into two equal parts, and that these two things should be in such a degree joined and inseparable in thought, that as soon as the discourse expresses the one, the mind attaches it immediately to the other. for geometricians, and all those who proceed methodically, only impose names on things to abbreviate discourse, and not to diminish or change the idea of the things of which they are discoursing. and they pretend that the mind always supplies the full definition to the concise terms, which they only employ to avoid the confusion occasioned by the multitude of words. nothing more promptly and more effectually removes the captious cavils of sophists than this method, which it is necessary to have always present, and which alone suffices to banish all kinds of difficulties and equivocations. this method would certainly be beautiful, but it is abso - lutely impossible ; for it is evident that the first terms that we wished to define would imply precedents to serve for their explanation, and that in the same manner, the first propositions that we wished to prove would imply others which had preceded them ; and thus it is clear that we should never reach the first. thus, in pushing our researches further and further, we arrive necessarily at primitive words which can no longer be defined, and at principles so clear that we can find no others that can serve as a proof of them. for there is one, and it is that of geometry, which is in truth inferior in that it is less convincing, but not in that it less is certain. it does not define every thing and does not prove every thing, and it is in this that it is inferior ; but it assumes nothing but things clear and constant by natural enlightenment, and this is why it is perfectly true, nature sustaining it in default of discourse. this order, the most perfect of any among men, consists not at all in defining every thing or in demonstrating every thing, nor in defining nothing or in demonstrating nothing, but in adhering to this middle course of not defining things clear and understood by all mankind, and of defining the rest ; of not proving all the things known to mankind, and of proving all the rest. against this order those sin alike who undertake to define everything and to prove every thing, and who neglect to do it in those things which are not evident of themselves. this is what is perfectly taught by geometry. she does not define any of these things, space, time, motion,


undertake to define everything and to prove every thing, and who neglect to do it in those things which are not evident of themselves. this is what is perfectly taught by geometry. she does not define any of these things, space, time, motion, number, equality, and similar things which exist in great number, because these terms so naturally designate the things that they mean, to those who understand the language, that their elucidation would afford more obscurity than instruction. for there is nothing more feeble than the discourse of those who wish to define these primitive words. what neces - sity is there, for example, of explaining what is understood by the word man? do we not know well enough what the thing is that we wish to designate by this term? and what advantage did plato think to procure us in saying that he was a two - legged animal without feathers? as though the idea that i have of him naturally, and which i cannot express, were not clearer and surer than that which he gives me by his useless and even ridiculous explanation ; since a man does not lose humanity by losing the two legs, nor does a capon acquire it by losing his feathers. there are those who are absurd enough to explain a word by the word itself. i know some who have defined light in this wise : light is a luminary movement of luminous bodies, as though we could understand the words luminary and luminous without the word light. 2 we cannot undertake to define being without falling into the same absurdity : for we cannot define a word without beginning with the word it is, either expressed or understood. to define being therefore, it is necessary to say it is, and thus to employ the word defined in the definition. we see clearly enough from this that there are some words incapable of being defined ; and, if nature had not supplied this defect by a corresponding idea which she has given to all mankind, all our expressions would be confused ; whilst we use them with the same assurance and the same certainty as though they were explained in a manner perfectly exempt from ambiguities : because nature herself has given us, without words, a clearer knowledge of them than art could acquire by our explanations. for, for example, time is of this sort. who can define it? and why undertake it, since all men conceive what is meant in speaking of a time, without any further definition? nevertheless there are many different opinions touching the essence of time. some say that it is the movement of


who can define it? and why undertake it, since all men conceive what is meant in speaking of a time, without any further definition? nevertheless there are many different opinions touching the essence of time. some say that it is the movement of created thing ; others, the measure of the movement, etc. thus it is not the nature of these things that i say is known to all ; it is simply the relation between the name and the thing ; so that at the expression time, all direct their thoughts towards the same object ; which suffices to cause this term to have no need of being defined, though afterwards, in examining what time is, we come to differ in sentiment after having been led to think of it ; for definitions are only made to designate the things that are named, and not to show the nature of them. but after this definition there will be two things that will be called by the name of time : the one is what the whole world understands naturally by this word and what all those who speak our language call by this term ; the other will be the movement of a created thing, for this will also called by his name, according to this new definition. it is necessary therefore to shun ambiguities and not to confound consequences. for it will not follow from this that the thing that is naturally understood by the word time is in fact the movement of a created thing. it has been allowable to name these two things the same ; but it will not be to make them agree in nature as well as in name. thus, if we advance this propositiontime is the movement of a created thing, it is necessary to ask what is meant by this word time, that is, whether the usual and generally received meaning is left to it, or whether it is divested of this meaning in order to give to it on this occasion that of the movement of a created thing. for if it be stripped of all other meaning, it cannot be contradicted, and it will become an arbitrary definition, in consequence of which, as i have said, there will be two things that will have the same name. but if its ordinary meaning be left to it, and it be pretended nevertheless that what is meant by this word is the movement of a created thing, it can be contradicted. it is no longer an arbitrary definition, but a proposition that must be proved, if it is not evident of itself ; and this will then be a principle or an axiom, but never a definition


created thing, it can be contradicted. it is no longer an arbitrary definition, but a proposition that must be proved, if it is not evident of itself ; and this will then be a principle or an axiom, but never a definition, since in this enunciation it is not understood that the word time signifies the same thing as the movement of a created thing, but it is understood that what is conceived by the term time is this supposed movement. if i did not know how necessary it is to understand this perfectly, and how continually occasions like this, of which i give the example, happen both in familiar and scientific discourses, i should not dwell upon it. but it seems to me, by the experience that i have had from the confusion of controversies, that we cannot too fully enter into this spirit of precision, for the sake of which i write this treatise rather than the subject of which i treat in it. for how many persons are there who fancy that they have defined time, when they have said that it is the measure of movement, leaving it, however, its ordinary meaning! and nevertheless they have made a proposition and not a definition. how many are there, in the like manner, who fancy that they have defined movement, when they have said : motus nec simpliciter motus, non mera potentia est, sed actus entis in potentia! and nevertheless, if they leave to the word movement its ordinary meaning as they do, it is not a definition but a proposition ; and confounding thus the definitions which they call definitions of name, which are the true arbitrary definitions permissible and geometrical, with those which they call definitions of thing, which, properly speaking, are not at all arbitrary definitions but are subject to contradiction, they hold themselves at liberty to make these as well as others ; and each defining the same things in his own way, by a liberty which is as unjustifiable in this kind of definitions as it is permissible in the former, they perplex every thing, and losing all order and all light, become lost themselves and wander into inextricable embarrassments. we shall never fall into such in following the order of geometry. this judicious science is far from defining such primitive words as space, time motion, equality, majority, diminution, whole, and others which every one understands. but apart from these, the rest of the terms that this science employs are to such a degree elucidated and defined


primitive words as space, time motion, equality, majority, diminution, whole, and others which every one understands. but apart from these, the rest of the terms that this science employs are to such a degree elucidated and defined that we have no need of a dictionary to understand any of them ; so that in a word all these terms are perfectly intelligible, either by natural enlightenment or by the definitions that it gives of them. this is the manner in which it avoids all the errors that may be encountered upon the first point, which consists in defining only the things that have need of it. it makes use of it in the same manner in respect to the other point, which consists in proving the propositions that are not evident. for, when it has arrived at the first known truths, it pauses there and asks whether they are admitted, having nothing clearer whereby to prove them ; so that all that is proposed by geometry is perfectly demonstrated, either by natural enlightenment or by proofs. it will perhaps be found strange that geometry does not define any of the things that it has for its principal objects ; for it can neither define motion, numbers, nor space ; and nevertheless these three things are those of which it treats in particular, and according to the investigation of which it takes the three different names of mechanics, arithmetic, and geometry, this last name belonging to the genus and species. but this will not surprise us if we remark that, this admirable science only attaching itself to the simplest things, this same quality which renders them worthy of being its objects renders them incapable of being defined ; so that the lack of definition is a perfection rather than a defect, since it does not come from their obscurity, but on the contrary from their extreme obviousness, which is such that though it may not have the conviction of demonstrations, it has all their certainty. it supposes therefore that we know what is the thing that is understood by the words motion, number, space ; and without stopping to define them to no purpose, it penetrates their nature and discovers their marvellous properties. these three things which comprehend the whole universe, according to the words : deus fecit omnia in pondere, in numero, et mensura, 4 have a reciprocal and necessary connection. for we cannot imagine motion without something that moves ; and this thing being one, this unity is the origin of all numbers ; and lastly, motion not being able to exist without space, we see these three


