want to save this letter now that you ' ve found it? it ' s easy - just create your own collection of letters after signing up for a free account. united states ship princeton, sir : the united states ship princeton having received her armament on board, and being nearly ready for sea, i have the honour to transmit to you the following account of her equipment, & c. the princeton is a full - rigged ship, of great speed and power, able to perform any service that can be expected from a ship - of - war. constructed upon the most approved principles of naval architecture, she is believed to be at least equal to any ship of her class, with her sails. she has an auxiliary power of steam, and can make greater speed than any sea - going steamer or other vessel heretofore built. her engines lie snug in the bottom of the vessel, out of reach of an enemy ' s shot, and do not at all interfere with the use of the sails, but can at any time be made auxiliary thereto. she shows no chimney and makes no smoke, and there is nothing in her external appearance to indicate that she is propelled by steam. the advantages of the princeton over both sailing - ships and steamers propelled in the usual way are great and obvious. she can go in and out of port at pleasure, without regard to the force or direction of the wind or tide, or the thickness of the ice. she can ride safely with her anchors in the most open roadstead, and may lie to in the severest gale of wind with safety. she can not only save herself, but will be able to tow a squadron from the dangers of a lee - shore. using ordinarily the power of the wind, and reserving her fuel for emergencies, she can remain at sea the same length of time as other sailing - ships. making no noise, smoke, or agitation of the water, ( and, if she chooses, showing no sail, ) she can surprise an enemy. she can at pleasure take her own position and her own distance from the enemy. her engines and waterwheel being below the surface of the water, safe from an enemy ' s shot, she is in no danger of being disabled, even if her masts should be destroyed. she will not be at a daily expense for fuel, as other steamships are. the engines, being seldom used, will probably out last two such ships. these advantages make the princeton, in my opinion, the cheapest, fastest,


destroyed. she will not be at a daily expense for fuel, as other steamships are. the engines, being seldom used, will probably out last two such ships. these advantages make the princeton, in my opinion, the cheapest, fastest, and most certain ship - of - war in the world. the equipments of this ship are of the plainest and most substantial kind, the furniture of the cabins being made of white pine boards, painted white, with mahogany chairs, table, and side board, and an american - manufactured oil - cloth on the floor. to economize room, and that the ship may be better ventilated, curtains of american - manufactured linen are substituted for the usual and more cumbrous and expensive wooden bulkheads, by which arrangement the apartments of the men and officers may in an instant be thrown into one, and a degree of spaciousness and comfort is attained unusual in a ship of her class. the princeton is armed with two long 225 - pound wrought - iron guns and twelve 42 - pound carronades, all of which may be used at once on either side of the ship. she can consequently throw a greater weight of metal at one broad side than most frigates. the big guns of the princeton can be fired! with an effect terrific and almost incredible, and with a certainty heretofore unknown. the extraordinary effects of the shot were proved by firing at a target, which was made to represent a section of the two sides and deck of a seventy - four - gun ship, and timbered, kneed, planked, and bolted, in the same manner. this target was five hundred and sixty yards from the gun. with the smaller charges of powder the shot passed through these immense masses of timber, ( being fifty - seven inches thick, ) tearing it away and splintering it for several feet on each side, and covering the whole surface of the ground for a hundred yards square with fragments of wood and iron. the accuracy with which these guns throw their immense shot ( which are three feet in circumference ) may be judged by this : that six shot fired in succession at the same elevation struck the same horizontal plank in a target more than half a mile distant. by the application of the various arts to the purposes of war on board the princeton, it is believed that the art of gunnery for sea - service has, for the first time, been reduced to something like mathematical certainty. the distance to which these guns can throw their shot, at every necessary angle of


of war on board the princeton, it is believed that the art of gunnery for sea - service has, for the first time, been reduced to something like mathematical certainty. the distance to which these guns can throw their shot, at every necessary angle of elevation, has been ascertained by a series of careful experiments. the distance from the ship to any object is readily ascertained with an instrument on board, contrived for that purpose, by an observation which it requires but an instant to make, and by inspection without calculation. by self - acting locks, the guns can be fired accurately at the necessary elevation, no matter what the motion of the ship may be. it is confidently believed that this small ship will be able to battle with any vessel, however large, if she is not invincible against any foe. the improvements in the art of war adopted on board the princeton, may be productive of more important results than any thing that has occurred since the invention of gunpowder. the numerical force of other navies, so long boasted, may be set at naught. the ocean may again become neutral ground, and the rights of the smallest as well as the greatest nations may once more be respected. all of which, for the honour and defence of every inch of our territory, is most respectfully submitted to the honourable secretary of the navy, for the information of the president and congress of the united states, by your obedient and faithful servant, r. f. stockton, captain u. s. navy. to hon. david henshaw, secretary of the navy. - robert f. stockton - a sketch of the life of com. robert f. stockton, 1856, derby


the recycle logo ( or symbol ) appears on the products we buy on a daily basis. its purpose is to encourage people to participate in the recycling process and identifies that the packaging is recyclable. this internationally - recognized recycling symbol was created in the early 1970s as a part of the design contest that was initiated by the chicago - based container corporation of america ( cca ) at different high schools and colleges across the country. the purpose was to increase the awareness of the environmental issues and also to create a logo for their then - revolutionary recycled cardboard boxes. the contest was won by a 23 - year - old college student, gary anderson from the university of southern california, whose creation marked the first official earth day. his concept for the now famous logo basically originated from 19th century mathematician august ferdinand. the recycling logo is not a trademark and everyone can use it ; however restrictions do exist in some local areas as to how can one use it like for example, its use on non - recycled goods would be misleading or illusory. the cca originally applied for a trademark on the design, but the application was challenged, and the company chose to dispose of the claim. design elements of the recycle logo : the recycle logo is probably one of the most recognizable logos ever designed. it reminds people of the significance to make better use of the things around them to help save the environment. shape of the recycle logo : the recycle logo is composed of three chasing arrows forming a mobius strip that is twisted to take the shape of a triangle indicating that products should be recycled to help manufacture new products. the more we recycle the more beneficial it is to the environment. color of the recycle logo : the arrows in the recycle logo are filled with green and outlined in black. these colors signify renewal, health and environment. the recycle logo has a lot of significance because of the important message it conveys to us.


livestock have a variety of characteristics that make them important contributors to sustainable rural development. they directly enhance crop output through animal traction and improvement of soil fertility. they act as a store of wealth for future investment. furthermore, livestock provide marketable products, which are generally of higher value and less vulnerable to critical harvest timing than many crops. livestock products with relatively high income elasticities are particularly attractive as a means for rural households to participate in urban - based economic growth. despite the above advantages, livestock were widely seen as a poor investment for rural development. this view is gradually changing and a number of new initiatives, with a distinct focus on policies and institutions, are promoting livestock as a means to provide agricultural economies with the growth impetus required for broad - based rural poverty reduction. livestock policy can decisively influence microeconomic opportunities and decisions, and likewise other economic events and behaviour will influence household responses to livestock initiatives. however, in today ’ s world, economic linkages are so complex that it is unlikely that policy makers relying on intuition alone will achieve anything approaching optimality. in fact, much evidence suggests that indirect effects of many policies outweigh direct effects and, if not adequately understood, can substantially offset or even reverse them. in order to obtain deeper insights into the effectiveness of pro - poor livestock policies, data from senegal, a west african economy with high levels of smallholder poverty and livestock dependence, was used to examine the linkages between livestock and livelihoods. poverty and livestock dependency in senegal senegal broadly represents west africa, with high population shares in arid areas engaged in subsistence agriculture and significant levels of economic dependence on livestock. comparison of the standard extreme poverty headcount ( population living on less than 1 $ a day ) with its counterpart adjusted for livestock dependence of the population shows that poverty rates average nearly 20 percent higher among the livestock dependent. moreover, the disparity is highest in areas where rural subsistence populations predominate, such as kaolack and kolda. this higher representation among the poor by livestock dependent people reinforces the importance of livestock as a target for poverty alleviation. it is tempting to interpret this indicator adversely, yet it represents both disadvantages and advantages. livestock dependent households are also more subsistence oriented, which makes them less dependent on consumption of marketed commodities. advantages of the latter include lower consumption price risk, greater capacity for saving as a percent of income, and a host of social capital attributes. it is unlikely, however, that the market isolation advantages of subsistence outweigh the disadvantages of lower income. senegal ’


