' s king is in check and the player has no legal move ( i. e cannot move out of check ). a player whose king is checkmated loses the game. - closed game : any chess opening that begins with the moves 1. d4 d5. see also open game and semi - open game. - combination : a clever sequence of moves, often involving a sacrifice, to gain the advantage. the moves of the other player are usually forced, i. e. a combination does not rely on the opponent to make a mistake. - diagonal : a line of squares along which a bishop moves. - discovered attack : an attack made by a queen, rook or bishop when another piece or pawn moves out of its way. - discovered check : a check delivered by a piece when another piece or pawn has moved out of its way. - domination : a situation whereby capture of a piece is unavoidable despite it having wide freedom of movement


moves out of its way. - discovered check : a check delivered by a piece when another piece or pawn has moved out of its way. - domination : a situation whereby capture of a piece is unavoidable despite it having wide freedom of movement. - double attack : two attacks made with one move : these attacks may be made by the same piece ( in which case it is a fork ) ; or by different pieces ( a situation which may arise via a discovered attack in which the moved piece also makes a threat ). the attacks may directly threaten opposing pieces, or may be threats of another kind : for instance, to capture the queen and deliver checkmate. - double check : a check delivered by two pieces at the same time. - doubled pawns : a pair of pawns of the same color on the same file. - doubled rooks : two of a player ' s rooks placed on the same ( open ) file or rank. this is a battery of rooks. - draw : a game that ends without victory for either player. most drawn games are draws by agreement. the other ways that a game can end in a draw are stalemate, three - fold repetition, the fifty - move rule, and insufficient material. - en passant ( " in the act of passing " ; derived from french ) : the rule that allows a pawn that has just advanced two squares to be captured by a pawn on the same rank and adjacent file. - en prise ( from french ) : a piece that can be captured. usually used of a piece that is undefended and can be captured. - endgame : the stage of the game when there are few pieces left on the board. the endgame follows the middlegame. - the capture of a pair of pieces, one white and the other black, usually of the same type ( i. e rook for rook, knight for knight etc ). - the advantage of a rook over a minor piece. the player who captures a rook while losing a minor piece is said to have won the exchange, and the opponent is said to have lost the exchange. - exchange sacrifice : giving up a rook for a minor piece ( knight or bishop ). - expanded centre : the central sixteen squares on the board. - family fork, family check : a knight fork that attacks more than two opposing pieces concomitantly. - fianchetto : the development of the bishop to the second square on the file of the adjacent knight ( that is, b2 or g2 for


, family check : a knight fork that attacks more than two opposing pieces concomitantly. - fianchetto : the development of the bishop to the second square on the file of the adjacent knight ( that is, b2 or g2 for white, b7 or g7 for black ). - file : a column of the chessboard. a specific file can be named either using its position in algebraic notation, a – h, or by using its position in descriptive notation. for example, the f - file or the king bishop file comprises the squares f1 – f8 or kb1 – kb8. - fifty move rule : a rule stating that the game is drawn after fifty moves without a pawn move or capture. - fool ' s mate : the shortest possible chess game ending in mate : 1. f3 e5 2. g4 qh4 # ( or minor variations on this ). - forced move : a move which is clearly the only one which does not result in immediate catastrophe for the moving player. - fork : when one piece, generally a knight or pawn, simultaneously attacks two ( or more ) of the opponent ' s pieces, often specifically called a knight fork when the attacker is a knight. some sources state that only a knight can give a fork and that the term double attack is correct when another piece is involved, but this is by no means a universal usage. - good bishop : a bishop which has high mobility, typically because the player ' s pawns are on squares of color opposite to that of the bishop. - hanging : unprotected and exposed to capture. slang for en prise. to " hang a piece " is to lose it by failing to move or protect it. - hanging pawns : two friendly pawns abreast without friendly pawns on adjacent files. hanging pawns can be either a strength ( usually because they can advance ) or a weakness ( because they can ' t be defended by pawns ) depending on circumstances. - hole : a square that a player does not, and cannot in future, control with a friendly pawn. - initiative : the advantage that a player who is making threats has over the player who must respond to them. the attacking player is said to " have the initiative ". - indian bishop : a fianchettoed bishop, characteristic of the indian defenses ( king ' s indian defense and queen ' s indian defense ). - insufficient material : an endgame scenario in which all pawns have been captured, and one side has only


bishop : a fianchettoed bishop, characteristic of the indian defenses ( king ' s indian defense and queen ' s indian defense ). - insufficient material : an endgame scenario in which all pawns have been captured, and one side has only its king remaining while the other is down to a king plus one knight or a king plus one bishop. the position is a draw because it is impossible for the dominant side to force checkmate ( in the event of a king plus two knights versus a lone king, checkmate is possible only if the player with the lone king blunders by moving the king to one of the four corner squares when an alternate move would always be available ). - isolated pawn : a pawn with no pawn of the same color on an adjacent file. - italian bishop : a white bishop developed to the c4 square or a black bishop developed to c5. this development is characteristic of the giuoco piano opening, also called the italian game. - j ' adoube ( from french ) : " i adjust ". a player says " j ' adoube " as the international signal that he intends to adjust the position of a piece on the board without being subject to the touched piece rule. - king : see king - king - side : the side of the board where the kings are at the start of the game, as opposed to the queen - side. - knight : see knight - lightning chess : a form of chess with an extremely small time limit, usually 1 or 2 minutes per player for the entire game. - long diagonal : one of the two diagonals with eight squares ( a1 - h8 or h1 - a8 ). - luft ( from the german for air ) : space made for a castled king to give it a flight square to prevent a back rank mate. usually luft is made by moving a pawn on the second rank in front of the king. - major piece : a queen or rook. - majority : a larger numbers of pawns on one flank opposed by a smaller number of the opponent ' s ; often a player with a majority on one flank has a minority on the other. - mate : short for checkmate. - material : all of a player ' s pieces and pawns on the board. the player with pieces and pawns of greater value is said to have a " material advantage ". - middlegame : the part of a chess game that follows the opening and comes before the endgame, beginning after the pieces are developed in


board. the player with pieces and pawns of greater value is said to have a " material advantage ". - middlegame : the part of a chess game that follows the opening and comes before the endgame, beginning after the pieces are developed in the opening. this is usually roughly moves 20 through 40. - minor piece : a bishop or knight. - minority attack : an advance of pawns on the side of the board where one has fewer pawns than the opponent, usually carried out to provoke a weakness. - novelty : a new move in the opening. - open file : a file on which there are no pawns. a file on which only one player has no pawns is said to be half - open. - open game : any chess opening that begins with the moves 1. e4 e5. also called a double king pawn opening. see also closed game and semi - open game. - opening : the beginning moves of the game, usually roughly the first 20 moves. in the opening players set up their pawn structures and develop their pieces. the opening precedes the middle game. see chess opening. - opposite color bishops : the situation in which each player has only one bishop remaining and these bishops travel on opposite color squares ( white and black both have king ' s bishops remaining or both have queen ' s bishops ). although there are many exceptions, opposite color bishops can provide opportunities for attack in the middle game but are usually drawish in the endgame. - opposition : a situation in which two kings stand on the same rank or file with one empty square between them. the player on move may be forced to move the king to a less advantageous square. a particularly important concept in endgames. - outside passed pawn : a passed pawn that is near the edge of the board and far away from other pawns. in the endgame, usually a strong advantage for the side possessing such a pawn. - passed pawn : a pawn that has no pawn of the opposite color on its file or on any adjacent files on its way to queening. - pawn : see pawn - pawn structure : pawns being the least mobile of the pieces and the only pieces unable to move backwards, the position of the pawns influences the character of the game. the placement of the pawns is known as the pawn structure. - perpetual check : a draw forced by one player putting the opponent ' s king in a potentially endless series of checks. - piece : this term can mean either any chess piece including pawns ( as


the pawns is known as the pawn structure. - perpetual check : a draw forced by one player putting the opponent ' s king in a potentially endless series of checks. - piece : this term can mean either any chess piece including pawns ( as in the touched piece rule ), or a major or minor piece excluding pawns ( as in " i hung a piece " ), depending on context. - pin : when a piece can not move because doing so would expose a valuable piece, usually the king, to attack. pins against the king are called absolute because it is then illegal to move the pinned piece. - promotion : advancing a pawn to the eighth rank, converting it to a queen, rook, bishop or knight. promotion to a piece other than a queen is called underpromotion. - protected passed pawn : a passed pawn that is supported by another pawn. - queen : see queen - queen - side : the side of the board where the queens are at the start of the game, as opposed to the king - side. - queening : promotion to a queen. also called promotion. sometimes used to indicate promotion to a knight, rook, or bishop as well ( underpromotion ). - rank : a row of the chessboard. specific ranks are referred to by number, first rank, second rank, …, eighth rank. unlike the case with files, rank names are always given from the point of view of each individual player. white ' s first rank is black ' s eighth rank and white ' s eighth is blacks first, white ' s second rank is black ' s seventh rank and white ' s seventh is black ' s second, and so on. - rook : see rook - rapid chess : a form of chess with reduced time limit, usually 30 minutes per player. - sacrifice : when one player voluntaily gives up material in return for an advantage such as space, development, or an attack. a sacrifice in the opening is called a gambit. - scholar ' s mate : a four - move checkmate ( common among novices ) in which white plays 1. e4, follows with qh5 ( or qf3 ) and bc4, and finishes with 4. qxf7 #. - score : a record that each player must keep of the moves of the game, usually in algebraic notation. - semi - open game : any chess opening that begins with white playing 1. e4 and black playing a move other than 1... e5.