, 4 have a reciprocal and necessary connection. for we cannot imagine motion without something that moves ; and this thing being one, this unity is the origin of all numbers ; and lastly, motion not being able to exist without space, we see these three things included within the first. for however quick a movement may be, we can conceive of one still more so ; and so on ad infinitum, without ever reaching one that would be swift to such a degree that nothing more could be added to it. and, on the contrary, however slow a movement may be, it can be retarded still more ; and thus ad infinitum, without ever reaching such a degree of slowness that we could not thence descend into an infinite number of others, without falling into rest. in the same manner, however great a number may be, we can conceive of a greater ; and thus ad infinitum, without ever reaching one that can no longer be increased. and on the contrary, however small a number may be as, the hundredth or ten thousandth part, we can still conceive of a less ; and so on ad infinitum, without ever arriving at zero or nothingness. however a great space may be, we can conceive of a greater ; and thus ad infinitum, without ever arriving at one which can no longer be increased. and, on the contrary, however, small a space may be, we can still imagine a smaller ; and so on ad infinitum, without ever arriving at one indivisible, which has no longer any extent. that is, in a word, whatever movement, whatever number, whatever space, whatever time there may be, there is always a greater and a less than these : so that they all stand betwixt nothingness and the infinite, being always infinitely distant from these extremes. all these truths cannot be demonstrated ; and yet they are the foundations and principles of geometry. but as the cause that renders them incapable of demonstration is not their obscurity, but on the contrary their extreme obviousness, this lack of proof is not a defect, but rather a perfection. from which we see that geometry can neither define objects nor prove principles ; but for this single and advantageous reason that both are in an extreme natural clearness, which convinces reason more powerfully than discourse. for what is more evident than this truth, that a number, whatever it may be, can be increasedcan


; but for this single and advantageous reason that both are in an extreme natural clearness, which convinces reason more powerfully than discourse. for what is more evident than this truth, that a number, whatever it may be, can be increasedcan be doubled? again, may not the speed of a movement be doubled, and may not a space be doubled in the same manner? and who too can doubt that a number, whatever it may be, may not be divided into a half, and its half again into another half? for would this half be a nothingness? and would these two halves, which would be two zeros, compose a number? in the same manner, may not a movement, however slow it may be, be reduced in speed by a half, so that it will pass over the same space in double the time, and this last movement again? for would this be a perfect rest? and would these two halves of velocity, which would be two rests, compose again the first velocity? lastly, may not a space, however small it may be, be divided into two, and these halves again? and how could these two halves become indivisible without extent, which joined together made the former extent? there is no natural knowledge in mankind that precedes this, and surpasses it in clearness. nevertheless, in order that there may be examples for every thing, we find minds excellent in all things else, that are shocked by these infinities and can in no wise assent to them. i have never known any person who thought that a space could not be increased. but i have seen some, very capable in other respects, who affirmed that a space could be divided into two indivisible parts, however absurd the idea may seem. i have applied myself to investigating what could be the cause of this obscurity, and have found that it chiefly consisted in this, that they could not conceive of a continuity divisible ad infinitum, whence they concluded that it was not divisible. it is an infirmity natural to man to believe that he possesses truth directly ; and thence it comes that he is always disposed to deny every thing that is incomprehensible to him ; whilst in fact he knows naturally nothing but falsehood, and whilst he ought to receive as true only those things the contrary of which appear to him as false. and hence, whenever a proposition is inconceivable, it is necessary to suspend the judgment


fact he knows naturally nothing but falsehood, and whilst he ought to receive as true only those things the contrary of which appear to him as false. and hence, whenever a proposition is inconceivable, it is necessary to suspend the judgment on it and not to deny it from this indication, but to examine its opposite ; and if this is found to be manifestly false, we can boldly affirm the former, however incomprehensible it may be. let us apply this rule to our subject. there is no geometrician that does not believe space divisible ad infinitum. he can no more be such without this principle than man can exist without a soul. and nevertheless there is none who comprehends an infinite division ; and he only assures himself of this truth by this one, but certainly sufficient reason, that he perfectly comprehends that it is false that by dividing a space we can reach an indivisible part, that, is, one that has no extent. for what is there more absurd than to pretend that by continually dividing a space, we shall finally arrive at such a division that on dividing it into two, each of the halves shall remain indivisible and without any extent, and that thus these two negations of extensions will together compose an extent? for i would ask those who hold this idea, whether they conceive clearly two indivisibles being brought into contact ; if this is throughout, they are only the same thing, and consequently the two together are indivisible ; and if it is not throughout, it is then but in a part ; then they have parts, therefore they are not indivisible. if they confess, as in fact they admit when pressed, that their proposition is as inconceivable as the other, they acknowledge that it is not by our capacity for conceiving these things that we should judge of their truth, since these two contraries being both inconceivable, it is nevertheless necessarily certain that one of the two is true. but as to these chimerical difficulties, which have relation only to our weakness, they oppose this natural clearness and these solid truths : if it were true that space was composed of a certain finite number of indivisibles, it would follow that two spaces, each of which should be square, that is, equal and similar on every side, being the one the double of the other, the one would contain a number of these indivisi


of indivisibles, it would follow that two spaces, each of which should be square, that is, equal and similar on every side, being the one the double of the other, the one would contain a number of these indivisibles double the number of the indivisibles of the other. let them bear this consequence well in mind, and let them then apply themselves to ranging points in squares until they shall have formed two, the one of which shall have double the points of the other ; and then i will make every geometrician in the world yield to them. but if the thing is naturally impossible, that is, if it is an insuperable impossibility to range squares of points, the one of which shall have double the number of the other, as i would demonstrate on the spot did the thing merit that we should dwell on it, let them draw therefrom the consequence. and to console them for the trouble they would have in certain junctures, as in conceiving that a space may have an infinity of divisibles, seeing that these are run over in so little time during which this infinity of divisibles would be run over, we must admonish them that they should not compare things so disproportionate as is the infinity of divisibles with the little time in which they are run over : but let them compare the entire space with the entire time, and the infinite divisibles of the space with the infinite moments of the time ; and thus they will find that we pass over an infinity of divisibles in an infinity of moments, and a little space in a little time ; in which there is no longer the disproportion that astonished them. lastly, if they find it surprising that a small space has as many parts as a great one, let them understand also that they are smaller in measure, and let them look at the firmament through a diminishing glass, to familiarize themselves with this knowledge, by seeing every part of the sky in every part of the glass. but if they cannot comprehend that parts so small that to us they are imperceptible, can be divided as often as the firmament, there is no better remedy than to make them look through glasses that magnify this delicate point to a prodigious mass ; whence they will easily conceive that by the aid of another glass still more artistically cut, they could be magnified


better remedy than to make them look through glasses that magnify this delicate point to a prodigious mass ; whence they will easily conceive that by the aid of another glass still more artistically cut, they could be magnified so as to equal that firmament the extent of which they admire. and thus these objects appearing to them now easily divisible, let them remember that nature can do infinitely more than art. for, in fine, who has assured them that these glasses change the natural magnitude of these objects, instead of re - establishing, on the contrary, the true magnitude which the shape of our eye may change and contract like glasses that diminish? it suffices to say to minds clear on this matter that two negations of extension cannot make an extension. but as there are some who pretend to elude this light by this marvellous answer, that two negations of extension can as well make an extension as two units, neither of which it is a number, can make a number by their combination ; it is necessary to reply to them that they might in the same manner deny that twenty thousand men make an army, although no single one of them is an army ; that a thousand houses make a town, although no single one is a town ; or that the parts make the whole, although no single one is the whole ; or, to remain in the comparison of numbers, that two binaries make a quaternary, and ten tens a hundred, although no single one is such. but it is not to have an accurate mind to confound by such unequal comparisons the immutable nature of things with their arbitrary and voluntary names, names dependent upon the caprice of the men who invented them. for it is clear that to facilitate discourse the name of army has been given to twenty thousand men, that of town to several houses, that of ten to ten units ; and that from this liberty spring the names of unity, binary, quaternary, ten, hundred, different through our caprices, although these things may be in fact of the same kind by their unchangeable nature, and are all proportionate to each other and differ only in being greater or less, and although, as a result of these names, binary may not be a quaternary, nor the house a town, any more than the town is a house. but again, although a house is not a town, it is not however a negation of a town ; there


these names, binary may not be a quaternary, nor the house a town, any more than the town is a house. but again, although a house is not a town, it is not however a negation of a town ; there is a great difference between not being a thing, and being a negation of it. for, in order to understand the thing to the bottom, it is necessary to know that the only reason why unity is not in the ranks of numbers, is that euclid and the earliest authors who treated of arithmetic, having several properties to give that were applicable to all the numbers except unity, in order to avoid often repeating that in all numbers except unity this condition is found, have excluded unity from the signification of the word number, by the liberty which we have already said can be taken at will with definitions. thus, if they had wished, they could in the same manner have excluded the binary and ternary, and all else that it pleased them ; for we are master of these terms, provided we give notice of it ; as on the contrary we may place unity when we like in the rank of numbers, and fractions in the same manner. and, in fact, we are obliged to do it in general propositions, to avoid saying constantly, that in all numbers, as well as in unity and in fractions, such a property is found ; and it is in this indefinite sense that i have taken it in all that i have written on it. but the same euclid who has taken away from unity the name of number, which it was permissible for him to do, in order to make it understood nevertheless that it is not a negation, but is on the contrary of the same species, thus defines homogeneous magnitudes : magnitudes are said to be of the same kind, when one being multiplied several times may exceed the other ; and consequently, since unity can, be - ing multiplied several times, exceed any number whatsoever, it is precisely of the same kind with numbers through its essence and its immutable nature, in the meaning of the same euclid who would not have it called a number. it is not the same thing with an indivisible in respect to an extension. for it not only differs in name, which is voluntary, but it differs in kind, by the same definition ; since an indivisible, multiplied as many times as we like, is so far from being able to exceed an extension, that it can never