latter include lower consumption price risk, greater capacity for saving as a percent of income, and a host of social capital attributes. it is unlikely, however, that the market isolation advantages of subsistence outweigh the disadvantages of lower income. senegal ’ s national poverty gap of about 35 percent shows the typical fiscal challenge developing countries face when contemplating poverty alleviation with transfer schemes. with this gap, senegal is unlikely to find a publicly financed transfer scheme that can significantly alleviate the nation ’ s poverty. poverty alleviation must therefore rely on productive engagement of the poor in the overall economy. participation of the poor in livestock value chains although lower income rural households receive smaller absolute gains from the livestock value chain than higher income groups, the relative benefits to them are greater. this further strengthens the case for livestock as a pro - poor policy instrument, as the marginal effect of improving livestock supply conditions will disproportionately benefit the country ’ s rural multiplier decomposition analysis reveals that the small absolute livestock - livelihood gain for the poorest comes almost entirely from direct production income. both rural quintiles 1 and 2 get more than three - quarters of their livestock related income directly from animal ( product ) sales, thus leaving the food value chain at the earliest stages. higher income rural households have very little direct participation in livestock production. despite this, they receive the largest absolute multiplier benefit, almost entirely indirectly from food processing and retailing. these more complex downstream linkages to food value creation are the key to higher aggregate income gains for this group and have important implications for the net results of sub - sectoral policies. given higher income groups generally have more indirect linkages to the livestock sector, they may capture a large percentage of gains, even from policies targeted elsewhere. lower income urban households display only limited participation in primary livestock production. over two thirds of the benefits this group enjoys from livestock are indirect, coming from engagement and employment in food processing services. although minor, these indirect benefits the urban poor derive from the livestock food economy are non - trivial. livelihood impacts of policy interventions two producer - oriented policies, namely doubling of livestock productivity over a ten year period and a 20 percent subsidy to capital that might facilitate innovation, efficiency and profitability were considered in ex ante assessments of likely impacts of policy interventions. a third scenario examined a generic case of trade liberalization for senegal, with an assumption that the country unilaterally abolishes import the scenario of productivity increase is the most stimulatory, with the greatest gains for most


policy interventions. a third scenario examined a generic case of trade liberalization for senegal, with an assumption that the country unilaterally abolishes import the scenario of productivity increase is the most stimulatory, with the greatest gains for most income groups. however, an ironic but dramatic effect in this scenario is the value capture by higher income households. although they have limited participation in production, and the original policy is production oriented, greater producer cost efficiency apparently translates into more intense competition among producers, transferring profitability downstream in the food supply chain. by contrast, the predicted impacts of the capital subsidy are more modest, but more equal in their benefits. the poorest households, with little initial savings or capital, will not benefit, but middle income, more entrepreneurial producers are anticipated to gain from increasing investment. finally, trade liberalization has modest but positive effects across all household types, even the lower rural quintiles. as expected, urban populations and higher income rural households, who are more likely to be linked to external markets, benefit most. if the rural poor are to be effectively targeted by trade related policies, it appears that market access improvements should focus on local and regional markets. investments in infrastructure can improve the rural terms of trade from two directions, reducing the cost of urban agricultural supplies and making rural farm products more competitive in urban markets. livestock can make a substantial contribution to poverty reduction, but pro - poor policies need careful targeting. effective, market oriented livestock promotion has significant potential - increase output quantity, quality, and prices ; and to - improve margins with more efficient production and distribution in senegal, policies achieving the above would sharply improve the terms of market participation for smallholder producers of livestock and livestock products, who currently receive only a small fraction of the ultimate value of their output. it is essential to emphasize, however, that this is not a zero - sum bargaining problem. in addition to re - distributing value along the supply chain, greater market integration for smallholders can increase valuations at all stages. by improving product quality, reducing perishability, and reducing inventory and distribution costs, rural incomes can rise along with profits at every step in the food value chain.


- pest type : insect - crops affected : cotton, rice - scientific name : spodoptera praefica - pest order : lepidoptera larvae are usually green to brown caterpillars, commonly 1 - 1. 5 inches in length. adults are moths with a wingspan of about 1 - 1. 5 inches. the beet armyworm larvae are green or black, with a dark head, 5 pairs of prolegs, and on the second segment behind the head, there is a small black spot on each side of the body. fall armyworm larvae have a longitudinal, dark colored stripe along each side of the body and a wider, yellowish - gray strip runs down the back. the head of the fall armyworm larva is often marked with a pale, prominent inverted y. when less than 0. 25 inch, fall armyworm and bollworm are very similar in appearance. western yellowstiped armyworm larvae are dark colored with a broad yellow stripe on each side, they have a black spot on the side of the first abdominal segment, and they also have an inverted y, white in this case, on the front of the head. finally, the yellow - striped armyworm larvae have a pair of dorsal, triangular, black spots on most of the segments ; and they have 3 lines on the back - an outer bright orange stripe on each side of a median yellowish white line. called armyworms because during the damaging larval stage, they move in large numbers from field to field in the manner of armies. damage is caused by the larval, or caterpillar, stage which feeds on the foliage. the undersides of leaves and terminal growth are preferred feeding sites of young larvae. when populations reach high levels, armyworms can completely defoliate a field. feeding can also result in severe stunting or death of seedlings. armyworms feed on most crops and several weed species. in cotton, most damage occurs when larvae feed on developing bolls. in warm climates ( i. e., cotton growing areas ), armyworms are present most of the year, with 4 or more generations per year. under ideal, warm conditions, an entire generation can develop within only 3 weeks, but more frequently in 4 - 5 weeks. where winters are more severe, there are fewer generations per year. female armyworm moths lay eggs on plant foliage and those hatch to form small caterpillars, which immediately begin to feed. larvae pass through 5 or more instars ( molts


you can take steps to decrease the impact of a disaster by planning in advance and learning about potential threats. it is important to make sure that your plans are adequate for your family ’ s situation. practice your plans regularly. having a basic kit on hand to sustain yourself and your family after an emergency is an essential part of preparation. think first about basic survival needs : fresh water, food, clean air, and warmth. store your supplies in a portable container as close as possible to an exit and review the contents of your kit at least once a year. include in your kit : - 3 - day supply of water : at least 1 gallon per person per day - 3 - day supply of non - perishable food - manual can opener and eating utensils - supplies to care for your pets including 3 - day supply of food and water, id tags, proof of vaccinations, and veterinarian contact information - portable, battery - powered radio - extra batteries - basic first aid kit and manual - warm clothing and blankets - filter face masks ( n95 rating ) - list of emergency contact information - photocopies of important documents ( birth certificate, licenses, insurance information, etc. ) - cash and coins - sanitation and hygiene items ( hand sanitizer, moist towelettes, feminine hygiene products, toilet paper, etc. ) - household chlorine bleach and medicine dropper : 9 parts water to 1 part bleach can be used as a disinfectant, 16 drops of bleach to 1 gallon of water can be used to treat water in an emergency ( do not use scented, color safe, or bleaches with added cleaners ) - items for infants ( formula, diapers, bottles, and pacifiers ) if applicable - see reallyready disabilities for more information on building a kit and making a plan if an individual in your family has special needs creating a plan will help you respond to an emergency and find your family if you become separated. be sure to share your plan with others and include a copy in your kit. - learn about potential threats. understanding the characteristics of an emergency and how to respond is critical to survival - identify your community ’ s plan for notifying citizens when a disaster is on its way or actually occurring. find local information. - learn about emergency response plans in locations you and your family members regularly spend time ( e. g. work, school ) create a communication plan - have an out - of - town contact that every member of your family will


. find local information. - learn about emergency response plans in locations you and your family members regularly spend time ( e. g. work, school ) create a communication plan - have an out - of - town contact that every member of your family will call after a disaster - make sure everyone in your family knows this contact ’ s phone number create an evacuation plan - identify primary and secondary evacuation routes in buildings you frequent - identify family meeting places ; choose a location close to your home and another outside your neighborhood. - if you have a car, keep at least a half tank of gas in it in case you need to evacuate - if you do not have a car, plan how you will leave if you have to - become familiar with alternate routes and other means of transportation out of your area ( find local information ) - when evacuating : - if you are a member of a support network for a disabled individual, be sure to follow your plan to assist them - take your emergency supply kit with you - lock the door behind you and leave a note telling others when you left and where you are going - if there is time and space in your car, check with neighbors who may need a ride, especially those who are elderly or disabled create a sheltering plan - designate a safe room in your home ; it should be an interior room where you are able to close and seal all doors, windows, and vents - pets, except for service animals, are not allowed in public shelters ; if possible, plan your evacuation in advance to find lodging where you may take your pets - if you must go to a public shelter, leave your pet behind with plenty of food and water, and a note on the door learn about potential threats.


primary documents - german reaction to the japanese capture of tsingtao, 8 november 1914 reproduced below is a commentary which appeared in a german newspaper on 8 november 1914, the day after the german - held territory of tsingtao fell into japanese control. the author of the article was rear - admiral schlieper, who had served in tsingtao some years earlier, and who had rejoiced in the territory ' s superior management by germany. in his article schlieper mourned the loss of tsingtao in passionate terms, and heaped scorn upon its joint conquerors, japan and britain. click here to read the ultimatum sent by japanese prime minister okuma to berlin shortly before war was declared between japan and germany. click here to read minister for foreign affairs baron kato ' s rationale for the decision to go to war. german reaction to the fall of tsingtao - a newspaper commentary by rear - admiral schlieper, 8 november 1914 " we guarantee performance of our duty - to the last! " a solemn heritage have these words become, these words which the governor, naval captain meyer - waldeck, just managed to have transmitted by telegraph to his commander - in - chief, from far - away kiau - chau as a characteristic german pledge. each one of us here in the fatherland, clearly realizing that the message voiced much bitter tragedy, was grateful in his inmost soul to the brave man. those of us, however, who had been permitted to witness that which out yonder had been undertaken and developed with enthusiasm and flaming love of country, will to - day, on the morning of november 8th, have felt especially sorrowful when they read these words : " tsing - tau has fallen! " the flags were yet waving in celebration of the german naval victory along the coast of chile off coronel - and already there comes in the quick succession of events the solemn tidings of the end of an heroic struggle, which was maintained on a rocky height against gigantic odds. we saw it coming - and yet our thoughts rebelled against the accomplished fact, our whole being revolted against so much baseness and deceit which a dual alliance, consisting of our white cousins and of wily yellow asiatics, had instigated against german possessions. a sudden pang may flash through us when we view so much german blood spilled, but at the same moment our hearts should beat in fervent gratitude for our heroes of tsing - tau. for seventeen years the german flag


