object, constituting love there - for. volition is the association of ideas of muscular motion with the ideas of those pleasures which the motion produces. the motion at first occurs automatically and results [ p. 600 ] in a pleasure unforeseen. the latter becomes so associated with the motion that whenever we think of it the idea of the motion arises ; and the idea of the motion when vivid causes the motion to occur. this is an act of will. nothing is easier than for a philosopher of this school to explain from experience such a notion as that of infinitude. " he sees in it an ordinary manifestation of one of the laws of the association of ideas, - - the law that the idea of a thing irresistibly suggests the idea of any other thing which has been often experienced in close conjunction with it, and not otherwise. as we have never had experience of any point of space without other points beyond it, nor of any point of time without others following it, the law of indissoluble association makes it impossible for us to think of any point of space or time, however distant, without having the idea irresistibly realized, in imagination, of other points still more remote. and thus the supposed original and inherent property of these two ideas is completely explained and accounted for by the law of association ; and we are enabled to see that if space or time were really susceptible of termination, we should be just as unable as we now are to conceive the idea. " these examples of the associationist psychology are with the exception of the last, very crudely expressed, but they suffice for our temporary need. hartley and james mill improved upon hume so far as to employ but a single principle of association, that of contiguity or habit. hartley ignores resemblance, james mill expressly repudiates it in a passage which is assuredly one of the curiosities of literature : " i believe it will be found that we are accustomed to see like things together. when we see a tree, we generally see more trees than one ; a sheep, more sheep than one ; a man, more men than one. from this observation, i think, we may refer resemblance to the law of frequency [ i. e., contiguity ], of which it seems to form only a particular case. " mr. herbert spencer has still more recently tried to construct a psychology which ignores association by similarity, and in a chapter, which also is a curiosity, he tries [


difference between a horse, a steam - engine, and a waterfall, when our minds are engrossed with the one circumstance of moving power. the diversity in these had no doubt for a long time the effect of keeping back their first identification ; and to obtuse intellects, this identification might have been for ever impossible. a strong concentration of mind upon the single peculiarity of mechanical force, and a degree of indifference to the general aspect of the things themselves, [ p. 602 ] must conspire with the intellectual energy of resuscitation by similars, in order to summon together in the view three structures so different. we can see, by an instance like this, how new adaptations of existing machinery might arise in the mind of a mechanical inventor. when it first occurred to a reflecting mind that moving water had a property identical with human or brute force, namely, the property of setting other masses in motion, overcoming inertia and resistance, - - when the sight of the stream suggested through this point of likeness the power of the animal, - - a new addition was made to the class of prime movers, and when circumstances permitted, this power could become a substitute for the others. it may seem to the modern understanding, familiar with water - wheels and drifting rafts, that the similarity here was an extremely obvious one. but if we put ourselves back into an early state of mind, when running water affected the mind by its brilliancy, its roar, and irregular devastation, we may easily suppose that to identify this with animal muscular energy was by no means an obvious effect. doubtless when a mind arose, insensible by natural constitution to the superficial aspects of things, and having withal a great stretch of identifying intellect, such a comparison would then be possible. we may pursue the same example one stage further, and come to the discovery of steam power, or the identification of expanding vapor with the previously known sources of mechanical force. to the common eye, for ages, vapor presented itself as clouds in the sky ; or as a hissing noise at the spout of a kettle, with the formation of a foggy curling cloud at a few inches ' distance. the forcing up of the lid of a kettle may also have been occasionally observed. but how long was it ere any one was struck with the parallelism of this appearance with a blast of wind, a rush of water, or an exertion of animal muscle? the discordance was too great to be broken through by such


how long was it ere any one was struck with the parallelism of this appearance with a blast of wind, a rush of water, or an exertion of animal muscle? the discordance was too great to be broken through by such a faint and limited amount of likeness. in one mind, however, the identification did take place, and was followed out into its consequences. the likeness had occurred to other minds previously, but not with the same results. such minds must have been in some way or other distinguished above the millions of mankind ; and we are now endeavoring to give the explanation of their superiority. the intellectual character of watt contained all the elements preparatory to a great stroke of similarity in such a case ; - - a high susceptibility, both by nature and by education, to the mechanical properties of bodies ; ample previous knowledge or familiarity ; and indifference to the superficial and sensational effects of things. it is not only possible, however, but exceedingly probable, that many men possessed all these accomplishments ; they are of a kind not transcending common abilities. they would in some degree attach to a mechanical education almost as a matter of course. that the discovery was not sooner made supposes that something farther, and not of common occurrence, was necessary ; and this additional endowment appears to be the identifying power of similarity in general ; the tendency to detect likeness in the midst of disparity and disguise. this [ p. 603 ] supposition accounts for the fact, and is consistent with the known intellectual character of the inventor of the steam - engine. " dr. hodgson ' s account of association is by all odds the best yet propounded in english. all these writers hold more or less explicitly to the notion of atomistic ' ideas ' which recur. in germany, the same mythological supposition has been more radically grasped, and carried out to a still more logical, if more repulsive, extreme, by herbart and his followers, who until recently may be said to have reigned almost supreme in their native country. for herbart each idea is a permanently existing entity, the entrance whereof into consciousness is but an accidental determination of its being. so far as it succeeds in occupying the theatre of consciousness, it crowds out another idea previously there. this act of inhibition gives it, however, a sort of hold on the other representation which on all later occasions facilitates its following the other into the mind. the ingenuity with which most special cases of association are formulated in this mechanical language of


. this act of inhibition gives it, however, a sort of hold on the other representation which on all later occasions facilitates its following the other into the mind. the ingenuity with which most special cases of association are formulated in this mechanical language of struggle and inhibition, is great, and surpasses in analytic thoroughness anything that has been done by the british school. this, however, is a doubtful merit, in a case where the elements dealt with are artificial ; and i must confess that to my mind there is something almost hideous in the glib herbartian jargon about vorstellungsmassen and their hemmungen and hemmungssummen, and sinken and erheben and schweben, and verschmelzungen and complexionen. herr lipps, the most recent systematic german psychologist, has, i regret to say, carried out the theory of ideas in a way which the great originality, learning, and acuteness he [ p. 604 ] shows make only the more regrettable. such elaborately artificial constructions are, it seems to me, only a burden and a hindrance, not a help, to our science. in french, m. rabier in his chapter on association, handles the subject more vigorously and acutely than any one. his treatment of it, though short, seems to me for general soundness to rank second only to hodgson ' s. in the last chapter we already invoked association to account for the effect of use in improving discrimination. in later chapters we shall see abundant proof of the immense part which it plays in other processes, and shall then readily admit that few principles of analysis, in any science, have proved more fertile than this one, however vaguely formulated it often may have been. our own attempt to formulate it more definitely, and to escape the usual confusion between causal agencies and relations merely known, must not blind us to the immense services of those by whom the confusion was unfelt. from this practical point of view it would be a true ignoratio elenchi to flatter one ' s self that one has dealt a heavy blow at the psychology of association, when one has exploded the theory of atomistic ideas, or shown that contiguity and similarity between ideas can only be there after association is done. the whole body of the associationist psychology remains standing after you have translated ' ideas ' into ' objects, ' on the one hand, and ' brain - processes ' on the other ; and the analysis


ideas can only be there after association is done. the whole body of the associationist psychology remains standing after you have translated ' ideas ' into ' objects, ' on the one hand, and ' brain - processes ' on the other ; and the analysis of faculties and operations is as conclusive in these terms as in those traditionally used. the theory propounded in this chapter, and a good many pages of the text, were originally published in the popular science monthly for march, 1880. compare renouvier ' s criticism of associationism in his essais de critique generale, logique, ii. p. 493 foll. unless the name belong to a rapidly uttered sentence, when no substantive image may have time to arise. in his observations he says that time was lost in mentally taking in the word which was the cue, " owing to the quiet unobtrusive way in which i found it necessary to bring it into view, so as not to distract the thoughts. moreover, a substantive standing by itself is usually the equivalent of too abstract an idea for us to conceive properly without delay. thus it is very difficult to get a quick conception of the word ' carriage, ' because there are so many different kinds - - two - wheeled, four - wheeled, open and closed, and in so many different possible positions, that the mind possibly hesitates amidst an obscure sense of many alterations that cannot blend together. but limit the idea to say a landau, and the mental association declares itself more quickly. " ( inquiries, etc., p. 190. ) physiol. psych., ii. 280 fol. for interesting remarks on the sorts of things associated, in these experiments, with the prompting word, see galton, op. cit. pp. 185 - 203, and trautscholdt in wundt ' s psychologische studien, i. 213. mind, xi. 64 - 5. this value is much smaller than that got by wundt as above. no reason for the difference is suggested by mr. cattell. wundt calls attention to the fact that the figures found by him give an average, 0. 720 ", exactly equal to the time interval which in his experiments ( vide infra, chapter on time ) was reproduced without error either way, and to that required, according to the webers, for the legs to swing in rapid locomotion. " it is not improbable, " he adds, " that this psychic