only differs in name, which is voluntary, but it differs in kind, by the same definition ; since an indivisible, multiplied as many times as we like, is so far from being able to exceed an extension, that it can never form any thing else than a single and exclusive indivisible ; which is natural and necessary, as has been already shown. and as this last proof is founded upon the definition of these two things, indivisible and extension, we will proceed to finish and perfect the demonstration. for when they are united, they touch each other in some part ; and thus the parts whereby they come in contact are not separate, since otherwise they would not touch each other. now, by their definition, they have no other parts ; therefore they have no separate parts ; therefore they are not an extension by the definition of extension which involves the separation of parts. the same thing will be shown of all the other indivisibles that may be brought into junction, for the same reason. and consequently an indivisible, multiplied as many times as we like, will not make an extension. therefore it is not of the same kind as extension, by the definition of things of the same kind. it is in this manner that we demonstrate that indivisibles are not of the same species as numbers. hence it arises that two units may indeed make a number, because they are of the same kind ; and that two indivisibles do not make an extension, because they are not of the same kind. but if we wish to take in numbers a comparison that rep - resents with accuracy what we are considering in extension, this must be the relation of zero to numbers ; for zero is not of the same kind as numbers, since, being multiplied, it cannot exceed them : so that it is the true indivisibility of number, as indivisibility is the true zero of extension. and a like one will be found between rest and motion, and between an instant and time ; for all these things are heterogeneous in their magnitudes, since being infinitely multiplied, they can never make any thing else than indivisibles, any more than the indivisibles of extension, and for the same reason. and then we shall find a perfect correspondence between these things ; for all these magnitudes are divisible ad infinitum, without ever falling into their indivisibles, so that they all hold a middle place between infinity and nothingness


and then we shall find a perfect correspondence between these things ; for all these magnitudes are divisible ad infinitum, without ever falling into their indivisibles, so that they all hold a middle place between infinity and nothingness. such is the admirable relation that nature has established between these things, and the two marvellous infinities which she has proposed to mankind, not to comprehend, but to admire ; and to finish the consideration of this by a last remark, i will add that these two infinites, although infinitely different, are notwithstanding relative to each other, in such a manner that the knowledge of the one leads necessarily to the knowledge of the other. for in numbers, inasmuch as they can be continually augmented, it absolutely follows that they can be continually diminished, and this clearly ; for if a number can be multiplied to 100, 000, for example, 100, 000th part can also be taken from it, by dividing it by the same number by which it is multiplied ; and thus every term of augmentation will become a term of division, by changing the whole into a fraction. so that infinite augmentation also includes necessarily infinite division. and in space the same relation is seen between these two contrary infinites ; that is, that inasmuch as a space can be infinitely prolonged, it follows that it may be infinitely diminished, as appears in this example : if we look through a glass at a vessel that recedes continually in a straight line, it is evident that any point of the vessel observed will continually advance by a perpetual flow in proportion as the ship recedes. therefore if the course of the vessel is extended ad infinitum, this point will continually recede ; and yet it will never reach that point in which the horizontal ray carried from the eye to the glass shall fall, so that it will constantly approach it without ever reaching it, unceasingly dividing the space which will remain under this horizontal point without ever arriving at it. from which is seen the necessary conclusion that is drawn from the infinity of the extension of the course of the vessel to the infinite and infinitely minute division of this little space remaining beneath this horizontal point. those who will not be satisfied with these reasons, and will persist in the belief that space is not divisible ad infinitum, can make no pretensions to geometrical demonstrations, and although they may be enlightened in other things, they will be very little in this ; for one can easily be


belief that space is not divisible ad infinitum, can make no pretensions to geometrical demonstrations, and although they may be enlightened in other things, they will be very little in this ; for one can easily be a very capable man and a bad geometrician. but those who clearly perceive these truths will be able to admire the grandeur and power of nature in this double infinity that surrounds us on all sides, and to learn by this marvellous consideration to know themselves, in regarding themselves thus placed between infinitude and a negation of extension, between an infinitude and a negation of number, between an infinitude and a negation of movement, between an infinitude and a negation of time. from which we may learn to estimate ourselves at our true value, and to form reflections which will be worth more than all the rest of geometry itself. i have thought myself obliged to enter into this long discussion for the benefit of those who, not comprehending at first this double infinity, are capable of being persuaded of it. and although there may be many who have sufficient enlightenment to dispense with it, it may nevertheless happen that this discourse which will be necessary to the one will not be entirely useless to the other. note 1. after this paragraph occur in the ms. the following lines, written in a finer hand, and inclosed in parenthesis : is much more to succeed in the one than the other, and i have chosen this science to attain it only because it alone knows the true rules of reasoning, and, without stopping at the rules of syllogisms which are so natural that we cannot be ignorant of them, stops and establishes itself upon the true method of conducting reasoning in all things, which almost every one is ignorant of, and which it is so advantageous to know, that we see by experience that among equal minds and like circumstances, he who possesses geometry bears it away, and acquires a new vigor. i wish, therefore, to explain what demonstrations are by the example of those of geometry, which is almost the only one of the human sciences that produces infallible ones, because she alone observes the true method, whilst all the others are, through a natural necessity, in a sort of confusion, which the geometricians alone know exceedingly well how to comprehend. on the margin of this fragment is in the ms. the following note : that which is in small characters was hidden under a paper, the edges of which were glued,


of confusion, which the geometricians alone know exceedingly well how to comprehend. on the margin of this fragment is in the ms. the following note : that which is in small characters was hidden under a paper, the edges of which were glued, and upon which was written the article beginning : i cannot better explain, etc. faugere. [ back ] note 2. pascal alludes here to father noel, a jesuit, with whom he had had a warm discussion on the subject of his experiences touchant le vide. in a letter that he wrote to father noel in 1647, he said : the sentence which precedes your closing compliments defines light in these terms : light is a luminous motion of rays composed of lucid, that is, luminous bodies ; upon which, i have to tell you that it seems to me that you ought first to have defined what luminous is, and what a lucid or luminous body is, for till then, i cannot understand what light is. and as we never make use in definitions of the term of the thing defined, i should have difficulty in conforming to yours which says : light is a luminary motion of a luminous body. faugere. [ back ] note 3. here the ms. adds in parenthesis : ( but as nature punishes all that science does not bestow, its order in truth does not give a superhuman perfection, but it has all that man can attain. it has seemed to me proper to give from the beginning of this discourse this, etc. ). faugere. [ back ] note 4. god has made all things in weight, number and proportion. [ back ]


the global conversation the global conversation course seeks to explore ways in which humans have been living on the planet and assess the consequences of our actions on the environment. at the same time, the course provides knowledge that helps us to act as global citizens concerned with sustainable ways of living. the course, taken as a re - entry course for bca study abroad students, is meant to help students develop a better understanding of the environmental problems associated with economic globalisation and thus to prepare them for active participation as citizens engaged in a " global conversation " in a civil society that is also global in its scope. increasing numbers of experts agree that the problems we face as a species are massive and only by understanding them within a global context, will we be able to find the solutions necessary for viable human habitation of the planet to continue. the course attempts to make a step toward these goals through traditional pedagogical techniques modified for online delivery, including video lectures from leading experts from around the world provided by university of california tv and others. in addition, the " classroom " is global, as well, because it connects students throughout the world in online discussions of course issues and in collaborative projects developed through organized exchanges on the internet. how is the global conversation organized? the global conversation was developed by bca study abroad and dr. james skelly, and is an optional offering for all students after completion of their semesters or years studying abroad through bca. it is formally a part of the curriculum in international politics at the magee campus of the university of ulster in northern ireland. in addition to normal classroom work at magee, students can access all of the course materials online and are therefore able to take the course as part of the curriculum at various other institutions including : the institute for social & european studies in koszeg, hungary ; the burren college of art in ballyvaughan, ireland ; and the universidad veracruzana in veracruz, mexico ; in addition, other students are able to take the course as an independent study under the supervision of the course ’ s adjunct faculty and the course coordinator at several institutions in the united states and abroad. topics in the course at a very basic level of analysis, the global conversation is about how we live on the planet both individually and collectively, and it poses the two fundamental questions – " is our way of living on the earth sustainable? ", and, " how ought we to live? " the unsustainable manner in which humans are living on our planet therefore requires that we try to " connect


the two fundamental questions – " is our way of living on the earth sustainable? ", and, " how ought we to live? " the unsustainable manner in which humans are living on our planet therefore requires that we try to " connect the dots. " we explore the increase in toxic substances in the human body while also analyzing the manner in which many products are produced. we also look at the fundamental assumptions informing our global economic system, built around consumerism and growth even though the planet has finite limits. with this as a foundation, we address other problems, most notably climate change, energy issues, concerns with water, food, and population - linked phenomena which can only be addressed effectively by understanding the broader context within which they have developed. we conclude the course, with a look at " reasons for hope " and explore various concrete initiatives, as well as the importance of developing a culture in which empathy for all life is central. what is a learning circle? one of the key aspects of the course are the online learning circles, each established with a small number of students studying in various parts of the world working on a common problem by assessing both its local and global aspects. the learning circles work towards completion of a collective project that looks at how specific environmental problems might be addressed given their political, economic, and social impacts. us colleges & universities with students enrolled in the global conversation 2007 - 2010 - austin college - baker university - bethel college - bridgewater college - california state university, east bay - capital university - chapman university - eastern mennonite university - eastern university - elizabethtown college - franklin college - hastings college - haverford college - houghton college - juniata college - king ’ s college - manchester college - mansfield university - mcpherson college - messiah college - montserrat college of art - peace college - regis university - roanoke college - saint lawrence university - school of the art institute of chicago - simpson college - soka university of america - stonehill college - swarthmore college - university of california, berkeley - university of texas, austin - university of scranton - university of vermont - ursinus college - virginia commonwealth university - western carolina university - western washington university - westmont college - winthrop university - whitworth college who teaches the global conversation course? dr. james skelly, bca ’ s coordinator for peace & justice programming, as well as visiting professor of peace studies at magee college where he is based, is the academic coordinator for the overall course and is also responsible for the academic assessment of bca