with german thought and german soundness. there it was demonstrated to foreigners, to those who have now stolen it from us. the german can colonize, even if he has pursued it only in recent years. seventeen years under the german flag! how everything developed during that time! german hydraulic architecture and energy called into existence an extensive harbour. lighthouses, casting their beams far and wide, were erected on points and steep ridges. one villa after another arose, not pretentious and obtrusive, no, rather tasteful and snug. soon whistled the locomotive ; the powerful step of our splendid marine artillery resounded on the well - cared - for new roads. where once upon a time bleak rocks stood out prominently against the sky, the green of german afforesting soon covered the bare surfaces. everything was furthered - even the annual stream of guests, who, coming especially from shanghai, disported themselves on the beach of tsing - tau. the governors, truppel and jaeschke, shaped a territory which a meyer - waldeck with his faithful followers was to defend to the knife in the past months. yes, everything flourished in kiau - chau ; but for this very reason, desire, greed, always came nearer and wished to taste, no, not to taste, to possess the whole of it. the opportunity for highway robbery could not have been more favourable. the world war had been enkindled - so quickly help yourself, for germania has her hands full at home. therefore act quickly ; for we ' ll never gain our object more easily, and our white colleague there under the union jack, who always acts as if he were so superior but who really fears us yellow folks out here, he is fighting on our side, wants to crush his cousin with us. so quickly send an ultimatum to germany, an insolent one to be sure, what does that matter. " near is my shirt, but nearer is my skin " ; and our colleague, john bull, he would so much like it. a disdainful rejection was the answer of germania and then meyer - waldeck drew his sword! " war! war! " was re - echoed in the region of tsing - tau, " war against a fine pair of brothers! so let it be : we shall fight to the last drop of blood. " and how they did fight! nothing came of the desire to present the fall of tsing - tau as a birthday present to the mikado on october


pair of brothers! so let it be : we shall fight to the last drop of blood. " and how they did fight! nothing came of the desire to present the fall of tsing - tau as a birthday present to the mikado on october 31st, as the japanese had planned. there was bitter fighting. the enemy often sustained bloody repulses. the warships, including the kaiserin elizabeth, of the austro - hungarian navy, valiantly assisted. the kaiserin elizabeth wanted at all events to fight with us, to conquer, or to sink. then on september 28th, tsing - tau was completely cut off by land ; the situation steadily became more serious. from far and near the compatriots had hastened there - they would not desert their dear tsing - tau at such a critical time. on september 27th combined japanese and english forces had advanced to the litsun river. in the ensuing engagements they left one hundred and fifty dead and wounded on the place of combat. on october 14th two german forts fell after a heavy bombardment on the part of the hostile warships. but the german guns answered smartly. a 20 - centimetre projectile strikes the deck of the english man - of - war triumph and causes heavy damage. in the meantime the german torpedo - boat s - 90 has destroyed the japanese cruiser takashiho in a bold attack. what does it matter that it had later on to sacrifice itself, as it would otherwise have fallen the prey of a large hostile superior force! it was able to save its crew. the odds steadily increase, the glances toward the german eagle become more covetous, as the latter, bleeding from many wounds, stakes his all to keep what he has acquired, but which under his protection only too readily has stirred up the envy of others, even as this despicable trait of our opponents is the real reason for the world war. a dreary, melancholy, grey november day without! gone is the decoration of flags and the rejoicing of the day of coronel! everything in its time! to - day the throb of our hearts belongs to you heroes out yonder, our whole mood, our whole sentiment ; for you have fought as german heroes have never been better able to do. but we here at home, we will continually repeat it to our children : do not forget november 7, 1914 : do not forget to pay back those yellow asiatics, who had learned so much from us, for the great wrong they have done to us, stirred


enjoy the family pet while avoiding the germs parents have been asking me some peticular questions about whether or not a pet can pass an illness on to their child. while i am a strong proponent for pets, and believe they can teach children responsibility and respect for other living things, not to mention the companionship and affection they provide to children, they can also be a source for infection. so, let me spread some information, rather than spread germs, on this topic so pets can be welcome members of the family. first, be aware that pets do carry bacterial and viral germs that can spread to humans if proper precautions are not taken – especially to children less than five years old with developing immune systems, children with a break or cut in their skin, or if your child has cancer and is what we call “ immunocompromised ”. what kinds of diseases can be passed to a child from a dog or a cat? these can include a form of diarrhea, swollen glands, fever, flu - like symptoms, skin infections, muscle aches and headaches – all of which can be transmitted by a direct bite or indirectly by a tick that lives on the pet, or by handling of pet waste products without gloves. birds can pass fungus and bacterial germs as well – even if kept in a cage – due to inhalation of germs from bird droppings. reptiles and amphibians can be notorious for harboring salmonella, which can be passed to a child who handles their feces without washing afterward or wearing gloves beforehand. so what can you do to prevent these infections from occurring? make sure your pet has been checked out by the veterinarian and is up - to - date on its vaccines – just as it is important for children to have been vaccinated and up - to - date on vaccines. feed your pet fresh water and nutritious food recommended by the vet, and not raw meat which can contain infection. most importantly, you and your children should always wash your hands after touching the pet, handling its food, cleaning the cage or litter box, and wear gloves when cleaning up waste. if you have a bird, wear a dust mask over your nose and mouth to prevent inhaling urine or fecal particles, and don ’ t have younger children clean cages or litter boxes without adult supervision. keep their living area clean and free of waste, and pick up waste products if deposited in areas that kids play in ( such as the back yard ) so the


the special issue explores the type of decision frameworks that are needed to guide policy development for clean cooking fuels and to ensure that the provision of clean energy becomes a central component of sustainable development. additionally, it presents a research agenda and an action agenda to facilitate the development and adoption of cleaner cooking fuels and technologies and analyses why past programs to improve access to clean cooking fuels have succeeded or failed. universal access to clean energy is a stated goal of the united nations and is a key entry point for reducing emissions of black carbon and other particulates - known to negatively impact the climate. the scale of the issue and opportunity to minimise emissions through adoption of clean cooking fuels and stoves was highlighted in a new report from the un environment program released on friday 25th november and will be a focus of discussions at the unfccc climate talks commencing in durban today. while the use of biomass for cooking is in itself not a cause for concern, it is the unsustainable harvesting and dirty and inefficient burning of the wood that inhibits social and economic development, harms the environment, and takes a significant toll on human health. latest estimates from the international institute for applied systems analysis ( iiasa ) indicate that in 2005, over 2 million people, mostly woman and children, died prematurely due to household air pollution – soot and other particles that are emitted when biomass is burned indoors in poorly ventilated environments. “ the collection and burning of woody biomass to cook food has consequences on many levels, ” says co editor of the special issue and a lead author shonali pachauri from iiasa. “ it traps women [ in particular ] in poverty as they must devote much of their time to wood collection. it affects the environment and climate due to deforestation and the emission of black carbon and greenhouse gases that result from burning, and tragically it is costing the lives of many woman and children in the developing world, predominantly in india, sub - saharan african nations and china. ” the articles presented in the special issue consider the options for transitioning the nearly 2. 7 billion people globally who are reliant on traditional biomass fuels to cleaner cooking fuels, such as lpg, biogas, ethanol and biodiesel, as well as electricity. “ much of the emphasis to date has been on increasing access to electricity, which while important may be too slow a path and may not address cooking energy needs ( electricity is rarely used for cooking in many developing countries ). providing improved cooking stoves to households will have an immediate positive


date has been on increasing access to electricity, which while important may be too slow a path and may not address cooking energy needs ( electricity is rarely used for cooking in many developing countries ). providing improved cooking stoves to households will have an immediate positive impact on people and the environment. the issue presents new research findings on many issues associated with resolving the challenge of improving access to clean fuels and cookstoves including ; how to measure and monitor energy poverty ; an evaluation of the health and climate benefits of cookstove replacement options ; how to improve the likelihood of adoption and sustained use of cleaner cooking stoves and fuels, and a cost - benefit analysis of reducing indoor air pollution. the research draws strongly on case studies conducted in india, nepal, kenya, sudan, indonesia and mexico. the issue also refers to several significant and recent initiatives established to raise awareness and improve access to clean cooking options and explains why they may or may not succeed. one example is the global alliance for clean cookstoves, an international program established in 2010 with a goal of equipping 100 million homes with clean cooking stoves and fuel by 2020. the program is based on the idea that carbon credits will encourage the adoption of clean cooking stoves. however, experience to date suggests that only international players with good contacts to international institutions will be able to access this money. this raises questions about how likely the program is to be adopted and persist at the community level, but also raises the more important issue of how business and the policy communities must work with communities to facilitate change. shonali pachauri, iiasa phone : + 43 ( 0 ) 2236 807 475 deutsche version dieser seite