chapter on time ) was reproduced without error either way, and to that required, according to the webers, for the legs to swing in rapid locomotion. " it is not improbable, " he adds, " that this psychic constant, of the mean association - time and of the most correct appreciation of a time - interval, may have been developed under the influence of the most usual bodily movements, which also have determined the manner in which we tend to subdivide rhythmically longer periods of time. " ( physiol. psch., ii. 286 ). the rapprochement is of that tentative sort which it is no harm for psychologists to make, provided they recollect how very fictitious and incomparable mutually all these averages derived from different observers, working under different conditions, are. mr. cattell ' s figure throws wundt ' s ingenious parallel entirely out of line. - - the only measurements of association - time which so far seem likely to have much theoretic importance are a few made on insane patients by von tschisch ( mendel ' s neurologisches centralblatt, 15 mai, 1885, 3 jhrg., p. 217 ). the simple reaction time was found about normal in three patients, one with progressive paralysis, one with inveterate mania of persecution, one recovering from ordinary mania. in the convalescent maniac and the paralytic, however, the association - time was hardly half as much as wundt ' s normal figure ( 0. 28 " and 0. 23 " instead of 0. 7 ' - - smaller also than cattell ' s ), whilst in the sufferer from delusions of persecution and hallucinations it was twice as great as normal ( 1. 39 " instead of 0. 7 " ). this latter patient ' s time was six - fold that of the paralytic. herr von tschisch remarks on the connection of the short times with diminished power for clear and consistent processes of thought, and on that of the long times with the persistent fixation of the attention upon monotonous objects ( delusions ). miss marie walitzky ( revue philosophique, xxviii. 583 ) has carried von tschisch ' s observations still farther, making 18, 000 measurements in all. she found association - time increased in paralytic dementia and diminished in mania. choice - time, on the contrary, is increased in mania. mind,


carried von tschisch ' s observations still farther, making 18, 000 measurements in all. she found association - time increased in paralytic dementia and diminished in mania. choice - time, on the contrary, is increased in mania. mind, xii. 67 - 74. compare bain ' s law of association by contiguity : " actions, sensations, and states of feeling, occurring together or in close succession, tend to grow together, or cohere, in such a way that, when any one of them is afterwards presented to the mind, the others are apt to be brought up in idea " ( senses and intellect, p. 327 ). compare also hartley ' s formulation : " any sensations a, b, c, etc., by being associated with one another a sufficient number of times, get such a power over the corresponding ideas, a, b, c, etc., that any one of the sensations a, when impressed alone, shall be able to excite in the mind b, c, etc., the ideas of the rest. " ( observations on man, part i. chap. i. § 2, prop. x. ) the statement in the text differs from these in holding fast to the objective point of view. it is things, and objective properties in things, which are associated in our thought. encyclopædia britannica, 9th ed., article psychology, p. 60, col. 2. physiol. psych., 2d ed. ii. 300. the difficulty here as with habit uberhaupt is in seeing how new paths come first to be formed ( cf. above, 109 ). experience shows that a new path is formed between centres for sensible impressions whenever these vibrate together or in rapid succession. a child sees a certain bottle and hears it called ' milk, ' and thenceforward thinks the name when he again sees the bottle. but why the successive or simultaneous excitement of two centres independently stimulated from without, one by sight and the other by hearing, should result in a path between them, one does not immediately see. we can only make hypotheses. any hypothesis of the specific mode of their formation which tallies well with the observed facts of association will be in so far forth credible, in spite of possible obscurity. herr munsterberg thinks ( beitrage zur exp. psychologie, heft 1, p. 132 ) that between centres excited successively from without no path ought to be formed,


in so far forth credible, in spite of possible obscurity. herr munsterberg thinks ( beitrage zur exp. psychologie, heft 1, p. 132 ) that between centres excited successively from without no path ought to be formed, and that consequently all contiguous association is between simultaneous experiences. mr. ward ( loc. cit. ) thinks on the contrary, that it can only be between successive experiences : " the association of objects simultaneously presented can be resolved into an association of objects successively attended to.... it seems hardly possible to mention a case in which attention to the associated objects could not have been successive. in fact, an aggregate of objects on which attention could be focused at once would be already associated. " between these extreme possibilities, i have refrained from deciding in the text, and have described contiguous association as holding between both successively and coexistently presented objects. the physiological question as to how we may conceive the paths to originate had better be postponed till it comes to us again in the chapter on the will, where we can treat it in a broader way. it is enough here to have called attention to it as a serious problem. essay, bk. ii. chap. xxxiii. § 6. compare hume, who, like locke, only uses the principle to account for unreasonable and obstructive mental associations : " ' twould have been easy to have made an imaginary dissection of the brain, and have shown why, upon our conception of any idea, the animal spirits run into all the contiguous traces, and rouse up the other ideas that are related to it. but though i have neglected any advantage which i might have drawn from this topic in explaining the relations of ideas, i am afraid i must here have recourse to it, in order to account for the mistakes that arise from these relations. i shall therefore observe, that as the mind is endowed with a power of exciting any idea it pleases ; whenever it dispatches the spirits into that region of the brain in which the idea is placed, these spirits always excite the idea, when they run precisely into the proper traces, and rummage that cell which belongs to the idea. but as their motion is seldom direct, and naturally turns a little to the one side or the other ; for this reason the animal spirits, falling into the contiguous traces, present other related ideas in lieu of that which the mind desired at first to survey. this change we are not always sensible of ; but continuing


little to the one side or the other ; for this reason the animal spirits, falling into the contiguous traces, present other related ideas in lieu of that which the mind desired at first to survey. this change we are not always sensible of ; but continuing still the same train of thought, make use of the related idea which is presented to us, and employ it in our reasoning, as if it were the same with what we demanded. this is the cause of many mistakes and sophisms in philosophy ; as will naturally be imagined, and as it would be easy to show, if there was occasion. " op. cit. prop. xi. see chapter iii, p. 82 - 5. i strongly advise the student to read his senses and intellect, pp. 544 - 556. time and space, p. 266. compare coleridge : " the true practical general law of association is this : that whatever makes certain parts of a total impression more vivid or distinct than the rest will determine the mind to recall these, in preference to others equally linked together by the common condition of contemporaeity or of contiguity. but the will itself, by confining and intensifying the attention, may arbitrarily give vividness or distinctness to any object whatsoever. " ( biographia litteraria, chap. v. ) leviathan, pt. i. chap. iii., init. i refer to a recency of a few hours. mr. galton found that experiences from boyhood and youth were more likely to be suggested by words seen at random than experiences of later years. see his highly interesting account of experiments in his inquiries into human faculty, pp. 191 - 203. for other instances see wahle, in vierteljsch f. wiss. phil., ix. 144 - 417 ( 1885 ). i retain the title of association by similarity in order not to depart from common usage. the reader will observe, however, that my nomenclature is not based on the same principle throughout. impartial redintegration connotes neural processes ; similarity is an objective relation perceived by the mind ; ordinary or mixed association is a merely denotative word. total recall, partial recall, and focalized recall, of associates, would be better terms. but as the denotation of the latter word is almost identical with that of association by similarity, i think it better to sacrifice propriety to popularity, and to keep the latter well - worn


, introduction to psych. theory, 92 ; ward, encyclop. britt. art. psychology, p. 60 ; wahle, vierteljahrsch. f. wiss. philos. ix. 426 - 431. dr. mccosh is accordingly only logical when he sinks similarity in what he calls the " law of correlation, according to which, when we have discovered a relation between things, the idea of one tends to bring up the others " ( psychology, the cognitive powers, p. 130 ). the relations mentioned by this author are identity, whole and parts, resemblance, space, time, quantity, active property, and cause and effect. if perceived relations among objects are to be treated as grounds for their appearance before the mind, similarity has of course no right to an exclusive, or even to a predominant, place. cf. bain, senses and intellect, 564 ff. ; j. s. mill, note 39 to j. mill ' s analysis ; lipps, grundtatsachen, 97. see, for farther details, hamilton ' s reid, appendices d * * and d * * * ; and l. ferri, la psychologie de l ' association ( paris, 1883 ). also robertson, art. association in encyclop. britannica. treatise of human nature, part i. § iv. observations on man ( london, 1749 ). analysis of the phenomena of the human mind ( 1829 ). hartley ' s theory, 2d ed. ( 1790 ) p. xxvii. [ current, that is, in france. - - w. j. ] la psychologie anglaise, p. 242. priestley, op. cit. p. xxx. review of bain ' s psychology, by j. s. mill, in edinb. review, oct. 1, 1859, p. 293. analysis of the phenomena of the human mind, j. s. mill ' s edition, vol. i. p. 111. on the associability of relations between feelings, in principles of psychology, vol. i. p. 259. it is impossible to regard the " cohering of each feeling with previously - experienced feelings of the same class, order, genus, species, and, so far as may be, the same variety, " which spencer calls ( p. 257 ) ' the sole process of association of feelings. ' as any equivalent for what is commonly known as


the same class, order, genus, species, and, so far as may be, the same variety, " which spencer calls ( p. 257 ) ' the sole process of association of feelings. ' as any equivalent for what is commonly known as association by similarity. the senses and the intellect, pp. 491 - 3. see his time and space, chapter v, and his theory of practice, § § 53 to 57. psychologie als wissenschaft ( 1824 ), 2. prof. ribot, in chapter i of his ' contemporary german psychology, ' has given a good account of herbart and his school, and of beneke, his rival and partial analogue. see also two articles on the herbartian psychology, by g. f. stout, in mind for 1888. j. d. morrell ' s outlines of mental philosophy ( 2d ed., london, 1862 ) largely follows herbart and beneke. i know of no other english book which does so. see his grundtatsachen des bewusstseins ( 1883 ), chap. vi et passim, especially pp. 106 ff., 364. the most burdensome and utterly gratuitous of them are perhaps steinthal ' s, in his einleitung in die psychologie, 2te aufl. ( 1881 ). cf. also g. glogau : steinthal ' s psychologische formeln ( 1886 ). lecons de philosophie, i. psychologie, chap. xvi ( 1884 ). mr. f. h. bradley seems to me to have been guilty of something very like this ignoratio elenchi in the, of course, subtle and witty but decidedly long - winded critique of the association of ideas, contained in book ii. part ii. chap. i. of his principles of logic.