##elly, bca ’ s coordinator for peace & justice programming, as well as visiting professor of peace studies at magee college where he is based, is the academic coordinator for the overall course and is also responsible for the academic assessment of bca and university of ulster students enrolled. - becki bowman ( mcpherson college ) - don kelly ( university of san diego ) - judith liu ( university of san diego ) - bud mehan ( university of california, san diego ) - j. d. mininger ( lcc international university ) - byron plumley ( regis university ) - alex ascherson ( london ) - christine cutting ( boston ) - jenna goodhand ( koszeg ) - chris kjonaas ( san diego ) - samantha martin ( new paltz ) - angelia shugarts ( denver ) - emma taylor ( derry ) how are students be assessed in the global conversation course? the following guidelines for assessment is used for students enrolled at bca sites and the university of ulster, and may be modified as needed by local course coordinators. the components of the assessment process include : general online participation ; a midterm essay ; a final essay ; and collective online presentations by learning circles ; as well as, a final write - up of the learning circle project with individual student ’ s contributions highlighted. suggested percentages for each activity are : - online participation : 10 % - midterm essay : 25 % - final essay : 40 % - online presentation of learning circle project : 10 % - final written version of learning circle project : 15 % what credits will students earn for the global conversation? if students choose to take the global conversation course for credit, it is worth 3 credits. students also have the choice to audit the course. by participating as an auditor a student will develop a better understanding of how the issues connect to specific facets of their host country ’ s politics, culture and economy.


world population grew by almost 300 % during the twentieth century ; over the same time period, world per capita incomes grew by about 400 %. this association of sizable increases in world population with large increases in per capita incomes should continue to the end of this century. forecasts of the world ’ s population only a few years in the future are generally quite accurate because the number of births and deaths during the next few years are largely determined by the existing distribution of the number of people at different ages. at the same time, forecasts of the population 50 or more years into the future are notoriously inaccurate because of difficulties in predicting changes over a long time period in birth rates, and to a much lesser extent, also in death rates. in particular, one cannot take seriously the un ’ s median forecast of 10 billion persons by the end of the century. for this forecast assumes that birth rates in high fertility countries will not decline during the next half - century. since it is highly likely that these countries will raise significantly their per capita incomes and education of their women, their fertility rates will fall, probably drastically. if so, world population in 2100 would be well below 10 billion people. however, for the sake of this discussion, i assume that the un forecast is approximately correct, so that about 10 billion people will inhabit the earth by the end of this century. posner mentions various likely benefits of a much larger population, such as greater demand for and supply of innovations in the medical and other sectors, and greater world specialization by skill. few countries have experienced sustained declines in their populations since the beginning of the 19th century. the substantial world growth in per capita incomes during the past 150 years has been associated with growing world populations. i believe that declining populations are bad for long run economic welfare. if i am correct, countries such as russia, japan, and germany, with fertility rates that are far below replacement levels are likely to face an unattractive economic future unless either they take in enough immigrants to make up for their low fertility levels, or they have large increases in fertility rates. given the sharp rise in food prices during this first decade of the 21st century, it would appear difficult to feed adequately a much larger and richer world population. yet, unlike say the production of copper, no natural limits sharply curtail the amounts of food that can be produced. food output will expand with a growth in the amount of land devoted to food production - currently agriculture takes a small fraction of the world ’ s arable land. also, the world can invest


sharply curtail the amounts of food that can be produced. food output will expand with a growth in the amount of land devoted to food production - currently agriculture takes a small fraction of the world ’ s arable land. also, the world can invest much more in fertilizers and in improving food technology, so that greater output can be squeezed out of each acre used to grow corn, wheat, soy, dairy, meats, and other foods. greater demand for water due to larger populations and greater wealth would make clean water scarcer. this could produce a water shortage unless countries began to price more efficiently the water used in agriculture and industry, by far the largest water users. with sensible prices, the available water should be sufficient to satisfy all essential water needs of a much larger world population. an increase from 7 to 10 billion people on the planet will significantly raise population density in many parts of the world, and thereby increase the potential for severe outbreaks of communicable diseases. however, cities like hong kong show that it is possible even with current knowledge to control the spread of disease in densely populated communities. as knowledge of how to track and combat diseases greatly improves over time, the medical challenges created by densely populated areas should be reduced even further. a larger population combined with growing per capita incomes would increase global warming and worldwide pollution. although the severity of the global warming problem by the end of this century is not fully established by climate science, the world should be prepared to meet various worst - case climate scenarios. this would require the development of mitigation techniques that can be rather quickly ramped up in case global warming turns out to be a severe problem ( see the analysis in becker, murphy, and topel, “ on the economics of climate policy ”, the b. e. journal of economic analysis and policy, volume 10, number 2 ). such technologies are certainly achievable by the end of the century with substantial private and public investments in developing new methods to capture and store various harmful gases emitted by fossil fuels. if world population grew to 10 billion by the end of the century - an unlikely outcome - that would present considerable challenges. however, greater population would add real benefits as well, and i am inclined toward the view that the benefits will exceed the harm.


guest author - connie krochmal some may know this plant by its other common name, the century plant ( agave americana ). native to sub - tropical areas of north america, this plant is found in arid and semi - arid regions. it is also cultivated in mexico as the source of an alcoholic drink and as a source of fiber. though the plant does take a long time to bloom, it doesn ’ t really deserve to be called the century plant. it produces a flower stalk when it is about ten years old, not a hundred. but common names do tend to stick. this plant is hardy to about - 5 degrees fahrenheit. it thrives in both extreme heat and drought. preferring a limestone - rich soil, american aloe requires full sun. so far as soils are concerned, it may exhibit some degree of salt tolerance. it thrives on poor, sandy soils that are common in the southwest. this plant is considered an herbaceous perennial. it can reach feet in height before it develops a flower stalk. the gray, rigid, tough leaves are around 3 - 6 feet in length and about 8 inches wide. there are spines along the edges. the foliage can have purple dots. once the plant finishes blooming, it will die. however, pups or baby offsets will be produced around the base of the plant just as hen - and - chicks do. normally, it is best to remove these before the flowers actually open. now for the flower stalks. this develops very quickly, and reaches its mature height in no time. because these stalks can be 25 - 40 feet tall, this isn ’ t a plant for small properties. it would simply overwhelm small gardens. the flower stalk is loaded with yellowish - white to greenish - yellow densely crowded blooms, inches across. these are composed of six segments that are fused in the shape of bells. particularly fragrant at night, these attract night pollinators. normally these blossoms open during the summer months. in addition to the ordinary century plant, several varieties of this are available. these are especially suitable for landscape purposes because of their smaller size. agave americana medio - picta is the yellow form. this has a large yellow stripe running through the center of the foliage. younger plants may have red teeth along the edges of the foliage. agave americana medio - picta alba is the white form. it features a white stripe instead of yellow. these attractive plants are used for foundation plantings, ground covers, flower borders,


hardy geraniums have gorgeous flowers and are very easy to grow. there are many types of geraniums - not to be confused with the greenhouse sort - these are the deciduous hardy ones that grow to 24 - 26 inches ( 60 - 75cm ) and are a common sight in english gardens. to get the best flowers you need to grow them in a sunny spot but they will grow in partial shade as long as they get the sun for part of the day. they are very good natured and very low maintenance and will grow in most soils, except for waterlogged ones when they will turn up their toes and die! cranesbills or geraniums come in a range of colors - whites, blues, pinks and purples and they will give you a wealth of blooms over a long period. they will spread to make glorious clumps. plant them under shrubs or in your borders - they can look very good planted as path edging although you will need to trim them back each year. they can also be grown in pots - give them plenty of root space and they will make a delightful display. they go well with many english garden plants and are often used with spring flowering bulbs. this is because as the spring flowers die back the cranesbills come to life and as their green foliage grows it covers the dying bulbs and then you get an explosion of flowers in early june! here is my selection of the best ones for an english garden - they are all hardy. - ann folkard has bright magenta petals and black middles which often flowers from june to october, the foliage is a pronounced yellowy green. do try some. - geranium psilostemon - armenum has magenta flowers and foliage that goes a lovely shade of orangey / red in the autumn. - geranium sylvaticum, mayflower has delicate violet blue flowers that have paler middles. - for white flowers try geranium clarkei kashmir white, which is white with a lilac tinge to its petals and flowers all summer. - geranium magnificum has violet blue flowers with delicate darker veining. - johnson ' s blue pictured above has dark lavender blue petals. - geranium cinereum ballerina is smaller only growing to 6 inches or 15cm but has pale pink flowers with darker centers and silvery green leaves and does well planted in pots. enjoy your garden!