- browse by issue : one of the oldest conflicts in the american system of government is that between congress and the president over the right to formulate and implement foreign policy. is the president solely responsible for the conduct of external relations? is the congress an equal partner? or does congress have the right to shape u. s. policy by enacting legislation which proscribes a president ' s flexibility? these are not just debating points for historians and constitutional lawyers, but critical issues which need to be addressed if we are to see the successful exercise of american diplomacy in the 1980s. our effectiveness in dealing with the problems ahead, especially u. s. - soviet competition in the third world, will depend to a significant degree on our ability to resolve the adversary relationship between the president and congress. fifty - two americans were taken hostage in iran on november 4, 1979. ten days later, in circumstances to be related, president carter froze all assets of the government of iran in the united states and under the control of u. s. banks, businesses and individuals outside the united states. this action, and related measures taken later, deprived iran of the use of more than $ 12 billion in bank deposits, gold and other property. the president also cut off most export and other transactions between the united states and iran and asked the u. n. security council to vote similar sanctions. u. n. action was blocked by a soviet veto on january 13, 1980, but other nations gradually reduced their commerce with iran. as the hostage crisis dragged on, these sanctions deprived iran of critical supplies and spare parts and forced it into expensive deals with unreliable middlemen. the recent heated debate over the sale of airborne warning and control system ( awacs ) planes and f - 15 fighter components to saudi arabia was only one of a number of controversies involving u. s. arms sales. the next weapons transfer which will meet congressional resistance is that of f - 16 fighters to pakistan, a sale which some believe will give a renewed impetus to the arms race on the subcontinent and undermine nonproliferation efforts. serious questions are also being raised about the wisdom of the planned sale of f - 16s to venezuela, thereby crossing a technological threshold which in the past has restrained the transfer of the most advanced fighter aircraft to latin america. proposed new arms supply relationships with argentina, chile and guatemala will draw the ire of those who are concerned about the dropping of past restrictions based upon these countries ' human rights records. the reagan administration is faced with a tough decision regarding the sale of


. proposed new arms supply relationships with argentina, chile and guatemala will draw the ire of those who are concerned about the dropping of past restrictions based upon these countries ' human rights records. the reagan administration is faced with a tough decision regarding the sale of the fx fighter to taiwan. beijing has put washington on notice that it considers the proposed sale as a " litmus test " of future sino - american relations. but the same type of symbolism is attached to the sale by taipei, which would view the failure to sell as a sign of abandonment. since world war ii there has been a continuing debate on military doctrine concerning the actual utility of nuclear weapons in war. this debate, irrespective of the merits of the divergent points of view, tends to create the perception that the outcome and scale of a nuclear conflict could be controlled by the doctrine or the types of nuclear weapons employed. is this the case? introduction : since world war ii there has been a continuing debate on military doctrine concerning the actual utility of nuclear weapons in war. this debate, irrespective of the merits of the divergent points of view, tends to create the perception that the outcome and scale of a nuclear conflict could be controlled by the doctrine or the types of nuclear weapons employed. is this the case? since nuclear deterrence began, some of the forces providing deterrence for the west have been stationed in europe. in the early period, when delivery systems did not yet enjoy intercontinental range, european real estate was essential for america ' s strategic deterrent. but with new intercontinental ballistic missiles ( icbms ) and sea - based nuclear missiles, introduced in the late 1950s, the u. s. nuclear deterrent no longer required bases in europe : the age of geographic deterrence identity between the united states and its european allies had come to an end. the history of the atlantic alliance is a history of crises. but we must distinguish between the routine difficulties engendered by western europe ' s dependence on the united states for its security, as well as by the economic interdependence of the allies, and major breakdowns or misunderstandings which reveal not simply an inevitable divergence of interests but dramatically different views of the world and priorities. at the present time, complaints from west european leaders about the effects of high american interest rates on their economies, or about president reagan ' s skeptical approach to north - south economic issues, belong in the first category. the current controversy in europe over nuclear weapons belongs in the second, and now confronts the alliance with one of


high american interest rates on their economies, or about president reagan ' s skeptical approach to north - south economic issues, belong in the first category. the current controversy in europe over nuclear weapons belongs in the second, and now confronts the alliance with one of its most dangerous tests. under charles de gaulle, french foreign policy as seen from washington had a " nuisance value " at a time when france ' s domestic choices were much more in tune with those of her allies and neighbors. under francois mitterrand, the radical nature of the domestic changes in france ( e. g., nationalization of major industries and banks, decentralization of the administration of the country ) have virtually changed french foreign policy into a reassuring value. at a time when pacifism is sweeping northern europe, and the federal republic of germany in particular, france, with her firmness vis - a - vis the soviet union, her nuclear striking force, her strong defense budget and weak pacifist movement, seems an oasis of continuity. the problem mounts, the experts are in near agreement as to how to resolve it, and yet another president gives it high priority. however, despite all of the above, the united states may fail to enact a new national immigration policy in the near future. the seriousness and care with which congress is considering the issue are cause for encouragement, but president reagan is in the process of finding out, as president carter did before him, that there is little political capital to be made in this policy area. the united states recently " discovered " mexico. potential oil reserves of 200 billion barrels helped focus our attention and sparked interest in forging some kind of special relationship with our southern neighbor. concrete proposals range from a north american accord or common market to less dramatic package deals that would swap petroleum for increased mexican access to u. s. markets. relations between canada and the united states have become more strained than at any time in recent memory. there have been many earlier periods of tension, but the policy orientations of the two capitals in late 1981 appear to be far more divergent than in the past. the two governments seem to be on a collision course, in a context that political leaders cannot fully control. russia today is a mighty world power, with the largest territory of any state, a population of 260 million, great mineral resources in a resource - hungry world, and a geopolitical position that gives it a large role in both european and asian affairs. it is a military superpower with intercontinental and intermediate - range nuclear missiles in large numbers


fifty years ago, on may 25, 1961, president john f. kennedy told a joint session of congress that " this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to the earth. " his vision became nasa ' s apollo program, which conducted six successful manned lunar landings during 1969 - 72 and brought the crews and the moon rocks that they collected safely home. as kennedy intended, the apollo program established the nation ' s preeminence in spaceflight, but it also produced a revolution in scientific understanding of the moon, sparking a debate that continues today about the relative merits of manned and robotic exploration. kennedy ' s call to action was viewed as a largely geopolitical maneuver, intended to achieve u. s. supremacy in rocketry and space travel at a time when the soviet union had gained a huge head start by launching sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite, and yuri gagarin - - the first man to orbit earth. there were defense implications : rockets that launch manned capsules into orbit could also propel nuclear weapons across intercontinental distances. whether apollo had a strong scientific purpose at first or not, the president ' s speech " was tremendously influential, " said retired astronomer william e. howard, who served in military, academic, and intelligence organizations. " [ it ] inspired a lot of people to go into science. " richard vondrak was a high school senior in 1961. now a nasa physicist, vondrak said that the excitement kindled by the new space program led him to a research career. donald bogard was a college student when kennedy spoke. he said that by 1969, when the first rocks from the moon arrived, he was a scientist " behind the quarantine barrier in the lunar receiving lab " at nasa ' s manned spacecraft center ( now the johnson space center ) in houston. bogard retired last year as chief scientist for astromaterials at the center, and recently said that " apollo science set the stage for the golden era of planetary exploration. " since apollo, robotic spacecraft have been the main sources of new information on the moon and planets. scientific objectives were established at the outset for the apollo project, although many scientists doubted that the missions would be worth the expense. the late robert jastrow, a nuclear physicist who led early nasa lunar science planning, wrote in his book " journey to the stars " that " my fellow scientists never liked the apollo project. " he added that they " much


worth the expense. the late robert jastrow, a nuclear physicist who led early nasa lunar science planning, wrote in his book " journey to the stars " that " my fellow scientists never liked the apollo project. " he added that they " much preferred sending instruments into orbit " than people. humans are expensive to keep alive in space, and their movements onboard a spacecraft can disturb delicate scientific equipment. prior to apollo, scientists were divided about the nature of the moon, said g. jeffrey taylor, a planetary geosciences professor at the university of hawaii in honolulu. some experts claimed the lunar surface was formed by volcanism, others thought it was molded by the impacts of thousands of meteoroids, and some, like physicist harold urey, a nobel laureate, contended that the moon was a cold, dead world with a surface of primordial materials from the era when the solar system formed, about 4. 5 billion years ago. urey ' s view was adopted by nasa ' s jastrow, who contended that the lunar surface should be explored as the " rosetta stone of the solar system. " if the moon had formed cold as urey claimed, there were no volcanoes to erupt and disturb the surface, no forces to fold the crust and throw up mountains, and, since there is no liquid water nor any wind, no erosion to alter the landscape. all of those effects obliterated the original surface of the earth over geologic time, leaving no trace of its original condition. so if apollo could collect rocks from the lunar surface, they supposedly would reveal the nature of moon when it formed, and perhaps what the newborn earth was like as well. but urey and jastrow were wrong. lunar soil gathered by the first men on the moon, neil armstrong and edwin " buzz " aldrin of the apollo 11 mission, hinted that the moon was anything but a primordial body, a conclusion confirmed from later samples and studies. in the soil, composed largely of broken shards of dark rock, there were white fragments of a different substance that hinted at the real history of the moon. the white rock - - which is also less dense than the dark material - - is now understood as evidence that soon after the moon formed, something melted the whole lunar surface. a brief era of very intense bombardment by asteroids and meteoroids may have done the trick. the molten rock layer extended down at least 60 miles, perhaps a great deal deeper. in this " magma ocean " layer, the original moon rock