individual differences | methods | statistics | clinical | educational | industrial | professional items | world psychology | online therapy generally refers to the provision of professional mental health services concerns via internet communication technology. also known as e - therapy, etherapy, e - counseling, online counseling, or online coaching, services are typically offered via email, real - time chat, and video conferencing. some clients use online counseling in conjunction with traditional psychotherapy, and others use it as an occasional check - in tool for their lives. clients typically seek out online counseling services for the same reasons that people seek professional help through traditional channels ; however, online counseling may be especially appealing for individuals who are unable or unwilling to see a mental health professional in person. for example, it is a potential resource for clients who are home - bound ( such as the elderly or infirm ) or who reside in rural areas far from a therapist ' s office. online counselors also assist those with a fear of exposing their feelings. for example, a person with grief and loss issues, may be fearful of crying in front of another person. online counseling can also be an option for individuals who suffer from a rare or unique problem and wish to work with a hard - to - find expert in a relevent field. convenience is the most - often cited reason why people use online counseling services. it can be convenient for clients and counselors alike, and participants may engage in the counseling process from the comfort of their homes or offices, at times that are most convenient for them. schedules are often tight. online therapy allows client to send an email at 3am or schedule a phone conference at 8am. this is very helpful to many clients. the sense of anonymity provided by internet assisted counseling is another oft - cited benefit. many people are uncomfortable talking about their personal problems while in the physical presence of another, and may be more likely to disclose when they cannot be seen. this effect is called disinhibition. while online counseling may suggest anonymity, potential clients should understand the differences between anonymity, privacy and confidentiality. see below for cautions regarding privacy and confidentiality. online counseling through asynchronous avenues ( email ) can be less expensive than traditional in - person sessions and allows both client and therapist to take their time in fashioning a response. online chat sessions may also be priced lower than face - to - face ( f2f ) work because net - based counselors may not have the overhead costs needed to maintain


allows both client and therapist to take their time in fashioning a response. online chat sessions may also be priced lower than face - to - face ( f2f ) work because net - based counselors may not have the overhead costs needed to maintain an office ; however, insurance companies rarely cover online counseling sessions. clients opting for online counseling often must pay the entire cost of therapy. a major challenge for online counseling and because there are verbal cues ( or verbal behavior ), signs and signals given by a client to a therapist that are missed in online counseling. many online counselors offer the option of phone counseling or video conferencing during the chat. this enables both parties to pick up on some of the missed cues. some argue that online counseling may, for some individuals, feed into their tendency to avoid " in office " interactions when what would benefit them most would be to be in the actual physical presence of a healing professional. in some instances this " distanced " interaction can be coupled with the presence of a professional who wishes ( for whatever reason ) to maintain a distance from the intimacy of " in office " interactions. when both of the above situations exist, it is unlikely to result in an effective therapeutic outcome. other major challenges are in the areas of professionalism and internet security. many people can hang a virtual shingle and offer to do online counseling. potential clients seeking online counseling should look carefully at the web site offering such services. look to see that counselor credentials are verified and that counselors carry malpractice insurance. counselors and web sites offering counseling should ensure that data is maintained on a secure server and that the highest level of encryption is used to prevent interception of information through computer hacking. clients also must take due care to password protect their own computer hardware, wireless internet access points and site id and / or password to further protect themselves against identity theft and interception of private information. see also edit - computer applications - computer assisted therapy - health care seeking behavior - list of counseling topics - telecommunications media - kraus, r., zack, j. & stricker, g. ( 2004 ), online counseling : a handbook for mental health professionals, san diego, california : elsevier academic press - list of research references related to online counseling - [ http : / / www. psychboard. ca. gov / consumers / internet - thrpy. shtml cautions via california board of psychology }


| abstract : | | the 5th international geological congress ( igc ), the initial meeting in north america, was the first of the three igcs that have been held in the united states of america ( usa ). of the 538 registrants alive when the 5th igc convened in washington, 251 persons, representing fifteen countries, actually attended the meeting. these participants included 173 people from the usa, of whom forty - two represented the us geological survey ( usgs ). fourteen of the us state geological surveys sent representatives to washington. eight participants came from other countries in the western hemisphere - canada ( 3 ), chile ( 1 ), mexico ( 3 ), and peru ( 1 ). the sixty - six european geologists and naturalists at the 5th igc represented austro - hungary ( 3 ), belgium ( 3 ), britain ( 12 ), france ( 7 ), germany ( 23 ), norway ( 1 ), romania ( 3 ), russia ( 8 ), sweden ( 4 ), and switzerland ( 2 ). the usgs and the columbian college ( now the george washington university ) acted as the principal hosts. the american association for the advancement of science and then the geological society of america ( gsa ) met in the capital immediately before the congress convened ( 26 august - 1 september 1891 ). the 5th igc ‘ s formal discussions treated the genetic classification of pleistocene rocks, the chronological correlation of clastic rocks, and the international standardization of colors, symbols, and names used on geologic maps. the third of those topics continued key debates at the 1st through 4th igcs. the gsa, the korean embassy, the smithsonian institution ‘ s us national museum, the usgs, and one of the two secretaries - general hosted evening receptions. field excursions examined paleozoic exposures in new york ( 18 - 25 august ), cretaceous - pleistocene localities along the potomac river south of washington ( 30 august ), and classic precambrian - pleistocene sequences and structures in the great plains, yellowstone, rocky mountains, and great basin ( 2 - 26 september ), with optional trips to the grand canyon ( 19 - 28 september ) and lake superior ( 23 september - 2 october ). the single - volume report of the 5th igc was published in washington in 1893.


a false analogy is a rhetorical fallacy that uses an analogy ( comparing objects or ideas with similar characteristics ) to support an argument, but the conclusion made by it is not supported by the analogy due to the differences between the two objects. sometimes these differences are outright ignored by the person presenting the fallacy ; other times, they may not be aware of the differences or that they apply. the fallacy occurs, and is common, because analogies are just that, analogies, and their parallels are always limited ; the differences between things can often overpower their similarities. one thing people sometimes do for fun is extend a useful analogy or metaphor to the point of absurdity. analogies and metaphors can be very useful to explain things to people and often play an important part in learning. however, because of the prevalence of false analogies they ' re much less useful in making arguments. the " watchmaker " analogy the " watchmaker " analogy, originally formed by william paley for the existence of god ( the argument from design ) and since reused as an argument for intelligent design, is cited as an example of a false analogy. in it, paley suggested that an analogy could be made between the complexity of a watch and the complexity of the universe. the analogy is as follows : - the universe is like a watch. - a watch must have a watchmaker. - the universe, being like a watch, must have a designer. the false analogy can be shown by a reduction to the absurd, highlighting the many differences between the universe and a watch. similar absurdities can be built from almost every other characteristic of watches : - the universe is like a watch. - a watch can be used to cover a tattoo on one ' s wrist. - the universe, being like a watch, can be used to cover a tattoo on one ' s wrist. also, there are problems " disguised " in the assumptions of the analogy. a watch bears little resemblance to the universe, therefore the entire analogy is invalidated in step 1. paley ' s original argument also focused on the hypothetical scenario of coming across a watch in heath, and its apparent complexity and appearance of design can be compared to stones and grass around it. because of this, the analogy fails at a more subtle level ; we have seen watches designed and made by intelligent entities and we have seen rocks and grass made by non - intelligent, natural mechanisms. the universe, however, is all we have seen — there is nothing on a similar scale and scope to the universe that implies


emergency preparedness is not solely the concern of californians for earthquakes, of gulf coast residents for hurricanes, or of those who live in " tornado alley ". most communities may be impacted by several types of hazards during a lifetime. americans also travel to areas impacted by hazards they may not be at risk of near their homes. knowing what to do before, during, and after an emergency is a critical part of being prepared, and may make all the difference when seconds count. some of the basic protective actions are similar for multiple hazards. for example, safety is necessary when experiencing all hazards, whether this means sheltering or evacuating depends on the specific emergency. developing a family communications plan or making an emergency supply kit are the same for accidental emergencies, natural disasters and also terrorism. however, there are important differences among potential emergencies that should impact the decisions you make and the actions you take. use the links on this page to learn about the potential emergencies that can happen where you live and the appropriate ways to respond to them. when you know what to do, you can plan with your household and prepare in advance to be ready. these links also provide information about how protect your household and begin recovery following the initial disaster. before a disaster, learn how you will know there is an impending hazardous event. familiarize yourself with the signs of events that come without warning and know the local advance alerts and warnings and how you will receive them. knowing about the local emergency plans for shelter and evacuation and local emergency contacts will help you develop your household plan and will also aid you during a crisis. learning what to do in different situations and developing and customizing your plans for your local hazards, the locations frequented by members of your household and the specific needs of household members including animals will help you reduce the impact of disasters and may save lives and prevent injuries.