blackberry health benefits : - antioxidant : being rich in antioxidants, blackberries help the body in fighting free radicals and thus, avoid various types of cancer and provide longevity. - antiseptic activity : the high tannin content, and the resultant antiseptic properties, of blackberries makes them good for tightening tissues as well as treating minor bleeding, their anti - bacterial properties and can even help cleanse blood. - diarrhea : consumption of blackberry has been found to be beneficial for those suffering from diarrhea and intestinal inflammation. - infections : mild infections, like sore throats and mouth irritations, can be treated with the help of blackberries. - hemorrhoid : blackberries have been used to alleviate hemorrhoids also. blueberry health benefits : from research labs all across the country and the world, there is growing evidence that blueberries are an important part of a healthy diet. blueberries and antioxidant activity antioxidants are thought to help protect the body against the damaging effects of free radicals and the chronic diseases associated with the aging process. fresh fruits, including blueberries, and vegetables contain many of these naturally occurring antioxidants such as vitamins c and e. blueberries contain 14 mg of vitamin c and 0. 8 mg vitamin e per 1 cup of blueberries. in addition, blueberries contain and that can also act as antioxidants. blueberries are among the fruits with the highest antioxidant activity. using a test called orac ( oxygen radical absorbance capacity ), researchers have shown that a serving of fresh blueberries provides more antioxidant activity than many other fresh fruits and vegetables. blueberries and aging laboratory in the usda, human nutrition research center ( hnrc ), fed blueberry extractions — the equivalent of a human eating one cup of blueberries a day — to mice and then ran them through a series of motor skills tests. they found out that the blueberry - fed mice performed better than their control group counterparts in motor behavioral learning and memory, and he noticed an increase in exploratory behavior. when the scientists examined their brains, they found a marked decrease in oxidative stress in two regions of the brain and better retention of signal - transmitting neurons compared with the control mice. the compound that appears responsible for this neuron protection, anthocyanin, also gives blueberries their color and might be the key component of the blueberry ’ s antioxidant


of signal - transmitting neurons compared with the control mice. the compound that appears responsible for this neuron protection, anthocyanin, also gives blueberries their color and might be the key component of the blueberry ’ s antioxidant and anti - inflammatory properties. blueberries, along with other colorful fruits and vegetables, test high in their ability to subdue free radicals. these free radicals, which can damage cell membranes and dna through a process known as oxidative stress, are blamed for many of the dysfunctions and diseases associated with aging. these findings could become increasingly important as the u. s. population ages. it is projected that by 2050, more than 30 % of americans will be over 65 and will have the decreased cognitive and motor function that accompanies advanced age. joseph is currently testing the effects of blueberries on humans. preliminary results show that people who ate a cup of blueberries a day have performed 5 – 6 % better on motor skills tests than the control group. blueberries and nutrition though blueberries themselves are not a cure - all, they contain a number of substances that are thought to have health benefits. these substances include, but are not limited to fructose, fiber, vitamins and antioxidants. antioxidants thus far, seem to have the most conclusive role in the prevention / delaying of such diseases as cancer, heart disease and the aging process however, a limited number of studies, especially long term and on human beings, are not available at this time. one cup of blueberries contains 14 % dv of fiber 2. 41 g per 100g. blueberries are a source of vitamins, minerals, dietary fiber, phenolics, and flavonoids. they are very low in fat and sodium honeyberry health benefits : one of its many advantages is the high content of vitamins that are found in the honeyberry varieties. thus, the amount of ascorbic acid up to 170 mg per 100 g of berries, i. e. more than strawberries, raspberries, gooseberries, approaching black currant. in terms of r - active compounds ( catechins, rutin, anthocyanins, leykoantotsiany etc. ) honeysuckle is second only to black chokeberry. vitamins b1, b2, b9 found in much smaller quantities. honeyberries contain a rich set of macro - and micronutrients. they accumulate a lot of iron, calcium, and phosphorus


. don ' t go for raspberries which show signs of mold or mushy spots, but those which are ripe, firm, and colorful raspberries. they can be either fresh, canned or frozen. but take note. when frozen raspberries thaw, they may not be as firm as the fresh ones. they however remain sweet and delicious. to get the freshest raspberries, visit markets where farmers have stocked the berry, which has just been harvested. this offers the best berries to boost your health. here are some of the health benefits to be enjoyed by anyone who eat raspberries in its many forms. strengthened immune system minerals such as vitamin c are thought to help the body to develop strong connective tissues and an immune system able to ward off the attack of microorganisms. raspberries like other berries such as blueberries, cranberries, and strawberries contain a lot of vitamin c in its structure. nutritionists have said that one cup of raspberries offer humans beings vitamin c as well as potassium for 64 calories. though raspberries themselves are not a cure - all berry, they contain a number of other substances that are thought to prevent many diseases. these substances include, but are not limited to, flavonoids and phytochemicals. raspberries, along with berries such as blueberries, cranberries, and strawberries, also contain a substance thought to prevent bladder infections. the substance does this by preventing bacteria from adhering to the cells, which line the walls of the urinary tract. raspberries are also thought to contain compounds that are important towards having a healthy vision. the substance that appears to be responsible for this is called lutein. researchers have identified a lot of compounds in berries such as raspberries, blueberries, cranberries, blackberries, and strawberries, which may help in the reduction of the risk of being affected by several types of cancers and heart diseases. though a definitive study hasn ' t been conducted on this, researchers counsel that a diet rich in berries can help to reduce or delay several types of cancers. raspberries have a pigment, which is thought to be responsible for their blue and red hue. the pigments are also believed to contain compounds which are the key components of the ability of raspberries to prevent the development of many types of diseases in humans. raspberry leaves have a healing action to sore mouths, sore throats ( soothing ), nausea, apht


antibodies play a central role in the adaptive immune defense of all vertebrates. thereby, the specific recognition of antigen structures by antibody molecules determines the success of the immune response. therefore, the repertoire of antigen binding sites within the immune system of an individuum, but also, within a population, has been a mean focus of immunological research within the last 3 decades. the first tool to analyse the dna sequence of the antigen binding site of an antibody was dnaplot http : / / www. dnaplot. de webcite. associated with the vbase database, the dnaplot search page was the first of its kind which allowed the analysis of the modular composition of of these binding sites, the immunoglobulin gene rearrangements. the focus of this site was to identify and mark the genetics elements that are used for these rearrangements. in the meantime, several similar tools are available, including the current dnaplot version at the vbase2 database http : / / www. vbase2. org webcite. we have now introduced a major extension to the functionality of dnaplot. the new features allow the systematic analysis and visualization of the expressed immune repertoire of an organism. thus, dnaplot is now able to demonstrate the dynamics of the expressed repertoire, e. g., during the time course of the antibody response against a certain pathogen. looking at antibody structures, it is well known that mainly the so called complementary determining regions ( cdrs ) contain the information of the interface between a given antibody and its antigen. the adjacent regions, the so called framework regions ( frs ), build the antibody structure and provide a frame to expose the 3 cdr regions of each variable domain of the antibody. the new extended dnaplot version loads a list of variable domain dna sequences, extracts the cdr regions and presents them as a color - coded string of amino acids. in this way, the essential information on the docking sites of a given antibody population is easily visible. thus, by removing redundant information on the frs, essential information about the antigen binding sites is displayed, and critical amino acids can be viewed at a glance. the new dnaplot extension is not only applicable for the analysis of naturally occuring immune repertoires but also for the analysis of artificial antibody populations isolated from phage display libraries. the program dnaplot provides the base for systematic analyses of expressed immune repertiores and aids to detect patterns of changes in the cdr regions of a


| location | | jamaica, saint elizabeth | | central coordinates | | 77o 56. 41 ' west 18o 2. 47 ' north | | iba criteria | | a1, a2, a4i, b4i | | year of iba assessment | | 2010 | ornithological information this iba is significant for supporting 19 ( of the 36 ) jamaica eba restricted - range birds. sixty - one percent ( 17 of 28 ) of jamaican endemic birds have been recorded in the iba. more than 50 vulnerable west indian whistling - duck dendrocygna arborea breed in the wetlands, and there is presence of the near threatened white - crowned pigeon patagioenas leucocephala and masked duck nomonyx dominicus. other wetland and coastal bird species breeding or wintering in the area include gulls, terns, grebes, herons, egrets and gallinules. at least 35 ( of the 72 ) species of neotropical migratory birds recorded use the iba in winter, such as the swainson ' s warbler limnothlypis swainsonii, which is found regularly along the mangrove margins at the font hill site, but is infrequent elsewhere in jamaica. the wetlands comprise more than 10 fresh to brackish ( mangrove - fringed ) ponds and sloughs that tend to dry out during the dry season ( january - march ), but retain at least some water in the deepest ponds every year, and thus provide one of the only sources of fresh water within tens of km of the site. these ponds provide a focus of activity ( feeding, bathing, nesting ) for many birds, both aquatic and terrestrial species, especially in the driest years. site description font hill iba is located 13 km west of black river morass iba ( jm007 ) in st. elizabeth parish, on the south coast of south - western jamaica. it includes 1 km offshore of marine habitat. | species | | season | | period | | population estimate | | quality of estimate | | iba criteria | | iucn category | | west indian whistling - duck dendrocygna arborea | | resident | | 2010 | | 50 - 75 breeding pairs | | medium | | a1, a4i | | vulnerable | | least tern sterna antillarum | | breeding | | 2010 | | 45 - 55 breeding pairs | | poor | | b4i | | least concern | | jamaican owl pseudoscops grammic