lunar surface. a brief era of very intense bombardment by asteroids and meteoroids may have done the trick. the molten rock layer extended down at least 60 miles, perhaps a great deal deeper. in this " magma ocean " layer, the original moon rock was destroyed and new minerals crystallized as magma cooled. this created the light, white rock, which rose to the top as denser rock sank into the depths of the moon. any trace of the primordial lunar surface was destroyed. later, large asteroids collided with the moon at intervals, creating huge impact basins and weakening the crust where, even later, dark lava would well up from the still hot lunar interior. this made the dark, flat lunar maria or seas such as the sea of tranquility, where apollo 11 landed. rough terrains of the white crustal rock, called lunar highlands, remain and are the likely sources of white rock chips at tranquility base and elsewhere. taylor said that apollo solved the mystery of how the moon ' s surface formed and " revolutionized our whole view of the solar system. " a half century after kennedy initiated the apollo program, scientists are still studying the moon, currently with robotic spacecraft. during apollo, astronauts circling the moon in a command module discovered a puzzling sight, moon dust rising well above the lunar surface, although there is no wind to loft it. vondrak, now the project scientist for nasa ' s lunar reconnaissance orbiter, said that the orbiter will gather new data on the strange dust phenomenon this summer. meanwhile, politicians, engineers, scientists and astronauts disagree about what nasa should do next for human spaceflight. " we should use the moon of mars, phobos to assemble a base, " said aldrin, pausing in a busy week of appearances at events marking the anniversary. that base could be installed afterward on the surface of mars. some experts favor returning to the moon as a stepping stone for a human voyage to mars and back, but those plans have bogged down due to inadequate funding. others call for a journey to an asteroid. many scientists, as in jastrow ' s day, prefer for nasa to concentrate on robotic exploration. john c. brandt, a retired nasa division chief who worked on the hubble space telescope, said he thinks the expense of manned missions makes robotic missions superior, but acknowledges that " i was the principal investigator of a hubble instrument that was rescued by astronauts. "


skip to comments. nasa rocket to create clouds tuesday posted on 09 / 15 / 2009 6 : 25 : 43 pm pdt by free thinkerny a rocket experiment set to launch tuesday aims to create artificial clouds at the outermost layers of earth ' s atmosphere. the project, called the charged aerosol release experiment ( care ), plans to trigger cloud formation around the rocket ' s exhaust particles. the clouds are intended to simulate naturally - occurring phenomena called noctilucent clouds, which are the highest clouds in the atmosphere. " this is really essentially at the boundary of space, " said wayne scales, a scientist at virginia tech who will use computer models to study the physics of the artificial dust cloud as it ' s released. " nothing like this has been done before and that ' s why everybody ' s really excited about it. " the experiment is the first attempt to create artificial noctilucent clouds. a previous spacecraft, called aeronomy of ice in the mesosphere ( aim ), launched in 2007 to observe the natural clouds from space. care is slated to launch tuesday between 7 : 30 and 7 : 57 p. m. edt ( 2330 and 2357 gmt ) from nasa ' s wallops flight facility in virginia. noctilucent means " night shining " in latin. although difficult to spot with the naked eye, the clouds are best visible when earth ' s surface is in darkness and sunlight from below the horizon illuminates the high - altitude clouds. these clouds, also known as polar mesospheric clouds, are made of ice crystals. the natural ones tend to hover around 50 to 55 miles ( 80 to 90 km ) above the earth. care will release its dust particles a bit higher than that, then let them settle back down to a lower altitude. " what the care experiment hopes to do is to create an artificial dust layer, " scales told space. com. " hopefully it ' s a creation in a controlled sense, which will allow scientists to study different aspects of it, the turbulence generated on the inside, the distribution of dust particles and such. " ( excerpt ) read more at livescience. com... if it works, obambi ’ s science advisor can continue to push his demented scheme ( releasing sulfur - rich aerosols to combat the “ greenhouse effect ” ). wonder if these will be visible. normally i ' d say " wow, this is kinda a cool experiment by nasa "... but


push his demented scheme ( releasing sulfur - rich aerosols to combat the “ greenhouse effect ” ). wonder if these will be visible. normally i ' d say " wow, this is kinda a cool experiment by nasa "... but given their recent penchant for bowing towards the global warming™ crowd, i would put reservations on the purpose of this near - space experiment. color mm as ' skeptical ' as to the motive for this it doesnt pay to screw around with mother nature. yep. i ' m all wee - weed up. if the dust were made of shredded hr3200 i might be more interested. i am going to make an assumption that the real intent of this experiment is to buy ourselves more time before the threat of man made global warming kills us all. it ’ s just a pile of dust from the vacuum cleaners of a few nasa offices. there is the scary operative phrase - - - " hopefully.... " wilhelm reich, please call your office. i remember that ad in the 70 ’ s. it would be followed up by and irish spring and then maybe you can call me ray or you can call me jay or maybe plop plop fiz fiz oh what a relief it is. didn ’ t they used to do something like this at wallops island back in the early days of nasa? oh, wonderful, now they are experimenting with climate control, just what we need. as in a nuclear scientist saying, " this experiment could trigger a chain reaction and destroy the world, hopefully my calculations are correct and it won ' t ". a few months ago a shuttle launch made one of these clouds. disclaimer : opinions posted on free republic are those of the individual posters and do not necessarily represent the opinion of free republic or its management. all materials posted herein are protected by copyright law and the exemption for fair use of copyrighted works.


what is a web application? by " web applications ", i mean interactive programs which run on any platform, and use, process or ( often ) display data available on a server. one important characteristic of such applications is that they run within the browser. doing so has several important implications - - most of them security related. web applications can only connect to the server they came from. if that weren ' t the case, i could create a web page with the " small " side effect of getting unaware visiting users to launch denial of service attacks against anybody. also, an application that runs within the browser can ' t access directly the local hardware and file system in order to prevent viruses and spyware. loser # 1 : java java was created by sun microsystems, and - - most importantly - - was included in netscape navigator in 1995. that ' s 13 years ago! java uses a virtual machine ; this means that java programs will run anywhere as long as a java virtual machine is available. java allows developers to create " java applets " and " java applications ". the main difference is security ( see the textbox ) : java applets are expected to be found embedded in web pages, rather than installed, and therefore don ' t have full access to the underlying hardware. in 2008, i don ' t remember having seen a web page which included a java applet for at least 5 years. java has its niche markets : java server pages ( to create web applications ala php ) and mobile devices ( to create small applications ). android will probably push java further ( although it only uses java as a language, rather than using the java virtual machine ). however, again, java is nowhere to be seen in web pages. why? because for the first 12 years of its life, java ' s been proprietary. ( things are changing now. " too little, too late ". ) courageous people tried to write free, competing virtual machines, and managed. however, the problem was in the important java libraries which sun kept under a closed license for years and years and years. i am convinced that this problem also had technical repercussions on java as a platform : java applet were famous for crashing people ' s browsers in 1995 - - and they are still famous today for being immensely heavy and memory - hungry. i can only wonder how much better java would be if the whole community were able to improve it and its libraries. many also argue that the java virtual machine - - and java as a language - - is


for being immensely heavy and memory - hungry. i can only wonder how much better java would be if the whole community were able to improve it and its libraries. many also argue that the java virtual machine - - and java as a language - - is hardly fixable : the post i hate java summarises some of the problems. ( but, it is biased! ) so, java had all of the ingredients to become king in the web application domain : it was first, it was available in windows and gnu / linux, and it was ready. and yet, it was a closed platform and it had arguably big technical problems. loser # 2 : flash just like java, flash was available very early, in 1997. web authors could develop nice animations and more. it was better than java ( it didn ' t kill your browser ) and it was easier to program. fast - forward 11 years : flash ' s main use is in video playing, and very little more. adobe ( which owns flash ) realised the potential of internet applications, and ( about three years ago ) released flex. flex, in oversimplifying terms, can be seen as a way for developers to create flash files, using advanced libraries and advanced tools. flex is absolutely fantastic. the problem is that while the flash player is " free " ( that is, it doesn ' t cost anything although its source code is not available ), flex is outrageously expensive. and proprietary. [ update : no, it ' s not expensive. it ' s been open sourced, and you don ' t need a flex server to deploy flex applications - - thanks ben forta! ] and it creates applications running in a proprietary player ( flash ). i have seen flex. i have met some of the programmers who worked on it. they knew what they were doing. they were smart. they knew the internet - - i considered them internet magicians. however, nobody likes to fork out large sums of money in order to buy ( or deploy ) the development tools [ update : this is no longer an issue ], and nobody likes the idea of depending completely on the financial health and ethical principles of a single company. i think flash and flex are way superior to anything i have ever seen. if the flash player were released under the gpl, its specifications fully documented [ note : this is still absolutely crucial ], and flex was released under a free license ( maybe bsd - like? ), then there could be a big chance of a huge market shift towards adobe '


the gpl, its specifications fully documented [ note : this is still absolutely crucial ], and flex was released under a free license ( maybe bsd - like? ), then there could be a big chance of a huge market shift towards adobe ' s technologies. trouble is, it ' s not going to happen - - and it might even be too late. loser # 3 : silverlight. net is microsoft ' s answer to java : it compiles things into bytecode, it ' s multi - platform, etc. technically, many argue that it ' s " java as it should have been ".. net isn ' t free : while the virtual machine and the language itself are ecma standards, microsoft ' s gui libraries and other key components aren ' t. this means ( surprise surprise ) that you can ' t write a. net program for microsoft windows, and run it under gnu / linux, even though there is a. net virtual machine for gnu / linux ( called " mono " ). if. net is microsoft ' s answer to java, silverlight is microsoft ' s answer to flash. silverlight allows you to run. net applications within your browser. the site silverlight. net is silverlight ' s official web page. although it ' s defined " multi platform " by microsoft itself, gnu / linux is completely ignored ( there are windows and apple downloads ). silverlight might erode flash ' s tiny market. i don ' t think there ' s any difference between flash and silverlight : two competing products which are losing the web application race. why did such an unlikely combination win such an important war? because it ' s based on available, open, free technologies. people don ' t have to spend thousands of dollars to write flex applications. people don ' t have to install microsoft visual studio for silverlight. and don ' t have to battle the technical difficulties of java ( if it were still an option ). welcome to 2008.