record that each player must keep of the moves of the game, usually in algebraic notation. - semi - open game : any chess opening that begins with white playing 1. e4 and black playing a move other than 1... e5. also called half - open or asymmetrical king pawn openings. see also open game and closed game. - simultaneous chess : a form of chess in which one ( usually expert ) player plays against several ( usually novice ) players simultaneously. is often an exhibition. - skewer : an attack to a valuable piece, compelling it to move to avoid capture and thus exposing a less valuable piece which can then be taken. sometimes called a thrust. - smothered mate : a checkmate delivered by a knight in which the mated king is unable to move owing to it being surrounded ( or smothered ) by its own pieces. - spanish bishop : a white king ' s bishop developed to the b5 square. this is characteristic of the ruy lopez, also known as the spanish opening. - stalemate : a position in which a player ' s king is not in check and the player has no legal move. a game is drawn if one of the kings is stalemated. - tempo : an extra move, an initiative at development. a player gains a tempo ( usually in the opening ) by making the opponent move the same piece twice or defend an enemy piece. pl : tempi. - threefold repetition : the game is drawn if the same position occurs three times with the same player to move, and with each player having the same set of legal moves each time ( the latter includes the right to take en passant and the right to castle ). - thrust : see skewer above. - time pressure, time trouble : a player having very little time on their clock ( especially less than five minutes ) to complete their remaining moves. see time control. - touched piece rule / touch move rule : the rule stating that a player who touches a piece with at least one legal move is obliged to move that piece. if an oponent ' s piece is touched it must be captured if possible. a player wishing to touch a piece to adjust its position on a square without being required to move it signals this intent by saying " j ' adoube " or " i adjust ". - triangulation : a technique used in king and pawn endgames ( less commonly seen with other pieces ) to lose a tempo and gain the opposition. - variation : a


science fair project encyclopedia supreme court of canada the supreme court of canada is canada ' s highest court and is located in the capital city of ottawa. it is now the final court of appeal, the last judicial resort for all litigants, whether individual or governmental. its jurisdiction embraces both the civil law of the province of quebec and the common law of the other provinces and territories. when handling quebec civil law cases the court is careful to have them reviewed by the three civil law judges that are always on the court. the court is composed of nine justices, formally appointed by the governor general on the recommendation of the cabinet. the creation of the court was authorized by the constitution act 1867 ( formerly called the british north america act 1867 ). the first bills for its creation, introduced in the parliament of canada in 1869 and in 1870, were withdrawn. on april 8, 1875, however, a new bill was finally passed. the statesmen most prominent in establishing the supreme court were sir john a. macdonald, telesphore fournier, alexander mackenzie, and edward blake. in the early days the supreme court was not the court of last resort for cases : all cases could be appealed to the judicial committee of the privy council in london. as well, cases could bypass the court and go directly to london from the provincial courts of appeal. as time went on, the privy council became increasingly unpopular. the british judges tended to side with the provinces at the expense of the federal government. during the great depression the british judges ruled that a number of the liberal government ' s welfare reform proposals were unconstitutional, despite public support for them in canada. most provincial governments began to demand the federal government press the uk for judicial independence. under canadian law the governor general appoints all justices of the court on recommendation from cabinet. the supreme court act limits eligibility for appointment to persons who have been judges of a superior court, or members of the bar for ten or more years. members of the bar or superior judiciary of quebec, by law, must hold three of the nine positions on the supreme court of canada. by convention, the remaining six positions are divided in the following manner : three from ontario, two from the western provinces and one from the atlantic provinces. the cabinet ' s choices for puisne justices and the chief justice do not require the approval of any other governmental body or official. however, there is usually some consulation with the canadian legal establishment prior to the nomination. starting in 2004, a parliamentary committee screens new nominees and reports to parliament, though this


chief justice do not require the approval of any other governmental body or official. however, there is usually some consulation with the canadian legal establishment prior to the nomination. starting in 2004, a parliamentary committee screens new nominees and reports to parliament, though this committee does not have the power to block appointments. the term for a justice of the supreme court is until he or she retires or, at latest, attains the age of 75 years. the role of the supreme court in the canadian court system the canadian court system may be seen as a pyramid, with a broad base formed by the various provincial and territorial courts whose judges are appointed by the provincial or territorial governments. at the next level are the provinces ' and territories ' superior courts whose judges are appointed by the federal government. judgments from the superior courts may be appealed to the next level, the provincial or territorial courts of appeal. there are also federal courts : the tax court of canada, the federal court, the federal court of appeal and the court martial appeal court of canada. unlike the provincial superior courts, which exercise inherent or general jurisdiction, the federal courts ' jurisdiction is limited by statute. the supreme court of canada hears appeals from the provincial courts of last resort, usually the provincial or territorial courts of appeal, and the federal court of appeal. in most cases, permission to appeal must first be obtained from a panel of three judges of the court. by convention, this panel never explains why it gives leave to appeal or not. cases for which leave to appeal is not required are primarily criminal cases and appeals from provincial references. a final source of cases is the referral power of the federal government. in such cases, the supreme court is required to give an opinion on questions referred to it by the governor - in - council ( cabinet ). the supreme court thus performs a unique function. it can be asked by the governor - in - council to hear references considering important questions of law. such referals may concern the constitutionality or interpretation of federal or provincial legislation, or the division of powers between federal and provincial levels of government. any point of law may be referred in this manner. however, the court is not often called upon to hear references. when it is, the opinion on the question referred is often of national importance ; one current example concerns same - sex marriage. constitutional questions may, of course, also be raised in the normal case of appeals involving individual litigants, governments, government agencies or crown corporations. in such cases the federal and provincial governments must be notified of any constitutional


concerns same - sex marriage. constitutional questions may, of course, also be raised in the normal case of appeals involving individual litigants, governments, government agencies or crown corporations. in such cases the federal and provincial governments must be notified of any constitutional questions and may intervene to submit a brief and attend oral argument at the court. sessions of the court the court sits only in ottawa, although litigants can present oral arguments from remote locations by means of a videoconference system. the court ' s hearings are open to the public. most hearings are taped for delayed telecast in both of canada ' s official languages. when in session, the court sits monday to friday, hearing two appeals a day. a quorum consists of five members for appeals. a panel of seven or nine justices hears most cases. on the bench, the chief justice of canada, or, in her absence, the senior puisne justice, presides from the centre chair with the other justices seated to her right and left by order of seniority of appointment. at sittings of the court, the justices usually appear in black silk robes but they wear their ceremonial robes of bright scarlet trimmed with canadian white mink in court on special occasions and in the senate at the opening of each new session of parliament. the decision of the court is sometimes rendered at the conclusion of the hearing. more often, judgement is reserved to enable the justices to write considered reasons. decisions of the court need not be unanimous ; a majority may decide, with dissenting reasons given by the minority. each justice may write reasons in any case if he or she chooses to do so. the supreme court has the ultimate power of judicial review over canadian federal and provincial laws ' constitutional validity. however, the federal parliament or the provincial legislatures may make a particular law temporarily immune from review against certain sections of the canadian charter of rights and freedoms. this is done by including a reference in the law to the notwithstanding clause, also known as the " override power. " in one case, the quebec national assembly invoked this power to override a supreme court decision ( ford v. quebec ( a. g. ) ) that held that one of quebec ' s language laws banning the display of english commercial signs was inconsistent with the charter. a puisne justice of the supreme court of canada is referred to as " the honourable mr / madam justice " and the chief justice as " right honourable. " the nine current justices - the right honourable madam justice beverley mclachlin, p. c., b


of the supreme court of canada is referred to as " the honourable mr / madam justice " and the chief justice as " right honourable. " the nine current justices - the right honourable madam justice beverley mclachlin, p. c., b. a., m. a., ll. b. - chief justice of canada - - appointed 1989 to the court, appointed chief justice on january 7, 2000 - the honourable mr. justice john c. major - - appointed 1992 - the honourable mr. justice michel bastarache - - appointed 1995 - the honourable mr. justice william ian corneil binnie - - appointed 1998 - the honourable mr. justice louis lebel - - appointed 2000 - the honourable madam justice marie deschamps - - appointed 2002 - the honourable mr. justice morris fish - - appointed 2003 - the honourable madam justice rosalie abella - - appointed 2004 - the honourable madam justice louise charron - - appointed 2004 on august 24, 2004, minister of justice irwin cotler nominated charron and abella to replace frank iacobucci who retired in the spring of 2004 and louise arbour who stepped down in early 2004 to accept an appointment as un high commissioner for human rights. cotler also announced a new process which will allow a parliamentary committee to review supreme court nominations, although the committee would not have veto power over the nominations. on august 30, after a week of committee hearings, prime minister of canada paul martin officially recommended abella and charron for appointment to the court. two conservative members of the committee, peter mackay and vic toews, refused to sign the committee ' s endorsement of the nominees, stating that the new process did not provide the committee with sufficient information about the nominees. however, martin and cotler advised that they felt the process had been sufficiently transparent. with the new appointments four out of the nine justices are women making the canadian supreme court the world ' s most gender - balanced national high court. the contents of this article is licensed from www. wikipedia. org under the gnu free documentation license. click here to see the transparent copy and copyright details