february 22, 2012 — " religion today " is contributed by the university of wyoming ' s religious studies program to examine and promote discussion of religious issues. the goal of the enlightenment, that intellectual movement of the 18th century, was to establish human reason as the highest arbiter of knowledge, as opposed to divine revelation, the christian church ' s source of truth. although the accuracy of this claim is still debated among philosophers and theologians, it is clear that reason and its offspring, " science, " have become important arenas of knowledge in our intellectual and cultural worlds. indeed, wherever religion and science have offered differing explanations of the natural world, or even the cosmos, our society nearly always treats the scientific view more seriously than the religious one. but even as religion ' s descriptions of the world have seemingly been beaten back before the unrelenting onslaught of science, there is one question where the roles are absolutely reversed. this is the question of meaning. put in large - scale terms, what meaning does nature, the universe and the cosmos, hold? placed in a smaller scale, what is the meaning of a flower ' s blooming in the spring? science can answer the questions of how a flower blooms, why a flower blooms, and even why it blooms in the spring. but it cannot assign an ultimate meaning or purpose to that event. in fact, science cannot even assign ultimate meaning to its own explanations. the theory of evolution, for example, gives strong explanatory power to biology, enabling it to tell us why and how new species of animals and plants develop, why some disappear, and so on. but evolution does not, even cannot, reveal its own ultimate purpose. this inability is not restricted to biology. astronomy, for instance, can describe the formation of black holes and develop a theory of gravitation to explain it, but trying to specify the purpose of a black hole is almost nonsensical in scientific terms. physics can explain why water is the only compound that expands as a solid form rather than contracts, but it does not tell us what that means. does this mean that " life, the universe, and everything " ( as douglas adams would describe it ) is meaningless? absolutely not. instead, meaning must come from outside of science itself. it turns out that religions have been doing a pretty good job at answering the question of ultimate meaning. as the biologist kenneth miller argues in his book, " finding darwin ' s god " ( cliff street books, 2000 ), " our human tendency to assign meaning and value


walter scott lenox realized his dream early on, despite personal tragedy and professional setbacks. his perseverance proved that american ceramics could be as resilient and durable as their british counterparts. upon his death in 1920, mr. lenox had created a china legacy that, even today, is renowned the world over for its fine craftsmanship and superior quality. in 1889 the ceramic art company, which was creating dinnerware pieces that reflected the romanesque, baroque, renaissance and gothic styles ( and eventually moved on to art nouveau ) was founded by walter scott lenox and jonathan coxon, sr. mr. lenox, who was very artistically inclined, had studied master potters since his youth and worked as an apprentice at both ott and brewer and willetts pottery in trenton, new jersey. he, more than coxon, was the creative driving force behind the ceramic art company. around the time of the ceramic art company ' s inception, belleek of ireland permanently closed its doors. migrant ceramic artisans flowed into america, giving new life to the struggling pottery industry and providing an opportunity for ceramic art company to acquire two of belleek ' s artisans. the company, along with its newest employees, had one common goal : to create beautiful, ivory - tinted dinnerware marked by an uncompromisingly rich and resilient glaze. unfortunately, that dream would be more difficult to reach than they had ever imagined. in 1894, an ambitious walter scott lenox acquired all ownership of the ceramic art company from his partner, jonathan coxon. then, tremendously in debt and desperately needing recognition for his company in order to stay afloat, mr. lenox was diagnosed with locomotor ataxia : a disease that eventually cost him his sight and the use of his arms and legs. undeterred, mr. lenox utilized an assistant to act as his eyes and hands while perfecting the rich, creamy slip that would become the company ' s trademark. walter scott lenox founded lenox, inc. in 1906. despite his acute disability, he had become the sole proprietor of a ceramics company and achieved his goal of creating beautiful ivory - tinted porcelain. furthermore, he had propelled the united states into the forefront of the ceramics industry by proving that american china could be as strong and beautiful as its foreign counterparts. nevertheless, he still was not satisfied. mr. lenox ' s crowning jewel arrived in 1918 when president woodrow wilson asked lenox, inc. to produce the white house ' s china service. most of the


and beautiful as its foreign counterparts. nevertheless, he still was not satisfied. mr. lenox ' s crowning jewel arrived in 1918 when president woodrow wilson asked lenox, inc. to produce the white house ' s china service. most of the previous white house residents had chosen french - made limoges patterns and this was the first time such a prestigious opportunity had been awarded to an american ceramics company, a distinction that was not lost on walter scott lenox. his company worked diligently to create a gold encrusted design that not only captured the strength and elegance of the united states of america, but also reflected the pride for which its creator had become known. walter scott lenox worked consistently throughout his life. he was never absent a day from his factory, even when his disability required that he be carried in by his assistants. his vision and efforts created the foundation for a company that has since grown to embrace the entire tableware world : not only collectibles and giftware as well. lenox has become one of the most prominent names in the international dinnerware industry and is now the parent company of several companies including lenox collections, lenox classics, gorham 1831 silversmiths, kirk stieff silversmiths, bridal line and dansk. in lenox, inc., walter scott lenox has left behind an american dinnerware legacy that is honored every day on tables across the globe. surely, that is how he would have preferred to be remembered. other companies owned by lenox include kirk stieff, gorham, art carved, inc., imperial glass and dansk.


those working in science are accustomed to receiving emails starting with " dear sir / madam, please look at the attached file where i ' m proving einstein theory wrong ". this time it ' s a tad more serious because the message comes from a genuine scientific collaboration... as everyone knows by now, the opera collaboration announced that muon neutrinos produced at cern arrive to a detector 700 kilometers away in gran sasso about 60 nanoseconds earlier than expected if they traveled at the speed of light ( incidentally, trains traveling the same route arrive always late ). the paper is available on arxiv, and the video from the cern seminar is here. opera is an experiment who has had some bad luck in the past. its original goal was to study neutrino oscillations by detecting the appearance of tau neutrinos in a beam of muon neutrinos. however due to construction delays their results arrive too late to have any impact on measuring the neutrino masses and mixing ; other experiments have in the meantime achieved a much better sensitivity to to these parameters. moreover, the " atmospheric " neutrino mass difference, which enters the probability of a muon neutrino oscillating into a tau one, turned out to be at the lower end of the window allowed when opera was being planned. as a consequence, a fairly small number of oscillation events is predicted to occur on the way to italy, leading to the expectation of about 1 - 2 tau events to be recorded during experiment ' s lifetime ( they were lucky to already get 1 ). however they will not walk off the stage quietly. what was meant to be a little side analysis returned the result that neutrinos travel faster than light, confounding the physics community and wreaking havoc in the mainstream media. i ' m not very original in thinking that the result is almost certainly wrong. the main experimental reason, already discussed on blogs, is the observation of neutrinos from the supernova sn1987a. back in 1987, three different experiments detected a burst of neutrinos, all arriving within 15 seconds and 2 - 3 hours before the visible light ( which agrees with models of supernova explosion ). on the other hand, if neutrinos traveled as fast as opera claims, they should have arrived years earlier. note that the argument that opera is dealing with muon neutrinos while supernovae produce electron ones is not valid :


on the other hand, if neutrinos traveled as fast as opera claims, they should have arrived years earlier. note that the argument that opera is dealing with muon neutrinos while supernovae produce electron ones is not valid : electron neutrinos have enough time to oscillate to other flavors on the way from the large magellanic clouds. one way to reconcile opera with sn1987a would be to invoke a strong energy dependence of the neutrino speed ( it should be steeper than energy ^ 2 ), since the detected supernova neutrinos are in the 5 - 40 mev range, while the energy of the cern - to - gran - sasso beam is 20 gev on average. however opera does not observe any significant energy dependence of the neutrino speed, so that is an unlikely explanation either. from the point of view of theory the chances that the opera result being true are no better as there is no sensible model of tachyonic neutrinos. at the same time, we ' ve been observing neutrinos in numerous experiments and in various different settings, for example in beta decay, from terrestrial nuclear reactors, from the sun, in colliders as missing energy, etc. each time they seem to behave like ordinary fermions obeying all rules of the local lorentz invariant quantum field theory. we should weigh this evidence against the analysis of opera which does not appear rock solid. recall that opera was conceived to observe tau neutrino appearance, not to measure the neutrino speed, and indeed there are certain aspects of the experimental set - up that call for caution. the most worrying is the fact that opera has no way to know the precise production time of a neutrino it detects, as it could be produced anytime during a 10 microsecond long proton pulse that creates the neutrinos at cern. to go around this problem they need a statistical approach. namely, they measure the time delay of the neutrino arrival in gran sasso with respect to the start of the proton pulse at cern. then they fit the time distribution to the templates based on the measured shape of the proton pulse, assuming various hypotheses about the neutrino travel time. in this manner they find that the best fit is for the travel time is 60 nanoseconds smaller than what one would expect if the neutrinos traveled at the speed of light. however


##otheses about the neutrino travel time. in this manner they find that the best fit is for the travel time is 60 nanoseconds smaller than what one would expect if the neutrinos traveled at the speed of light. however, one could easily imagine that the systematic errors of this procedure have been underestimated, for example, the shape of the rise and the fall - off of the proton pulse have been inaccurately measured. opera does a very good job arguing that the distance from cern to gran sasso can be determined to 20 cm precision, or that synchronizing the clocks in these two labs is possible to 1 nanosecond precision, but the systematic uncertainties on the shape of the proton pulse are not carefully addressed ( and, during the seminar at cern, the questions concerning this issue were the ones that confounded the speaker the most ). so what ' s next? fortunately opera appears to be open for discussion and scrutiny, thus the issue of systematic uncertainties should be resolved in the near future. simultaneously, the minos collaboration should be able to repeat the measurement with similar if no better precision, and i ' m sure they ' re already sharpening their screwdrivers. in the longer timescale, opera could try to optimize the experimental setting for the velocity measurement. for example, they might install a near detector on the cern site ( where there should be no effect if the current observation is due to neutrinos traveling faster than light, or there should be a similar effect if there is an unaccounted for systematic error in the production time ). or they could use shorter proton pulses, so that the neutrino production time can be determined without statistical gymnastics ( it appears feasible - the lhc currently works with 5 ns bunches ). i bet, my private level of confidence being 6 sigma, that the future checks will demonstrate that neutrinos are not superluminal... in the end the character from the original book turned out to be 100 % human. but, of course, the ultimate verdict belongs not to our preconceptions but to experiment.