nasa, along with other international space agencies, seem to be pretty good at putting things into earth ’ s orbit, but they are not so good when it comes to bringing things down. as a result, earth ’ s orbit has been cluttered with space junk which has put other spacecraft, include those which are manned, in danger of a possible catastrophic collision. the solution may be in the form of technology called a solar sail. a solar sail is a form of spacecraft propulsion system which uses radiation pressure, which can come from a star like our own sun, or from an artificial source like a laser. it also has the ability to act as a parking brake to slow down spacecraft for de - orbit by skimming the top of our atmosphere. such technology has been successfully tested by nasa this month on board a small spacecraft called nanosail - d. at first, nasa believed the mission was a failure before it even began. that ’ s because the small spacecraft was stuck inside its mothership called the fast, affordable, science and technology satellite ( fastsat ), which was launched in november. luckily, and for an unknown reason, the nanosail - d spacecraft ejected from its mothership on january 17. a few days later, on january 20, the nanosail - d unfurled its solar sail. the sail consists of a thin polymer sheet of reflective material which covers a 10 m2 area. the solar sail will provide enough aerodynamic drag to allow the nanosail - d to de - orbit within 70 to 120 days. this will test the possibility of including solar sails on future nasa satellites to allow them to return to earth and harmlessly disintegrate in the atmosphere. such a technique could prevent the build - up of future space junk. of course, a solar sail does have an accelerator pedal in addition to a brake which is why nasa engineers will be measuring the pressure of sunlight on the sail as well. read more at nasa


nge > > the arts > > architecture, landscape architecture, and historic preservation > > landscape > > gardens > > vernacular gardens vernacular gardens, by definition, are gardens of ordinary people, not those designed by professionals or owned by the elite. the vernacular garden is a result of community - held beliefs about gardening aesthetics and utility as well as the traditional use of space and how it should function. a general homestead plan some southern regional generalities can be seen, but no set pattern in georgia becomes evident, other than a distinction between coastal and mountain locales. in the rolling hills of north georgia, dooryard paths were often lined with privet hedges to prevent erosion, but in the lower regions of the state, the yard was traditionally swept bare to avoid giving snakes and other pests a place to hide. in the twentieth century, with the advent of the lawnmower, the dooryard evolved into a grass lawn. no description of a southern rural farmhouse can omit the porch — a shady place to work and rest in a hot climate, as well as a means of cooling the interior of the house. the porch railings would sport containers of houseplants or colorful annuals planted in unserviceable household vessels. front pathways to the porch were often lined with white - painted river rocks, lighting the way in the moonlight. scuppernong or muscadine grapes were grown to be used for juice, preserves, and in some homes, wine. most georgian rural homesteads had some type of arbor for the greenish red scuppernong or the blue - black muscadine grape. the arbor, built very high, was located to receive full sun at the side of the house or barn and to provide a screen for some of the less attractive outbuildings. today, the grape arbor is one of the most important clues for identifying a vernacular garden of the rural south. orchards were planted close to the house as well. pears, peaches, figs, pomegranates, and damson plums, also known as " bullace, " were pollinated by bees, usually kept in hives along the fence bordering the orchard. women ' s roles in the garden european americans also worked according to an accepted division of labor. for women in rural georgia, the traditional role was to plant, tend, and use the " kitchen " gardens and yards. this was distinct from the masculine role, which was to care for the large acreage of crops and numerous animals. the european origins of the white


georgia, the traditional role was to plant, tend, and use the " kitchen " gardens and yards. this was distinct from the masculine role, which was to care for the large acreage of crops and numerous animals. the european origins of the white farmer ' s wife, who began a homestead on a more or less wild plot of land, influenced what types of plants she put in the ground and where she planted them. seeds, carefully protected and carried from other long - lost homesites, and hardy cuttings of shrubs and trees were planted near the door of the house. plants were scouted from the wilderness surrounding the farm ' s clearing. fruit trees, vegetables, and beehives were placed around the perimeter of the clearing. the women of the family were subsequently responsible for harvesting the fruit and vegetables and preserving them. gardens raised by white rural settlers tended to reflect their practical outlook : an occasional whirligig or gourd birdhouse might be evident in the neatly clipped yards, but the overall appearance was generally utilitarian. various descriptions of slave quarters and plantation life document garden plots in which slaves raised produce to supplement their diets. most often tended by women, who could not depend on men to be available, the garden provided an area of self - reliance. this independence was carried forward upon emancipation. the garden practices and traditions learned in slavery were handed down orally to subsequent generations. richard westmacott, the author of african - american gardens and yards in the rural south, identifies three major functions of the rural garden for free african americans : its contribution to subsistence ; its utility as a kitchen extension for household chores ; and its use for entertainment, recreation, and display. vernacular gardens today the heritage of a handed - down culture of gardening in the rural south, both european and african american, can be characterized as coming from folk or nonscholarly sources. these rural gardening traditions have been the farmer ' s basis for adapting and viewing the spatial functioning of a dooryard from the last century to the present. the layout of today ' s southern farms is based on these cultural principles, and an observant traveler can still see the characteristics of a folkway landscape in the rural areas of georgia. steve bender and felder rushing, passalong plants ( chapel hill : university of north carolina press, 1993 ). john dixon hunt and joachim wolschke - bulmahn, eds., the vernacular garden ( washington, d. c. : dumbarton oaks research library and collection, 1993 ).


the importance of babatunde olatunji in spreading awareness of african music throughout the world is incalculable. at a time when westerners were exposed to almost nothing of african culture, olatunji — he went solely by his surname early in his career — entered the mass consciousness with an album called drums of passion. recorded in 1959, it remains, with over five million copies sold, one of the most successful african albums of all time. that olatunji lived and recorded in the united states at the time is immaterial — for many, he was the sound and face of africa. born in 1927 in ajido, a small fishing village in nigeria, olatunji came to america in 1950 to study political science in atlanta. in 1954 he transferred to new york university graduate school of public administration. already an accomplished drummer, he arranged for the 66 - piece orchestra african fantasia to perform at radio city music hall. the show caught the ear of the legendary columbia records talent scout john hammond, who heard in him a sound that begged to be shared. drums of passion, the first african album to be recorded in the u. s., and the first in stereo, was highly influential in intellectual and artistic circles ( john coltrane was one who was moved by it and santana ’ s “ jingo ” came from it. ). its drum - and - vocal chants may seem slick or even inauthentic by today ’ s standards, but there is no mistaking the album ’ s role in the nascent black pride movement — even many african - americans had never heard the music of the motherland until olatunji, a man transplanted into the heart of american segregation at the dawn of the civil rights era, came along. he was hardly prolific over the years but his contribution to the dissemination of african percussion - based music continued. he founded and taught at the center for african culture in harlem in the late 1960s. he also remained active in the peace movement throughout his life — in 1996, he was responsible for assembling thousands of drummers at the washington monument, prior to bill clinton ’ s election, to participate in drum dance and pray for peace. one major olatunji booster was the grateful dead ’ s mickey hart, who produced him for rykodisc ’ s “ the world ” series. olatunji died in 2003. drums of passion ( columbia / legacy ) drums of passion : the beat ( rykodisc )


the u. s. energy information administration ( eia ) recently posted updated information on u. s. dependence on foreign oil. some of the facts may surprise you. more than half ( 51 % ) of all the oil we consume is produced in the usa. almost half ( 49 % ) of the oil we import comes from western hemisphere countries. as a share of total u. s. oil imports, canada ’ s contribution ( 25 % ) is more than double that of saudi arabia ( 12 % ). the top five foreign suppliers ( again, as a share of total imports ) were : saudi arabia ( 12 % ) u. s. reliance on imported oil “ declined dramatically since peaking in 2005, ” eia says. indeed, as a share of total consumption, imports declined from more than 60 % in 2005 to 49 % in 2010 – an 18 % drop in oil import reliance. eia says several factors account for the dramatic change : there is no single explanation for the decline in u. s. oil import dependence since 2005. rather, the trend results from a variety of factors. chief among those is a significant contraction in consumption. u. s. oil product deliveries declined by 1. 7 million barrels per day ( bbl / d ) to 19. 1 bbl / d in 2010, from 20. 8 million bbl / d in 2005. this decline partly reflects the downturn in the underlying economy after the financial crisis of 2008. not surprisingly, demand has bounced back somewhat from a low of 18. 8 million bbl / d in 2009, when the u. s. economy bottomed out. but the downward trend in consumption started two years before the 2008 crisis and reflects factors such as changes in efficiency and consumer behavior as well as patterns of economic growth. shifts in supply patterns, including increases in domestic biofuels production, ngl output and refinery gain, also played an important role in moderating import dependence. u. s. ethanol net inputs grew from 230, 000 bbl / d in 2005 to 779, 000 bbl / d in 2010, helping to displace traditional hydrocarbon fuels and so reducing petroleum import needs. strong gains in the deepwater gulf of mexico and the bakken formation brought decades of contraction in domestic oil production to a sudden halt, and even led to a rebound. u. s. crude oil output increased by an estimated 334, 000 bbl / d between 2005 and 2010, further eroding the need for imported crude oil. it is reasonable to assume that