a4i | | vulnerable | | least tern sterna antillarum | | breeding | | 2010 | | 45 - 55 breeding pairs | | poor | | b4i | | least concern | | jamaican owl pseudoscops grammicus | | resident | | 2010 | | present [ units unknown ] | | - | | a2 | | least concern | | jamaican mango anthracothorax mango | | resident | | 2010 | | present [ units unknown ] | | - | | a2 | | least concern | | red - billed streamertail trochilus polytmus | | resident | | 2010 | | present [ units unknown ] | | - | | a2 | | least concern | | vervain hummingbird mellisuga minima | | resident | | 2010 | | present [ units unknown ] | | - | | a2 | | least concern | | jamaican tody todus todus | | resident | | 2010 | | present [ units unknown ] | | - | | a2 | | least concern | | jamaican woodpecker melanerpes radiolatus | | resident | | 2010 | | present [ units unknown ] | | - | | a2 | | least concern | | jamaican becard pachyramphus niger | | resident | | 2010 | | present [ units unknown ] | | - | | a2 | | least concern | | jamaican elaenia myiopagis cotta | | resident | | 2010 | | present [ units unknown ] | | - | | a2 | | least concern | | sad flycatcher myiarchus barbirostris | | resident | | 2010 | | present [ units unknown ] | | - | | a2 | | least concern | | rufous - tailed flycatcher myiarchus validus | | resident | | 2010 | | present [ units unknown ] | | - | | a2 | | least concern | | stolid flycatcher myiarchus stolidus | | resident | | 2010 | | present [ units unknown ] | | - | | a2 | | least concern | | jamaican vireo vireo modestus | | resident | | 2010 | | present [ units unknown ] | | - | | a2 | | least concern | | white - chinned thrush turdus aurantius | | resident | | 2010 | | present [ units unknown ] | | - | | a2 | | least concern | | arrowhead warbler dendroica phare


least concern | | white - chinned thrush turdus aurantius | | resident | | 2010 | | present [ units unknown ] | | - | | a2 | | least concern | | arrowhead warbler dendroica pharetra | | resident | | 2010 | | present [ units unknown ] | | - | | a2 | | least concern | | jamaican oriole icterus leucopteryx | | resident | | 2010 | | present [ units unknown ] | | - | | a2 | | least concern | | yellow - shouldered grassquit loxipasser anoxanthus | | resident | | 2010 | | present [ units unknown ] | | - | | a2 | | least concern | | orangequit euneornis campestris | | resident | | 2010 | | present [ units unknown ] | | - | | a2 | | least concern | | jamaican spindalis spindalis nigricephala | | resident | | 2010 | | present [ units unknown ] | | - | | a2 | | least concern | | jamaican euphonia euphonia jamaica | | resident | | 2010 | | present [ units unknown ] | | - | | a2 | | least concern | | iucn habitat | | habitat detail | | extent ( % of site ) | | coastline | | intertidal mud, sand & salt flats ; lagoons ; salt & brackish marshes ; sand dunes & beaches ; shallow marine areas, coral reefs & keys | | - | land ownership private property | land - use | | extent ( % of site ) | | notes : a popular beach park borders the entrance to the natural area and is a popular destination for local jamaicans. | | notes : the coastal areas and the freshwater ponds receive some pressure from local fishing. | | notes : a large portion of font hill is used for agricultural purposes including experimental plantings of trees for the development of coal to cashew and mango plantations to squash and yam fields | other biodiversity the vulnerable west indian manatee trichechus manatus occurs, and the coast is a nesting area for sea turtles such as the critically endangered hawksbill eretmochelys imbricata, endangered green turtle chelonia mydas and loggerhead caretta caretta. font hill iba along with black river great morass iba have been identified as the most important american crocodile crocodylus acutus habitats in jamaica. management considerations a potential touristic development, including possible nearby


effects of food abundance on the condition of ovenbirds wintering in jamaica. journal of animal ecology 69 : 883 - 895. 5 ) marra, p. p., and r. t. holmes. 2001. consequences of dominance - mediated habitat segregation in a migrant passerine bird during the non - breeding season. auk 118 : 94 - 106. 6 ) studds, c. e. and marra, p. p. 2005. non - breeding habitat occupancy and population processes : an upgrade experiment with a migratory bird. ecology 86 : 2380 - 2385. 7 ) brown, d. r., t. w. sherry. 2006. food supply controls physical condition of a long distance migrant bird wintering in the tropics. oecologia 149 : 22 - 32. 8 ) johnson, m. d., t. w. sherry, r. t. holmes, and p. p. marra. 2006. assessing habitat quality for a migratory songbird wintering in natural and agricultural habitats. conservation biology 20 : 1433 - 1444. 9 ) studds c., k. kyser and p. p. marra. 2008. natal dispersal driven by environmental conditions interacting across the annual cycle of a migratory songbird. 2008. proceedings of the national academy of science 105 : 2929 - 2933. 10 ) studds c. and p. p. marra. 2007. linking fluctuations in rainfall to non - breeding season performance in a long - distance migratory bird. climate research 35 : 115 – 122 contribute please click here to help birdlife conserve the world ' s birds - your data for this iba and others are vital for helping protect the environment. recommended citation birdlife international ( 2013 ) important bird areas factsheet : font hill. downloaded from http : / / www. birdlife. org on 20 / 05 / 2013 to provide new information to update this factsheet or to correct any errors, please email birdlife


unesco international literacy day 2012 theme literacy is important for then growth and development of society. the society can become healthy and wealthy with literacy. unesco ( united nations educational scientific and cultural organization ) has initiated for the observance of international literacy day. date of international literacy day : the first international literacy day was observed in the year 1965. every year international literacy day shall be observed on the 8th day september. unesco is taking up then initiation of celebration of international literacy day across the globe. need for literacy and observation of international literacy day : nearly one in every six people is still illiterate. among these two thirds are women. nearly 80 crore adults are still illiterate in the world. there are so many children are out of school during their young age. it is observed that poverty and ill health is related to illiteracy in then world. literacy can improve the quality of life among the human beings. one can have better sanitation and health with literacy. educating adult illiterate and bringing the children to schools at the young age are the main agenda for organizing the international literacy day. literate adults can know the need of education and can send their children in pursuing education. literacy can uplift people from poverty. unesco supports its member states in planning and implementation of program for the improvement of literacy rates in the respective sites.


spindelegger : " worldwide protection of human rights is a cornerstone of austrian foreign policy " foreign minister on the international human rights day vienna, 9 december 2009 – " committed men and women in many parts of the world are still persecuted when they stand up against despotism, for the rights of the weakest in society, or for the protection of minorities. their courage and their readiness to risk their lives to protect the rights of others deserves recognition and requires our full support ", said foreign minister michael spindelegger in connection with tomorrow ’ s international human rights day. " the consistent advocacy for the worldwide respect and protection of human rights is a cornerstone of austrian foreign policy. we place our particular focus on the rights of women and children, persecuted minorities, and human rights defenders. to effectively protect their rights, we are using all available forums such as the eu, the united nations, the council of europe, or the osce ", said the foreign minister. austria, for instance, pointedly used its membership in the un security council to promote human rights causes on an international level : " resolution 1894 on the protection of civilians in armed conflicts, adopted under my presidency, was an important step toward the effective enforcement of human rights. the fight against impunity for human rights violations in times of war is essential in restoring the victims ’ confidence in judicial institutions and to allow for a sustainable peace process ", said spindelegger. " to improve compliance with human rights, it must also be guaranteed that people around the world are better informed on their rights and basic freedoms. only then will they be able to actively defend their own rights and those of their fellow humans ", said spindelegger. therefore, the human rights manual, co - authored by austria and translated in 15 languages so far, is an important contribution to the worldwide awareness - building on human rights.