the image, released yesterday, actually contains two spirals overlain on each other. one is the cloudy, blue - white spiral with a yellow core. the core itself is a composite of images take by the hubble space telescope ‘ s advanced camera for surveys, wide field camera 3, and wide field planetary camera 2 detectors. spiraling outward, the cloudy arms also come from hubble, but were colorized with ground - based images captured from relatively small telescopes ( 12. 5 - inch and 20 - inch ) as they imaged from dark, remote sites in new mexico. the telescopes, owned by photo - astronomers robert gendler and r. jay gabany, helped these astronomy enthusiasts fill in gaps left by hubble ’ s cameras. the images were meticulously assembled into a mosaic by gendler, a physician by training, to form the base spiral of the photo illustration above but what about the second spiral? emanating at odd angles is a glowing red swirl, known as the “ anomalous arms ” of m106, these arms, captured by hubble imagery and gabany ’ s telescope, are enormous streamers of irradiated hydrogen gas molecules which glow red when seen through special filters. this begs the question – what ’ s cooking the hydrogen the answer is … a black hole! as astronomer phil plait blogs in slate, “ every big galaxy has a supermassive black hole in its core. the milky way has one, and it has about 4 million times the mass of the sun. the black hole at m106 ’ s heart is about 30 million times the mass of our sun. besides being heftier it ’ s also actively feeding, gobbling down material swirling around it ( our own galaxy ’ s black hole is quiescent ; that is, not eating anything at the moment ). while this photo shows stars at the brink of death within m106, another photo released yesterday shows the environment of stars at their birth tinged an eerie green – like smoke from a witch ’ s brew – the new image from nasa ’ s wide - field infrared survey explorer ( wise ) was taken after zooming in on bright dot in the “ sword ” of the constellation orion. visible to the naked eye as a single fuzzy star ( also known as m42 ), the dot is actually a cluster of stars, surrounded by the orion nebula. here, stars are born the image captures the infrared nimbus formed as newborn stars are compressed from vast clouds of gas and heat the


when i was appointed executive dean for administration at harvard medical school in 1998, i learned for the first time of the existence of the new england primate center. one of eight such centers in the us, this is a home to several types of monkeys that are used for medical research. the value of such research is uncontroverted, but the facilities like to stay in the background because they have been the targets, literally and figuratively, of animal rights advocates who believe they should be shut down. so, it was bad news recently for the new england center when it was disclosed that a number of their cotton top tamarin monkeys had died from improper treatment. i remember these monkeys well. they had been collected from the forests of colombia. in 1973 the species was declared endangered and importation was banned. as reported on this website : current population numbers are unknown, but more than 3 / 4 of its original habitat has been deforested, much of it for cattle pasture. remnant populations are small and are restricted to a few isolated forest fragments. currently, deforestation for agriculture, fuel, and housing is the greatest threat to the survival of the cotton - top tamarin. the " endangered " designation meant that the researchers in the primate centers could no longer kill the monkeys for purposes of medical research. as i recall, the only research that was permitted was about colitis, which is a naturally occurring medical problem for these monkeys. because of the monkeys ' statutory protection, primate centers became breeding centers for the tamarins. in captivity, females can give birth to twins every 28 weeks. so, the primate centers often looked for other places, like zoos, to send them. i think the zoos like them because they are cute and adorable, and perhaps because they look somewhat like ewoks from star wars. it is all too easy to anthropomorphize them, as you see in this report from the new zoo in wisconsin : “ bonnie was sent here to join clyde in 2007 and the two hit it off instantly! ”, remarked murach. “ they have been a closely bonded couple ever since. in 2010 the ssp ( species survival plans ) asked that they start a family and they were happy to comply. the young tamarins were born the day after christmas and after a few weeks of privacy are ready to meet the world! ” ( meanwhile, check out this overweight specimen in new york city. ) it goes without question that the primate centers owe a duty of care to the animals


the day after christmas and after a few weeks of privacy are ready to meet the world! ” ( meanwhile, check out this overweight specimen in new york city. ) it goes without question that the primate centers owe a duty of care to the animals in their possession, and it appears from the news reports that such was lacking in southborough. the result, though, was striking. here ' s the story, as reported by carolyn johnson in the boston globe : the interim director of harvard ’ s new england primate research center, appointed in september to address problems at the animal research facility, resigned from the position yesterday after the death sunday of a monkey that was found in poor condition in a cage without a water bottle. it was the third death in dr. fred wang ’ s short tenure as head of the facility in southborough and the fourth there since june 2010. in a statement, wang said that he decided to resign “ for personal and professional reasons, despite the strong requests from harvard medical school to continue. ’ ’ why is this striking? because of the contrast with the situation in human medical facilities. there, senior administrators feel no guilt and have been granted virtual impunity in the face of preventable fatalities. boards of trustees routinely fail to hold leadership accountable for making quality and safety improvements a priority in their hospitals. most boards do not even try to govern this aspect of hospital operations. how, in the face of 100, 000 preventable deaths per year - - equivalent to a full boeing 727 crashing every day - - can the lay and professional leadership of so many hospitals turn their backs on this issue? oh, it must be because those patients don ' t look like ewoks.


pandavas visit drupada ' s palace - - their identity revealed - - draupadi ' s five husbands - - kingdom assigned to pandavas - - building of indra - prastha - - arjuna goes into exile - - his serpent bride - - marriage in manipur - - an heir to a throne - - meeting with krishna - - abduction of princess - - miraculous origin of jarasandhu - - his two mothers - - slain by bhima - - the imperial sacrifice - - krishna kills shishupala - - yudhishthira ' s triumph - - jealousy of duryodhana. the pandava brethren returned to hastinapur with vidura. they took with them their mother, queen pritha, and their wife, draupadi, and the people went forth in great multitudes and bade them glad welcome. then there was much rejoicing and many banquets. at length dhritarashtra spake unto yudhishthira and his brethren and said : " i will now divide the raj between you and my sons. your share will be the south - western country of khandava - prastha. " said bhishma : " the maharajah hath spoken wisely. it is meet that you should depart unto the country of khandava - prastha as he hath decreed. " so the pandava princes bade farewell to all their kinsmen and to wise drona, and they went towards their own country. on the banks of the jumna they built a strong fort, and in time they made a great clearance in the forest. when they had gathered together the people who were subject unto them, they erected a great and wonderful city like unto the city of indra, and it was called indra - prastha. 1 high walls, which resembled the mandara mountains, were built round about, and these were surrounded by a deep moat wide as the sea. in time the fame of rajah yudhishthira went far and wide. he ruled with wisdom and with power, and he had great piety. forest robbers were pursued constantly and put to death, and wrongdoers were ever brought to justice ; indeed, the people who suffered from evildoing went before the rajah as children go before a father seeking redress. the brethren lived happily together. in accordance with the advice of a rishi, they made a compact that when one of them was sitting beside draupad


from evildoing went before the rajah as children go before a father seeking redress. the brethren lived happily together. in accordance with the advice of a rishi, they made a compact that when one of them was sitting beside draupadi, none of the others should enter, and that if one of them should be guilty of intrusion, he must needs go into exile for the space of twelve years. as it chanced, yudhishthira was sitting with draupadi one day when a brahman, whose cattle had been carried off, hastened to arjuna and entreated him to pursue the band of robbers. the weapons of the prince were in the king ' s palace, and to obtain them arjuna entered the room in which yudhishthira and draupadi sat, thus breaking the compact made by the brethren. he hastened after the robbers and recovered the stolen cattle, which he brought back unto the brahman. on his return to the palace, arjuna said unto his brother that he must needs become an exile for twelve years to expiate his offence. yudhishthira, however, sought to prevail upon him not to depart. but arjuna made answer that he had pledged his oath to fulfil the terms of the compact. " i cannot waver from truth, " he said ; " truth is my weapon. " so when he had bidden farewell to pritha and draupadi and his four brethren, he took his departure from the city of indra - prastha. and a band of brahmans went with him. arjuna wandered through the jungle, and he visited many holy places. one day he went unto hurdwar, where the ganges flows upon the plain, and he bathed in the holy waters. there he met with ulupi, daughter of vasuka, king of the nagas, who had great beauty. she loved him, and she led him to her father ' s palace, where he abode a time, and she gave him the power to render himself invisible in water. a child was born unto them, and he was named iravat. thereafterwards arjuna went southwards until he came to the mahendra mountain. 1 he was received there by parasu rama, the brahman hero, who gave him gifts of powerful weapons, and imparted to him the secret of using them. so he wandered from holy place to holy place until he reached mani


mountain. 1 he was received there by parasu rama, the brahman hero, who gave him gifts of powerful weapons, and imparted to him the secret of using them. so he wandered from holy place to holy place until he reached manipur. now the rajah of that place had a beautiful daughter whose name was chitrangada. arjuna loved her, and sought her for his bride. the rajah said : " i have no other child, and if i give her unto thee, her son must remain here to become my heir, for the god shiva hath decreed that the rajahs of this realm can have each but one child. " arjuna married the maiden, and he dwelt for three years at manipur. a son was born, and he was named chitrangada. thereafter arjuna set out on his wanderings once more. he passed through many strange lands, travelling westward, and at length he reached the city of prabhasa 2, which is nigh to dwaraka, on the southern sea, the capital of his kinsman krishna, rajah of the yadhavas. krishna welcomed arjuna, and took the pandava hero to dwell in his palace. then he gave a great feast on click to enlarge arjuna and the river nymph from the painting by warwick goble. the holy mountain of raivataka, which lasted for two days. arjuna looked with love upon krishna ' s fair sister, subhadra 1, a girl of sweet smiles, and desired her for a bride. now it was the wish of balarama that subhadra should he given unto duryodhana, whom, indeed, she would have chosen had a swayamvara been held. so krishna advised arjuna to carry her away by force, in accordance with the advice of the sages, who had said aforetime : " men applaud the kshatriyas who win brides by abducting them. " when the feast was over, arjuna drove his chariot from the holy mountain towards dwaraka until he came nigh to subhadra. nimbly he leapt down and took her by the hand and lifted her into his chariot ; then he drove hastily towards the city of indra - prastha. balarama was greatly angered, and desired to pursue arjuna ; and he spoke to krishna, saying : " thou art calm, and i can perceive that arjuna has done this thing with thy knowledge