a partnership between scotts and the national wildlife federation was recently announced to the dismay of people everywhere that love the mission of nwf : inspiring americans to protect wildlife for our children ’ s future. what do they have to gain? one – greenwashing. the other – funds. to begin this sad greenwashing story we need to start with monsanto. monsanto began in 1901 as a chemical company and has recently gained notoriety in environmental circles for its hand in gmo crops. monsanto is also behind : - agent orange. monsanto knew about the human health effects before agent orange was even used in vietnam, yet continues to block any compensation for veterans that were exposed to the herbicides toxicity. the dioxin in agent orange may well be one of the most toxic chemicals on the planet. - bovine growth hormone ( rbgh ). this is the synthetic ge hormone that has been banned in every other industrialized nation for health reasons, except for the u. s. it causes cows to become sick, requiring even more antibiotics that have their own negative health effects. it causes harm to people. instead of addressing the problem, monsanto sued a dairy farm that labeled their milk rbgh - free. due to consumer concern, monsanto dumped their division responsible for rbgh, but have never owned up to the harm it causes. - untested and unlabeled gmos. a monsanto official declared that the job of proving safety was up to the fda. that is almost funny given the number of government officials have serious ties to monsanto. in fact : in order for the fda to determine if monsanto ’ s growth hormones were safe or not, monsanto was required to submit a scientific report on that topic. margaret miller, one of monsanto ’ s researchers put the report together. shortly before the report submission, miller left monsanto and was hired by the fda. her first job for the fda was to determine whether or not to approve the report she wrote for monsanto. in short, monsanto approved its own report. - inflated success of gmo crops. the monsanto scientists pushed through de - regulation of their gmo patents due to the promise that farms would use fewer pesticides and have greater yields, when in fact neither have come to pass. instead, reports show, taxpayers have subsidized billions of dollars on monsanto and received lower crop prices, loss of major export orders product recalls, and “ superweeds ” that are resistant to roundup in return. - persecution of


. instead, reports show, taxpayers have subsidized billions of dollars on monsanto and received lower crop prices, loss of major export orders product recalls, and “ superweeds ” that are resistant to roundup in return. - persecution of small family farmers. they not only take out ads and encourage anonymous tips regarding seed saving from year to year, they actively pursue farmers whose crops were contaminated by the wind. the explanation is that these farmers must now pay monsanto their technology fee for use of the seeds – even though they all told us there was no need to worry about cross - contamination. this is not only scary for those farmers, but terrifying for those that make their living on organic farms and those that rely on organic corn, canola, soybeans, dairy, and milk to feed their families. - roundup and its harmful effects. the use of roundup comes with a whole host of problems to humans and to birds, fish, beneficial insects and even the soil it is used on. roundup ’ s heavy use is even hindering the yields from crops that were gmo for it to be used on. - and more, including pcbs, aspartame, ddt, and farmer suicides. scotts and monsanto so you may be asking yourself why i just spent so much time talking about monsanto when scotts is the company partnering with the national wildlife federation. scotts is monsanto ’ s exclusive agent for the international marketing and distribution of consumer roundup. they are intrinsically linked, as is their mission. scotts miracle - gro is a corporation that makes billions of dollars a year as the maker of pesticides, weed killers, and genetically - modified grass seed that ravage our natural world and uphold monsanto ’ s values, or lack thereof, of profits first and safety later. this is what is called “ taking money from the enemy. ” scotts, monsanto, and the national wildlife federation the nwf has spent decades working to safeguard america ’ s wildlife and wildlife habitat. they actively engage in improving federal and state policies that will improve wildlife conservation. scotts and monsanto actively work against it, including doing their best to get exerting their influence within the federal government through the “ revolving door ” of key people moving from monsanto to government and back again. the nwf has an important mission to get kids outside, to connect with nature, to be healthier. scotts ’ products ensure that our outdoors are less safe due to the increase in


key people moving from monsanto to government and back again. the nwf has an important mission to get kids outside, to connect with nature, to be healthier. scotts ’ products ensure that our outdoors are less safe due to the increase in pesticides used on lawns, city parks, and farms. pesticide exposure from products like roundup is linked to many health problems beginning prenatally and extending well beyond. the nwf is working to solutions to the climate change crisis. scotts, benefiting from the lobbying of monsanto, is putting our food security at risk during this time of rapidly changing climate patterns. the u. s. is being set up to be a country of monoculture that can ’ t be sustainable with the impending problems of global warming. sign this petition : stop nwf from partnering with scotts / monsanto then, let the national wildlife federation know what you think. - call nwf at 1 - 800 - 822 - 9919, m - f 8 a. m. to 8 p. m. est - comment on nwf ’ s facebook page - contact nwf on their website - tweet a message to @ nwf lastly, share the message! if your friends and family aren ’ t informed they can ’ t take this important action. will you tell nwf that a partnership with scotts / monsanto is not what will help them get kids outside and connect with nature? update : yesterday ( and several days after this post was written ), nwf announced that they will be ending their partnership with scotts! now use your time to tell them how much you appreciate it!


printer friendly version life on mars? mars rover opportunity finds some of the necessary conditions once existed 04 may 2012 tubingen geoscientist dr. christian schroder is part of a team which today revealed exciting new information garnered from information sent back from mars. late last year, the nasa mars rover opportunity found what appeared to be veins of gypsum when examining the edge of the crater dubbed “ endeavour. ” gypsum is formed in water at a temperature lower than 60°c. its presence on mars indicates that conditions conducive to life have existed there at least temporarily. the rock of the crater edge is similar to suevite, a rock consisting partly of melted material which is typically found at meteor impact sites. the results of the study, led by steve squyres at cornell university in ithaca, new york have just been published in science. christian schroder ’ s research at tubingen ’ s center for applied geoscience focuses on the biochemistry of iron minerals. since the start of the nasa mars exploration rover in 2003, he has been a member of the scientific team responsible for ( among other things ) the deployment of the rover ’ s alpha - particle x - ray spectrometer ( apxs ), which was developed at the max planck institute for chemistry in mainz and is being further developed under the direction of ralf gellert at the university of guelph in canada. the apxs analyses elements – making it possible to identify the gypsum vein and the nature of the surrounding rock. opportunity has been trundling along the martian soil for eight years now, and has covered more than 33 km. one of its goals has been the crater endeavour, which is 22 km across and makes geological layers accessible which are older than the sulfur - rich sandstone surrounding opportuni - ty ’ s landing site. along the way, schroder helped to examine loose rocks on the surface. some of them turned out to be meteorites, while others were flung there out of impact craters – although not out of “ endeavour, ” according to the apxs analyses. gypsum, with the chemical formula, only forms in water below 60°c. at a higher tem - perature, other minerals, such as anhydrite, caso4, would also be present. that means that condi - tions conducive to life once existed on the edge of the crater. water circulated through cracks in the rock after the crater was made. had it


##drite, caso4, would also be present. that means that condi - tions conducive to life once existed on the edge of the crater. water circulated through cracks in the rock after the crater was made. had it been high in sulfur, it would probably have led to the formation of the sulfur - rich sandstone found around the landing site. the crater is of a similar size and makeup to the edges of the nordlinger ries crater in southern germany, a famous example of a crater made by the impact of a large meteor nearly 15 million years ago. suevite, one of the impactite category of rocks, is composed of ground and broken rock, silicates made molten by the impact as well as minerals only created at high pressures and temper - atures. suevite was first identified at the nordlinger ries and the name comes from the latin word for swabia, the region where it is located in southern germany. the mars crater “ endeavour ” was formed more than 3. 7 billion years ago. this color view of a mineral vein comes from the panoramic camera on nasa ' s mars exploration rover opportunity. the vein is about 1. 5 cm wide and about 45 cm long. opportunity examined it in november 2011 and found it to be rich in calcium and sulfur, possibly the calcium - sulfate mineral gypsum. ( source : nasa / jpl - caltech / cornell / asu ) this map shows the 33. 5 km route driven by nasa ' s mars exploration rover opportunity from the site of its landing inside eagle crater at the upper left, to its location more than 91 months later, on the cape york section of the rim of endeavour crater. the base image for the map is a mosaic of images taken by the context camera on nasa ' s mars reconnaissance orbiter. ( source : nasa / jpl - caltech / msss ).


