when u. s. forces went into iraq in 2003, the military had fewer than 170 unmanned aerial systems and only a handful of ground robots. by 2008, the number of unmanned aerial systems had reached 6, 358, and ground robots nearly 12, 000. commanders clearly want armed unmanned systems. but the biggest issue facing weaponization of unmanned systems is the decline in u. s. energetics expertise. these skills are key to the future of armed robots. so far, unmanned systems have been weaponized by retrofitting aircraft to launch munitions that already exist. for example, the predator unmanned aerial system was fitted with two hellfire missiles. the shadow unmanned aerial system may be equipped to drop 81mm mortar rounds. the reaper would be armed with up to four hellfire missiles, two laser - guided bombs and a 500 - pound smart munition. these approaches both rely on munitions made up of yesterday ’ s explosives and propellants, called “ energetic materials. ” a national academies of sciences report noted that “ using yesterday ’ s energetic materials in today ’ s battlefield systems would be as effective as trying to run a ferrari on kerosene. ” energetics specialists should be involved in the development of unmanned systems and their munitions. proof of that is the development of the m1 tank. it could outrange iraq ’ s soviet - made tanks because energetics experts developed high - energy propellant grains, each the same size and including engineered holes that enabled increased combustion. engineers designed the cannons to withstand the propellant ’ s high pressures. energetics experts are needed to address both propellant and warhead issues in unmanned systems weapons. they can help reduce munitions ’ size and weight while ensuring effectiveness on a range of targets. they would also enable tactical concepts such as the “ swarm ” — multiple, small unmanned systems finding and attacking targets. the ongoing development of the 5 - pound, 25 - inch long, spike missile by the naval air warfare center is an example of what can be done. munitions weight and volume can be reduced more with micro - electrical mechanical systems for fusing, and reactive materials, normally non - explosive solids that upon impact release extraordinary energy. munitions must be developed for their environment. the hellfire missile had to be re - engineered for predator ’ s high altitudes, since it was originally designed for launch from helicopters flying below 2, 000 feet. similarly, munitions must be designed for unmanned systems that operate in undersea environments. also, munitions need to be made insensitive to shock. energetics experts will be


since it was originally designed for launch from helicopters flying below 2, 000 feet. similarly, munitions must be designed for unmanned systems that operate in undersea environments. also, munitions need to be made insensitive to shock. energetics experts will be needed to develop munitions for the navy ’ s stealthy unmanned combat aircraft, which is planned for suppression and destruction of enemy air defenses and penetrating strike missions. to keep the aircraft low - observable, weapons must be developed in forms that facilitate stowage and launch from inside the aircraft. almost every defense system relies on energetic materials, either in the form of an explosive fill or propellant. as lawrence livermore national laboratory ’ s richard behrens wrote in the january issue of this magazine : “ over the past 20 years i have worked with the defense department in the area of energetic material development for use in propellants and explosives … i have observed the contraction of this s & t effort in this area, where the nation currently stands at the point of losing almost all expertise in this area due to retirements, lack of funds to hire new staff, and the inability to create an interesting and challenging s & t environment that will attract some of the brightest to this area of research. ” behrens echoed what previous studies have said about u. s. energetics. a rapid drop in research and development funding for munitions, to include explosives and propellants since the mid - 1980s was reported by a 2001 department of commerce study, titled national security assessment of the high performance explosives and explosive components industries. “ if support for r & d continues to decline, the ability of the united states to provide world - class munitions in the future could be degraded, ” the study said. today, the defense department buys swedish bunker - busters, german environmentally - friendly training ammunition, and it is considering buying south african artillery ammunition. also, many precursors for u. s. propellants and explosives come from other countries. sources of talent are drying up, as was reported in the 2004 national academies of sciences study, advanced energetics material. “ the u. s. effort in the synthesis of energetic materials at present involves approximately 24 chemists, several of whom are approaching retirement, ” the study said. “ if the level of effort that these scientists have contributed is not fostered and maintained, the united states will lose the technological edge that it has gained as a result of their work. ” by 2006, the naval surface warfare center at indian head, md., had four molecular


that these scientists have contributed is not fostered and maintained, the united states will lose the technological edge that it has gained as a result of their work. ” by 2006, the naval surface warfare center at indian head, md., had four molecular design and chemical synthesis scientists, down from 13 in 1994. this talent is not easily replaced. it takes five to 10 years to learn military energetics. u. s. industry is not a substitute. it has little interest in long - term energetics research and development and limited interest in manufacturing energetic materials. five major u. s. companies once manufactured propellants. today, that number is two. in 2008, a house armed services committee report expressed concern that the investment required to adequately sustain a robust energetics research, development, and manufacturing technology program has not been maintained. advanced energetics materials have already been adapted for unmanned aerial vehicles. the russian company basalt offers the tbg - 29 rocket - propelled thermobaric warhead, which can be launched from unmanned aerial vehicles and used against troops in the open and in buildings, and lightly armored and soft skinned targets. in recent years, the importance of energetics expertise has been eclipsed. weapons programs have focused more on the platform than the munitions they deliver. others have focused more on the precision of munitions than on the explosives and propellants that go into them. and, still others wrongly believe that there are no more energetics advances to be found. if this research field is not rescued soon, critical future capabilities such as arming robots will become endangered. millard s. firebaugh is a retired u. s. navy rear admiral. he is minta martin professor of practice in the department of mechanical engineering and a member of the center for energetic concepts development at the university of maryland, college park. he is a member of the national academy of engineering.


- maintains healthy childhood immunity functioning - supports a developing immune system - supports vitality, vigor and healthy development - supports healthy circulation and oxygen - rich blood flow to all systems in the body - american coneflower ( echinacea purpurea ) is a native american herb that has become well - known for its tonic effect on the immune system. many studies have been conducted with regards to this herb and its benefits to the immune system. ( schoneberger d. " the influence of immune - stimulating effects of pressed juice from echinacea purpurea on the course and severity of colds ". results of double - blind study. forum immunol 1992 ; 8 : 2 - 12. ) ( taylor ja, weber w, standish l, et al. " efficacy and safety of echinacea in treating upper respiratory tract infections in children : a randomized controlled trial ". jama 12 - 3 - 2003 ; 290 ( 21 ) : 2824 - 2830 ). - milk - vetch ( astragalus membranaceous ) is a child - safe chinese remedy that has a variety of benefits as an immune - supportive and rejuvenating tonic. studies have shown astragalus to maintain immune responses effectively. ( liu x, wang m, wu h, zhao x, li h. " isolation of astragalan and its immunological activities ". tianran chanwu yanjiu yu kaifa. 1994 ; 6 : 23 - 31. ) - elecampane ( inula helenium ) is associated with helen of troy by legend, and has been used since the days of the roman poet horace. it is very effective as an encouraging respiratory tonic and is widely respected for its support of good health. ( olechnowicz - stepien w, skurska h " studies on antibiotic properties of roots of inula helenium, compositae. " arch immunol ther exp ( warsz ). 1960 ; 8 : 179 - 89. ) - ashwagandha ( withania somnifera ) is one of the most important ayurvedic tonic herbs and is also called ' indian ginseng '. it is recommended for supporting growth, energy, and stamina. regular use can also help to support blood nourishment, and it has been shown to have a tonic effect on the immune system. ( davis l, kuttan g. " immunomodulatory


energy, and stamina. regular use can also help to support blood nourishment, and it has been shown to have a tonic effect on the immune system. ( davis l, kuttan g. " immunomodulatory activity of withania somnifera ". j ethnopharmacol 2000 ; 71 : 193 - 200. ) kiddieboost has saved me … it has really helped keep my daughter healthy, which means less time off work for me and less doctor bills to pay. - s. w. what is kiddieboost? kiddieboost is a 100 % safe and natural formula containing carefully selected herbal ingredients known for their tonic effects on the immune system, as well as their high safety profile in children ’ s remedies. kiddieboost has been specifically formulated to support children ' s immune systems from the age of 12 months and comes in a convenient drop formula that is easy to administer to children. kiddieboost is developed with care by our team of specialists, is 100 % natural, and manufactured according to the highest pharmaceutical standards using the whole spectrum method of herbal extraction. this method ensures the bioavailability and balance of all the active ingredients contained in the remedy. this method of manufacture also significantly reduces the likelihood of side effects and maintains all active ingredients in perfect balance – exactly as nature intended! the body is a battleground children ' s immune systems are still developing and can be more vulnerable and delicate than that of an adult. without realizing it, their growing bodies are constantly fighting an ongoing invisible battle against daily germs and foreign microbes that they come into contact with – at home, in the playground, and even as they sleep! the best line of defense to support a child ’ s immune system is to maintain structural integrity. in other words, make sure that a child ’ s immune system is supported and has a good foundation for health. the natural way obviously diet and lifestyle play a big part in developing a healthy immune system. regular, wholesome meals with lots of fresh ( preferably organic ) food, plenty of time to play outside and lots of love all help to keep children healthy – and that includes their immune systems. natural remedies have been used in traditional medicine for thousands of years to support childhood immunity, acting as immune system tonics to encourage ongoing good health and vitality in children. in more recent times, research has confirmed this traditional wisdom. there are now many published clinical studies demonstrating the ability of a range of