the city of indra - prastha. balarama was greatly angered, and desired to pursue arjuna ; and he spoke to krishna, saying : " thou art calm, and i can perceive that arjuna has done this thing with thy knowledge. thou shouldst not have given our sister unto him without my consent. but let the deed be upon his own head, for i will pursue him and slay him and his brethren, one and all. " said krishna : " arjuna is our kinsman 2 and of noble birth, and is a worthy husband for subhadra. if thou wilt pursue him and bring back our sister, no one else will marry her now because that she hath been in the house of another. better were it that we should send messengers after arjuna and invite him to return here, so that the marriage may be held according to our rites. " balarama said : " so be it, seeing that thou art well pleased with this matter. " thus it came to pass that messengers followed arjuna and prevailed upon him to return with subhadra to dwaraka. a great feast was then held, and they were married with pomp and in state. and arjuna abode at the court of krishna for many months, until the time of his exile came to an end. when arjuna returned to indra - prastha with subhadra, he was received with great rejoicing by his brethren. he went unto draupadi and greeted her ; but she said coldly : " why come hither? where is the sister of krishna? " arjuna soothed her with gentle words ; and then subhadra approached draupadi, attired in red silk, but in the simple fashion of a keeper of cows, and made obeisance before her, saying : " i am thy handmaiden. " draupadi embraced the sister of krishna and said. " let thy husband be without an enemy. " the heart of subhadra was filled with joy at these words ; she said : " so be it. " thus was peace made ; the two women thereafter loved one another, and to pritha both were very dear. now draupadi became the mother of five sons to her five husbands ; and subhadra had one son only, and his name was abhimanyu 1, who in the years that followed was an illustrious warrior. as time went on, the pandavas grew more and more powerful. they waged


five husbands ; and subhadra had one son only, and his name was abhimanyu 1, who in the years that followed was an illustrious warrior. as time went on, the pandavas grew more and more powerful. they waged great wars, until many rajahs owed them allegiance ; and at length yudhishthira deemed that the time had come to hold his great rajasuya sacrifice to celebrate the supremacy of his power over all. krishna came to indra - prastha at this time and said : " there is now but one rajah who must needs be overcome ere the imperial sacrifice can be performed : his name is jarasandha, monarch of magadha. he hath already conquered six - and - eighty kings, and he hath slaughtered those who were our kinsmen dear. " now this rajah was of great valour and matchless strength. his body was invulnerable against weapons ; not even the gods could wound him with mace or sword or with arrow. he was also of miraculous birth, for he was born of two mothers 1 who had eaten of a mantra - charmed mango which fell into the lap of his sire when that he was childless and was undergoing penances to obtain offspring. nor did the babe come to life after birth until he was united by a rakshasa woman, named jara, the goddess of the household, who, because she was worshipped in the palace, performed some good each day in return. 2 so the child was called jarasandha 3, which signifies " united by jara ", and he increased daily like to the moon in its first phase. krishna said unto yudhishthira : " this monarch of magadha cannot be vanquished in battle even by gods or by demons. but he may be overcome in a conflict, fighting with bare arms. now i am ' policy ', bhima is ' strength ', and arjuna is ' protector '. together, o king, we will surely accomplish the death of jarasandha, who is arrogant and covetous and proud. " said yudhishthira : " do as it seemeth best unto thee, o lord of the universe ; thou art our wise counsellor and guide. " then krishna, arjuna, and bhima disguised themselves as brahmans and went towards the city of mathura, which was jarasandha ' s capital. when they arrived there they entered the palace of the


counsellor and guide. " then krishna, arjuna, and bhima disguised themselves as brahmans and went towards the city of mathura, which was jarasandha ' s capital. when they arrived there they entered the palace of the mighty rajah like to mountain lions eyeing cattle - folds. they went boldly before the king decked with flowers, and the king said : " ye are welcome. " arjuna and bhima were silent, but krishna spake to jarasandha, saying : " these two men are observing vows, and will not open their mouths until midnight ; after that hour they will speak. " the king provided for his guests in the sacrificial chamber, and after midnight he visited them, and discovering that they were warriors, he asked : " tell me truly who ye are, and why ye have come hither. " said krishna : " we are decked with flowers to achieve prosperity, and we have entered the abode of our enemy to fulfil the vows of kshatriyas. " jarasandha said : " i have never done you an injury. why, therefore, do ye regard me as your enemy? " then krishna revealed himself, and upbraided the king because that he was wont to offer up in sacrifice to shiva the rajahs whom he took captive in battle. he said : " thou hast slaughtered our kinsmen in this manner because thou dost imagine there liveth no man who is so powerful as thou. for thy sins thou art doomed to go to yama ' s kingdom, there to be tortured a time. but thou canst attain to the heaven of indra by dying the death of a kshatriya in battle with thy peers. now, o king, we challenge thee to combat. set free the rajahs who are in thy dungeons, or die at our hands! " said the king : " i have taken captive in battle these royal prisoners of mine, whom i shall offer in sacrifice to shiva, according to my vow. let us therefore meet in battle, army against army, or in single combat. " krishna said : " meet thou one of us in single combat. with whom dost thou desire to fight? " then jarasandha expressed his wish to meet bhima in battle. bhima was made glad thereat, for, in truth, he thirsted for the conflict ; but he desired that they should fight without weapons, and the king consented, and made ready


neck, so that his head was severed from his body. he fell down like to a cliff struck by the thunderbolt. then the assembled rajahs beheld a great wonder, for the passion - cleansed soul of sishupala issued from his body, beautiful as the sun in heaven, and went towards krishna. its eyes were like to lotus blooms, and its form like to a flame ; and it adored krishna and entered into his body. 1 the rajahs all looked on, silent and amazed, while thunder bellowed out of heaven, and lightning flashed, and rain poured down in torrents. some grew angry, and laid hands on their weapons to avenge the death of sishupala ; others rejoiced that he had been slain ; the brahmans chanted the praises of krishna. yudhishthira commanded his brothers to perform the funeral rites over the dead with every honour. so the body of sishupala was burned and the oblation poured forth. then his son was proclaimed rajah of chedi. thereafter the great sacrifice was performed with solemnity and in peace. krishna, who had maintained the supremacy of yudhishthira by slaying a dangerous and jealous rival, looked on benignly. holy water was sprinkled by the brahmans, and all the monarchs made obeisance and honoured yudhishthira, saying : " thou hast extended the fame of thy mighty sire, pandu, and thou art become even greater than he was. thou hast graced with this sacrifice thine high station and fulfilled all our hopes. now, o emperor over all, permit us to depart to our own homes, and bestow thy blessing upon us. " so one by one they took leave of yudhishthira and went away, and the four pandavas accompanied the greatest of them to the confines of their kingdoms. krishna was the last to bid farewell. said yudhishthira : " unto thee i owe all things. because thou wert here, o valorous one, i was able to perform the great sacrifice. " krishna said : " monarch of all! rule thou over thy people with a father ' s wisdom and care. be unto them like rain which nourisheth the parched fields ; be a shade in hot sunshine ; be a cloudless heaven bending over all. be thou ever free from pride and passion ; ever rule with power and justice and holiness, o yudhishthira. " so he spake from his chariot and


be a shade in hot sunshine ; be a cloudless heaven bending over all. be thou ever free from pride and passion ; ever rule with power and justice and holiness, o yudhishthira. " so he spake from his chariot and then went his way, and yudhishthira turned homeward with tear - dimmed eyes. now when duryodhana had witnessed the triumph of the pandavas, his heart burned with jealous rage. he envied the splendour of the palaces at indra - prastha ; he envied the glory achieved by yudhishthira. well he knew that he could not overcome the pandavas in open conflict, so he plotted with his brethren to accomplish their fall by artifice and by wrong. as in after - time the wise sanjaya said : " the gods first deprive of his reason that man unto whom they ultimately send disgrace and defeat ". but duryodhana had to work the will of the creator under the influence of fate, and it was doomed that the pandavas should suffer for a time at his hands. 225 : 1 pron. indra - prast´ha. 226 : 1 in ganjam district, madras. 226 : 2 pron. pra - bha´sa. 227 : 1 pron. soo - bhad´ra. 227 : 2 krishna ' s father, vasudeva, was the brother of pritha, mother of arjuna. 228 : 1 pron. ab - hi - mun´yoo ( " u " as in " bun " ). 229 : 1 in one of the egyptian temple chants osiris is called " the progeny of the two cows isis and nepthys ". 229 : 2 like the european household elves and fairies. 229 : 3 pron. ja - ra - sund´ha. 231 : 1 that is, in northern india. 232 : 1 pron. sish - oo - pah´la. 232 : 2 pron. chay´dee. 232 : 3 a gift of fruit or flowers, like an offering to the image of a god. 234 : 1 krishna represented the worshippers of vishnu, of whom he was an incarnation. sishupala, who was reputed to have been born with three eyes, was an incarnation of shiva. rukmini was an incarnation of lakshmi.