the four main approaches types of research quantitative research is generally associated with the positivist / postpositivist paradigm. it usually involves collecting and converting data into numerical form so that statistical calculations can be made and conclusions drawn. researchers will have one or more hypotheses. these are the questions that they want to address which include predictions about possible relationships between the things they want to investigate ( variables ). in order to find answers to these questions, the researchers will also have various instruments and materials ( e. g. paper or computer tests, observation check lists etc. ) and a clearly defined plan of action. data is collected by various means following a strict procedure and prepared for statistical analysis. nowadays, this is carried out with the aid of sophisticated statistical computer packages. the analysis enables the researchers to determine to what extent there is a relationship between two or more variables. this could be a simple association ( e. g. people who exercise on a daily basis have lower blood pressure ) or a causal relationship ( e. g. daily exercise actually leads to lower blood pressure ). statistical analysis permits researchers to discover complex causal relationships and to determine to what extent one variable influences another. the results of statistical analyses are presented in journals in a standard way, the end result being a p value. for people who are not familiar with scientific research jargon, the discussion sections at the end of articles in peer reviewed journals usually describe the results of the study and explain the implications of the findings in straightforward terms objectivity is very important in quantitative research. consequently, researchers take great care to avoid their own presence, behaviour or attitude affecting the results ( e. g. by changing the situation being studied or causing participants to behave differently ). they also critically examine their methods and conclusions for any possible bias. researchers go to great lengths to ensure that they are really measuring what they claim to be measuring. for example, if the study is about whether background music has a positive impact on restlessness in residents in a nursing home, the researchers must be clear about what kind of music to include, the volume of the music, what they mean by restlessness, how to measure restlessness and what is considered a positive impact. this must all be considered, prepared and controlled in advance. external factors, which might affect the results, must also be controlled for. in the above example, it would be important to make sure that the introduction of the music was not accompanied by other changes ( e. g. the person who brings the cd player chatting with the residents after the music


, must also be controlled for. in the above example, it would be important to make sure that the introduction of the music was not accompanied by other changes ( e. g. the person who brings the cd player chatting with the residents after the music session ) as it might be the other factor which produces the results ( i. e. the social contact and not the music ). some possible contributing factors cannot always be ruled out but should be acknowledged by the researchers. the main emphasis of quantitative research is on deductive reasoning which tends to move from the general to the specific. this is sometimes referred to as a top down approach. the validity of conclusions is shown to be dependent on one or more premises ( prior statements, findings or conditions ) being valid. aristotle ’ s famous example of deductive reasoning was : all men are mortal asocrates is a man a socrates is mortal. if the premises of an argument are inaccurate, then the argument is inaccurate. this type of reasoning is often also associated with the fictitious character sherlock holmes. however, most studies also include an element of inductive reasoning at some stage of the research ( see section on qualitative research for more details ). researchers rarely have access to all the members of a particular group ( e. g. all people with dementia, carers or healthcare professionals ). however, they are usually interested in being able to make inferences from their study about these larger groups. for this reason, it is important that the people involved in the study are a representative sample of the wider population / group. however, the extent to which generalizations are possible depends to a certain extent on the number of people involved in the study, how they were selected and whether they are representative of the wider group. for example, generalizations about psychiatrists should be based on a study involving psychiatrists and not one based on psychology students. in most cases, random samples are preferred ( so that each potential participant has an equal chance of participating ) but sometimes researchers might want to ensure that they include a certain number of people with specific characteristics and this would not be possible using random sampling methods. generalizability of the results is not limited to groups of people but also to situations. it is presumed that the results of a laboratory experiment reflect the real life situation which the study seeks to clarify. when looking at results, the p value is important. p stands for probability. it measures the likelihood that a particular finding or observed difference is due to chance. the p value is between 0 and 1. the closer


which the study seeks to clarify. when looking at results, the p value is important. p stands for probability. it measures the likelihood that a particular finding or observed difference is due to chance. the p value is between 0 and 1. the closer the result is to 0, the less likely it is that the observed difference is due to chance. the closer the result is to 1, the greater the likelihood that the finding is due to chance ( random variation ) and that there is no difference between the groups / variables. qualitative research is the approach usually associated with the social constructivist paradigm which emphasises the socially constructed nature of reality. it is about recording, analysing and attempting to uncover the deeper meaning and significance of human behaviour and experience, including contradictory beliefs, behaviours and emotions. researchers are interested in gaining a rich and complex understanding of people ’ s experience and not in obtaining information which can be generalized to other larger groups. the approach adopted by qualitative researchers tends to be inductive which means that they develop a theory or look for a pattern of meaning on the basis of the data that they have collected. this involves a move from the specific to the general and is sometimes called a bottom - up approach. however, most research projects also involve a certain degree of deductive reasoning ( see section on quantitative research for more details ). qualitative researchers do not base their research on pre - determined hypotheses. nevertheless, they clearly identify a problem or topic that they want to explore and may be guided by a theoretical lens - a kind of overarching theory which provides a framework for their investigation. the approach to data collection and analysis is methodical but allows for greater flexibility than in quantitative research. data is collected in textual form on the basis of observation and interaction with the participants e. g. through participant observation, in - depth interviews and focus groups. it is not converted into numerical form and is not statistically analysed. data collection may be carried out in several stages rather than once and for all. the researchers may even adapt the process mid - way, deciding to address additional issues or dropping questions which are not appropriate on the basis of what they learn during the process. in some cases, the researchers will interview or observe a set number of people. in other cases, the process of data collection and analysis may continue until the researchers find that no new issues are emerging. researchers will tend to use methods which give participants a certain degree of freedom and permit spontaneity rather than forcing


of people. in other cases, the process of data collection and analysis may continue until the researchers find that no new issues are emerging. researchers will tend to use methods which give participants a certain degree of freedom and permit spontaneity rather than forcing them to select from a set of pre - determined responses ( of which none might be appropriate or accurately describe the participant ’ s thoughts, feelings, attitudes or behaviour ) and to try to create the right atmosphere to enable people to express themselves. this may mean adopting a less formal and less rigid approach than that used in quantitative research. it is believed that people are constantly trying to attribute meaning to their experience. therefore, it would make no sense to limit the study to the researcher ’ s view or understanding of the situation and expect to learn something new about the experience of the participants. consequently, the methods used may be more open - ended, less narrow and more exploratory ( particularly when very little is known about a particular subject ). the researchers are free to go beyond the initial response that the participant gives and to ask why, how, in what way etc. in this way, subsequent questions can be tailored to the responses just given. qualitative research often involves a smaller number of participants. this may be because the methods used such as in - depth interviews are time and labour intensive but also because a large number of people are not needed for the purposes of statistical analysis or to make generalizations from the results. the smaller number of people typically involved in qualitative research studies and the greater degree of flexibility does not make the study in any way “ less scientific ” than a typical quantitative study involving more subjects and carried out in a much more rigid manner. the objectives of the two types of research and their underlying philosophical assumptions are simply different. however, as discussed in the section on “ philosophies guiding research ”, this does not mean that the two approaches cannot be used in the same study. pragmatic approach to research ( mixed methods ) the pragmatic approach to science involves using the method which appears best suited to the research problem and not getting caught up in philosophical debates about which is the best approach. pragmatic researchers therefore grant themselves the freedom to use any of the methods, techniques and procedures typically associated with quantitative or qualitative research. they recognise that every method has its limitations and that the different approaches can be complementary. they may also use different techniques at the same time or one after the other. for example, they might start with face - to -


or qualitative research. they recognise that every method has its limitations and that the different approaches can be complementary. they may also use different techniques at the same time or one after the other. for example, they might start with face - to - face interviews with several people or have a focus group and then use the findings to construct a questionnaire to measure attitudes in a large scale sample with the aim of carrying out statistical analysis. depending on which measures have been used, the data collected is analysed in the appropriate manner. however, it is sometimes possible to transform qualitative data into quantitative data and vice versa although transforming quantitative data into qualitative data is not very common. being able to mix different approaches has the advantages of enabling triangulation. triangulation is a common feature of mixed methods studies. it involves, for example : - the use of a variety of data sources ( data triangulation ) - the use of several different researchers ( investigator triangulation ) - the use of multiple perspectives to interpret the results ( theory triangulation ) - the use of multiple methods to study a research problem ( methodological triangulation ) in some studies, qualitative and quantitative methods are used simultaneously. in others, first one approach is used and then the next, with the second part of the study perhaps expanding on the results of the first. for example, a qualitative study involving in - depth interviews or focus group discussions might serve to obtain information which will then be used to contribute towards the development of an experimental measure or attitude scale, the results of which will be analysed statistically. advocacy / participatory approach to research ( emancipatory ) to some degree, researchers adopting an advocacy / participatory approach feel that the approaches to research described so far do not respond to the needs or situation of people from marginalised or vulnerable groups. as they aim to bring about positive change in the lives of the research subjects, their approach is sometimes described as emancipatory. it is not a neutral stance. the researchers are likely to have a political agenda and to try to give the groups they are studying a voice. as they want their research to directly or indirectly result in some kind of reform, it is important that they involve the group being studied in the research, preferably at all stages, so as to avoid further marginalising them. the researchers may adopt a less neutral position than that which is usually required in scientific research. this might involve interacting informally or even


