when you learned about the doppler effect in high school physics class — the wave frequency shift that occurs when the source of the wave is moving, easily illustrated by a passing ambulance — you probably didn ' t envision it helping control your computer one day. but that ' s exactly what a group of researchers are doing at microsoft research, the software giant ' s redmond, washington - based lab. gesture control is becoming increasingly common and is even built into some tvs. while other motion - sensing technologies such as microsoft ' s own kinect device use cameras to sense and interpret movement and gestures, soundwave does this using only sound — thanks to the doppler effect, some clever software, and the built - in speakers and microphone on a laptop. desney tan, a microsoft research principal researcher and member of the soundwave team, says the technology can already be used to sense a number of simple gestures, and with smart phones and laptops starting to include multiple speakers and microphones, the technology could become even more sensitive. soundwave — a collaboration between microsoft research and the university of washington — will be presented this week in a paper at the 2012 acm sigchi conference on human factors in computing in austin, texas. the idea for soundwave emerged last summer, when desney and others were working on a project involving using ultrasonic transducers to create haptic effects, and one researcher noticed a sound wave changing in a surprising way as he moved his body around. the transducers were emitting an ultrasonic sound wave that was bouncing off researchers ' bodies, and their movements changed the tone of the sound that was picked up, and the sound wave they viewed on the back end. the researchers quickly determined that this could be useful for gesture sensing. and since many devices already have microphones and speakers embedded, they experimented to see if they could use those existing sensors to detect movements. tan says standard computer speakers and microphones can operate in the ultrasonic band — beyond what humans can hear — which means all soundwave has to do to make its technology work on your laptop or smart phone is load it up with soundwave software. chris harrison, a graduate student at carnegie mellon university who studies sensing for user interfaces, calls soundwave ' s ability to operate with existing hardware and a software update " a huge win. " " i think it has some interesting potential, " he says. the speakers on a computer equipped with soundwave software emit a constant ultrasonic tone of between 20 and 22 ki


operate with existing hardware and a software update " a huge win. " " i think it has some interesting potential, " he says. the speakers on a computer equipped with soundwave software emit a constant ultrasonic tone of between 20 and 22 kilohertz. if nothing in the immediate environment is moving, the tone the computer ' s microphone hears should also be constant. but if something is moving toward the computer, that tone will shift to a higher frequency. if it ' s moving away, the tone will shift to a lower frequency. this happens in predictable patterns, tan says, so the frequencies can be analyzed to determine how big the moving object is, how fast it ' s moving, and the direction it ' s going. based on all that, soundwave can infer gestures. the software ' s accuracy hovers in the 90 percent range, tan says, and there isn ' t a noticeable delay between when a user makes a gesture and the computer ' s response. and soundwave can operate while you ' re using the speakers for other things, too. so far, the soundwave team has come up with a range of movements that its software can understand, including swiping your hand up or down, moving it toward or away from your body, flexing your limbs, or moving your entire body closer to or farther away from the computer. with these gestures, researchers are able to scroll through pages on a computer screen and control simple web navigation. sensing when a user approaches a computer or walks away from it could be used to automatically wake it up or put it to sleep, tan says. harrison thinks that having a limited number of gestures is fine, especially since users will have to memorize them. the soundwave team has also used its technology to control a game of tetris, which, aside from being fun, provided a good test of the system ' s accuracy and speed. tan envisions soundwave working alongside other gesture - sensing technologies, saying that while it doesn ' t face the lighting issues that vision - based technologies do, it ' s not as good at sensing small gestures like a pinch of the fingers. " ideally there are lots of sensors around the world, and the user doesn ' t know or care what the sensors are, they ' re just interacting with their tasks, " he says. - researchers create " hate map " of the u. s. with twitter data - other interesting arxiv papers this week ending 12 - 5 - 13 - new milestone for co2 levels :