chapter 7 review — safe boat operation — continued carbon monoxide can collect within, alongside, or behind a boat in minutes and in a variety of ways. carbon monoxide is a potentially deadly gas produced any time a carbon - based fuel, such as gasoline, propane, charcoal, or oil, burns. sources on your boat include gasoline engines, generators, cooking ranges, and space and water heaters. carbon monoxide is colorless, odorless, and tasteless, and it mixes evenly with the air. it enters your bloodstream through the lungs and displaces the oxygen your body needs. early symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning — irritated eyes, headache, nausea, weakness and dizziness — are often confused with seasickness or intoxication. prolonged exposure to low concentrations or very short exposure to high concentrations can be fatal. activities such as teak surfing, dragging, and water skiing within 20 feet of a moving watercraft can be fatal, as the risk of carbon monoxide poisoning is high. exhaust from another vessel that is docked, beached, or anchored alongside your boat can emit poisonous carbon monoxide gas into the cabin and cockpit of your boat. even with properly vented exhaust, your boat should be a minimum of 20 feet from the nearest boat that is running a generator or engine. be sure to schedule regular vessel ( engine and exhaust system ) maintenance and inspections by experienced and trained technicians. regular maintenance along with proper boat operation can reduce the risk of injury from carbon monoxide. the best precaution against carbon monoxide poisoning is to keep air flowing through the vessel. propeller intervention and awareness since the boat ' s propeller is located below the waterline and may be difficult to see, it is important that people are aware of it at all times. as a precaution, operators should shut off the engine whenever a person is in the water within close proximity to their vessel. safety equipment is available and when used properly can significantly decrease the probability of a propeller strike. a couple of examples of equipment are : ladder interlock kill switches


coins and power in late iron age britain ( hardback ) $ 125. 80 - save $ 6. 62 ( 4 % ) - rrp $ 132. 42 free delivery worldwide ( to united states and all these other countries ) usually dispatched within 48 hours - also available in... - paperback $ 37. 26 short description for coins and power in late iron age britain this book examines the background to the first individuals in british history. - published : 06 july 2000 - format : hardback 266 pages - isbn 13 : 9780521772075 isbn 10 : 0521772079 $ 57. 30 - save $ 32. 70 36 % off - rrp $ 90. 00 $ 37. 26 - save $ 0. 11 - rrp $ 37. 37 17 days to go $ 11. 67 - save $ 3. 89 25 % off - rrp $ 15. 56 $ 31. 94 - save $ 1. 55 ( 4 % ) - rrp $ 33. 49 full description for coins and power in late iron age britain cunobelin, shakespeare ' s cymbeline, ruled much of south - east britain in the years before claudius ' legions arrived, creating the roman province of britannia. but what do we know of him and his rule, and that of competing dynasties in south - east britain? this book examines the background to these, the first individuals in british history. it explores the way in which rulers bolstered their power through the use of imagery on coins, myths, language and material culture. after the visit of caesar in 55 and 54 bc, the shadow of rome played a fundamental role in this process. combining the archaeological, literary and numismatic evidence, john creighton paints a vivid picture of how people in late iron age britain reacted to the changing world around them.


cars avoid crashes by talking to each other washington ( ap ) — as a safety demonstration, it was a heart - stopper : a ford taurus was seconds away from cruising through an intersection when suddenly a row of red lights pulsed on the lower windshield and a warning blared that another car was approaching fast on the cross street. braking quickly, the driver stopped just as the second car, previously unseen behind a large parked truck, barreled through a red light and across the ford ’ s path. the display at a recent transportation conference was a peek into the future of automotive safety : cars that to talk to each other and warn drivers of impending collisions. later this summer, the government is launching a yearlong, real - world test involving nearly 3, 000 cars, trucks and buses using volunteer drivers in ann arbor, mich. the vehicles will be equipped to continuously communicate over wireless networks, exchanging information on location, direction and speed 10 times a second with other similarly equipped cars within about 1, 000 feet. a computer analyzes the information and issues danger warnings to drivers, often before they can see the other vehicle. on roadways today, the taurus in the demonstration likely would have been ‘ ‘ t - boned ’ ’ — slammed in the side by the other car. there were more than 7, 800 fatal intersection accidents on u. s. roadways in 2010. called vehicle - to - vehicle communication, or v2v, more advanced versions of the systems can take control of a car to prevent an accident by applying brakes when the driver reacts too slowly to a warning. v2v ‘ ‘ is our next evolutionary step... to make sure the crash never happens in the first place, which is, frankly, the best safety scenario we can all hope for, ’ ’ said david strickland, administrator of the national highway traffic safety administration. v2v technology holds the potential to help in most crashes that aren ’ t alcohol or drug related, strickland said. but a lot will depend on how drivers respond to the warnings, and that ’ s one reason for the ann arbor test. overall, more than 32, 000 people were killed in traffic accidents last year. in addition to warning of cars running red lights or stop signs, ‘ ‘ connected cars ’ ’ can let drivers know if they don ’ t have time to make a left turn because of oncoming traffic. when driving on a two - lane road, the systems warn when passing is unsafe because of oncoming cars — even vehicles around a


’ ’ can let drivers know if they don ’ t have time to make a left turn because of oncoming traffic. when driving on a two - lane road, the systems warn when passing is unsafe because of oncoming cars — even vehicles around a curve that the driver can ’ t see yet. in a line of heavy traffic, the systems issue an alert if a car several vehicles ahead brakes hard even before the vehicle directly in front brakes. and the systems alert drivers when they ’ re at risk of rear - ending a slower - moving car. it ’ s also possible for connected cars to exchange information with traffic lights, signs and roadways if states and communities decide to equip their transportation infrastructure with similar technology. the information would be relayed to traffic management centers, tipping them off to congestion, accidents or obstructions. if cars are reported to be swerving in one spot on a roadway, for example, that could indicate a large pothole or obstruction. the constant stream of vehicle - to - infrastructure, or v2i, information could give traffic managers a better picture of traffic flows than they have today, enabling better timing of traffic signals to keep cars moving, for example. correspondingly, cars could receive warnings on traffic tie - ups ahead and rerouting directions. nhtsa has been working on the technology for the past decade along with eight automakers : ford, general motors, honda, hyundai - kia, mercedes - benz, nissan, toyota and volkswagen. ‘ ‘ we think this is really the future of transportation safety, and it ’ s going to make a huge difference in the way we live our lives, ’ ’ said scott belcher, president of the intelligent transportation society of america, which promotes technology solutions to transportation problems. the technology is already available, said rob strassburger, vice president for safety of the alliance of automobile manufacturers. he said what ’ s needed is for the government to set standards so that all automakers use compatible technology. since v2v relies on wireless technology, ensuring that the safety systems are reliable and can ’ t be hacked is another concern, nhtsa officials said. the safety benefits of v2v won ’ t be fully realized until there is a critical mass of cars on the road that can talk to each other, and just where that point lies isn ’ t known. by the time the government sets standards and automakers are able to respond, it may be 10 years before the technology is widely available on new cars. it takes about 30 years for a new technology to


just where that point lies isn ’ t known. by the time the government sets standards and automakers are able to respond, it may be 10 years before the technology is widely available on new cars. it takes about 30 years for a new technology to work its way into the entire population of cars. creating consumer demand for the technology could speed up its introduction, strassburger said. there ’ s already demand for information on traffic tie - ups and rerouting that drivers can download to their smartphones, he said. automakers dislike government mandates requiring them to add technology to cars, but that ’ s probably what ’ s needed, said clarence ditlow, executive director of the center for auto safety, a consumer group. ‘ ‘ if you have the technology, and the price has gone down so much, use it, ’ ’ he said. ‘ ‘ you aren ’ t going to get it into the marketplace as fast as you could and save as many lives as you could unless you mandate it. ’ ’ some of the safety technologies for v2v are already available in cars, although they tend to be offered primarily on higher - end models. lane departure systems, for example, warn drivers when their vehicle unintentionally wanders from its lane, and some can automatically steer the car back. blind spot systems warn drivers of vehicles in adjacent lanes, and some can also steer away from hazards. forward collision warning systems alert drivers to impending crashes, and some can automatically brake if the driver doesn ’ t respond. adaptive cruise control automatically adjusts vehicle speed to maintain a set distance from the car ahead in the same lane. adaptive headlights change their aim in conjunction with the steering wheel. parking sensors and rear - mounted cameras help a driver parallel park without scraping paint, bumping fenders or hitting pedestrians. a key difference is that most of the current technologies rely on radar or laser sensors to ‘ ‘ see ’ ’ other nearby vehicles. they can ’ t warn drivers about cars they can ’ t see, such as the car that ran the red light in the intersection demonstration, or an oncoming car around a curve in the road. together, the currently available technologies and the future v2v systems may effectively form a kind of autopilot for the road. said strassburger : ‘ ‘ the long - term trajectory for these technologies is the vehicle that drives itself — the driverless car. ’ ’ follow joan lowy at http : / / www. twitter. com / ap _ joan _ lowy national highway


hermitarticle free pass hermit, also called eremite, one who retires from society, primarily for religious reasons, and lives in solitude. in christianity the word ( from greek eremites, “ living in the desert ” ) is used interchangeably with anchorite, although the two were originally distinguished on the basis of location : an anchorite selected a cell attached to a church or near a populous centre, while a hermit retired to the wilderness. the first christian hermits appeared by the end of the 3rd century in egypt, where one reaction to the persecution of christians by the roman emperor decius was flight into the desert to preserve the faith and to lead a life of prayer and penance. paul of thebes, who fled to the desert about 250, has been considered the first hermit. the excessive austerity and other extremes of the early hermits ’ lives were tempered by the establishment of cenobite ( common life ) communities. the foundation was thus laid in the 4th century for the institution of monasticism ( i. e., monks living a common life according to an established rule ). the eremitic life eventually died out in western christianity, but it has continued in eastern christianity. see also monasticism. what made you want to look up " hermit "? please share what surprised you most...


later ly dynastyarticle free pass later ly dynasty, vietnamese nha hau ly, ( 1009 – 1225 ), first of the three great dynasties of vietnam. the kingdom, known later as dai viet, was established by ly thai to in the red river delta area of present northern vietnam. its capital was thang long ( hanoi ). ( it is “ later ” with respect to the earlier ly dynasty, founded by ly bon and lasting from 544 to 602 / 603. ) the later ly was the first stable vietnamese dynasty and helped establish many of the characteristics of the modern vietnamese state. a chinese style of administration was one of the more significant changes wrought by the later ly. through this system the local lords were replaced by a nine - tiered hierarchy of civil servants and state officials. an institution for the training of civil administrators was established, as was an academy of learning. this centralized form of government enabled the ly to establish universal military service, which kept the invading chinese and champa at bay for two centuries. more importantly, the administrative system enabled the ly to develop the great red river delta system of dikes and canals that prevented summer flooding and winter drought and made the region one of the most fertile rice - growing areas in the world. the ly promoted literature and art, and during their reign, knowledge of classical chinese literature was widespread. under the ly, vietnamese influence spread southward into the area controlled by the indianized kingdom of champa. what made you want to look up " later ly dynasty "? please share what surprised you most...