of years to support childhood immunity, acting as immune system tonics to encourage ongoing good health and vitality in children. in more recent times, research has confirmed this traditional wisdom. there are now many published clinical studies demonstrating the ability of a range of herbs to support normal childhood immunity. ( melchart d, linde k, et al. immunomodulation with echinacea - a systematic review of controlled clinical trials. phytomed 1994 ; 1 : 245 – 54 ) ( hoheizel o, sandberg m, bertram s, et al. echinacea shortens the course of the common cold : a double - blind, placebo - controlled clinical trial. eur j clin res 1997 ; 9 : 261 – 68 ). what ingredients does kiddieboost contain? kiddieboost is a 100 % herbal formula and contains the following ingredients in therapeutic dosage : echinacea, elecampane, astragalus, ashwagandha. native remedies is the leading brand of natural remedies known for safe, effective and quality products. our remedies are formulated by natural health experts and produced under the highest pharmaceutical standards in fda - registered, gmp certified facilities. we utilize the finest quality ingredients in a full spectrum manufacturing process that doesn ’ t use any chemical solvents. we use the whole herb, not just a standardized extract, for a more potent, easily ingested remedy that is easy for the body to absorb. native remedies herbal products never contain any animal products, artificial colors, flavors or preservatives, and are not tested on animals. our products are always backed by our one year unconditional money back guarantee. how do i use kiddieboost? dilute drops in a small amount of water, juice or milk. children 1 - 11 : use 1 drop per year of age 2 - 3 times daily. children 12 + : we recommend immunityplus™ special instructions : use kiddieboost for 3 weeks just before winter. a 10 - day booster course is recommended every few months or when needed to support childhood immunity. caution : not recommended for children under 1 year old unless under medical supervision. this product is contraindicated for those with autoimmune conditions because of its immune - stimulating effects. how long until i see results? kiddieboost contains powerful, all - natural proven herbs in concentrated medicinal extract. it is important that it be used consistently in order to provide ongoing support


##immune conditions because of its immune - stimulating effects. how long until i see results? kiddieboost contains powerful, all - natural proven herbs in concentrated medicinal extract. it is important that it be used consistently in order to provide ongoing support. kiddieboost should be used along with a healthy lifestyle. as with all good tonics, the effects of kiddieboost will be gradually noticed over time. get optimum results with regular use while conventional medicine works by often treating just the symptoms, natural medicine strives to create holistic balance in the body to support systemic health, relieve ailments, and help prevent future disease. unlike pharmaceutical drugs, the natural ingredients in our remedies support overall health and functioning ( rather than just suppressing symptoms ). people respond to natural medicine in different ways, some of our satisfied customers experience immediate results while many others have reported optimal benefits taking effect within 3 - 6 weeks. to ensure you receive optimum results it is important to take natural remedies as directed and remain consistent. you may also find that a smaller maintenance dose is beneficial for ongoing support, many customers report taking a regular maintenance dose as part of a preventative program for continued health and well - being. how long will a bottle last? one 60 ml bottle of kiddieboost will last approximately 80 days if taken on a regular, daily basis. how has kiddieboost helped others? “ my children in daycare have been very healthy this year ( aged 2 & 4 years ). the only thing i can [ attribute it ] to is kiddieboost as i haven ’ t changed anything else ; i started giving it to them 3 months ago. thank you for a great product. ” “ kiddieboost has saved me from insanity and poverty. it has really helped keep my daughter healthy, which means less time off work for me and less doctor bills to pay. ” “ … we have been boosting [ our daughter ’ s ] immunities with kiddieboost to help her heal... i have seen a marked decrease in her outbreaks, and when we ran out of kiddieboost, it got bad again. ” — bella, or, usa “ i have a 2 - year - old son that has had a cough from the day he was born. the day after he was born they did a chest x - ray, because they " heard something in his chest that sounded like balloons rubbing together. " every month since birth, he has come down with


plants and animals view all location view all true to its name, uplands farm sanctuary retains the appearance of an old dairy farm, complete with a silo and open fields that were once cattle pastures. today, the old farm buildings serve as an office for the nature conservancy ' s long island chapter. a double - loop trail meanders from bird and butterfly meadows, through deciduous forests, into a white pine - shaded ravine. the gravelly, acidic soils of uplands farm are difficult to fertilize, so over the years raising livestock seems to have been preferable to cultivation. in colonial times, the land was most likely used for sheep ranching for wool. in 1920, the nichols family began raising cattle and ultimately ran a dairy at uplands farm until 1962. mrs. jane nichols, a long - time resident and owner of uplands farm, donated three parcels of the preserve to the conservancy. upon her death in 1981, additional parcels were acquired. the sanctuary is dedicated to the memory of mrs. nichols. the marked, mostly level trail ( 2. 41 miles ) makes this a good place for family - friendly hikes. if you ’ re interested in longer hikes, the uplands trail connects to the 20 - mile nassau - suffolk trail, part of the long island greenbelt. the preserve is open for hiking and observing nature from dawn to dusk, 7 days a week. office is open mon. to fri., 9 am to 5 pm. if you live locally and are interested in becoming a preserve monitor or steward, please email derek rogers, at email @ example. com. in the eastern woodland, you ’ ll see red maple, black cherry and red cedar mixed with oak, ash and hickory trees. in the hilly terrain of the western woodland, flowering dogwood and extensive thickets of mountain laurel bloom below a canopy of oaks, tulip trees and black birch. the sanctuary ' s meadows and hedgerows provide habitat for a wide variety of plants and animals, including butterfly weed and goldenrods, 40 butterfly species and grassland birds such as bobolinks and meadowlarks, which have become rare as their habitat has disappeared. bluebirds, the new york state bird, return in late winter and early spring. they build their nests in bird boxes or tree cavities along forest edges. monarch butterflies return to the region in late summer. both the caterpillars and adult butterflies rely on the butterfly weed and other milkweed species that bloom in the open fields


sending a submarine to the bottom of the ocean on jupiter ' s icy moon europa is the most exciting potential mission in planetary science, according to one prominent researcher. europa ' s seafloor may well be capable of supporting life as we know it today, said cornell university ' s steve squyres, lead scientist for nasa ' s opportunity mars rover, which is currently roaming the red planet. so a europa robotic submarine mission is at the top of his wish list, though it likely won ' t happen anytime soon. " this is fantastic stuff, " squyres said wednesday at a conference called nuclear and emerging technologies for space in the woodlands, texas. " this is the holy grail of planetary exploration right here. " a habitable environment? many planetary scientists regard europa, which is slightly smaller than earth ' s moon, as the solar system ' s best bet for harboring life beyond earth. that ' s chiefly because europa appears to have a huge ocean of liquid water sloshing around beneath its icy shell. [ photos : europa, mysterious icy moon of jupiter ] here on earth, all life needs to gain a foothold is liquid water and an energy source. europa likely boasts both, with hydrothermal vents gushing from the seafloor as they do on our planet, researchers say. and earth ' s deep - sea vent systems host vibrant ecosystems. " you do the calculations for europa, and what you find is that there ought to be hydrothermal activity ; there ought to be volcanic activity at europa ' s seafloor, " said squyres, who recently chaired the u. s. national research council ' s planetary science decadal survey, which lays out the scientific community ' s goals for planetary science over the next 10 years. " this is a chance to search for a potentially habitable environment today on another world, " he added. a tough mission a europa submarine mission didn ' t make the decadal survey ' s list ; it ' s just not feasible at the moment. if scientists want to tackle it, they ' ll have to overcome some serious technical and engineering challenges — such as how to get through europa ' s icy crust. " this is one of the hardest missions you can imagine, " squyres said. " you need a power system that will enable you to get onto the surface. you then have to some way find your way down through what might be 10 kilometers of ice. and then you have to release some kind of free - swimming vehicle that is able to go down


power system that will enable you to get onto the surface. you then have to some way find your way down through what might be 10 kilometers of ice. and then you have to release some kind of free - swimming vehicle that is able to go down to the bottom of that ocean and find out what ' s down there. " the decadal survey did value a mission called the jupiter europa orbiter ( jeo ) highly, ranking it the no. 2 priority among multibillion - dollar " flagship " possibilities ( no. 1 was a mars sample - return effort ). jeo would study the icy moon from above ; it, or something like it, could help pave the way for an eventual submarine mission, researchers say, by identifying thin patches in the moon ' s icy shell. space news from nbcnews. com teen ' s space mission fueled by social media science editor alan boyle ' s blog : " astronaut abby " is at the controls of a social - media machine that is launching the 15 - year - old from minnesota to kazakhstan this month for the liftoff of the international space station ' s next crew. - buzz aldrin ' s vision for journey to mars - giant black hole may be cooking up meals - watch a ' ring of fire ' solar eclipse online - teen ' s space mission fueled by social media but with an estimated price tag of $ 4. 7 billion, jeo is not likely to get off the ground in the near future, either. in his 2013 budget request, which was released last month, president barack obama allocated just $ 1. 2 billion to nasa ' s planetary science efforts. that ' s a 20 percent cut from the current allotment of $ 1. 5 billion, and further reductions are expected over the next several years. as a result, nasa has temporarily shelved its plans for future flagships to other planets and planetary systems, saying it just doesn ' t have enough money to make them work. the space agency will continue actively planning cheaper missions, and it will be ready to restart flagships if the funding situation improves, officials have said. - target : jupiter — missions to the solar system ' s largest planet - touring jupiter ' s big moons : io, ganymede, europa, callisto - our solar system : a photo tour of the planets © 2013 space. com. all rights reserved. more from space. com.