as the dm, the tools of your trade are dice — platonic solid - shaped or just about any other sort. the random numbers you generate by rblling dice determine the results based on the probabilities determined herein or those you have set forth on your own. in case you are not familiar with probability curves, there are two types which are determined by your dice : linear ( straight line ), ' which has equal probability of any given integer in the number group, and bell ( ascending and descending line ), which has greater probability towards the center of the group of numbers than at either end. the two curves are illustrated thus : [ image of linear curve for 10 - sided dice, with each number having a 10 % chance of coming up. ] linear probability develops a straight line of ascending probability when used as a cumulative probability as shown above. bell distribution, when used to delineate the probability of certain numbers appearing, develops o curved line like this : [ image of a bell curve for a 3d6 roll, with 3 and 18 being the least probable and 8 through 12 being the most probable. ] a single die, or multiple. dice read in succession ( such as three dice read as hundreds, tens and decimals ) give linear probabilities. two or more dice added together generate a bell - shaped probability curve. before any further discussion takes place, let us define the accepted abbreviations for the various dice. a die is symbolized by " d ", and its number of sides is shown immediately thereafter. a six - sided die is therefore " d6 ", d8 is an eight - sided die, and so on. - two four - sided dice are pressed by 2d4, five eight - sided dice are 5d8, etc. any additions to or subtractions from the die or dice are expressed after the identification, thus : d8 8 means a linear number grouping between 9 and 16, while 3d6 - 2 means a bell - shaped progression from 1 to 16, with the greatest probability group in the middle ( 8, 9 ). this latter progression has the same median numbers as 2d6, but it has higher and loyver ends and a greater probability of a median number than if 2dl2 were used. when percentage dice are to be used ; this is indicated by d %. the 64 can be used to generate 25 % incremental probabilities, random numbers from 1 to 4, with 1 it generates a linear 2 - 5, etc. it can be


are to be used ; this is indicated by d %. the 64 can be used to generate 25 % incremental probabilities, random numbers from 1 to 4, with 1 it generates a linear 2 - 5, etc. it can be used to get 1 or 2 ( 1 or 2 = 1, 3 or 4 = 2 ) or in conjunction with any other dice to get linear or bell - shaped probability curves. for example, 2d4 = 2 - 8, 3d4 ^ 3 - 12, d4 d6 = 2 - 10, d4 d20 ( as dlo ) = 2 - m. ' when rolled in conjunction with another die, the d4 can be used to determine linear number ranges twice that shown on the other die, thus : d4 reading 1 or 2 means that whatever is read on the other die is the number shown ; but if the d4 reads 3 or 4, add the highest number on the second die to the number shown — so if d8 is the second die 1 to 16 can be generated if a dl 2 is used 1 to 24 can be generated. if a d20 is used either 1 - 20 ( assuming the use of a standard d20 which is numbered 0 - 9 twice without coloring one set of faces to indicate that those faces have 10 added to the number appearing ) or 1 - 40 ( assuming that one set of faces is colored ) can be gotten by adding 0 if 1 or 2 is rolled on the d4 and 10 or 20 ( depending on die type ) if a 3 or 4 is rolled. linear series above this are possible simply bv varying the meaning of the d4 number ; 1 always means add 0, but 2 can be interpreted as add the value ( highest number ) of the second die, 3 can be twice value, and 4 can be thrice value. thus, a d4 reading 4 in conjunction with a d8 ( linear curve 1 - 32 ) would mean 24 d8, or 25 - 32. what applies to d4 has similar application with regard to d6, d8, dl2, and d20. the d6 has 16 2 / 3 % intervals, d8 has 12 1 / 2 % intervals, and d20 can have ( 1 - 2 = 1, 3 - 4 = 2, 5 - 6 = 3 ), while 1 to 5 can be easily read from a d20 ( 1 - 2 = 1, 3 - 4 = 2, 5 - 6 = 3, 7 - 8 = 4