healthcare and decision - making in dementia consent to medical treatment in the professional rules for german doctors, the following two paragraphs are relevant to the issue of consent : in all medical treatment, human dignity must be ensured and the personality, will and rights of the patients, in particular the right of self - determination must be respected. in order to provide treatment a doctor requires the consent of the patient. in principle consent must be preceded by the necessary explanation in personal discussion. the issue of consent is dealt with by numerous high level court decisions which have consequently set precedents. a basic principle is that any treatment carried out on a person against his / her will constitutes bodily injury. for this reason consent is necessary in all cases. if the person undergoing treatment is unable to consent, in certain cases the decision can be taken by a legal representative. according to § 1904 of the civil code, the guardian can consent to health examinations, medical treatment or surgery, but must obtain authorisation from the guardianship court if there is a reasonable risk that the ward could die as a result of the measure or might suffer from serious and more prolonged damage to health. nevertheless, if not carrying out the measure immediately would endanger the health of the patient, it can be carried out without prior authorisation. whether a person is capable of consent is not based on legal criteria but rather on whether a person can understand the consequences of an intervention or treatment for his / her body, profession and private life ( laufs, 1993 ). it is not always possible to determine whether a person has this capacity. appointment of a health care proxy a person who has capacity can appoint a health care proxy in an advance directive. consent in case of emergency in an emergency situation, a doctor must decide on the basis of the presumed will of the patient. in order to determine what this might be, he / she should ask relatives and then respect this will. even if the presumed will of the patient seems unreasonable ( e. g. declining a blood transfusion on religious grounds ), it must still be respected ( winterstein 6 ). if it is not an emergency but the patient is unable to consent, the doctor should contact the guardianship court in order to appoint a guardian, rather than rely on relatives to make the decision. consent to research and clinical trials the issue of protecting research subjects involved in pharmaceutical trials is addressed in a special paragraph in the medicines act. the following restrictions apply according to this law ( leenen et al., 1993 ) : - anybody participating in such research must have given


clinical trials the issue of protecting research subjects involved in pharmaceutical trials is addressed in a special paragraph in the medicines act. the following restrictions apply according to this law ( leenen et al., 1993 ) : - anybody participating in such research must have given informed consent - anybody who has been involuntarily committed cannot participate - only therapeutic research is possible in the case of incompetent people. the restriction regarding therapeutic research is important for practically all areas of research in germany. in fact, the main reason why germany did not sign the convention on human rights and biomedicine ( council of europe, 1997 ) was that it contains a clause which allows in certain circumstances for non - therapeutic research to be carried out on people lacking the capacity to consent, i. e. research which does not have the potential to produce results of direct benefit to the health of the person concerned. advance directives / living wills the legal status of advance directives in germany since 1. 9. 2009 advance directives have been legally recognised. the new law is integrated into book 4 of the civil code, § § 1901 a + b ( family law, section 3, heading 2, legal guardianship ). the new law recognises that advance directives reflect a citizen ’ s right to self - determination and are linked to the issue of consent to treatment. therefore, it is possible for people to refuse or limit specific treatments in advance of their incapacity by means of advance directives. an advance directive may in certain circumstances be considered as binding e. g. if there is no indication of a change of will related to the specific situation and if the instruction is based on sufficient medical information for the medical treatment proposed. in such cases, a decision that is clearly in favour of withdrawing treatment and is clearly the manifest desire of the patient must be complied with ( council of europe, 2003 ). conditions surrounding the writing, validity and registering of an advance directive an advance directive can only be written by an adult who has capacity and is not subject to external pressure. for example, writing an advance directive cannot be made a condition for concluding a contract. the advance directive must be in written form. it is assumed that a person has capacity but confirmation of this by a notary may be helpful. the advance directive should refer to specific treatment or situations and cannot include a request for something that is illegal e. g. assisted suicide. advice from a doctor is advisable but not necessary. there is no set procedure for registering advance directives and they are not limited


refer to specific treatment or situations and cannot include a request for something that is illegal e. g. assisted suicide. advice from a doctor is advisable but not necessary. there is no set procedure for registering advance directives and they are not limited to a set period of time. what an advance directive can cover an advance directive can cover medical investigations, treatment and / or medical interventions. obligation to comply with instructions contained in an advance directive if a person has a guardian, the guardian has to check that the previously expressed wishes relate to the current situation and if so, to ensure that those wishes are respected. the doctor and the guardian have to discuss the wishes contained in the advance directive in order to come to a decision about treatment. people who are close to the patient and other trusted persons should be heard provided that this would not result in considerable delay. it is often difficult for doctors to determine whether instructions / wishes expressed in an advance directive correspond to the current situation. for some, it is also unclear whether failure to initiate or end life - supporting treatment / measures is permitted or, on the contrary, fulfils the criteria for the criminal offence of “ murder at the request of the victim ” ( mathy and godschalk, in alzheimer europe, 2006 ). the new law does not seem to offer any clarity on this issue. amending, renewing and cancelling advance directives an advance directive can be withdrawn at any time. it is not stated that a person has to have full legal capacity to do this. previously expressed wishes in the absence of valid advance directive paragraph 1901a does, however, outline the obligation of guardians to take into account previously wishes in cases where the person lacking capacity did not make an advance directive or made one but it does not apply to the current situation. in doing so, guardians must base their appraisal of the person ’ s wishes on concrete evidence such as wishes which were previously expressed either in writing or orally, ethical or religious convictions and known personal values. this must be done irrespective of the stage or type of illness that the person has. access to information / diagnosis the right to be informed the obligation to provide information to patients is based on the need to justify the reason for the treatment and to inform the patient of any possible risks, consequences or side effects. according to the highest judicial authorities, information must be " by and large " provided. this means that the kind of information to be supplied depends on each individual and his / her particular medical case ( leenen et al.


, consequences or side effects. according to the highest judicial authorities, information must be " by and large " provided. this means that the kind of information to be supplied depends on each individual and his / her particular medical case ( leenen et al., 1993 ). access to medical files under § 242 of the civil code, patients have a right to access their medical files and do not need to justify the request. if, however, information has been provided by third parties, this access may be restricted. as mentioned earlier, the doctor is obliged according to § 8 of the professional rules for german doctors to provide the patient with information in order to enable the latter to give informed consent. in § 10 it is stated that the doctor must grant access to the patient ' s medical files. however, those parts that contain the doctor ' s subjective impressions or perceptions are excluded from this. a fee may be charged for the provision of copies of these records. it is not stated whether such access can be granted to third parties. the right to designate another person to be informed on one ’ s behalf if a health care proxy has been designated in an advance directive, this person would also be entitled to receive information on behalf of the person. confidentiality / disclosure of information to other people § 9 of the professional rules for german doctors obliges doctors to maintain confidentiality in respect of any information that is entrusted to him / her in his / her capacity as a doctor. this obligation exists even after the death of the patient. the disclosure of personal information to third parties is prohibited by § 823 of the civil code which governs the protection of personal rights. the issue of privacy is also addressed in the penal code. paragraph 203 states that it is a punishable offence for anyone to reveal without authorisation a fact that another person told in confidence due to the former ' s professional capacity. this applies to doctors, dentists, veterinary surgeons, pharmacists, members of a state controlled and recognised medical profession and professional state recognised psychologists. it also applies to assistants of the latter acting on a professional basis and those working for them in preparation for the profession. end - of - life care and issues the following instructions on " aid to the dying " can be found in § 16 of the professional rules for german doctors : " a doctor – giving priority to the wishes of the patient – may refrain from life - prolonging measures and restrict him / herself to the alleviation of pain only if the postponement of the inevitable death of the dying


german doctors : " a doctor – giving priority to the wishes of the patient – may refrain from life - prolonging measures and restrict him / herself to the alleviation of pain only if the postponement of the inevitable death of the dying person would merely mean unreasonable prolongation of suffering. a doctor must not actively shorten the life of the dying person. he / she must not place his own interest or the interest or third parties above the wellbeing of the patient. " the above paragraph which addresses the issue of both passive and active euthanasia does not refer to incapacitated people or to previously expressed wishes. it is therefore unclear what the doctor ' s obligation would be in the case of an incapacitated person. the issue of assisted suicide and active euthanasia is also addressed in the penal code. a person who deliberately incites another person to commit an illegal act is guilty of " complicity before the act " according to paragraph 26 of the penal code. if the person voluntarily helps another to commit an illegal act, he / she is considered as an accomplice according to paragraph 27. however, neither of these laws is applicable in the case of assisted suicide due to the fact that suicide is not considered a punishable offence. nevertheless, there are certain conditions. the person who commits suicide must be have acted according to the principle of " tatherrschaft " which means that he / she must have been able to control his / her actions, have been capable of acting in a responsible manner and have acted freely without coercion. non - assistance to a person in danger on the other hand, paragraph 323c of the penal code which deals with failure to provide assistance, states that it is an offence not to provide assistance to a person in case of accident, common danger or urgency. this is particularly relevant for doctors whose duty it would be to provide assistance and try to reanimate a person who had committed suicide as soon as the latter became unconscious. murder at the request of the victim euthanasia is illegal in that it could be classed as either murder, manslaughter or murder at the request of the victim – all of which are liable to entail a prison sentence. in the case of euthanasia, murder at the request of the victim ( totung auf verlangen ) is the charge frequently brought against the perpetrator of the act. this act ( paragraph 216 of the penal code ) states : " whoever causes the death of another person after having been express