what are community resources? on july 14, 1965, president lyndon b. johnson signed the older americans act. this act established the administration on aging and authorized grants to the states to establish agencies on aging to research, plan, and set up services for the aging population. in 2000, the older americans act amendments of 2000 was signed into law, reauthorizing the act and adding a very special amendment known as the national family caregiver support program. the older americans act was updated again in 2006 and addressed such issues as greater flexibility to states to create programs specific to the needs of their citizens ; a greater focus on mental health ; an emphasis on planning for the growing number of aging americans ; and enhanced coordination of efforts to protect elders from abuse, exploitation, and neglect. all of these programs were set up to help provide such basics as nutrition and health promotion as well as disease prevention for the elderly. it also established the long - term - care ombudsman program to oversee standards of care in nursing homes and other long - term - care facilities. the caregiver support program has established grants to state agencies on aging to develop programs to educate, assist, counsel, and provide respite and support to family caregivers who provide the majority of care to the elders in this country. under this act, there is also a special provision for the grandparents who are the caregivers to their grandchildren when the parents are not able to care for their children. community services are more abundant and accessible in larger cities, but even in rural areas there are services available to the elderly. among these are transportation services, nutrition services such as meals - on - wheels, adult day - care centers, and senior centers. your local area agency on aging also supports health fairs, flu - shot clinics, and other health - screening services. it may also provide information and referral services, telephone reassurance programs, respite care, friendly visitor or companion programs, and homemaker chore services. area agencies on aging can be known by myriad other names such as senior concerns, center for elder affairs, eldercare center, bureau on aging, and so on. you can locate your state and local offices by calling the elder locator at 800 - 677 - 1116. their website is


penn - designed non - invasive mri screening method is cost - effective, statistically powerful when trying to determine the root cause of a person ' s dementia, using an mri can effectively and non - invasively screen patients for alzheimer ' s disease or frontotemporal lobar degeneration ( ftld ), according to a new study by researchers from the perelman school of medicine at the university of pennsylvania. using an mri - based algorithm effectively differentiated cases 75 percent of the time, according to the study, published in the december 26th, 2012, issue of neurology -, the medical journal of the american academy of neurology. the non - invasive approach reported in this study can track disease progression over time more easily and cost - effectively than other tests, particularly in clinical trials testing new therapies. researchers used the mris to predict the ratio of two biomarkers for the diseases - the proteins total tau and beta - amyloid - in the cerebrospinal fluid. cerebrospinal fluid analyses remain the most accurate method for predicting the disease cause, but requires a more invasive lumbar puncture. " using this novel method, we obtain a single biologically meaningful value from analyzing mri data in this manner and then we can derive a probabilistic estimate of the likelihood of alzheimer ' s or ftld, " said the study ' s lead author, corey mcmillan, phd, of the perelman school of medicine and frontotemporal degeneration center at the university of pennsylvania. using the mri prediction method was 75 percent accurate at identifying the correct diagnosis in both patients with pre - confirmed disease diagnoses and those with biomarker levels confirmed by lumbar punctures, which shows comparable overlap between accuracy of the mri and lumbar puncture methods. " for those remaining 25 percent of cases that are borderline, a lumbar puncture testing spinal fluid may provide a more accurate estimate of the pathological diagnosis. "


the endometrium ( en - doe - mee - tree - um ) is a membrane that lines the surface of the uterus. endometriosis ( en - doe - mee - tree - o - sis ) occurs when fragments of endometrial tissue develop outside the uterus, such as in or on the ovaries, the fallopian tubes, or other places in the abdominal cavity. less commonly, endometriosis may occur on the bowel or bladder. these fragments respond to the hormonal changes of each menstrual cycle by growing, then being shed as blood, the same way as the endometrial membrane does in the uterus. the blood and other material can irritate or damage adjacent tissue, and scars may form. endometriosis can even lead to infertility. symptoms of endometriosis include chronic pain in the lower abdomen, especially during periods, pain during or after sexual intercourse, painful bowel movements, and irregular menstrual cycles. endometriosis may also exist without any symptoms. treatment options vary from medication to radical surgery, and depend on the extent of the condition. oral contraceptives can lower your risk of developing endometriosis, due to the progesterone ( pro - gess - ter - own ) they contain. for more information on endometriosis, contact a health care provider. ©2006 crossroads mobile. all rights reserved. this material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed.


historiography & historical practice this course focuses on us history to examine current permutations of historiographical interests, practices, and methodologies. over the last few decades, us history has been a particularly fertile ground for rethinking the historical, although many of these topics are applicable to the study of other nations and societies. american history has been largely rewritten by a generation of scholars who experienced the 1960s and its aftermath and have viewed americas past as a field of inquiry and contest of great political urgency. identity politics, the culture wars, and other forms of organization and debate have also endowed history with unprecedented public resonance in a culture that has been notoriously amnesiac. we explore major trends and controversies in american historiography, the multicultural moment in historical studies, the emergence of race and gender as cardinal categories of historical analysis, the enormous preoccupation with popular culture, the impact of memory studies on historical thinking, and the recurrent agonizing over american exceptionalism and consequent recent attempts to break the nation - state mold and to globalize american history. another focus will be the intersection of analytical strategies borrowed from the social sciences and literary studies with methods and epistemologies of historicization that originated from the historical profession. this course should be taken during a students first year in the historical studies program.


the papacy is the office of the pope ( from latin : " papa " or " father " ), the bishop of rome, who is the leader of the roman catholic church and head of state of vatican city. the pope ' s ecclesiastical jurisdiction is called the " holy see " or " apostolic see. " the importance of the roman bishop is largely derived from his role as the traditional successor to saint peter, to whom jesus gave the keys of heaven and the powers of " binding and loosing, " naming him as the " rock " upon which the church would be built. after christianity became the favored religion of the roman emperors in the fourth century, the papacy was involved in a period of close interaction with the rulers of the west, while often struggling for supremacy with the eastern emperors and the patriarch of constantinople. in medieval times, popes played powerful political roles in western europe, crowning emperors, ruling the papal states, and regulating disputes among secular rulers. after the protestant reformation and the rise of powerful nation - states successfully challenged the authority of the papacy in the west, the popes gradually gave up secular power. in the modern period the papacy has come to focus almost exclusively on spiritual matters. over the centuries, the papacy ' s claim of spiritual authority has been ever more clearly expressed, culminating in the proclamation of the dogma of papal infallibility for those rare occasions the pope speaks ex cathedra when issuing a statement of faith or morals. today, the pope is the leader of the largest organized body of religious believers of the world, and arguably the single most powerful voice in moral and spiritual affairs. he has become a major figure in the ecumenical movement, whose voice commands the attention of leaders of virtually every faith. the papacy remains one of the most influential institutions of any kind in today ' s world. in catholic tradition, peter is recognized as the first pope, who was martyred in rome. yet the early bishops of rome were not yet " popes " as the word is understood today. rather, the roman church seems to have had a collective leadership involving a council of elders or bishops until the mid - second century. in the earliest christianity, however, it was jerusalem, not rome, that served as the christian movement ' s central city, from which missionaries were dispatched and to which delegates came to resolve disputes. james the just, known as " the brother of the lord, " served as head of the jerusalem church, which is still honored as the " mother church " in orthodox tradition. antioch and alexandria also had important


to which delegates came to resolve disputes. james the just, known as " the brother of the lord, " served as head of the jerusalem church, which is still honored as the " mother church " in orthodox tradition. antioch and alexandria also had important christian congregations. rome, the capital of the roman empire, was one of the first gentile cities to develop a substantial church early in the apostolic period, and it was at rome that the apostle paul was martyred, soon followed by peter, according to tradition. until around 130 c. e., there are few if any references to rome ' s primacy among the churches, and even the idea of peter ' s acting as " bishop of rome " is heavily disputed. however, after the jerusalem church was disbanded in the wake of the destruction of jerusalem in 70 c. e., rome gradually came to the fore. in the last years of the first century, clement of rome, probably one of a collective group of roman church leaders but traditionally recognized as the fourth pope, wrote on behalf of rome ' s congregation to the church in corinth to intervene in an internal dispute there. the papacy emerges in the second century, roman bishops received visits and letters from other churches, indicating that rome held a position of increasing centrality and respect. by the second half of the century, it is probable that the tradition of collective leadership at rome had given way to a single ruling bishop, as was the case in several other major cities. because of the relative wealth of the roman church, the early popes were in a position to assist other churches financially and help spread christianity abroad. they were also instrumental in resolving doctrinal disputes, both because of rome ' s position as capital of the empire and on the basis of rome ' s connection with saint peter. in the late second century, bishop irenaeus of lyons wrote : " because of its superior origin, all the churches must agree [ with rome ]... and it is in her that the faithful everywhere have maintained the apostolic tradition. " ( against heresies 3 : 3 : 2 ) however, in 195, when pope victor i excommunicated several eastern churches for observing easter on the jewish passover, irenaeus himself disagreed with this action, which was later rescinded. in the third century, several writers appealed to the authority of the rome ' s tradition to justify their theological views and ecclesiastical practices. at the same time, the pope ' s office was sometimes the victim of factional strife, with popes