, 3 - 4 = 2, 5 - 6 = 3 ), while 1 to 5 can be easily read from a d20 ( 1 - 2 = 1, 3 - 4 = 2, 5 - 6 = 3, 7 - 8 = 4, 9 - 0 = 5 ). the d20 is used often, both as dlo and d20. the bell - shaped probability curves typically range from 2 - 20 to 5 - 50, i. e., 2, 3, 4 or 5d20 added together. also common is the reading as above with one decimal place added to the result to get 20 - 200, 30 - 300, etc. in the latter case, a roll of 3 on one die and 0 ( read as jo ) totals 13, plus one place, or 130. non - platonic solid - shaped dice are available in some places. the most common of these is a ten - sided die numbered 0 - 9. as with the d20, this con be used for many purposes, even replacing the d20 if a second die is used in conjunction to get 5 % interval curves ( 1 - 20 ). also, the die can give 0 - 9 linear curve random numbers, as the d20 can. other dice available are various forms of " averaging " dice. the most common of these has six faces which read : 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5. the median of the curve it generates is still 3. 5, that of a normal d6, but the low and high numbers, 2 and 5, are only half as likely to appear as 3 or 4. there is a 33 1 / 3 % chance for either of the two latter numbers to be rolled, so the probabilities of absolutely average rolls are far greater. other such dice have zeros on them, several low numbers, and so on. these sorts of dice, along with poker dice, " put & take " dice, or any other sort can be added in order to give you more flexibility or changing probabilities in random selection or event interpretation. for example : the author has a d6 with the following faces : spade, club, club, diamond, diamond, heart. if, during an encounter, players meet a character whose reaction is uncertain, the card suit die is rolled in conjunction with 3d6. black suits mean dislike, with the spade equalling hate, while red equals like, the heart being great favor. the 3d6 give a bell - shaped probability curve of 3 -


uncertain, the card suit die is rolled in conjunction with 3d6. black suits mean dislike, with the spade equalling hate, while red equals like, the heart being great favor. the 3d6 give a bell - shaped probability curve of 3 - 18, with 9 - 12 being the mean spread. spade 18 means absolute and unchangeable hate, while heart 18 indicates the opposite. clubs or diamonds can be altered by discourse, rewards, etc. | thus, clubs 12 could possibly be altered to clubs 3 by offer of a tribute or favor, clubs 3 changed to diamonds 3 by a gift, etc. in closing this discussion, simply keep in mind that the dice are your tools. learn to use them properly, and they will serve you well. bayes ’ s much more famous work, “ an essay toward solving a problem in the doctrine of chances, ” 24 was not published until after his death, when it was brought to the royal society ’ s attention in 1763 by a friend of his named richard price. it concerned how we formulate probabilistic beliefs about the world when we encounter new data. price, in framing bayes ’ s essay, gives the example of a person who emerges into the world ( perhaps he is adam, or perhaps he came from plato ’ s cave ) and sees the sun rise for the first time. at first, he does not know whether this is typical or some sort of freak occurrence. however, each day that he survives and the sun rises again, his confidence increases that it is a permanent feature of nature. gradually, through this purely statistical form of inference, the probability he assigns to his prediction that the sun will rise again tomorrow approaches ( although never exactly reaches ) 100 percent. the official position of the usgs is even more emphatic : earthquakes cannot be predicted. “ neither the usgs nor caltech nor any other scientists have ever predicted a major earthquake, ” the organization ’ s web site asserts. 24 “ they do not know how, and they do not expect to know how any time in the foreseeable future. ” earthquakes cannot be predicted? this is a book about prediction, not a book that makes predictions, but i ’ m willing to stick my neck out : i predict that there will be more earthquakes in japan next year than in new jersey. and i predict that at some point in the next one hundred years, a major earthquake will hit somewhere in california. both the usgs and i are playing some semantic games. the terms “ prediction ” and


in japan next year than in new jersey. and i predict that at some point in the next one hundred years, a major earthquake will hit somewhere in california. both the usgs and i are playing some semantic games. the terms “ prediction ” and “ forecast ” are employed differently in different fields ; in some cases, they are interchangeable, but other disciplines differentiate them. no field is more sensitive to the distinction than seismology. if you ’ re speaking with a seismologist : 1. a prediction is a definitive and specific statement about when and where an earthquake will strike : a major earthquake will hit kyoto, japan, on june 28. 2. whereas a forecast is a probabilistic statement, usually over a longer time scale : there is a 60 percent chance of an earthquake in southern california over the next thirty years. the usgs ’ s official position is that earthquakes cannot be predicted. they can, however, be forecasted. base 26 is one of two fairly natural ways of representing numbers as text using a 26 - letter alphabet. the number of interest is expressed numerically in base 26, and then the 26 different base - 26 digits are identified with letters as 0 = a, 1 = b, 2 = c,... 25 = z. here are the first 100 digits of pi expressed in this way : lo! at the 6th digit we find a two - letter word ( lo ), and only a few digits later we find the three - letter rod embedded in the four - letter trod. how many other english words can be found if we continue looking? first, a few π facts are in order. the digits of π ( in any base ) not only go on forever but behave statistically like a sequence of uniform random numbers. ( mathematically proving that this is the case - the " π is normal conjecture " - is a deep unsolved problem, but numerical analysis of several billion digits suggests that it is true. ) consequently, π in base 26 emulates the mythical army of typing monkeys spewing out random letters. among other things, this implies that any text, no matter how long, should eventually appear in the base - 26 digits of π! we should expect to need about 2. 5 x 1018 letters in order to find the phrase to be or not to be ( without the spaces ) once. we can only get as far as to be in the first million. that the first 6 - letter word is oxygen suggests that π is truly the very stuff of life