of the victim ( totung auf verlangen ) is the charge frequently brought against the perpetrator of the act. this act ( paragraph 216 of the penal code ) states : " whoever causes the death of another person after having been expressly and sincerely asked to do so by this other person, is liable to a prison sentence of 6 months to five years. the attempt is also punishable. " council of europe ( 2003 ), survey on member states ’ laws and practice relevant to euthanasia : replies to the questionnaire to member states relating to euthanasia, steering committee on bioethics ( cdbi ) laufs, a., atztrecht. 5. aufl. ( 1993 ), rz 14, 144, 163, 164, 167, 168, 179, 185, 198, 204, 210, 241 - 266. in demenzen : fruhzeitig erkennen, aktiv behandeln, betroffenen und angehorige effektiv unterstutzen, edited by wachtler, c. ( 1997 ), georg thieme verlag mathy and godschalk ( information provided for the publication : alzheimer europe ( 2006 ), alzheimer europe report : the use of advance directives by people with dementia, alzheimer europe the professional rules for german doctors quoted in this report are part of the model version which was decided upon at the 100 th german medical parliament in eisenach in 1997. they take on legal validity when adopted at the council meetings of the state chamber of the medical council and approved by the supervisory authorities. they are legally binding for doctors who are members of the chamber in their respective " land ". membership of such a chamber is obligatory and there are only marginal differences between the model rules and the actual rules adopted by the chamber in each land. in " demenzen : fruhzeitig erkennen, aktiv behandeln, betroffenen und angehorige effektiv unterstutzen, thieme verlag " last updated : mercredi 27 avril 2011


background information about dementia and home care services according to the “ icelandic national health plan to the year 2010 ” published by the ministry of health and social security in 2004, “ with the appropriate services and support it is fair to assume that more people would be able to stay longer at home. ( … ) it is important to emphasise the need to maintain and enhance physical and mental abilities, in order for senior citizens to be able to stay as long as possible in their own homes. ” methods to achieve this are outlined. these include : - the need to strengthen and increase cooperation and coordination of home help and - the need to increase the availability of day care and health centre home services, in which the emphasis should be on round - the - clock, 7 - day service and short - term hospitalisation. the ministry has set itself a target, namely that by 2010 “ more than 70 % of citizens over the age of 80 will retain their health to the extent that they can with the appropriate support services, continue to live in their homes and participate in daily life. ” legislation relating to the provision of home care services in iceland, there are a few laws which specifically deal with issues related to the elderly. the first was enacted in 1982 and was then revised in 1989 and 1999. the underlying principle of these laws is that the elderly should be respected. the laws also state that the elderly have a legal entitlement to the services that they need and that consequently the state must ensure that their needs are met in a way that is relevant and economically feasible ( jonsson and palsson, 2005 ). the purpose of the act on the affairs of the elderly, no. 125 of 31 december 1999 ( act no. 125 of 1999 ) is stated as being “ to ensure that the elderly are able, for as long as possible, to enjoy a normal domestic life and that they are assured the required institutional services when needed. ” an elderly person is defined as being a person aged 67 or older. this legislation, combined with the high cost of nursing home care and the desire of many elderly people to continue living in their own homes, has resulted in an increased demand for home care services ( johnson and olafsdottir, 2005 ). home care in iceland includes health care and social services. the former is in the hands of health care centre employees pursuant to the act on health care services. the latter is handled by municipalities or the parties with which the municipalities have contracted, pursuant to the act on municipal social services. organisation of home care services in each health care


the hands of health care centre employees pursuant to the act on health care services. the latter is handled by municipalities or the parties with which the municipalities have contracted, pursuant to the act on municipal social services. organisation of home care services in each health care centre district there is a service council for the elderly. this service is responsible for ensuring that the elderly receive the services they need, that they are informed of the options available to them and that their needs for institutional care are assessed ( act no. 125 of 1999, article 8 ). home nursing services are usually provided by community health centres. such care is organised on a regional basis. other kinds of home care services ( sometimes referred to as homemaker services ) are organised by the social services sector, also on a regional basis. financing of home care services the national health insurance finances home nursing care almost entirely. it is paid for by the state through the central government ’ s budget. social services for the elderly ( including home care and days care ) are paid for by county councils which are funded by local governments. nursing in the home is therefore free. payment for other home care services is related to income. therefore, clients may have to pay a small contribution towards the costs of such services. there are no cash benefits for home care. people attending day care centres must pay up to a maximum amount of one full basis pension ( i. e. eur 217 per month ) ( missoc, 2005 ). people who are in need of care can obtain a reimbursement for care costs along with their pension provided that they are on a very low pension. if eligible, the amount is calculated on the basis of each individual case in terms of percentages ( 35 %, 70 %, 90 % or 120 % ) and paid to the person with dementia. in july 2001, this amounted to eur 75, eur 149, eur 192 and eur 256 respectively. spouses my be entitled to special compensation amounting to 80 % of the flat rate state pension for providing care at home if they : - have suffered a loss of income as a result of stopping full - time employment ; - have incurred extra expenses linked to day care or paid home help ; - are on a low income e. g. if the spouse has no income. kinds of home care services available chapter iv, article 13 of the act no. 125 of 1999 provides the following examples of geriatric services ( which would also be available to elderly people with dementia ). - home care services provided to the elderly


. kinds of home care services available chapter iv, article 13 of the act no. 125 of 1999 provides the following examples of geriatric services ( which would also be available to elderly people with dementia ). - home care services provided to the elderly residing at home. the service shall be based on case - by - case assessments of service needs and shall be geared to support for self - help. home care services shall be provided in the evening, at night and on week - ends if necessary. an effort shall be made to organise and co - ordinate the health care and social aspects of the home care services with the welfare and needs of the elderly person in mind. - service centres for the elderly which are operated by municipalities to ensure that senior citizens are provided with company, nourishment, exercise, recreation, entertainment and health surveillance. service centres may work independently or in connection with other services enjoyed by the elderly. - day - care centres for the elderly as a supporting measure for those who require supervision and care on a regular basis in order to continue to live at home. day - care centres for the elderly shall provide nursing services and be fitted with facilities for exercise and medical services. transportation services shall be provided to and from the home of the individual, as well as health assessments, exercise, recreation, social support, education, counselling and assistance in the activities of daily life. - serviced apartments for the elderly which may be privately owned, rented or residential rights apartments. prior to the construction of serviced apartments for the elderly, construction permits must be obtained from the minister for health and social services pursuant to article 16. serviced apartments for the elderly shall be fitted with security systems and a choice of varied services, such as catering, laundry and cleaning and access to social activities. payment for services provided shall be governed by the provisions of article 20. the residents of serviced apartments shall be entitled to the same home and watch services as other residents of the municipality. consultation with people with dementia and carers the “ icelandic national health plan to the year 2010 ” mentions the objective of ensuring that every health care institution establishes a formal quality development procedure and follows its own plan with regard to quality issues and that over 90 % of patients should be satisfied with the health care services they receive. it is not clear to what extent this would apply to the provision of home care services for people with dementia. - act on the affairs of the elderly, no. 125, 31 december 1999 ( with amendments up to act no. 38 / 2004 ), http : /


to what extent this would apply to the provision of home care services for people with dementia. - act on the affairs of the elderly, no. 125, 31 december 1999 ( with amendments up to act no. 38 / 2004 ), http : / / eng. heilbrigdisraduneyti. is / media / laws % 20in % 20english / act _ on _ the _ affairs _ of _ the _ elderly. pdf # search = ' act % 20on % 20the % 20affairs % 20of % 20the % 20elderly % 20and % 20iceland ' - alzheimer europe ( 2001 ), equality in the provision of care at home, alzheimer europe - health information unit of who regional office for europe, highlights on health in iceland, http : / / www. who. dk / document / e72496. pdf - johnson, p. and oafsdottir, t. ( 2005 ), whho - compendium text ( extract on iceland ), http : / / www. nahc. org / whho / whhocomptext. html - jonsson, p. v. and palsson, h. ( 2005 ), toward informed and evidence - based elderly care : the rai experience in iceland, http : / / www. milbank. org / reports / interrai / iceland. html - missoc ( 2005 ), comparative tables : iceland, http : / / www. europa. eu. int / comm / employment _ social / missoc / 2002 / is _ part12 _ en. htm - the ministry of health and social security ( 2004 ), the icelandic national health plan to the year 1020, abridged version, http : / / www. heilbrigdisraduneyti. is / media / skyrslur / heilbenska5mai. pdf # search = ' icelandic % 20national % 20health % 20plan ' last updated : mercredi 15 juillet 2009