history of sandpoint, north idaho, & bonner county click here for a north idaho history timeline to understand the history of sandpoint, and bonner county, north idaho, one must first take into account our geography. while our area is dominated by mountains, the most prominent feature is lake pend oreille, with an area of 148 square miles, and 111 miles of coastline. flathead lake in montana and some man - made lakes are larger. it is 65 miles long, and 1, 150 feet deep in some regions ( 5th in the us ). fed by clark fork river and drained by the pend oreille river. it is surrounded by national forests and many small towns, including bayview, hope, and sandpoint. all but the southern tip of the lake is in bonner county, the southern tip which is home to farragut state park, the original home of the farragut naval training station, and the home of the navsea ' s naval surface warfare center carderock division ' s acoustic research detachment ( ard ) is in the lake is home to many species of fish including : rainbow trout, lake trout, perch, crappie, bass, walleye, whitefish and kamloops. the forests are known to have various pines, such as ponderosa pine, douglas fir, poplar and western larch. whitetail deer, squirrels, black bears, coyotes, elk, cougar, and bobcats are known to reside in these forests. bald eagles, osprey, owls, hummingbirds, hawks, woodpeckers, ducks and the mountain bluebird are seen in the skies around the it is also believed that the eastern side of the lake was in the path of the ancient missoula flood. this is the great event that shaped much of the inland empire of the pacific northwest. the missoula flood is an ice age event that has been featured on nova, and refer to the catastrophic floods that swept periodically across eastern washington, idaho, and montana, and down the columbia river gorge at the end of the last ice state park is located where the lake missoula floods broke out from the end of lake pend oreille. the floods were the result of the periodic sudden rupture of the ice dam on the clark fork river that created glacial lake missoula. after each rupture of the ice dam, the waters of the lake would rush down the clark fork and the columbia river, inundating much of eastern washington and the


ice dam on the clark fork river that created glacial lake missoula. after each rupture of the ice dam, the waters of the lake would rush down the clark fork and the columbia river, inundating much of eastern washington and the willamette valley in western oregon. after the rupture, the ice would glacial lake missoula once again. estimate that the cycle of flooding and reformation of the lake lasted on average of 55 years and that the floods occurred approximately 40 times over the 2, 000 year period between 15, 000 and 13, 000 years ago. the other great shaping feature was the area ’ s glaciers. the rugged mountainous beauty of this area of north idaho was formed by these two components. for thousands of years, these two forces of nature were actively moving the landscape of north idaho. the glacial ice sheets moved land, mountain, and water over centuries. the floods occurred over relatively shorter periods. the areas of the lake pend oreille and the clark fork river held a dam of ice that towered over two thousand feet today ’ s lake level. when this dam failed many times over the millennia a deluge of water was released in unimaginable proportions at speeds of 60 miles per hour and hundreds of feet deep, creating forces great enough to shape the landscape we know today from here to portland, oregon. the kalispel tribe was the first to inhabit sandpoint. with a moderate climate and bountiful game and food, they prospered from montana to eastern washington. white man reintroduced the horse to north america in the 16th century and by the 1700s the kalispel tribe began to utilize the horse, taking them east of the rocky mountains, bringing contact with plains indians. the kalispel adopted some of the habits and culture of these tribes, including hide - covered tipis and buffalo meat. despite their growing dependence on buffalo, the kalispel remained adept at utilizing local resources. they caught fish and hunted a wide variety of game and birds. women dug camas bulbs, baking them in large underground pits to render them suitable for winter storage. they also picked berries and wild fruits, drying large quantities for use during the cold months. another group that lived on the shores of lake pend oreille were the flathead indians and several salish, kootenai and pend o ' reilles bands lived in western montana, northern idaho, and eastern washington in the early 1800s. flathead indians of montana built encampments on the shore of lake pend oreille


and several salish, kootenai and pend o ' reilles bands lived in western montana, northern idaho, and eastern washington in the early 1800s. flathead indians of montana built encampments on the shore of lake pend oreille every summer, fished, made baskets of cedar, and collected huckleberries before returning to montana in the fall. the encampments ended before 1930. traditionally kalispel territory encompassed lake pend oreille along the pend oreille river into eastern washington, and east along the clark fork river into montana. they established year - round settlements near present - day laclede, on both sides of the river, and at the mouth of the clark fork river, where 300 - 400 kalispel lived. there were additional permanent villages in eastern washington, as well as numerous seasonal camps, including one near long before white explorers came to the pend d ' oreille country, an old indian trail from spokane river ran through rathdrum prairie and crossed the pend d ' oreille at sineacateen ( a name which comes from the kalispell or pend d ' oreille word for crossing - of - the - waters ), located close to the present site of laclede. then the trail continued northward across the kootenai at idaho was the last state to be explored by european and american explorers. lewis and clark crossed into idaho in august 1805 on their journey of exploration for the united states government. their route took them far south of present - day bonner county, over lolo pass and down the clearwater river. while many explorers gained great fame, including lewis and clark, our area was first exploited by david thompson : the determined and intrepid canadian trading expedition leader who led the first white men to the shores of lake pend oreille in the fall of 1809. his contemporary, the great explorer alexander mackenzie, remarked that thompson did more in ten months than he would have thought possible in two years. thompson served as explorer, map maker, and trader for the canadian north west company, a rival in the fur trade with hudson ' s bay company. although he was in idaho for a total of only sixty - eight days over years, thompson ' s impact was tremendous. he not only expanded the fur trade into the inland northwest and established the first trading post on lake pend oreille, kullyspell house, but he also located all the practical routes of travel. kullyspell house still stands on the hope peninsula, and longevity of


trade into the inland northwest and established the first trading post on lake pend oreille, kullyspell house, but he also located all the practical routes of travel. kullyspell house still stands on the hope peninsula, and longevity of the building is a testament to the fortitude of the man. soon after thompson set up salish house in montana later in 1810, a year after david thompson established a north west company fur trade post on lake pend d ' oreille, and some of his trappers came down this trail to found spokane house west of spokane falls where the later city of spokane was built. thompson ' s pend d ' oreille post ( kullyspell, or kalispell house ) proved to be an unfortunate location : on november 14, 1811, thompson decided to abandon it because the kalispell ( or pend d ' oreille ) indians did " not hunt, but only gamble & keep the men starving.... " so he sent his trappers back to spokane house. but finnan macdonald ( who had a pend d ' oreille wife ) continued to work with the pend d ' oreille band, which often camped at sineacateen. by the spring of 1813, rival astorian fur traders were on hand at macdonald ' s pend d ' oreille camp at sineacateen. in an effort to rush in a stock of tobacco for more effective competition for furs in the pend d ' oreille camp, the astorian gained a temporary advantage. but macdonald, who regularly helped his pend d ' oreille associates fight the blackfeet, came out ahead in the long run. the north west company emerged in control of the spokane - pend d ' oreille country, and macdonald spent many years enjoying " the fascinating pleasures of the far - famed spokane house. " whenever he took his wife to see their pend d ' oreille relatives, he still traveled over the old indian trail past sineacateen. trappers and traders continued to sporadically make their way to the region throughout the first half of the century, along with many missionaries, mainly jesuits, called “ kaniksu ” ( black robes in indian ). in the years after the fur trade, the indians continued to camp on their travels at sineacateen. the north west company was not alone in trying to harvest furs in the pacific northwest. hudson ' s bay company maintained a chain of posts throughout the region and absorbed its opponent in 1821


indians continued to camp on their travels at sineacateen. the north west company was not alone in trying to harvest furs in the pacific northwest. hudson ' s bay company maintained a chain of posts throughout the region and absorbed its opponent in 1821. the fur trade continued into the 1840s, but its importance declined as the years went on. as more europeans and americans arrived, they displaced the indian tribes that originally lived in the region. however, efforts to establish a reservation for the kalispel failed, and tensions between the two cultures increased. michael, leader of the upper kalispel, signed a treaty with the government in sandpoint in 1887, but masselow, leader of the lower kalispel, refused to agree to its terms. as a result, congress never ratified the treaty. in 1914, the kalispel finally received more than 4, 500 acres of land for a reservation in eastern washington. members of the tribe continued to travel in and out of bonner county into the 1930s, following some of their traditional seasonal activities. father desmet arrived in 1846. he marked a lake in the selkirk mountain range as “ roothan ” honoring his superior in italy. captain john mullan, builder of the army ’ s mullan road, likewise saw the mountain gem and named it “ lake kaniksu ” on his map in 1865. this mountain - ringed body of water later became known as priest lake. two major survey projects introduced more newcomers to northern idaho. isaac stevens directed a transcontinental railroad survey in the early 1850s, exploring several possible routes across idaho. one along the northern shore of lake pend oreille later became the route chosen by the northern pacific british and american surveyors camped in what is now bonner county in 1860 - 1861 as they worked their way north to mark the international boundary. survey crews established a supply depot at sineacateen in 1860, and another one farther north at chelemta, near present - day bonners ferry. from there crews moved north to the border, which they marked with a wide swath cut through the forest. artist james alden team, recording their activities much as a photographer would today. the decade of the 1860s brought a flurry of activity to northern idaho. gold was discovered in 1863 on wild horse creek in british columbia and the next year near helena, montana. thousands of miners swarmed through idaho on their way to the new diggings. while those heading for wild horse followed the old indian trail that david thompson had used, miners


on wild horse creek in british columbia and the next year near helena, montana. thousands of miners swarmed through idaho on their way to the new diggings. while those heading for wild horse followed the old indian trail that david thompson had used, miners going to montana had the option of taking the recently completed mullan military road ( the route of interstate 90 ) or the trail around lake pend oreille. a steady stream of pack trains passed over both routes, taking supplies to the new the naming of bonner county is a memorial to an outstanding pioneer of the north area - edwin l. bonner, who came here in 1863 and purchased the right to build and operate a ferry on the kootenai river from old chief abraham of the kootenai tribe at the ferry site less than 30 miles from canada. idaho legislature also granted ferry privileges to charles h. campfield and associates whose ferry was a part of the wild horse trail to the booming mining country of the kootenays in canada, in 1863 and 1864. this led to the opening of pack train trails from fort walla walla in washington territory and in 1864, with the kootenay gold rush, miners and supply trains came from walla walla up the old indian trail past sineacateen. a wagon road went as far as sineacateen, where a ferry was installed to accommodate traffic. miles moore, later governor of washington, had one of the trading posts there during the gold rush. from sineacateen ferry, a pack trail ( known thereafter as the wild horse trail ) followed the old indian to bonner ' s ferry ( also established on the kootenai in 1864 ) and on to the wild horse mines near later fort steele, british columbia. by 1866, sineacateen had two saloons, two stores, and a hotel. traffic from the pacific northwest to the montana mines at helena came by sineacateen in 1866, since the mullan road ( actually only a pack trail across idaho ) had fallen into poor condition. mail pouches traveled by pony express to government steamers at steamboat landing at the head of lake pend oreille for delivery to waiting riders at hope, for fort missoula. idaho territory was still in its swaddling clothes when a visitor to bonner county of today found “ pend d ’ oreille city ( now sandpoint ) a charming little place, where he enjoyed the society of the enterprising and hospitable gentlemen who have made it their this visitor,