to find the phrase to be or not to be ( without the spaces ) once. we can only get as far as to be in the first million. that the first 6 - letter word is oxygen suggests that π is truly the very stuff of life! though this does not seem to be a useful way of looking at all the digits of π, we mustn ' t fail to note one last logological property. write π as usual in decimal, and group the digits as follows : 3. 14 15 9 26 5... and then make the obvious substitution a = 1, b = 2, etc. you get c. noize, which is rather fitting, because the random nature of π ' s digits means that when you look at it you see noise! life expectancy for a healthy american man of my age is about 90. ( that ’ s not to be confused with american male life expectancy at birth, only about 78. ) if i ’ m to achieve my statistical quota of 15 more years of life, that means about 15 times 365, or 5, 475, more showers. but if i were so careless that my risk of slipping in the shower each time were as high as 1 in 1, 000, i ’ d die or become crippled about five times before reaching my life expectancy. i have to reduce my risk of shower accidents to much, much less than 1 in 5, 475. this calculation illustrates the biggest single lesson that i ’ ve learned from 50 years of field work on the island of new guinea : the importance of being attentive to hazards that carry a low risk each time but are encountered frequently. consider : if you ’ re a new guinean living in the forest, and if you adopt the bad habit of sleeping under dead trees whose odds of falling on you that particular night are only 1 in 1, 000, you ’ ll be dead within a few years. in fact, my wife was nearly killed by a falling tree last year, and i ’ ve survived numerous nearly fatal situations in new guinea. i now think of new guineans ’ hypervigilant attitude toward repeated low risks as “ constructive paranoia ” : a seeming paranoia that actually makes good sense. now that i ’ ve adopted that attitude, it exasperates many of my american and european friends. but three of them who practice constructive paranoia themselves — a pilot of small planes, a river - raft guide and a london bobby who patrols the streets unarmed — learned the attitude, as i did, by witnessing the


many of my american and european friends. but three of them who practice constructive paranoia themselves — a pilot of small planes, a river - raft guide and a london bobby who patrols the streets unarmed — learned the attitude, as i did, by witnessing the deaths of careless people. having learned both from those studies and from my new guinea friends, i ’ ve become as constructively paranoid about showers, stepladders, staircases and wet or uneven sidewalks as my new guinea friends are about dead trees. as i drive, i remain alert to my own possible mistakes ( especially at night ), and to what incautious other drivers might do. my hypervigilance doesn ’ t paralyze me or limit my life : i don ’ t skip my daily shower, i keep driving, and i keep going back to new guinea. i enjoy all those dangerous things. but i try to think constantly like a new guinean, and to keep the risks of accidents far below 1 in 1, 000 each time. her [ nightingale ' s ] statistics were more than a study, they were indeed her religion. for her, quetelet was the hero as scientist, and the presentation copy of his physique sociale is annotated by her on every page. florence nightingale believed — and in all the actions of her life acted upon that belief — that the administrator could only be successful if he were guided by statistical knowledge. the legislator — to say nothing of the politician — too often failed for want of this knowledge. nay, she went further : she held that the universe — including human communities — was evolving in accordance with a divine plan ; that it was man ' s business to endeavour to understand this plan and guide his actions in sympathy with it. but to understand god ' s thoughts, she held we must study statistics, for these are the measure of his purpose. thus the study of statistics was for her a religious duty. any experiment may be regarded as forming an individual of a ' population ' of experiments which might be performed under the same conditions. a series of experiments is a sample drawn from this population. now any series of experiments is only of value in so far as it enables us to form a judgment as to the statistical constants of the population to which the experiments belong. in a great number of cases the question finally turns on the value of a mean, either directly, or as the mean difference between the two qualities. if the number of experiments be very large, we may have precise information as to the value of the