wernicke - korsakoff syndrome ( wks ) by clive evers wernicke ' s encephalopathy ( we ) is an acute neurological illness caused by severe deficiency of the vitamin thiamine ( vitamin b 1 ). it can occur suddenly and is characterised by problems with the eyes, problems with gait and balance, and an overall confusional state. alcoholism is usually the cause of thiamine deficiency but cases of we can also be attributed to anorexia nervosa and disorders associated with high levels of vomiting. we can be reversed by dosage of thiamine. we is a medical emergency and if left untreated will result in coma and death. wernicke - korsakoff syndrome is characterised by amnesia and a number of specific memory impairments. additionally there is a tendency towards confabulation. the confabulation can be momentary fantastic when they produce grandiose descriptions which are repeated. wernicke ' s encephalopathy ; korsakoff ' s psychosis ; korsakoff ' s syndrome ; korsakoff ' s amnesic syndrome. symptoms and course wks can occur suddenly and problems with the eyes include disorders of their control of direction, coordination and movement ; problems with gait and a loss of balance or equilibrium called ataxia ; and a global confusional state where the person is apathetic, has little awareness of their immediate situation and difficulties with space, attention and concentration. the symptoms of amnesia fall into two broad categories of impaired memory function and retained memory function. in impaired memory there is a profound difficulty or total inability to learn new material and the lack of a normal short term memory ( where a person would be able to repeat a telephone number after looking it up ). this is known as anterograde amnesia. also the person cannot remember events in their past life particularly the period immediately before their amnesia. this is known as retrograde amnesia. however, some memory functions can be well retained. particularly early established skills and habits. the use of language, gesture, and well practised skills may remain unaffected. however people can also show a tendency towards decreased initiative and spontaneity and a blunting of effect, so events, which would normally be of emotional significance are reacted to in a dull or apathetic manner. other psychiatric symptoms include depression, irritable spells and paranoia. patients who have abused alcohol for many years are also likely to show some of the physical effects such as liver, stomach,


significance are reacted to in a dull or apathetic manner. other psychiatric symptoms include depression, irritable spells and paranoia. patients who have abused alcohol for many years are also likely to show some of the physical effects such as liver, stomach, and blood disorders. causes and risk factors the main cause of wernicke - korsakoff syndrome is chronic alcohol abuse which results in severe deficiency of the vitamine thiamine ( vitamine b1 ). however this deficiency can also arise as a result of forced or self - imposed starvation eg anorexia nervosa or from protein - energy malnutrition resulting from inadequate diet or malabsorption. conditions associated with protracted vomiting may also be a cause including severe vomiting during pregnancy. people with kidney conditions which may result in chronic renal failure may be at risk. the condition has been described in patients receiving dialysis. consuming large quantities of carbohydrates when thiamine levels are very low can be a cause ( feeding after starvation ). total population figures for the prevalence have proved very difficult to estimate ( blansjaar et al, 1992 ). in the hague, the netherlands gave a prevalence figure of 48 per 100, 000 total population while price ( 1985 ). in queensland, australia estimated there were 6. 5 per 100, 000 new cases each year. doctors will look for an altered mental state in the patient and for other neurological abnormalities. they will take a careful history from the patient and relative / carer, undertake a physical examination, laboratory tests and x - ray to exclude other causes of neurological dysfunction. we remains a clinical diagnosis with no abnormalities in eg cerebrospinal flui, brain imaging or eegs. a complete blood count excludes severe anemias and leukemias as causes of altered mental state. alterations in serum electrolytes like hypernatremia or hypercalcemia can cause altered mental statusserum glucose will be determined to exclude hypoglycemia and hyperglycemiato exclude uremia blood urea nitrogen and creatinine will be tested. arterial blood gases may be tested to exclude hypoxia and hypercarbiatoxic drug screening may be given to exclude some causes of drug induced altered mental status. a lumbar puncture may be considereda head ct scan is the definitive test for emergency diagnosis of focal neurologic disease. it may be necessary to consider eeg ' s for some patients to exclude an epileptic state as a


. a lumbar puncture may be considereda head ct scan is the definitive test for emergency diagnosis of focal neurologic disease. it may be necessary to consider eeg ' s for some patients to exclude an epileptic state as a cause of coma and altered mental state. ( source : p salen www. emedicine. com ). care and treatment wernicke ' s encephalopathy must be viewed as a medical emergency even if there are other possible diagnoses that are being considered. as the condition is potentially reversible, patients with any combination of the above symptoms should be treated with thiamine. as little as 2mg of thiamine may be enough to reverse the eye problems but initial higher doses of at least 100mg are advisable. thiamine solutions should be fresh as old solutions may be inactive. the problems of gait and acute confusional state may improve dramatically although improvement may not be noted for days or months. after thiamine has been started doctors may consider treatment with glucose. they will carefully monitor the cardiovasculatr status of patients. doctors will investigate the patients magnesium levels and correct any deficiency. some drug treatments have been tried including the selective serotonin re - uptake inhibitor fluoxamine and a drug called clonidine to improve memory. however there is still no satisfactory evidence that any of these or other drugs should be used in ordinary clinical practice. there is some evidence that good social supports can bring a good social outcome in alcohol misue. there is some experience and evidence that memory rehabilitation and therapies may have be of some benefit to patients. these would include external aids like diaries and reminders ; the use of mnemonics to help memory ; attendance at memory groups. however only a few patients with wk have been tried with these techniques. referral of patients with alcoholism to drinking cessation programmes and monitoring them for signs of alcohol withdrawal is a key step in outpatient treatment. there is some evidence of the effectiveness of specialist units for patients with we syndrome. medical council on alcohol 3 st andrew ' s place regent ' s park london nw1 4lb united kingdom registered charity no. 265242 tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 20 7487 4445 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 20 7935 4479 family caregiver alliance 690 market street, suite 600 san francisco, ca 94104 ( 415 ) 434 - 3388 ( 800 ) 445 - 810


- historic sites from world war to cold war in an exchange of letters, a man who had an immeasurable impact on how the great struggle of our times was waged looks back on how it began december 1995 | volume 46, issue 8 the reality was, of course, that already before the outbreak of world war in 1939 the western powers had simply not developed their own military strength to a point, or even to anything resembling the point, at which they could hope to defeat hitler by their own efforts alone. the soviet struggle against hitler was not conducted by moscow for the purpose of rescuing the western powers from the situation into which their weakness had placed them, but it had this effect. and what has to be recognized was that there was, very naturally and inevitably, a price to be paid for this great soviet contribution to the armed struggle, and this price took the form of the postwar domination of a large part of europe, and this for years to come, by the soviet union. we and our western european allies had only ourselves to blame for this tragic necessity. had these realities been explained betimes to the american people, the distortions in the official american view of the soviet - american relationship during the wartime years and just thereafter might have been largely avoided, and the jolt of the transition to more realistic concepts in the immediate post - hostilities period might have been smaller and easier for the american political system to accept. it is unfortunately a characteristic of democracies that their political establishments are incapable of looking far into the future, of recognizing long - term dangers, and of anticipating those dangers at early stages. to point this out is not to question their many other advantages or to suggest that there is any easy way by which these deficiencies could be overcome. but it is to argue that if these weaknesses cannot be remedied, then the peoples and governments of the western democracies must learn to recognize that heavy prices have sometimes to be paid for their continued endurance. i think that your summary discussion, in these letters, of the misconceptions by the american government, including fdr, about stalin and the soviet union is a great contribution to historical knowledge. many of its materials are there, of course, in your papers and in your memoirs ; but there, by necessity, they are only parts of a larger story, whereas here they are brought together. equally important is how these misconceptions during the second world war led to the development of the cold war, or rather to the conditions along which it developed — not that the


only parts of a larger story, whereas here they are brought together. equally important is how these misconceptions during the second world war led to the development of the cold war, or rather to the conditions along which it developed — not that the united states was the principal perpetrator of those conditions. i still do not entirely agree with you that the de facto alliance among the united states, britain, and russia during the war could have been avoided, or restricted to some kind of military cooperation, with america announcing not only to stalin but to the world that ( unlike churchill ’ s britain ) the united states would be loath to associate or coordinate its wartime efforts with russia except in a circumscribed sense of military aid. the power of germany was too large for that, and so were the consequent prospects of german policy to bring about a rift between its disparate opponents. but that is about the war itself and not about the 1945 - 47 period with which this correspondence of ours is primarily concerned. and on that we fully agree : what you have now written should make it definitely clear that contrary to what so many critics of the cold war have assumed, the american government ’ s response to stalin, at least in 1945 and early 1946, was belated rather than premature. what happened in 1946 was that finally those in charge of this country ’ s world policy were catching up with you, and then, by and large, political and public opinion followed in 1947. when in july of that year, your now world - famous “ x ” article was published in foreign affairs, that was not the beginning but the end of a process, not only because the essence of the article was already latent in your long telegram in early 1946, and the “ x ” version actually delivered in your talk to the council of foreign relations in early 1947, but because by july 1947 the change in the course of the giant american ship of state had been generally completed, largely in accord with your advocacies. nearly a half - century later all kinds of people have recognized its merits : that the policy of containment has worked and that all honor is due its architect.