and constantinople was declared the " new rome. " in practice, however, rome and constantinople continued to struggle for supremacy, and several schisms followed. nor did the other major centers of christianity always follow the pope ' s lead, either in administrative or theological matters. in terms of the title of pope, the bishops of several cities in the west had been known by this title, which simply means " father. " in the east, however, this title was generally reserved for the bishop of alexandria. from the early sixth century the term began to be confined in the west to the bishop of rome, a practice that was firmly in place by the eleventh century. however, the alexandrian churches, both coptic and orthodox, still refer to their bishops as popes. after the fall of rome to the " barbarians, " the roman church served as a source of knowledge, authority, and continuity in the west. pope gregory the great ( c. 540 - 604 ) administered the church with a stern, reforming spirit. however, his successors were sometimes dominated by the eastern emperor. pope stephen ii, seeking protection from the lombards, appealed to the franks to protect papal territory. in 754, pepin the short subdued the lombards, giving the pope the conquered lands, which formed the core of the papal states. in 800 c. e., leo iii crowned charlemagne as holy roman emperor, establishing the precedent in the west that no man would be emperor without anointment by a pope. the east, however, continued its imperial christian tradition without papal authority, upon which it had never depended. around 850, a collection of church legislation was promulgated, known today as the false decretals. containing both forgeries and genuine documents, its principal aim was to free the church and its bishops from interference by the imperial state. the author, a french cleric calling himself isidore mercator, presented various documents purportedly by early popes, demonstrating that supremacy of the papacy dated back to the church ' s oldest traditions. the decretals also included the forged donation of constantine, in which constantine supposedly granted pope sylvester i secular authority over all western europe. the " pseudo - isidorian " decretals provided support for papal authority for centuries. nevertheless, during the last two centuries of the first millennium, the popes came under the control of vying political factions, and the papacy ' s prestige was badly tarnished. conflict between the emperor and the papacy continued, and eventually dukes, in league with the emperor


last two centuries of the first millennium, the popes came under the control of vying political factions, and the papacy ' s prestige was badly tarnished. conflict between the emperor and the papacy continued, and eventually dukes, in league with the emperor, were buying bishops and popes almost openly. in 1049, leo ix became pope and attempted serious reforms. he traveled to the major cities of europe to deal with the church ' s moral problems firsthand, notably the sale of church offices or services and clerical marriage and concubinage. the churches of the east and west split definitively in 1054. this " great schism " was caused more by political events than by diversities of creed, although the famous filioque clause inserted into the nicene creed by the popes played no small role in it. shortly afterward, the papacy launched the crusades, the ebbs and flows of which contributed to both the church ' s glory and its great shame. increasing corruption of the clergy — including some of the popes themselves, as well as their administrative bureaucracy — also became a major challenge for the papacy. several popes attempted to reform the situation, while others pursued wealth and power in a spirit much at odds with the poverty and humility of their apostolic forbears. from 1309 to 1377, the pope resided not in rome but in avignon. the avignon papacy was notorious for greed and corruption. during this period, the pope was effectively an ally of france, alienating france ' s enemies, such as england. various antipopes also challenged papal authority, especially during the western schism ( 1378 - 1417 ). during this schism, one pope reigned in avignon while another ( or even two ) popes reigned in rome. while the papacy soon reunited, it continued to develop a reputation for wealth and corruption, even while supporting some of the great artistic and architectural projects of the renaissance. during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the conciliar movement attempted to reform corruption within the papacy by affirming the ancient tradition of church councils as the supreme ecclesiastical authority. however, the councils condemned more fundamental reforms promoted by such leaders as john wycliffe ( 1330 - 1384 ) and jan hus ( 1373 - 1415 ), who was burned at the stake at the council of constance. in the end, the papacy was able to reassert its authority but did not succeed in reforming the culture of the church. reformation to the present spiritually, the pope


the gates of the netherworld will not prevail against it. i will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven ; whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven. " ( matt. 16 : 18 - 19 ) john 21 : 15 - 17 further shows jesus as appointing peter as the primary " shepherd " of christ ' s flock. peter is thus the rock upon which christ ' s church was built, and his successors at rome stand in his position as the " vicar of christ, " acting on jesus ' behalf. the reference to the " keys of the kingdom of heaven " here is the basis for keys often found in catholic papal symbolism, such as in the vatican coat of arms. in the early church, the popes were chosen by those senior clergymen resident in and near rome. the elections were often contentious, resulting in schisms between factions, and sometimes involved imperial intervention. in 1059 the electors were restricted to the cardinals. the second council of lyons ( 1274 ) decreed that the cardinal electors must meet within ten days of the pope ' s death and that they must remain in seclusion until a pope has been elected. by the mid - sixteenth century, the electoral process had more or less evolved into its present form. under present canon law, the pope is elected by those cardinals who are under the age of 80. the election normally takes place in the sistine chapel, in a sequestered meeting called a " conclave. " each elector writes the name of his choice on his ballot and pledges aloud that he is voting for " one whom under god i think ought to be elected. " each ballot is read aloud by the presiding cardinal, and voting continues until a pope is elected by a two - thirds majority. once the ballots are counted, they are burned in a special stove, with the smoke escaping through a small chimney visible from st. peter ' s square. if no pope is elected yet, a chemical compound is added to the fire to produce black smoke. when a vote is successful, the ballots are burned alone, sending white smoke through the chimney and announcing to the world the election of a new pope. the dean of the college of cardinals then asks the one who was elected two solemn questions. first he asks, " do you freely accept your election? " if he replies with the word accepto, his reign as pope begins at that instant. the dean then asks, " by what name shall you be


who was elected two solemn questions. first he asks, " do you freely accept your election? " if he replies with the word accepto, his reign as pope begins at that instant. the dean then asks, " by what name shall you be called? " the new pope then announces the regnal name he has chosen for himself. the pope is then led to a dressing room in which three sets of white papal vestments await : small, medium, and large. donning the appropriate vestments and reemerging into the sistine chapel, the new pope is given the " fisherman ' s ring " and receives the obeisance of his former colleagues. the senior cardinal then announces from a balcony over st. peter ' s square : annuntio vobis gaudium magnum! habemus papam! — " i announce to you a great joy! we have a pope! " until 1978 the pope ' s election was followed in a few days by the papal coronation, which has since been suspended. for centuries, the papacy was dominated by italians. prior to the election of the polish cardinal karol wojtyla as pope john paul ii in 1978, the last non - italian was pope adrian vi of the netherlands, elected in 1522. john paul ii was followed by the german - born benedict xvi, leading some to believe the age of italian domination of the papacy to be over. abdication and death the pope ' s term of office is for life. the code of canon law states, " if it happens that the roman pontiff resigns his office, it is required for validity that the resignation is made freely and properly manifested but not that it is accepted by anyone. " the canonical right to abdicate has been exercised by pope celestine v in 1294 and pope gregory xii in 1409, who was the last pope to do so. the first pope to abdicate was pontian in 235, although he did not do so freely, but under the duress of a sentence of exile. the current regulations regarding a papal interregnum were promulgated by john paul ii in his 1996 document universi dominici gregis. during the vacancy caused by a pope ' s death the college of cardinals is collectively responsible for the government of the catholic church and of the vatican itself, under the direction of the cardinal chamberlain. canon law specifically forbids the cardinals from introducing any innovation in the government of the church during the vacancy of the holy see. a dead pope ' s body then lies


the catholic church and of the vatican itself, under the direction of the cardinal chamberlain. canon law specifically forbids the cardinals from introducing any innovation in the government of the church during the vacancy of the holy see. a dead pope ' s body then lies in state for a number of days before being interred in the crypt of a leading church or cathedral. the popes of the twentieth century were all interred in st. peter ' s basilica. a nine - day period of mourning ( novem dialis ) follows after the interment of the late pope. vatican tradition holds that no autopsy is to be performed on the body of a dead pope. the titles of the pope, in the order they are used in the annuario pontificio : the ancient title pontifex maximus, which was formerly associated with the pagan roman emperors, was used until gratian ( 359 - 383 ), who formally renounced the title. the title " servant of the servants of god, " although used by other church leaders including augustine of hippo and saint benedict, was first used by pope st. gregory the great in his dispute with the patriarch of constantinople after the latter assumed the title " ecumenical patriarch. " it was not reserved for the pope until the thirteenth century. the pope is addressed as " your holiness " or " holy father. " since, in the eastern churches, the title " pope " does not unambiguously refer to the bishop of rome, these churches often use the expression " pope of rome " to refer to roman pontiff. regalia and insignia - " triregnum, " also called the papal tiara or triple crown, represents the pope ' s three functions as " supreme pastor, " " supreme teacher, " and " supreme priest. " recent popes have not worn the triregnum, although it remains the official symbol of the papacy. in liturgical ceremonies, today ' s popes wear an episcopal mitre ( an erect cloth hat ). - pastoral staff topped by a crucifix, a custom established before the thirteenth century. - the pallium, a circular band or stole worn around the neck, breast and shoulders, with two pendants hanging down in front and behind, and is ornamented with six crosses. until recently, the pallium worn by the pope was identical to those he granted to the primates, but in 2005 pope benedict xvi began to use a larger papal pallium adorned with red crosses instead of black. - " keys to the kingdom of heaven