in a great number of cases the question finally turns on the value of a mean, either directly, or as the mean difference between the two qualities. if the number of experiments be very large, we may have precise information as to the value of the mean, but if our sample be small, we have two sources of uncertainty : — ( i ) owing to the ' error of random sampling ' the mean of our series of experiments deviates more or less widely from the mean of the population, and ( 2 ) the sample is not sufficiently large to determine what is the law of distribution of individuals. the charms of statistics. — it is difficult to understand why statisticians commonly limit their inquiries to averages, and do not revel in more comprehensive views. their souls seem as dull to the charm of variety as that of the native of one of our flat english counties, whose retrospect of switzerland was that, if its mountains could be thrown into its lakes, two nuisances would be got rid of at once. an average is but a solitary fact, whereas if a single other fact be added to it, an entire normal scheme, which nearly corresponds to the observed one, starts potentially into existence. some people hate the very name of statistics, but i find them full of beauty and interest. whenever they are not brutalised, but delicately handled by the higher methods, and are warily interpreted, their power of dealing with complicated phenomena is extraordinary. they are the only tools by which an opening can be cut through the formidable thicket of difficulties that bars the path of those who pursue the science of man. the determining cause of most wars in the past has been, and probably will be of all wars in the future, the uncertainty of the result ; war is acknowledged to be a challenge to the unknown, it is often spoken of as an appeal to the god of battles. the province of science is to foretell ; this is true of every department of science. and the time must come — how soon we do not know — when the real science of war, something quite different from the application of science to the means of war, will make it possible to foresee with certainty the issue of a projected war. that will mark the end of battles ; for however strong the spirit of contention, no nation will spend its money in a fight in which it knows it must lose. statistics are far from being the barren array of figures ingeniously and laboriously combined into columns and tables, which many persons are apt to suppose them. they constitute


vagus nerve stimulation : when medications don ’ t control seizures vagus nerve stimulation, or vns, is one of the latest epilepsy treatment techniques. it ’ s been available since 1997. the vagus nerve is part of the nervous system that affects body functions that we can ’ t control. this nerve goes from the brain stem through the neck and into the chest and abdomen. stimulating the vagus nerve can decrease seizure activity in some people, although nobody knows for sure exactly how or why it works. candidates for vns are people with “ defined ” epilepsy ( those who have been diagnosed with actual epilepsy, not just seizures ) that ’ s sufficiently severe. additionally, candidates are not able to control their seizures with medication. during the vns procedure, a stimulator that looks very much like a pacemaker is implanted in the patient ’ s chest. “ a wire from the stimulator wraps around the vagus nerve in the neck and stimulates it every 5 minutes, ” explains dr. mark bej, a neurologist in private practice in northern ohio. there are some effects of the stimulator that the patient can feel. “ there can be some hoarseness during stimulation, because it affects the voice box, and there may be some coughing during stimulation, but for most people, these side effects are mild, ” says dr. bej. “ and you can manually control the stimulator with a magnet. for people who can tell when a seizure is coming on, they can sweep the magnet across the chest where the stimulator is. this turns the stimulator on, and can often stop or decrease the severity of the seizure. people who might want to turn the stimulator off for a brief period of time, say if they ’ re about to give a speech, can tape the magnet on their chest and the stimulator goes off. ” results of the vns technique vary widely. dr. bej says, “ i have one patient who was on two medications but she was having one or two seizures per month. she had the vns procedure, her seizures went to zero, and i was eventually able to take her off one of her medications. so now she ’ s on one drug plus the stimulator, and it ’ s been like this for her for several years. ” at the other extreme, “ some people have the stimulator placed and they have absolutely no change. but for people who do respond, vns is very helpful