thursday is the 77th anniversary of one of the most momentous nights not just in baseball history, but in the cultural life of the united states, and eventually the rest of the world. on this night in 1935, the first major league night game took place at cincinnati ' s crosley field, as the reds beat the phillies, 2 - 1. the game had been scheduled for may 23, but it was postponed because of rain and cold. the official attendance was 20, 442 but the crowd was estimated to be around 25, 000, the third - largest crowd of the season in cincy ( the game on may 22 was played in front of 2, 000 fans ), including national league president ford frick and american league president will harridge. all were watching a game lit by 632 light bulbs. the contest also featured president franklin delano roosevelt switching on the flood lights from washington, d. c.. much significance was made of the fact that the game was errorless, and phillies manager jimmie wilson told the ap that the low hit total ( 10 combined ) had nothing to do with the lights. " both pitchers just had all their stuff working, that ' s all, " wilson said. " you can see that ball coming up to the plate just as well under those lights as you can in the daytime. " wilson let it be known that he " thinks night baseball is all right, if the fans want it, but i ' d rather play in the daytime. " as with most players, night lights were tested in the minors before they reached the major leagues. the first night game was held in lynn, mass., on june 24, 1927, in a game between the lynn and salem clubs in the new england league. the four floodlight projectors lit up the general electric field. the flood lights carried a volume of 500, 000 mean candlepower and the field was lit by 72 projectors, which gave an estimated volume of 26, 640, 00 candlepower. observers were impressed, and the experiments continued. for example, more than 10, 000 fans, including a number of mlb executives, attended an international league night game in jersey city when newark defeated the home team, 18 - 11, in 10 innings on july 24, 1930, under 300, 000 watts of light. you read that correctly - - it was still five years before the majors adopted night baseball. attending that game, yankees owner col. jacob ruppert told john drebinger of the new york times, " from


300, 000 watts of light. you read that correctly - - it was still five years before the majors adopted night baseball. attending that game, yankees owner col. jacob ruppert told john drebinger of the new york times, " from what i heard and what i see here, i imagine night baseball will prove a great benefit to the minor leagues, and if it becomes definitely popular in the minors, i don ' t see why some day it should not become a part of major league baseball. " the visionary behind bringing lights to the majors was larry macphail, who was running the reds at the time. arthur daley, who brilliantly wrote the sports of the times column for the ny times, explained on the 30th anniversary of this momentous event how macphail had to plead with fellow executives to let him have some night games saying, " night baseball has saved the minors from collapse, and the cincinnati franchise is in such perilous financial condition that it needs extra help. it ' s either light up or fold up. " macphail promised only seven night games in a one - year experiment that, if it failed, would be abandoned. clark griffith, owner of the senators, responded, " there is no chance of night baseball ever becoming popular in the bigger cities. high - class baseball cannot be played under artificial lights. furthermore, the benefits from attending the game are largely due to fresh air and sunshine. night air and electric lights are poor substitutes. " three years later, macphail was running the dodgers, and ebbets field was lit up. it should be noted that on june 15, 1938, johnny vander meer pitched his second consecutive no - hitter under the lights at ebbets field. in 1939, the white sox, indians, phillies and a ' s added lights, while the giants, pirates, st. louis cards and browns added them in ' 40. a year later, griffith ' s senators came on board, and in ' 46, with macphail now running the team, the yankees lit up as well. the braves, red sox and tigers soon followed suit, until only phil wrigley and the cubs were holdouts. on aug. 8, 1988, in a contest against the phillies, the cubs played their first night game at wrigley field, only to be rained out after 3 1 / 2 innings. the first official wrigley night game occurred the next day, when the cubs defeated the new york mets, 6 - 4. before


i recently received the following question from a friend and thought i ' d share it and my answer! one of the things that always seems hard for me is to get the right kind of focus. i love how your pictures focus on one part of the person and the rest is beautifully blurred or bokeh ' d ( haha if that ' s even a word ). how do you do it? ( : well bokeh is technically the name of the shape that the light blurs beyond the field of focus take on due to the shape of the lens. you can actually affect the shape of the bokeh by even cutting paper into say, a star shape and shooting through it. bokeh shaping tutorial but what you want to know about is the field of focus. : d on any slr, you will have a lens that allows you to adjust two, maybe three, things. shutter speed, aperture or f - stop, and on zoom lenses you can adjust focal length. these all have implications for how your picture will end up looking. aperture is the most relevant to your question, so that ’ s what i ’ ll focus on. aperture basically refers to how big the opening of your lens will be when you click the button. most lenses that come with your camera have aperture settings between 3. 5 and 22. basically, the smaller the number is, the bigger the opening and vice versa. this affects a few things. when the opening is as we say, wide, at 3. 5, more light will be able to get in to your camera to record the image and so you ’ d be able to use a faster shutter speed so that your camera will take less time to get a good exposure and the picture is less likely to be blurry. the smaller the opening ( bigger number ) the slower the shutter speed will need to be. but also, the more wide open the aperture is, the shallower the depth of field, or plane of focus. in other words, if the number of the aperture is smaller, less in front and in back of what you ’ re shooting will be in focus. this makes the focus of the composition more obvious and eliminates background elements that could be distracting. the difference between f 3. 5 and f 22 is the difference between just the coffee cup in my window being in focus and everything outside being blurry ( f 3. 5 ) and almost everything from the cup to the distant mountains ( f 22 ). you can start experimenting with this by putting your camera


hugh pickens writes writes " bbc recently asked physicist and cambridge university professor dave ansell to draw up a balance sheet of the mass that ' s coming in to the earth, and the mass going out to find out if the earth is gaining or losing mass. by far the biggest contributor to the world ' s mass is the 40, 000 tonnes of dust that is falling from space to earth every year. ' the earth is acting like a giant vacuum cleaner powered by gravity in space, pulling in particles of dust, ' says dr. chris smith. another factor increasing the earth ' s mass is global warming which adds about 160 tonnes a year because as the temperature of the earth goes up, energy is added to the system, so the mass must go up. on the minus side, at the very center of the earth, within the inner core, there exists a sphere of uranium five mile in diameter which acts as a natural nuclear reactor so these nuclear reactions cause a loss of mass of about 16 tonnes per year. " ( read more, below. ) pickens continues : " what about launching rockets and satellites into space, like phobos - grunt? smith discounts this as the mass is negligible and most of it will fall back down to earth again anyway. but by far the biggest factor in earth ' s weight loss are the 95, 000 tonnes of hydrogen that escape from the atmosphere every year. ' the other very light gas this is happening to is helium and there is much less of that around, so it ' s about 1, 600 tonnes a year of helium that we lose. ' taking all the factors into account, smith reckons the earth is getting about 50, 000 tonnes lighter a year, which is just less than half the gross weight of the costa concordia, the italian cruise liner that recently ran aground. "


1. all your burette readings ( initial and finals ) as well as the size of your pipette must be recorded but no account of experimental procedure is required. a is a solution containing 1. 04g hcl per 500cm3 of solution. b is prepared by diluting 50. 0cm3 of saturated solution of na2co3 at room temperature to 100cm3 ( a. ) put a into the burette and titrate it against 20. cm3 or 25. 0cm3 portions of b using methyl orange as an indicator. repeat the titration to obtain consistent titres. b. ) tabulate your result and calculate the ( i ) concentration of a in mol / dm3 ( ii ) concentration of b in mol / dm3 ( iii ) solubility of na2co3 in mol / dm3 ( iv ) volume of co2 that would be liberated from 1dm3 of b if the titration were carried out at s. t. p. the equation for the reaction : na2co3 + 2hcl = 2nacl + h2o + co2. table of value : bur rd | rough | 1st | 2nd | 3rd initial | 0. 00 | 0. 00 | 10. 00 | 0. 00 note : rough, 1st titre, 2nd titre, 3rd titre are all in ( cm3 ) average volume of acid used ( bi ) conc. of a in g / dm3 molar mass of hcl = 1 * 35. 5 = 36. 5g / dm3. :. conc. of a in mol / dm3 = 2. 08 / 36. 5 = 0. 057mol / dm3. ( ii ) cava / cbvb = na / nb = 0. 057 * 24. 90 / cb * 25 = 2 / 1 cb = 0. 057 * 24. 90 / 25 * 2 ( iii ) to calculate the solubility of na2co3 in mol / dm3. the dilution factor of b = 50 to 1000 mole of na2co3 liberate 22. 4dm3 of co2 at s. t. p. ( iv ). :. 0. 0284mole of na2co3 will liberate 22. 4 * 0. 0284 = 0. 64dm3 of co2. 2. ( a


. t. p. ( iv ). :. 0. 0284mole of na2co3 will liberate 22. 4 * 0. 0284 = 0. 64dm3 of co2. 2. ( a ) test : put all of c in a boiling tube and cee about 5cm3 of distilled water. divide the resulting solution into two portions. white residue partially dissolved. to the first portion, add about 2cm3 of bacl2 solution. * inference : so4 ^ 2 -, co3 ^ 2 -, so3 ^ 2 - suspected. the dilute hcl in excess inference : cl ^ - present. to the second portion of the solution, add two drops of phenolphthalein indicator. pink colouration observed. dissolve all of d in a boiling tube with about 5cm3 of distilled water. divide the resulting solution into two equal parts. partially soluble in water. * inference : ca ^ 2 +, pb ^ 2 +, zn ^ 2 + suspected. to the first portion, add ammonia solution. white gelatineous ppt to the second portion, add naoh solution in drop. white ppt formed. then in excess. insoluble in excess. ( note that the above solution will be in a tabular for i. e question no 3. do it urself