recently, the pallium worn by the pope was identical to those he granted to the primates, but in 2005 pope benedict xvi began to use a larger papal pallium adorned with red crosses instead of black. - " keys to the kingdom of heaven, " the image of two keys, one gold and one silver, symbolizing the power to " bind and loose " on earth and in heaven. - ring of the fisherman, a gold ring decorated with a depiction of st. peter in a boat casting his net, with the name of the reigning pope around it. - umbraculum, a canopy or umbrella consisting of alternating red and gold stripes, which used to be carried above the pope in processions. - sedia gestatoria ( now discontinued ), a mobile throne carried by 12 footmen in red uniforms, accompanied by two attendants bearing fans made of white ostrich feathers, and sometimes a large canopy carried by eight attendants. the use of the flabella was discontinued by pope john paul i, and the use of the sedia gestatoria was discontinued by pope john paul ii, being replaced by the so - called popemobile. in heraldry, each pope has his own coat of arms, which includes the aforementioned two keys behind the escutcheon ( shield ), and above them a silver triregnum with three gold crowns. the flag most frequently associated with the pope is the yellow and white flag of vatican city, with the arms of the holy see on the right - hand side. although pope benedict xvi replaced the triregnum with a mitre on his personal coat of arms, the triregnum has been retained on the flag. offices and residences the pope ' s official seat or cathedral is the basilica of st. john lateran, and his official residence is the palace of the vatican. he also possesses a summer residence at castel gandolfo. until the time of the avignon papacy, the residence of the pope was the lateran palace, donated by the roman emperor constantine the great. the pope ' s specific ecclesiastical jurisdiction, the holy see, is distinct from his secular jurisdiction of vatican city. the status and authority of the pope in the catholic church was dogmatically defined by the first vatican council on july 18, 1870. in its dogmatic constitution of the church of christ, the council established that : - peter was established by christ as the chief of the apostles, and the visible head of the whole church. - it is heresy to deny that


july 18, 1870. in its dogmatic constitution of the church of christ, the council established that : - peter was established by christ as the chief of the apostles, and the visible head of the whole church. - it is heresy to deny that the roman pontiff is the successor of peter holding the same primacy as him. - it is also heresy to deny that pope ' s authority pertains not only to matters of faith and morals, but also to the discipline and government of the church throughout the whole world. - the roman pontiff, when he speaks ex cathedra, operates with infallibility, and his decisions are unalterable. the second vatican council, while not repeating the anathemas directed by its predecessor against " heretics " who deny papal infallibility, nevertheless reaffirmed the doctrine. in 1964, this council declared : " … in matters of faith and morals, the bishops speak in the name of christ and the faithful are to accept their teaching and adhere to it with a religious assent. this religious submission of mind and will must be shown in a special way to the authentic magisterium of the roman pontiff, even when he is not speaking ex cathedra … his definitions, of themselves, and not from the consent of the church, are justly styled irreformable, since they are pronounced with the assistance of the holy spirit, promised to him in blessed peter, and therefore they need no approval of others, nor do they allow an appeal to any other judgment. the papacy today while the papacy has lost considerable political power in recent centuries, its prestige as a moral and spiritual authority has grown considerable. the pope remains the sole ruler of the catholic church, which is not only the largest christian denomination, but the largest organized body of any world religion, with over one billion members, accounting for approximately one in six of the world ' s population. no longer a primarily european faith, the majority the pope ' s flock hail from latin america, africa, and asia. the papacy also controls or supervises a vast network of catholic financial institutions, religious orders, real estate holdings, schools, monasteries and convents, charitable organizations, museums, hospitals, retirement homes, youth organizations, and social groups. the pope commands huge audiences of up to and over a million people when he travels, notably including many young people. his moral teachings remain highly influential, probably more so than any single individual in the world today. politically, the papacy of john paul ii is considered to have been a


up to and over a million people when he travels, notably including many young people. his moral teachings remain highly influential, probably more so than any single individual in the world today. politically, the papacy of john paul ii is considered to have been a major factor in the fall of the soviet union. the pope is a major figure in the ecumenical movement, whose voice commands the attention of leaders of virtually every faith. he frequently meets with the presidents of the greatest nations of the world. it is no exaggeration to say that the papacy remains one of the world ' s most important world institutions today. - roman catholicism - investiture controversy - chapman, john. studies on the early papacy. port washington, ny : kennikat press, 1971. isbn 9780804611398 - duffy, eamon. saints and sinners : a history of the popes. new haven : yale university press, 2002. isbn 0300091656 - fortescue, adrian, and scott m. p. reid. the early papacy : to the synod of chalcedon in 451. southampton : saint austin press, 1997. isbn 9781901157604 - kelly, john n. d., and michael j. walsh. the oxford dictionary of popes. oxford [ u. a. ] : oxford univ. press, 2005. isbn 9780198614333 - loomis, louise ropes. the book of popes ( liber pontificalis ). merchantville, nj : evolution publishing. isbn 1889758868 - maxwell - stuart, p. g. chronicle of the popes : the reign - by - reign record of the papacy from st. peter to the present. new york, ny : thames and hudson, 1997. isbn 0500017980. - walsh, michael j. an illustrated history of the popes : saint peter to john paul ii. bonanza books, 1980. isbn 9780312408176 all links retrieved january 6, 2009. - vatican website : the holy see - the holy father - catholic encyclopedia entry - sortable list of popes - database of more than 23, 000 documents of the popes in latin and modern languages new world encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the wikipedia article in accordance with new world encyclopedia standards. this article abides by terms of the creative commons cc - by - sa 3. 0 license ( cc - by - sa ), which may be used and disseminated with


challenges of autism wed november 10, 2010 inclusion : finding the balance for students with autism these days it ’ s not rare to find a child with severe autism actively participating in a public school. a generation ago, parents would have sent those kids to a private school or maybe institutionalized them. but studies show kids with autism improve in a regular public school. there they are able to socialize and learn how to communicate better because they ’ re copying the other children. but not everyone agrees this approach is good for all students. in our ongoing series challenges of autism, nhpr correspondent sheryl rich - kern has this report. ( sound of teachers singing in a nursery rhyme tune ) “ olivia, emma and lily are ready … " at maple wood elementary school, the first grade teacher reins in her class of about 25 kids for a writing lesson. ( sound of teacher writing on board ) " i ’ m going to write a sentence on the board and you are going to find … " daniel is a tall six year old with jet black hair. he also has autism and has trouble paying attention. a teacher ’ s aide helps him follow along with the lesson. daniel : ( shouting ) " no, no. " aide : ( whispering ) " raise your hand, please. " teacher : " daniel, am i missing something else? " aide : ( whispering ) " tell her. period. " teacher : " period? i don ’ t need a period, do i? " teacher : " how come? " daniel is with the multi - age class most of the day. when he has a meltdown, the other kids don ’ t really pay attention. laura basdekis is the inclusion facilitator at maple wood. basdekis says she ’ s seen other programs where kids with autism were in a classroom — with kids with autism. basdekis : " if they need someone to be able to model turn - taking or asking for something that they want and no one in the classroom can do that, it ’ s a lot harder to teach them that versus if they can just observe it happening in the classroom. " daniel sits in a chair and desk — just like his peers. but he doesn ’ t always do the same work. for example, while others are composing sentences, he ’ s drawing pictures. his teacher ’ s aide writes the words and then he traces the letters. he speaks, but also uses an ipod application that converts symbols to speech. rae sonnenmeier is with the institute on disability at the


, he ’ s drawing pictures. his teacher ’ s aide writes the words and then he traces the letters. he speaks, but also uses an ipod application that converts symbols to speech. rae sonnenmeier is with the institute on disability at the university of new hampshire. sonnenmeier says that teachers can design a curriculum that ’ s universal for different learners. and it ’ s important, she says, not to presume what kids do and don ’ t understand. that ’ s why special educators resist using terms like low and high functioning to define autism. sonnenmeier : " what we really want to be focusing on is what their talents are. and so many adults on the autism spectrum who, when they ’ ve been given a means to communicate, have shown us that they were paying attention, they were learning, even if they weren ’ t able to demonstrate it at the time. " sandi glover of merrimack is the mother of a young adult with an autism spectrum disorder. when curtis was a toddler, doctors weren ’ t sure if he would ever speak. today he ’ s finishing his senior year of high school while also attending nashua community college. despite her son ’ s progress, glover is not a proponent of inclusion education. glover : " inclusion is not black and white. it is the biggest gray on the planet. i think it is imperative that curtis today has full inclusion. when he was little, it would have been horrible for him. the other kids wouldn ’ t have gotten the attention they needed. and that ’ s not fair to them. and it wouldn ’ t have been fair to curtis to expect another five year old to understand that. " but does a young child need to behave like everyone else? ne ’ eman : " there is no harm if an autistic child is allowed to hand flap or rock. those are things that often are meaningful to us and are helpful in dealing with the outside world and in coping with stress and anxiety or expressing excitement for us. " that ’ s ari ne ’ eman. he heads the autistic self - advocacy network. ne ’ eman promotes inclusion as a civil right. he says it ’ s the people who don ’ t have autism who put too much focus on becoming normal. ne ’ eman : " students with disabilities are done a disservice, and this is the case particularly in autism world because of that historic focus on normalcy instead of quality of life. " ne ’ eman has asper