stonehenge builders had geometry skills to rival pythagoras. golden golden ratio and the stonehenge. stonehenge satellite image in google earth. successive golden rectangles dividing a golden rectangle into squares stonehenge builders had geometry skills to rival pythagoras may 26, 2008. source independent. co. uk by david keys stone age britons had a sophisticated knowledge of geometry to rival pythagoras – 2, 000 years before the greek " father of numbers " was born, according to a new study of stonehenge. five years of detailed research, carried out by the oxford university landscape archaeologist anthony johnson, claims that stonehenge was designed and built using advanced geometry. the discovery has immense implications for understanding the monument – and the people who built it. it also suggests it is more rooted in the study of geometry than early astronomy – as is often speculated. mr johnson believes the geometrical knowledge eventually used to plan, pre - fabricate and erect stonehenge was learnt empirically hundreds of years earlier through the construction of much simpler monuments. he also argues that this knowledge was regarded as a form of arcane wisdom or magic that conferred a privileged status on the elite who possessed it, as it also featured on gold artifacts found in prehistoric graves. the most complex geometrical achievement at stonehenge is an 87 - metre diameter circle of chalk - cut pits which mark the points of a 56 - sided polygon, created immediately within the monument ' s perimeter earthwork. mr johnson used computer analysis and experimental archaeology to demonstrate that this outer polygon was laid out using square and circle geometry. he believes the surveyors started by using a rope to create a circle, then laid out the four corners of a square on its circumference, before laying out a second similar square, thus creating an inner octagon. the points of the octagon were then utilised as anchors for a surveyor ' s rope which was used to " draw " arcs which intersected the circumference so as to progressively create the sides of a vast polygon. indeed, his work has demonstrated that a 56 - sided polygon is the most complex that can easily be created purely through square and circle geometry using a single piece of rope. it is likely that this basic limitation determined the number of sides of stonehenge ' s outer polygon – and may also have led to the 56 - sided polygon concept becoming important within wider european religious belief. ancient greek classical mythology associated just such a


is likely that this basic limitation determined the number of sides of stonehenge ' s outer polygon – and may also have led to the 56 - sided polygon concept becoming important within wider european religious belief. ancient greek classical mythology associated just such a 56 - sided polygon with zeus ' s great rival for divine supremacy, the weather god typhon. johnson ' s research, published as a book this week, shows that stonehenge derived its design from geometrical knowledge and features no less than six concentric polygons – a 56 - sided outer one built around 2950bc ; a regular octagon built around 2500bc ) inside that ; two concentric ( though partly inaccurate ) 30 - sided polygons built around 1650bc, which were based on a series of hexagons ; a 30 - sided inner polygon ( the sarsen stone ring which was built around 2500bc ) also based on hexagonal geometry ; and two probable 40 - sided concentric polygons ( probable former blue stone positions built around 2600bc ) that were later modified to 30 - sided ones. they also created the famous central stone " horseshoe " utilizing the survey markers used to create the thirty - sided sarsen polygon. the experimental archaeology demonstrates that most of the monument was pre - planned and that the great stones were pre - fabricated off - site and then installed by surveyor - engineers. " for years people have speculated that stonehenge was built as a complex astronomical observatory. my research suggests that, apart from mid - summer and mid - winter solar alignments, this was not the case, " said mr. johnson. " it strongly suggests that it was the knowledge of geometry and symmetry which was an important component of the neolithic belief system. " " it shows the builders of stonehenge had a sophisticated yet empirically derived knowledge of pythagorean geometry 2000 years before pythagoras, " he said. a leading british prehistorian, sir barry cunliffe, from oxford university, believes that anthony johnson ' s research is " a major step forward in solving the puzzle of stonehenge ". the golden rectangle and the a golden rectangle is a rectangle whose side lengths are in the golden ratio, one - to - phi, that is, approximately 1 : 1. 618. a distinctive feature of this shape is that when a square section is removed, the remainder is another golden rectangle, that is, with the same proportions as the first. square removal can


corn, beans, sweet potatoes … it ' s hard to say which crop sets contributor anthony boutard ' s heart aflutter more. here he offers a basic guide to the beans he and carol grow at ayers creek farm and how to cook them to best enjoy their flavor. dried legumes have a relatively short life. typically, after two years, chickpeas and garden beans become stale and eventually they may not even soften up no matter how much they are cooked. they are in their prime for six months after harvest, and good for a year. anthony and the roto - fingers pea - bean sheller. the bean is a seed and the two halves within the seed coat are storage leaves bridged by a stalk supporting the root and a shoot which will grow into the plant. the cotyledons store a mixture of carbohydrates ( long chains of sugar molecules ) and proteins ( long chains of amino acids ) that were originally formed in special seed tissue called the endosperm. in grains, the endosperm is retained, but in legumes and many other plants, it is entirely absorbed into the cotyledons. this repackaging of these long molecules apparently makes them vulnerable to tangling, sort of like the way that elastic bands, string and paper clips left in a drawer will eventually form a knotted mass. as the carbohydrates and proteins get tangled up they become harder and then impossible to separate into digestible units by heat or enzymatic action. this repackaging problem is probably why beans have a shorter shelf life than grains. soaking the beans. we always soak our legumes overnight or a bit longer. as the seed draws in water, enzymes are released which start to chop apart its proteins and carbohydrates into smaller units. in our experience, allowing the seed ' s natural enzymes to start the process yields a sweeter and smoother cooked bean. the next day, we drain off the soaking water. seeds must germinate in a relatively hostile environment. to fend off hungry invertebrates, fungi and bacteria, they release nasty compounds that make life unpleasant for these creatures and us. there is a myth that the soaking water contains valuable nutrients ; taste it and decide for yourselves. we dump the water, rinse the beans and start cooking them in fresh water. harvesting the beans. beans cook best in a nearly neutral ph, which makes water the best cooking medium. in some areas, it is customary to add a pinch


. we dump the water, rinse the beans and start cooking them in fresh water. harvesting the beans. beans cook best in a nearly neutral ph, which makes water the best cooking medium. in some areas, it is customary to add a pinch of " soda " to raise the ph of the water. acidic ingredients such as tomatoes should be added after the beans are cooked. some people believe salt impedes the cooking of beans. whether or not this is true, we always salt our beans after cooking. judy rodgers ' advice in the zuni cafe cookbook is to salt the cooking liquid to taste after the beans are done and let them rest. this works well for us. finally, the cooking liquid of all of our beans is really delicious and, if the recipe calls for draining the cooked beans, retain the liquid for some other recipe or enjoy it as you would a cup of stock. the bean roster we sell both pole and bush beans. the pole beans ( borlotto, tarbais, black basque ) cost more to grow because they must be trellised, so we package them in 3 / 4 pound packages. bush types come in 1 - pound packages. over the last decade, we brought more than 50 types to the market. we have settled on this group of ten which provides a manageable level of diversity and includes our favorites. borlotto bean stew. borlotto lamon : this is a classic italian pole bean from the veneto. traditionally used for la jota. the flavor is nutty with a very fine, silky texture, our choice for a desert island bean. several years ago, a virus brought in by some seeds purchased for a different variety destroyed our crop. we bought new seed but it had declined in quality ; the beans were highly variable, with about 90 % off - type, and ripened over a five week period. as there is no substitute for the variety, we have spent the last three years reselecting the crop in order to improve its quality. we have invested well over $ 2, 000 in the effort, and we are very pleased with the result. ayers creek tarbais beans. tarbais : a flat, white pole bean traditionally used for cassoulet. also great with kale and cabbage dishes. black basque : a black pole bean from northern spain. it is a slightly sweet bean with a delicate flavor. unlike other black beans, it is best prepared with a light hand on the seasonings, and served simply in its own bro