martyrs of ugandaarticle free pass martyrs of uganda, group of 45 anglican and roman catholic martyrs who were executed during the persecution of christians under mwanga, kabaka ( ruler ) of buganda ( now part of uganda ), from 1885 to 1887. the 22 african roman catholic martyrs were collectively beatified by pope benedict xv in 1920 and canonized by pope paul vi on october 18, 1964. their feast day is june 3. the first roman catholic missions to bantu - speaking africa were established by the white fathers mission in 1879. christians were tolerated by the kabaka mutesa i, but his successor, mwanga, launched a campaign against them. mwanga massacred the anglican missionary bishop james hannington and his colleagues in october 1885. st. joseph mukasa, an important member of the royal household, reproached the kabaka for the massacre, and, on november 15 of that year, mwanga had joseph beheaded. the christian pages under joseph ’ s guidance became the next victims. mwanga, having learned that they had received religious instruction from the page st. denis ssebuggwawo, ordered that all the youths be arrested. st. charles lwanga, mukasa ’ s successor, then secretly baptized those boys who had only been catechumens. the following day they were herded away to the village of namugongo. three of them were murdered en route ( st. pontian ngondwe, a soldier, and the royal servants athanasius bazzekuketta and gonzaga gonza ). all the survivors, as recorded by father lourdel, superior of the roman catholic mission to uganda, were imprisoned for a week. with the exception of st. mbaga - tuzinde, who was bludgeoned by his own father, the pages were burned alive on june 3, 1886 : saints ambrose kibuka, anatole kiriggwajjo, achilles kiwanuka, mugagga, mukasa kiriwawanvu, adolphus mukasa ludigo, gyavira, and kizito. the soldiers and officials saints bruno serunkuma, james buzabaliawo, and luke banabakintu were martyred with them. mwanga continued his persecution, destroying protestant and roman catholic missionaries alike. subsequent victims included saints matthias mulumba, assistant judge to a provincial chief ; andrew kaggwa, chief of kigowa ; and noe mawaggali,


camelarticle free pass camel ( genus camelus ), either of two species of large ruminating hoofed mammals of arid africa and asia known for their ability to go for long periods without drinking. the arabian camel, or dromedary ( camelus dromedarius ), has one back hump ; the bactrian camel ( c. bactrianus ) has two. these “ ships of the desert ” have long been valued as pack or saddle animals, and they are also exploited for milk, meat, wool, and hides. the dromedary was domesticated about 2000 – 1300 bce in arabia, the bactrian camel by 2500 bce in northern iran and northeast afghanistan. most of today ’ s 13 million domesticated dromedaries are in india and the horn of africa. wild dromedaries are extinct, although there is a large feral population in interior australia descended from pack animals imported in the 19th century. about one million domesticated bactrian camels live from the middle east to china and mongolia. wild bactrian camels are endangered. the largest population — 1, 000 — lives in the gobi desert. camels have an unmistakable silhouette, with their humped back, short tail, long slim legs, and long neck that dips downward and rises to a small narrow head. the upper lip is split into two sections that move independently. both species are about 3 metres ( 10 feet ) long and 2 metres high at the hump ( itself 20 cm [ 8 inches ] ). males weigh 400 to 650 kg ( 900 to 1, 400 pounds ) ; the female is about 10 percent smaller. colour is usually light brown but can be grayish. domesticated bactrian camels are darker, stockier, and woollier than the wild form. heavy eyelashes protect eyes from blowing sand, and the nostrils can be squeezed shut. the dromedary has horny pads on the chest and knees that protect it from searing desert sand when it lies down ; the bactrian camel lacks these callosities. camels are generally docile, but they will bite or kick when annoyed. when excited, camels huff so sharply that spit is incidentally expelled. camels do not walk on their hoofs. weight is borne on the conjoined pads of the third and fourth toes ; the other toes have been lost. dromedaries have a soft, wide - spreading pad for walking on sand ; bactrian camels have a firm


be fatal for most mammals. camels have also adapted to desert conditions by being able to endure protein deficiency and eat items other livestock avoid, such as thorns, dry leaves, and saltbush. when food is plentiful, camels “ overeat, ” storing fat in one area on the back and forming a hump. when the fat is depleted, the hump sags to the side or disappears. storing fat in one place also increases the body ’ s ability to dissipate heat everywhere else. when not corralled, camels form stable groups of females accompanied by one mature male. females breed by three to four years of age ; males begin to manufacture sperm at age three but do not compete for females until they are six to eight years old. males compete for dominance by circling each other with the head held low and biting the feet or head of the opponent and attempting to topple it. after one camel withdraws from the bout, the winner may roll and rub secretions onto the ground from a gland on the back of its head. the dominant male breeds with all the females in each stable group. after a gestation of 13 or 14 months, one calf weighing up to 37 kg ( 81 pounds ) is born, usually during the rainy season. milk yields of 35 kg per day are achieved in some breeds ( e. g., the “ milch dromedary ” of pakistan ), though normal yield is about 4 kg per day. pastoralists typically divert most milk to their own use during the calf ’ s first 9 to 11 months, then force weaning and take the rest. the calf is otherwise suckled 12 to 18 months. females and males reproduce until about 20 years old. longevity is 40 years. camels are classified in the family camelidae, which first appeared in north america 40 million years ago. south american camelids are the llama, alpaca, guanaco, and vicuna. the genera camelus and lama diverged 11 million years ago. by 2 million years ago ( the early pleistocene epoch ), camelus representatives had crossed back to asia and were present in africa ( tanzania ). during the pleistocene ( 2, 600, 000 to 11, 700 years ago ), camelids reached south america ; north american camelid stock became extinct 10, 000 years ago. the family camelidae belongs to the order artiodactyla, a large group of hoofed mammals. what made you want to look up " camel "? please


july 18, 2002 calvin prof / alum release results a cooperative research project between calvin college and the spectrum health flow cytometry laboratory has confirmed the benefits of a drug used to treat osteoarthritis, a degenerative disease that affects 90 % of people over the age of 65. calvin biology professor david deheer and 2001 calvin graduate kyle sheehan have spent the last three years researching the reasons why a substance called hyaluronic acid helps relieve the pain of osteoarthritis in people who are not helped by such typical anti - inflammatories as ibuprofen. hyaluronic acid is injected right into the joint, typically the knee joint, in a physician ' s office and usually given once a week for five weeks. its benefits, reduced pain and inflamation, last anywhere from six to nine months. but some physicians and researchers have doubted the worth of hyaluronic acid, which has been used in europe to treat osteoarthritis since 1987. it ' s been called " goo, " in not all - together flattering terms by some researchers. and deheer himself admits : " it ' s a long, simple, rather unexciting molecule. it ' s basically repeating sugar units. " but, despite its simplicity, what deheer and sheehan discovered over the last three years is that hyaluronic acid, a natural chemical found in the body in particularly high amounts in joint tissue, is an incredibly effective anti - inflammatory agent in and around the human knee joint ( and non - human joints too as evidenced by years of use on race horses ). this summer they are reporting their findings in papers for three different medical journals, including the journal of biological chemistry and the journal of orthopaedic research. what they ' ll describe in those papers is their conclusion and how they got to it. their conclusion is simple : hyaluronic acid works. but there ' s more to how it works than meets the eye. the drug is injected into the synovial sac, which protects the joint and also secretes the synovial fluid, which oils the joint. but the half life of the acid is 24 hours, so after about a week the typical injection of two millilitres has disappeared. yet it continues to work. what deheer and sheehan hoped to figure out was how. what they discovered is that the acid, before it disappears, interacts with a cell called a


the typical injection of two millilitres has disappeared. yet it continues to work. what deheer and sheehan hoped to figure out was how. what they discovered is that the acid, before it disappears, interacts with a cell called a macrophage. macrophages produce inflammation. " hyaluronic acid, " says sheehan, " basically tells the macrophages to be quiet, calm down, to die. fewer macrophages means less inflammation. " in fact sheehan and deheer found that hyaluronic acid will eliminate about 99 % of the macrophage cells. in patients this could contribute to a significant reduction in inflammation and pain. their work was done, says deheer, at a very basic scientific level. they grew macrophage cell cultures. and they studied the impact of clinical preparations of hyaluronic acid, which they purchased from the two major manufacturers, on those cell cultures, using a sophisticated piece of equipment at spectrum health called a flow cytometer. the results, they say, were dramatic. macrophage cell cultures treated with the acid were decimated. those not treated thrived. " the result, " says deheer, " is that macrophage cells behave like they do in a person without osteoarthritis. there are lots of big molecules of hyaluronic acid, but hardly any macrophage cells. thus a reduction in inflammation and a reduction in pain. this ' unexciting ' molecule has a very exciting role in the knee joint. "