ataxia is caused by damage to a part of the brain known as the cerebellum and sometimes part of the spinal cord. the spinal cord is a cable of nerves that runs from the brain to the rest of the body. the cerebellum sits at the base of the brain and is responsible for controlling : - walking and sitting balance - limb co - ordination - eye movements damage can occur as a result of injury or illness ( as is the case with acquired ataxia ) or because the cerebellum or spinal cord degenerates ( as is the case with hereditary ataxia ). in a minority of cases there is no clear cause why the cerebellum and spinal cord become damaged as is the case with idiopathic late onset cerebellar ataxia ( iloa ). acquired ataxia can have a wide range of potential causes, such as : - severe head injury, such as the type of injury that can occur during a car crash or a fall - bacterial infection that affects the brain, such as meningitis or encephalitis ( an infection of the brain itself ) - viral infection – some types of viral infection such as chickenpox or measles can spread to the brain, although this is very uncommon - conditions that disrupt the supply of blood to the brain, such as a stroke, haemorrhage ( bleeding in or around the brain ) or a transient ischaemic attack ( a so - called mini - stroke ) - cerebral palsy – a series of conditions that can disrupt a child ’ s normal growth and development - multiple sclerosis – a long - term condition that causes damage to the nerve fibres of the central nervous system - prolonged long - term alcohol misuse - underactive thyroid gland - certain toxic chemicals, such as mercury, lead, solvents and some types of pesticides, can trigger ataxia if a person is exposed to enough of them - certain medications, such as benzodiazepines ( a medication used to relax people who are anxious or have problems sleeping ), can occasionally trigger ataxia as a side effect - health conditions where the immune system attacks healthy tissue ( autoimmune conditions ), such as lupus - in children, epilepsy – a condition that can cause a person to experience repeated seizures ( fits ) hereditary ataxia is caused by genetic mutations. a genetic mutation is when the instructions carried in all living cells become scrambled in some way meaning that one or more of the functions of the body


condition that can cause a person to experience repeated seizures ( fits ) hereditary ataxia is caused by genetic mutations. a genetic mutation is when the instructions carried in all living cells become scrambled in some way meaning that one or more of the functions of the body does not work as it should do. read more about genetics. the genetics of ataxia to have a better understanding of the genetics of hereditary ataxia, it is useful to learn about chromosomes. chromosomes are blocks of deoxyribonucleic acid ( dna ). they contain a detailed set of instructions that control a wide range of factors – from how the body ’ s cells develop, to what colour eyes a baby will have and what sex a baby will be. you receive two sets of chromosomes, one from your mother and one from your father. as all the genes in your body are created from these chromosomes, you will receive two sets of every gene, one gene from your mother and one gene from your father. in each pair of genes you receive, one gene is recessive and one is dominant. there are two ways that a genetic mutation can be passed down through families : - autosomal recessive : such as the mutations responsible for friedreich ’ s ataxia and ataxia - telangiectasia - autosomal dominant : such as the mutation responsible for spinocerebellar ataxia these are described in more detail below. if the mutated gene is autosomal recessive, it means that you will only develop ataxia if you receive a pair of mutated genes ( one from your mother and one from your father ). if you only receive one of the mutated genes, the other normal gene will cancel out the effects of the mutation. however, you will be a carrier of one of the mutated genes. it is estimated that around 1 person in every 75 is a carrier of the mutated gene that causes friedreich ’ s ataxia and around 1 person in 100 carries the mutated gene that causes ataxia - telangiectasia. the chances of two carriers meeting, having a relationship and then having a baby is low, which explains why these types of ataxia are so rare. if two carriers have a baby : - there is a 1 in 4 chance that the baby will receive a pair of normal genes. - there is a 1 in 2 chance that the baby will receive one normal gene and one mutated gene. in this case, they will not develop ataxia but they will be a carrier. -


the baby will receive a pair of normal genes. - there is a 1 in 2 chance that the baby will receive one normal gene and one mutated gene. in this case, they will not develop ataxia but they will be a carrier. - there is a 1 in 4 chance that the baby will receive a pair of mutated genes and will develop ataxia. if you have autosomal recessive ataxia and your partner is a carrier : - there is a 1 in 2 chance that your baby will receive one normal gene and one mutated gene and become a carrier. - there is a 1 in 2 chance that your baby will receive a pair of mutated genes and develop ataxia. if you have autosomal recessive ataxia and your partner does not and is not a carrier, there is no risk that any children that you have will develop ataxia because your mutated gene will be cancelled out by your partner ’ s normal gene. if the mutated gene is autosomal dominant, as is the case with the various types of spinocerebellar ataxias, you can develop ataxia if you receive a single mutated gene, either from your mother or your father. this is because the mutation is strong enough to override the other, normal gene. if you have autosomal dominant ataxia, any children that you have will have a 1 in 2 chance of developing ataxia.


national institute of allergy andinfectious diseases ( niaid ) http : / / www. niaid. nih. gov for immediate release monday, jul. 15, 2002 a common bacterium can turn into a potent killer if it picks up the right set of genes, but how and when those genes are acquired has remained poorly understood. in a new study, researchers show that special viruses are the culprits behind the emergence of virulent select new bacterial strains. those viruses, called bacteriophages, specifically infect bacteria, capture some of their genes, and transfer the genes from one microbe to the next. by moving genes among their hosts, bacteriophages can create new bacterial strains with potentially deadly properties. the discovery, which will reported this week in the online edition of proceedings of the national academy of sciences, highlights an important mechanism for bacterial evolution and identifies several potential targets for vaccines or drugs to prevent or treat some severe infections. group a streptococcus ( gas ) bacteria are common microbes that cause many different diseases, including strep throat, wound infections, toxic shock, " flesh - eating " disease, scarlet fever, rheumatic fever and kidney ailments. james musser, m. d., ph. d., of the national institute of allergy and infectious diseases ( niaid ), seeks to understand why some gas strains cause severe infections while others lead to milder illnesses. to accomplish that goal, he and his collaborators have turned to the gas genome. by comparing the complete genetic blueprints of bacterial strains isolated from people with different gas infections, the researchers hope to identify specific genes linked with individual diseases. " we are trying to move past the technical phase of genome research and start using what we have learned from gene sequences to develop new ways to prevent and treat infections and to understand how new, virulent strains emerge, " says dr. musser, who directs the human bacterial pathogenesis laboratory at niaid ' s rocky mountain laboratories in hamilton, mont. in their most recent study, dr. musser, stephen beres, ph. d., and their colleagues determined the complete genetic blueprints of a so - called m3 gas strain isolated from a person with toxic shock syndrome. m3 strains are known for causing extremely invasive infections leading to an unusually high degree of severe illness and death. the m3 strain contains more than 1. 9 million pairs of the chemical bases that spell out the bacterium ' s genetic instructions. approximately 1.


. m3 strains are known for causing extremely invasive infections leading to an unusually high degree of severe illness and death. the m3 strain contains more than 1. 9 million pairs of the chemical bases that spell out the bacterium ' s genetic instructions. approximately 1. 7 million of those bases are shared with other, less deadly gas strains, leaving about 10 percent of the genome unique to m3. when the researchers looked closely at the unique regions, they found telltale genetic markers indicating that bacteriophages had brought in many of the m3 genes. " what we have discovered is that bacterial viruses have imported crucial new toxin genes to create new virulence strains, " says dr. musser. among the unique genes, the researchers identified several that encode bacterial toxins and enzymes that may contribute to the highly infective nature of m3 gas bacteria. amazingly, one of the toxins resembles an enzyme found in potent snake venoms. those molecules may prove to be useful targets for new drugs, diagnostics or vaccines. the research also opens the door to what dr. musser believes is a neglected area of research. " scientists have known about bacteriophages for a long time, " he explains, " but they have not been extensively studied for their indirect contributions to infectious diseases. now that we have shown their importance to bacterial evolution, there is much we need to know about them. " researchers from the university of minnesota medical school and the national jewish medical and research center in denver also contributed to this study. press releases, fact sheets and other niaid - related materials are available on the niaid web site athttp : / / www. niaid. nih. gov. niaid conducts and supports research — at nih, throughout the united states, and worldwide — to study the causes of infectious and immune - mediated diseases, and to develop better means of preventing, diagnosing and treating these illnesses. news releases, fact sheets and other niaid - related materials are available on the niaid web site at www. niaid. nih. gov. about the national institutes of health ( nih ) : nih, the nation ' s medical research agency, includes 27 institutes and centers and is a component of the u. s. department of health and human services. nih is the primary federal agency conducting and supporting basic, clinical, and translational medical research, and is investigating the causes, treatments, and cures for both common and rare diseases. for more information about nih and its programs, visit


- no upcoming events available. the importance of using accountable language by phyllis b. frank and barry goldstein this article was conceived because of the frequency with which leaders of our movement and presenters at conferences use unaccountable language in our presentations and proposals, even as they deeply care about ending men ’ s violence against women and have devoted their lives to helping women partnered with abusive men. like all tools of oppression, unaccountable language is conditioned into our psyches, taught and learned as appropriate vocabulary and in socially acceptable sentence structure. thus, unaccountable language is part of everyday parlance of people acting in complete good faith in trying to end men ' s violence against women. we know this is true because as long as we have trained to avoid unaccountable language, we still sometimes make this error, as well. the movement to end domestic violence has not yet made the use of accountable language a priority. we hope this article will encourage all of us in the movement to do so. this is one program we can afford even in tight economic times. defining unaccountable language unaccountable language refers to the powerful messages embedded in all forms of speech and media that have all of us lapse into sentence structure that obscures perpetrators, minimizes their abuse, and supports blaming victims. one common example is the phrase “ an abusive relationship. " the relationship did not hit the woman, but rather it was the abuser, typically a man who is husband or intimate partner, who was abusive. such statements make the person who committed the offense, invisible. more specifically it is the use of passive language that results in making the perpetrator invisible. for example, a phrase like a woman was raped should be replaced by, “ a man raped a woman. ” the rape did not just happen, but rather the rapist committed a brutal act. the idea is to focus attention on the person responsible. accountably speaking we might say a woman was in a relationship with an abuser or he is abusive to his intimate partner. another example is exposed by the question, “ how many women will be raped or assaulted in this year? ” do we ever hear, “ how many men will rape or assault this year? ” during a dinner conversation, barry, and his partner, sharon, were discussing a series of disastrous calamities in their home caused by the builder who seemed to have deliberately sabotaged their house. after hearing about one emergency repair after another, phyllis said it was the first time she actually understood the true