cabbage dishes. black basque : a black pole bean from northern spain. it is a slightly sweet bean with a delicate flavor. unlike other black beans, it is best prepared with a light hand on the seasonings, and served simply in its own broth with some good bread. zolfino : a white bush bean with a yellowish cast. like the previous bean, go easy on the seasoning, just a sprig of sage or rosemary is enough. we add a splash of vinegar and olive oil before serving. purgatorio : a small white bean traditionally served with fish. we have it courtesy of our sister - in - law, shirin. many years ago, we had dinner at al covo, a restaurant that specializes in fish, and the person serving us noted that she was from texas and wanted to know where we lived and what we did. we introduced ourselves as bean farmers from oregon. a few minutes later her husband, cesare benelli, came out and told us how much he loved beans. the chef then turn serious and told us that we should grow the bean from gradoli, as it is the best bean for serving with fish. he checked in the kitchen, but had run out of the beans. a few months later, shirin sent us a box with several types of beans, including ' purgatorio ', the bean of gradoli. this week, we enjoyed them as a soup in their own broth with some oregon bay shrimp sauteed with a bit of cumin and lots of freshly ground cayenne. black turtle : the standard black bean for cuban and mexican dishes. holds it own in the company of strong seasonings and whatever else you fling at it. gorgeous dutch bullets. dutch bullet : a golden round bean with a red eye. good for soup, perhaps with some escarole added. the late dutch plant breeder, kees sahin, recommended that we grow these beans as they are a favorite in holland. our friend, alice doyle of log house plants, brought kees to the farm and we spent a whole evening tasting and talking about beans and other vegetables. by coincidence, our neighbors grew several acres ' bull ' s blood ' beet for seed this year which is one of kees ' s varieties. vermont cranberry : a red kidney bean with dark streaks. use as you would other red kidney beans. the common name is a misnomer as cranberry beans are round and red like the fruit. this type of


last spring, the city launched a pilot program to provide a free laptop for every student at seven middle schools on the upper west side the “ one - to - one in ten ” program ( so named because it takes place in school district 10 and aims to achieve a one - to - one student to laptop ratio ) had a modest beginning. but city councilmember gale brewer, the chair of the council ’ s technology committee who championed the program and represents most of the upper west side, hopes that every public middle school student in new york city some day will have access to a laptop at school. eventually some advocates thought the students might even be able to take their computers home at night. brewer ’ s enthusiasm is based upon research that shows that using laptops encourage students to engage more deeply with their coursework. the so - called one - to - one programs also seek to prepare students for the technologically driven world in which they live and to close the digital divide between students who have computers and those whose families may not be able to afford them. but a problem has arisen : there is little evidence that students who use laptops in class do better on standardized tests than students who do not. since president george w. bush signed the no child left behind act in 2002, a school ’ s aggregate performance on standardized tests has become of foremost concern for school administrators. given this reality, a national backlash against laptops in the classroom is brewing just as new york city has begun to embrace the trend. putting laptops in schools new york city is far from alone in using laptops for educational purposes. maine has launched a similar program, and many maine teachers who worked in one - to - one laptop initiatives are now advising others about how to begin similar programs. a study of 2, 500 of the country ’ s largest school districts conducted last year found an increasing number gave all students and teachers computers connected to the internet, sometimes for use at home as well as at school. do computers do more harm than good? in general, though, evidence seems to be emerging that technology is not a cure - all for the nation ’ s classroom. a recent department of education study, for example, while not considering the laptop programs, looked at 15 software programs used in schools and found that they did not lead to higher test scores. on the other hand, as the times recently reported, school district are seeing a downside to the computers. many districts find that they spend too much time and money fixing and maintaining the computers. one letter writer to the times


to higher test scores. on the other hand, as the times recently reported, school district are seeing a downside to the computers. many districts find that they spend too much time and money fixing and maintaining the computers. one letter writer to the times pointed out that maintenance is a greater problem with windows machines than apple products. but regardless of the type of computer, students use them to access educationally trivial ( and sometimes pornographic ) web sites. students at one suburban syracuse school, the times found, used the laptops to exchange test answers and view pornography. when the school tried to stop that, some students found a way around the increased security a€ “ and used the computers to tell their fellow students how to do that. faced with all of this, school districts that serve a diversity of student populations — some affluent, some poor, and with various ethnic groups — are abandoning their laptops beyond test scores so, have the defenders of laptops in the classroom lost the debate? is it time to revert to the chalkboard and the fundamentals of reading, writing, and arithmetic? not so fast, argues bruce lai. lai is brewer ’ s chief of staff and an expert on how to increase broadband internet access in underserved areas of new york city he points out that many of schools abandoning their laptops programs have students who have ready access to broadband internet connections at home. he worries, though, that taking a similar step in new york city ’ s school will “ consign working - class students ” to a technological apartheid. according to a recent report by the pew internet and american life project, only 21 percent of households with an annual income of $ 30, 000 or less had a broadband connection at home in 2006. lai and educational research consultant saul rockman also question some of the reasoning that has led schools to abandon laptops. the goal of laptop learning, they say, is not to improve standardized test scores, but rather to capture the imagination of students as they work on projects that would either be impossible or much more difficult without a computer. for example, the students in maine reportedly used laptops to create a book in spanish for children in guatemala, an activity whose benefits are difficult to quantify with standardized tests. the teacher ’ s role another barrier to the success of laptop programs is teacher resistance. instructors who are used to teaching the traditional way may resent the introduction of laptops into their classrooms. “ the box gets in the way, ” liverpool, new york, school board president mark lawson told the times.


laptop programs is teacher resistance. instructors who are used to teaching the traditional way may resent the introduction of laptops into their classrooms. “ the box gets in the way, ” liverpool, new york, school board president mark lawson told the times. teachers who perceive a potential benefit for laptops in their classrooms and are willing to change their teaching style to allow for increased student control of learning are more likely to take a positive view of one to - one laptop programs. laptop programs should take this into account. lai points out that meaningful plans for integrating technology into the classroom a€ “ and addressing resistance to change among teachers — are just as important to the success of the computing plan as the laptops themselves. such cultural changes take a long time to occur but some are working on it. teaching matters is a new york based non - profit that seeks to hasten the process. believing that technology can improve learning if it is used properly, they provide assistance in the classroom as well as workshops and on line help so teachers can make better use of technology in the meantime, researchers from fordham university ’ s regional educational technology center have begun to evaluate the efficacy of the “ one - to - one in ten ” initiative. surely there is room for improvement, but one hopes it will find some signs of greater student engagement with their own learning. but that might not be enough. in today ’ s world, educational assessment is driven by standardized exams, and classroom laptop programs may fail the test. a


back to news room more on invasive species invasive asian carp caught near lake michigan the nightmare scenario of asian carp entering the great lakes through chicago waterways is closer to reality as the asian carp regional coordinating committee announced wednesday the capture of an invasive bighead carp in lake calumet, six miles away from lake michigan. the fish ’ s capture bolsters repeated environmental dna tests which have shown that the carp have evaded an electrical barrier intended to prevent their movement out of canals artificially connecting the great lakes and mississippi river system. scientists and government regulators agree that the invasive fish pose a dire threat to the lakes because of their size and voracious appetites. environmental groups throughout the great lakes have been advocating for quick action to impede the carp ’ s headlong swim towards lake michigan, even as federal officials and business interests have questioned the validity of cutting edge science that pointed to the invasive species ’ presence. news of tuesday ' s capture brings a renewed call for more agile efforts to prevent the carp ’ s movement. many organizations have called for hydrologic separation of the two systems, first outlined in a 2008 alliance study, to ensure the movement of the carp and other invasive species is stopped. the u. s. army corps of engineers recently said that a study of this solution will take five to seven years. " a year of dna testing has shown the asian carp are in the chicago waterways, and now we know they ' re a hop, skip and jump from lake michigan, " said joel brammeier, president of the alliance for the great lakes. " invaders will stop at nothing short of bricks and mortar, and time is running short to get that protection in place. " the 34. 6 - inch - long, nearly 20 - pound male fish was caught live by a commercial fisherman contracted by the illinois dnr to conduct routine sampling in the area. act now! > > joint press release > > idnr ’ s statement > > asian carp fact sheet > >


become a fan of h2g2 the word ' phlogiston ' 1 is derived from the greek language. it is the neuter form of the word phlogistos, meaning ' inflammable '. this word is in turn derived from phlogizein meaning ' to set on fire ', derived from phlox, or phlog -, meaning flame. burning, as can be seen, is at the root of this area of scientific thought. the theory of phlogiston arose in the late 17th century when it was proposed by johann becher ( who referred to it as ' inflammable earth ' ). it was continued in the work of georg stahl. the theory postulates that in all flammable materials the elusive substance phlogiston is present, a substance without colour, odour, taste or weight, which is given off when materials are burnt. all materials could have three basic parts : phlogiston, impurities and the purest form of the material. anything that could be burned to nothing would be considered to have been completely composed of phlogiston - such as charcoal or sulphur. so, for example, wood when burnt leaves ash. it was, therefore, deemed that wood was composed of pure wood ( ash ) and phlogiston. iron on the other hand consisted of rust, the pure form of the metal and phlogiston. the impurities arose where the remains could not be defined as either the pure material or phlogistonated air. gases that dissolved in water were a prime example of this kind of impurity, materials that did not meet the criteria of either pure base or phlogiston. the theory maintained its position in scientific thought for 100 years, though throughout that period loopholes were identified and then carefully patched up with new variations and terms, like the impurities of fixed and foul air. objections were consistently countered with new information from phlogistonists who were not keen to see their theories blown apart. ultimately it was the work of french scientist antoine laurent lavoiser, in the late 18th century, which led to the systematic tearing apart of the phlogiston theory. his astute and systematic experimentation gave weight to gathering force of the antiphlogistonist movement. what replaced it were theories around oxygen and the reactions experienced by materials in the presence of this life - giving gas. experiments switched from purely observational efforts to quantitative analysis that tried to qualify changes and reactions without giving in to notions of fancy expanded from what the eyes