sometimes the average is anything but average facts about factorials it all begins with the factorial function, a familiar item of furniture in several areas of mathematics, including combinatorics and probability theory. the factorial of a positive whole number n is the product of all the integers from 1 through n inclusive. for example, the factorial of 6 is 1×2×3×4×5×6 = 720. the standard notation for the factorial of n is " n! ". this use of the exclamation point was introduced in 1808 by christian kramp, a mathematician from strasbourg. not everyone is enthusiastic about it. augustus de morgan, an eminent british mathematician and logician, complained in 1842 that the exclamation points give " the appearance of expressing surprise and admiration that 2, 3, 4, & c. should be found in mathematical results. " one common application of the factorial function is in counting permutations, or rearrangements of things. if six people are sitting down to dinner, the number of ways they can arrange themselves at the table is 6!. it ' s easy to see why : the first person can choose any of the six chairs, the next person has five places available, and so on until the sixth diner is forced to take whatever seat remains. the factorial function is notorious for its rapid rate of growth : 10! is already in the millions, and 100! is a number with 158 decimal digits. as n increases, n! grows faster than any polynomial function of n, such as n 2 or n 3, or any simple exponential function, such as 2 n or e n. indeed you can choose any constant k, and make it as large as you please, and there will still be some value of n beyond which n! exceeds both n k and k n. ( on the other hand, n! grows slower than n n. ) the steep increase in the magnitude of n! becomes an awkward annoyance when you want to explore factorials computationally. a programming language that packs integers into 32 binary digits cannot reach beyond 12!, and even 64 - bit arithmetic runs out of room at 20!. to go further requires a language or a program library capable of handling arbitrarily large integers. in spite of this inconvenience, the factorial function is an old favorite in computer science as well as in mathematics. often it is the first example mentioned when introducing the concept of recursion, as in this procedure definition : then


. in spite of this inconvenience, the factorial function is an old favorite in computer science as well as in mathematics. often it is the first example mentioned when introducing the concept of recursion, as in this procedure definition : then return 1 else return n * f! ( n - 1 ) one way to understand this definition is to put yourself in the place of the procedure : you are the factorial oracle, and when someone gives you an n, you must respond with n!. your task is easy if n happens to be 1, since calculating 1! doesn ' t take much effort. if n is greater than 1, you may not know the answer directly, but you do know how to find it : just get the factorial of n – 1 and then multiply the result by n. where do you find the factorial of n – 1? simple : ask yourself — you ' re the oracle! this self - referential style of thinking is something of an acquired taste. for those who prefer looping to recursions, here is another definition of the factorial : for x in n downto 1 product : = product * x in this case it ' s made explicit that we are counting down from n to 1, multiplying as we go. of course we could just as easily count up from 1 to n ; the commutative law guarantees that the result will be the same. indeed, we could arrange the n numbers in any of n! permutations. all the arrangements are mathematically equivalent, although some ways of organizing the computation are more efficient than others. » post comment


the role played by engineers in marine science and technology may prove to be more significant than their role on land. the particular difficulties associated with engineering in the marine environment call for new materials, new methods of analysis and design, and the most advanced technical skills available. coastal and maritime civil engineers have long been involved with the design and construction of seawalls, jetties, harbours and the associated problems of coastal and beach erosion. modern design methods employ mathematical models which enable computers to simulate the effects of waves and currents on these structures and to predict the extent of undesirable effects such as erosion, flooding and storm surges following large storms and cyclones. ocean civil engineers can specialise in design and construction of structures, including platforms for oil drilling or deep - water mining operations. an understanding of the wave climate at the construction site, provided by computer studies of wave generation and wave characteristics, is vital for the successful design of such structures. electrical engineers develop computer - based control systems which continuously monitor the platform ' s position and make corrections to compensate for fluctuations in wind, tides and currents. in this way, computers keep the platform located precisely over a predetermined spot on the sea floor, which may be several kilometres below the surface. mechanical, civil and electronics engineers are developing new instruments for measuring, monitoring and exploring the underwater environment. one - atmosphere pressure suits can allow a diver to move and perform tasks at depths of kilometres and to photograph and sample the abyssal plains. however, manned dives are increasingly giving way to surface - controlled unmanned submersibles, which are now used routinely in jobs as diverse as checking and maintenance of man - made structures such as rig platforms and the exploration of the deepest parts of the ocean to help answer questions about the earth ' s crust. the marine environment in australia is characterised by a very rich interaction between physical, chemical and biological processes. industry, commerce, urbanisation and recreational activities in turn interact with the natural system. these interactions are causing a host of problems, including the impact of pollution on coastal ecosystems and over - exploitation of natural resources. an integrated approach to the problems of management of man in nature and development is required, taking into account all relevant processes and interactions within the coastal and marine environment. coastal engineers are involved in the investigation and assessment of coastal and marine environments, and planning for their use, development and conservation. systems engineers, as well as civil and environmental engineers, contribute the special skills required for computer - assisted mathematical analysis and the co - ordination of multi - disciplinary studies.


data intelligence, business analytics as i mentioned in my previous article of “ fuzzy delphi method to design a strategic plan ”, i would like to continue the debate on distance method. but before going to the distance method, let me explain my story as follows : while i was working on discrepancy between basic and distance method on driving forces, i encountered to a phenomena. now, let me depict this phenomenon in the framework of a theorem below cited : inequality theorem in fuzzy logic assume, there is the fuzzy subset a of x where x is a universal set. then, we define the fuzzy set of a by its membership function ( mf = membership function ) as follows : mfa : x - - - - - - - [ 0, 1 ] it means that a real number mfa ( x ) in the interval [ 0, 1 ] is assigned to each element x where x is a member of x and also the value of mfa ( x ) at x presents the grade of membership of x in a. we consider below conditions for the fuzzy set a : - fuzzy set a is a convex and normalized fuzzy set in which we can say the fuzzy set a is a fuzzy number. - fuzzy set a is a central triangular fuzzy number where we have : for central triangular fuzzy number a = ( a, b, c ) : mfa ( x ) = 2 ( x - a ) / c - a if a < x < b mfa ( x ) = 2 ( x - c ) / a - c if b < x < c b = ( a + c ) / 2 now, we assume the set of s is included all central triangular fuzzy numbers as follows : s = [ ai ], i = 1, 2, 3, … …. n in fact, we have : you can review the continuation of this article on below link :


6. conserving australian plants aim : to contribute to the conservation and sustainable use of australias the united nations convention on biological diversity recognised both the opportunity and responsibility of botanic gardens to promote public awareness of the values of natural heritage and the importance of its preservation and sustainable use and management. the gardens achieves this through horticultural displays, indoor exhibitions, education programs, cooperation with other conservation organisations, and research into australian plants. the gardens established the original national flora collection, and at a current total of around 7000 species, it remains the most comprehensive display in existence of living australian plants. this includes some 367 rare or threatened species, of which 57 are on the national endangered list. in establishing the collections and displays, horticultural techniques have been developed that are useful in ex situ cultivation, reintroduction and population rebuilding, and vegetation restoration works. the gardens cooperates with state and territory conservation management authorities in a number of specific regional recovery plans, such as those concerning rutidosis leptorrhynchoides, grevillea iaspicula, grevillea wilkinsonii, hakea pulvinifera and astrotricha roddii. through its collaboration with the csiro in the cpbr, the gardens contributes to the assembling and updating of the inventory of australian plant biodiversity, and to the clarification of conservation biology of the flora and vegetation. national and regional roles the gardens gives a high priority to working cooperatively with other organisations involved in plant conservation both within australia and overseas. it played a leading role in the establishment of botanic gardens conservation international by the international union for the conservation of nature in 1987. the gardens promotes the concept of a nationally integrated network of plant conservation activities, particularly by hosting the national office of the australian network for plant conservation ( anpc ). the integrated approach to plant conservation adopted by the anpc draws together botanic gardens, conservation management organisations, private sector businesses and individuals committed to the conservation of rare or threatened australian plants and plant communities. the gardens also contributes to a range of commonwealth government programs including wildlife permitting and enforcement activities, threatened species protection, and several programs within the natural heritage trust, such as the national weeds program and bushcare. - the gardens will conduct public programs to raise public awareness of plant - horticultural and botanical research relevant to the conservation, sustainable use and management of australian plants will be undertaken. - the gardens will provide a national focus for, and national and international leadership in, the conservation of plant biodiversity. in particular, it will : - contribute