, sharon, were discussing a series of disastrous calamities in their home caused by the builder who seemed to have deliberately sabotaged their house. after hearing about one emergency repair after another, phyllis said it was the first time she actually understood the true meaning of an “ abusive home “, since too often the phrase " abusive home " is misused to invisiblize a man who repeatedly abuses his partner in their home. the police and media often refer to incidents in which a man brutalizes his wife or girl friend as a " domestic dispute. " this describes a man ' s criminal assault as if it were some kind of mutual problem, even - sided engagement, or tame dispute, rather than an act of brutality. when a mugger assaults and robs a cab driver, it is not described as a " fare dispute. " domestic violence is comprised of a wide range of tactics used by men to maintain power and to control their intimate partners the tactics are part of a pattern of coercive actions designed to maintain, what he believes ( consciously or not ), are his male privileges, to control his significant other. historically, men were assigned, by social and legal norms, control over wives and families. today, even though that is no longer legally, and for so many, morally, the case, an " abusive relationship " or " domestic dispute " makes it seem like a communications or relationship problem between the parties. it suggests counseling or therapy as a remedy instead of consequences to hold abusers accountable for abusive, controlling, and / or violent tactics. social consequences of unaccountable language if we are going to end or at least reduce the use of unaccountable language in this society, those of us working in the battered women ' s movement must take the lead and must set an example to use accountable language. politicians often use phrases like " mistakes were made " instead of saying, “ i made a mistake. ” we want society to be clear that men, who abuse and mistreat the women they are partnered with, are responsible for their actions. we are asking presenters and others working to end domestic violence to join us in striving to use accountable language. dedicated to our dear friend and colleague jon cohen, who worked with phyllis b. frank in developing the ny model for batterers programs, and with barry goldstein, to find many of the examples of unaccountable language in barry ’ s first book, scared to leave afraid to stay. phyllis b. frank, firstname. lastname @


in the beginning there was nothing. and then something formed quarks. and the quarks organized themselves into composite particles, like protons and neutrons. and these guys, with the help of some friends called electrons, subsequently organized themselves into atoms. and these atoms got together one day and decided to take self - organization to yet another level, and they formed molecules. millions of different molecules were created that way, and they happily crawled all over each other for a while, forming planets and other crazy objects. and then some of the molecules, swimming around in a warm and cozy pool, thought they were the trendiest of the lot, and they decided to replicate themselves. they adopted the trendy name rna. the copying frenzy quickly went in many directions, and soon there were prokaryotes and eukaryotes ( and viruses too ). and boy, it didn ' t stop there either. these biological cells self - organized into millions of different species, and it didn ' t take long for the brain of one of those species ( humans ) to form consciousness. and this new aggregate system decided to take self - organization to even higher levels. it formed tribes, cultures, cities, businesses, and ( as one of its least successful ideas ) governments. from the very beginning of the universe, everything in it was shaped by self - organization... self - organization is a process of attraction and repulsion in which the internal organization of a system, normally an open system, increases in complexity without being guided or managed by an outside source. [ wikipedia ] so you see... self - organization is the norm. self - organization is the default behavior of systems, whether they are atoms, molecules, viruses, species, or businesses. or software development teams... it is a bit silly that self - organization of software development teams is often hailed as a " best practice " in agile software development. self - organization is not a " best practice ". it is the " default practice " of any system, including teams. never did anyone direct me in my communication with my peers. nobody told me how to enter the office, how to hold my mouse, how to write lines of code, or how to write wiki - pages. management was never concerned about those things. they always just happened, without direction, even long before agile was a buzzword. but is what happens also happening in the right direction? though every self - organizing system chooses its own direction, the possible directions are limited by its environment.


things. they always just happened, without direction, even long before agile was a buzzword. but is what happens also happening in the right direction? though every self - organizing system chooses its own direction, the possible directions are limited by its environment. the latest theories of the universe suggest that our universe is just one out of many, and that our specific universe is " special " ( for us ), in that it has some very specific cosmological constants. it is these cosmological constants that have constrained and given direction to the self - organization of quarks, protons, atoms, molecules, and the whole shebang. ( we can only guess what kind of particles could have formed in other universes. ) likewise, the earth ' s environment has constrained and given direction to the formation of biological cells. and biological cells in their turn have constrained and given direction to the formation of viruses. and so on, and so on... no self - organizing system exists without context. and the context constrains the self - direction of the system. and then humans acquired consciousness, and they invented the concept of value. and humans turned the world upside down. ( to be continued... ) ( in part 2 : how command - and - control was invented after self - organization ) ( image by v2 )


only one - third of nebraska ’ s corn crop is exported out of the state. the rest is processed through livestock and ethanol and then exported as food, fuel and related products. this value - added activity boosts employment and earnings and adds prowess to nebraska ’ s agricultural economy, which is unmatched by any other place except south dakota in terms of impact on the entire state, according to a new report from the university of nebraska - lincoln. the report uses statistics from 2010. " the 2010 economic impact of the nebraska agricultural production complex " was written by eric thompson, unl bureau of business research ; and bruce johnson and anil giri, department of agricultural economics. some of agriculture ’ s share of nebraska ' s total economy in 2010 : - - total sales volume : $ 68. 88 billion ( 41 percent of the state ' s total sales volume ) - - total gross state product : $ 22. 64 billion, 27 percent - - employment : 289, 200 jobs, 24 percent - - total wages and proprietor ' s income : $ 13. 67 billion, 25 percent in short, the agricultural production complex accounts for about one - fourth of nebraska ' s total economy, the report says. but the authors also caution that nebraskans should develop a more comprehensive statewide strategy for long - term sustainability of its ag industry to contend with " growing external forces that may not have the best long - term interests of nebraska in mind. " economic downturns in agriculture are inevitable and their impact will be magnified in nebraska. in fact, the report says, economic volatility in agriculture is likely to increase. authors predict continued growth for nebraska ' s ag production complex, with exports likely to grow to china, india and other countries in asia and latin america. they also predict more growth in food processing, agriculture - oriented manufacturers and biotechnology companies and in the transportation industry. " overall, nebraska is positioned, like few other areas of the country, to capitalize on the strength of its agricultural production complex, " the authors wrote. " this state has a thriving bio - economy tied to a rich natural resource endowment and skilled human capital which will only increase in importance in a world of rising global demand for food and other agriculturally based output. " " that said, however, economic volatility arising from agriculture will tend to ripple through the state ' s total economy, often triggered by external forces of both national and global origin. " this signals a clear need of a more comprehensive state - level strategy for long - term sustainable development around its agricultural


arising from agriculture will tend to ripple through the state ' s total economy, often triggered by external forces of both national and global origin. " this signals a clear need of a more comprehensive state - level strategy for long - term sustainable development around its agricultural base, " the authors wrote. the report said that strategy could include streamlining of regulations, enhancing investment opportunities for new and emerging agricultural technologies, providing workforce training and management education, expanding basic and applied research for innovation in agriculture, sustainable stewardship of natural resources and enhancing quality - of - life for citizens across the state. " this will involve the need to engage all stakeholders in a shared vision for the state and a commitment to pursue it. to do otherwise could expose the state to growing external forces that may not have the best long - term interest of nebraska in mind, " the report concludes. the study was a joint effort of the unl department of agricultural economics and the bureau of business research within the department of economics and was funded by the university ' s institute of agriculture and natural resources. it is available online at agecon. unl. edu. hard - copy versions are available for $ 7 per copy from the department of agricultural economics at unl, 102 filley hall, lincoln, ne 68583 - 0922.


robert siegel, host : from npr news, this is all things considered. i ' m robert siegel. audie cornish, host : and i ' m audie cornish. a little over a week ago, filmmaker james cameron came back from a submarine trip to the mariana trench and he said this about it. it was a very desolate place, isolated like visiting another planet. siegel : that illustrates the challenge of trips to the deepest parts of the ocean, but next year, an australian company plans to start mining metal from the sea floor. if all goes as planned, they will bring copper, gold, silver and zinc up from the depths off the coast of papua new guinea. npr ' s richard harris reports this pioneering effort will target a natural hot spring that is an oasis for marine life. richard harris, byline : people have thought about mining the sea floor ' s mineral wealth for many decades and now a combination of high metal prices and sophisticated technology is making that possible. nautilus minerals of australia has a license from papua new guinea to mine a site the size of 21 football fields for its rich deposits of copper, gold, silver and zinc. those minerals are found in very high concentrations because a natural hot spring on the sea floor has been laying them down for thousands of years. samantha smith, a vice president for corporate responsibility of the company, says it ' s an operation that involves remotely piloted vehicles prowling around a mile under the surface. samantha smith : you have two machines that cuts and they do different types of cuts and then you ' ve got a third machine that goes along and then effectively sucks the material up from the sea floor. harris : the material is drawn into a long pipe like what ' s used in deep sea oil drilling. the riser pipe brings this slurry to ships on the surface. the mineral - rich material is hauled to shore and the water it came up with is filtered and pumped back to the sea floor. that way, it doesn ' t harm tuna, which swim closer to the surface. and if it seems like a hassle to do all of this offshore, she says, think of the alternative, mining on land. smith : you ' ve got to dig a big hole in the ground to get to the ore body and you might even have to remove a mountain and then dig a big hole in the ground to get to the ore body. harris : offshore, you aren ' t forcing people off their land to dig mines and you aren ' t contaminating rivers and streams


might even have to remove a mountain and then dig a big hole in the ground to get to the ore body. harris : offshore, you aren ' t forcing people off their land to dig mines and you aren ' t contaminating rivers and streams. smith : there ' s a potential environment advantage and, really, that ' s where the industry got a kick - start. harris : but the same natural hot springs that have deposited all that mineral wealth on the sea floor also support marine life. cindy van dover, a marine biologist at duke university, says the dominant animals at this site are marine snails. cindy van dover : to a biologist, especially, they ' re beautiful. they have symbiotic bacteria that live inside their gills and those bacteria supply the food energy that drives the community of animals that live there. in an otherwise relatively depauperate deep sea, these habitats are generally pretty rich oases of life. harris : van dover is among the scientists that nautilus minerals has been consulting in its attempt to limit the environmental damage. she says you can think of mining as a very aggressive experiment. what happens when you carve away the natural chimneys made of these minerals and grind down the surrounding rock? dover : we know these systems are often exposed to disturbances. the chimneys fall down. there are volcanic eruptions in some places. and so the animals are adapted to re - colonizing new spaces fairly quickly, we think. harris : it ' s possible the marine life will be back in a year, she says, or not. the company will leave some parts of the area undisturbed so animals there can potentially re - colonize the site after the 30 - month mining period is over. still... dover : i don ' t like the thought of messing up a pristine environment. i would rather see the deep sea stay unimpacted by human activities, but that ' s not a very rational view. harris : but george woodwell at the woods hole research institute has a much more visceral reaction to destroying any deep ocean hot spring. george woodwell : the organisms that have evolved to inhabit them are specially adapted to those places and they are well worth examining, looking at them. they are one of the wonders of the earth to be preserved, as far as i ' m concerned. harris : woodwell argues it ' s time to stop degrading the earth to sustain our consumptive lifestyles. woodwell : so i don ' t have any sympathy for the idea that we


, as far as i ' m concerned. harris : woodwell argues it ' s time to stop degrading the earth to sustain our consumptive lifestyles. woodwell : so i don ' t have any sympathy for the idea that we should be mining the sea floor at this late stage in the development of the industrial society. we ' ve got to be more mature than that. harris : samantha smith from nautilus minerals says our hunger for metals keeps growing, so mining will happen somewhere. smith : what we ' re looking at here is more of a holistic view that, you know, maybe going to the sea floor makes - environmentally and socially - a lot more sense. harris : the mining activity is set to start toward the end of next year and, if it ' s successful, it could be the beginning of a whole new industry operating far from public view and, so far, with very little in the way of international rules and regulations. richard harris, npr news. npr transcripts are created on a rush deadline by a contractor for npr, and accuracy and availability may vary. this text may not be in its final form and may be updated or revised in the future. please be aware that the authoritative record of npr ' s programming is the audio.


photo by jeffrey trust yosemite national park provides essential habitat for over 165 species of migrating, wintering, and breeding birds, in addition to nearly 100 species recorded as transient or vagrant. designated a world heritage site and an important bird area, the park harbors diverse avian assemblages and habitats, numerous bird species of special concern, and prized habitat ranging from gently sloping foothill grasslands, through chaparral / oak woodland and giant conifer forests, up to windswept alpine meadows and peaks. the most regularly seen resident birds include steller ' s jay, american robin, acorn woodpecker, common raven, and mountain chickadee. in spring, look for the bright red wing patches on the red - winged blackbird ( most often seen in wet meadows ) or the tropical looking western tanager foraging in the conifers. near rivers and streams, watch the american dipper dart in and out of rapids and listen for their beautiful melodious song. some of the more sought - after birds to see in yosemite include the great gray owl, spotted owl, peregrine falcon, pileated woodpecker, and northern goshawk. in general, quiet forests and meadows away from developed areas ( particularly in the mornings ) are the best places to see some of the less common birds. keep in mind basic birding etiquette ; tread lightly and quietly and please follow park rules by refraining from using broadcast bird calls to elicit responses. learn more about birds : did you know? black bears in yosemite are active both day and night. most bears that rely on natural food sources are active during the day. however, those that get food from people are often active at night, when they can quietly sneak around and grab unattended food. more...


overview why we evaluate types of stages hiring an external evaluator managing an the confidentiality plan, usually included as part of the overall data collection plan, details the steps that will be taken to ensure that the data, once collected, are not shared inappropriately. social science evaluation often involves matters that may be personally sensitive. mental health and substance abuse intervention studies, for example, may require the collection of information about participants ' history with mental health or substance use problems, the extent of their problems, as well as information about their families and spouses. in most research, assuring confidentiality is only a matter of following some routine practices : substituting codes for identifiers, removing face sheets ( containing such items as names and addresses ) from survey instruments containing data, properly disposing of computer sheets and other papers, limiting access to identified data, impressing on the research staff the importance of confidentiality, and storing research records in locked cabinets. in some studies, more elaborate procedures may be needed — either to give subjects the confidence they need to participate and answer questions honestly, or to enable researchers to offer strong, truthful assurances of confidentiality. such elaborate procedures may be particularly necessary for studies in which data are collected on sensitive matters such as sexual behavior or criminal activities. it is important to maintain strict confidentiality at all times. any information collected from or about participants must not be divulged to others without permission, and data must be safely and securely maintained and stored. select " next " to continue.


- nvidia grid - 3d vision - about nvidia nvidia cuda : naked - eye stereoscopic system for real - time medical imaging one interesting field of imaging technology is naked - eye stereoscopy, which displays 3d stereoscopic images without the need for special eyeglasses. this intriguing technology not only has applications in entertainment, but is being studied as a practical technology for a variety of professional applications. one especially promising application is in medical imaging, where nvidia ’ s cuda™ parallel computing platform is being studied by professor takeyoshi dohi and his colleagues in the department of mechano - informatics at the university of tokyo ’ s graduate school of information science and technology. naked - eye stereoscopy can be implemented in a variety of ways ; the one being studied by associate professor hongen liao and graduate student nicholas herlambang in profesor dohi ’ s research group is called integral videography ( iv ). this method uses a special display comprising a micro - lens array, consisting of convex lenses on a matrix which is bonded to a liquid crystal panel. directly beneath each micro - lens, there are some 100 liquid crystal elements and the convex lens projects the light from each element in various directions. the object to be represented in 3d space is illuminated by light rays from several directions, forming a stereoscopic image which to the user seems to be floating in the air. because this method projects a 3d image into space, it has advantages over the traditional stereoscopic method, where different images are displayed for the viewer ’ s left and right eyes. using iv, the 3d image can be observed from a wide area in front of the display by several viewers at once, without using special eyeglasses or viewpoint tracking. since 2000, the university ’ s research group has been developing a system where in vivo cross - sections obtained in real time by ct or mri scans are treated as volume textures, which can not only be reconstituted as 3d images through volume rendering, but also displayed as stereoscopic video for use in an iv system. this system could revolutionize real - time, stereoscopic, in vivo imaging. however, the amount of computation is huge ; the volume rendering alone creates a high processing load, then further processing is required for the stereoscopic imaging. for each video frame, a vast number of angles must be displayed at the same time. multiply this by the number of frames in the video and a staggering amount of computation must be done with high precision in a short time. in


take advantage of speed increases in future generations of gpus without modifying the system we have developed. if an environment that makes it easy to debug large cuda programs becomes available, cuda will become an even more powerful development environment for parallel computing and we expect it will find more applications in medical image processing as well. ” when images from ct and mri are viewed stereoscopically in real time, physicians can check the state of diseased tissues and make diagnoses without biopsies and surgery. moreover, several physicians can view the images at the same time and consult with one another. and it may eventually make it possible for several physicians to perform arthroscopic surgery and other minimally invasive surgical techniques together, with each surgeon able to visualize the operation in real time. it is difficult to bring a huge parallel computer array into clinical settings, but the powerful computing capabilities of gpus and tesla make it possible to provide compact, parallel computing modules. prof. takeyoshi dohi, advanced therapeutic & rehabilitation engineering laboratory : http : / / www. atre. t. u - tokyo. ac. jp / en / associate professor hongen liao : http : / / bmpe. t. u - tokyo. ac. jp / ~ liao / to laboratory atre lab, dept. of mechano - informatics, graduate school of information science and technology, the university of tokyo, where prof. dohi and his colleagues have pioneered computer - aided surgery, is one of the world ’ s top laboratories in the medical engineering field. the 3d stereoscopy technology presented here has given rise to numerous advanced devices, including microsurgery robots, wedge prism endoscopes, and surgical stereoscopic composite displays.