on the anniversary of thoreau ’ s ‘ walden ’ and its place in american religious historyposted : august 9, 2012 today marks the 158th anniversary of henry david thoreau ’ s walden. it couldn ’ t have come at a better time. right now i am knee deep in transcendentalists, thoreau included, as i wade through my chapter on transcendentalist representations of hinduism. the combination of today ’ s anniversary and my current writing work got me thinking about how henry david thoreau fits into american religious history. right now i ’ m working to put thoreau into the proper place as one of america ’ s earliest orientalists. thoreau studied and appreciated hindu religious texts, among other asian traditions, and found them inspirational for his spiritual thought and literary prose. but he also took a view of “ the east ” and “ the orient ” that imagined it as an essentially spiritual place. as new england industrialized around him, thoreau looked to the orient as a counterbalance – a place of spiritual contemplation and ancient truth to offset america ’ s material industry and progressive zeal. he hoped for a fusion of east and west in his writing, in his religious thought, and in america ’ s future. this hybrid vision emerges at the end of the chapter titled “ the pond in winter. ” thoreau observes ice harvesters taking ice from the pond that would be packed in sawdust and shipped from new england to india. this connection between cold new england and balmy calcutta sparks a vision : thus it appears that the sweltering inhabitants of charleston and new orleans, of madras and bombay and calcutta, drink at my well. in the morning i bathe my intellect in the stupendous and cosmogonal philosophy of the bhagvat - geeta, since whose composition years of the gods have elapsed, and in comparison with which our modern world and its literature seem puny and trivial ; and i doubt if that philosophy is not to be referred to a previous state of existence, so remote is its sublimity from our conceptions. i lay down the book and go to my well for water, and lo! there i meet the servant of the bramin, priest of brahma and vishnu and indra, who still sits in his temple on the ganges reading the vedas, or dwells at the root of a tree with his crust and water jug. i meet his servant come to draw water for his master, and our buckets as it were grate


sits in his temple on the ganges reading the vedas, or dwells at the root of a tree with his crust and water jug. i meet his servant come to draw water for his master, and our buckets as it were grate together in the same well. the pure walden water is mingled with the sacred water of the ganges. with favoring winds it is wafted past the site of the fabulous islands of atlantis and the hesperides, makes the periplus of hanno, and, floating by ternate and tidore and the mouth of the persian gulf, melts in the tropic gales of the indian seas, and is landed in ports of which alexander only heard the names. i want to put thoreau up as one of the first american orientalists, with all the baggage that comes with such a title, and analyze the politics and power relations at work in the orient as he imagined it. but what is his larger place in american religious history? what is the place of walden? for some thoreau is the first american yogin. though that really depends on what you mean by yoga and how much you take thoreau ’ s claims at face value. in restless souls, leigh eric schmidt argued that thoreau is part of a tradition of solitude within american liberal religion. when he took to the woods “ to live life deliberately ” he took part in a larger western tradition of hermitage and solitude that has continued in his wake – my colleague brian campbell is writing his dissertation on this hermitage tradition. thoreau is also invoked in contemporary talk about “ spirituality. ” his iconoclasm and belief in individual and intuitive religious experience are often cited as the forerunner to the “ spiritual but not religious ” of today. thoreau and walden are also key to ideas about the relationship between religion and nature. thoreau found his own sacred meaning in the landscapes around him, as the quote above highlights. these various examples show how thoreau has become a multivalent icon of religious liberalism and individual spirituality. we ’ ve reached a point where his face can be deployed to demand you work for peace, disobey, or simplify. thoreau ’ s meaning is as slippery as “ spirituality. ” his face is a blank slate on which we scrawl our own spiritual visions. what do you see as the significance of thoreau and walden for american religious history?


podcasts & rss feeds most active stories environment & science tue may 8, 2012 feds say they ' ll act quicker to release study on keeping carp out of great lakes the federal government says it will speed up a decision on how to protect the great lakes from invasive species in the mississippi river basin. the obama administration announced the new timetable tuesday. in the past the u. s. army corp of engineers said it would take until 2015 to recommend a way to keep invasives like asian carp from migrating into the great lakes. under a new plan, the study would be complete by the end of 2013. it would present a number of options and how much each costs. then lawmakers and the public could weigh in on the best option. congress will have the authority to make a final choice. michigan and other great lakes states have sued the federal government, calling for a permanent split between the two watersheds. michigan ' s attorney general said he ’ d be willing to drop the case if the army corps of engineers ' study got done quicker. his office says the new timetable is a step in the right direction but doesn ' t satisfy his concerns. scientists differ about how widely the carp would spread in the great lakes, but under worst - case scenarios they could severely damage the region ' s seven billion dollar fishing industry. scientists have found traces of carp dna in lake michigan but no actual fish. michigan and other states want to permanently close the locks that seperate the great lakes from the mississippi river. but that at would cut off shipping between the lakes and chicago.


siege of jerusalem - conflict & dates : the siege of jerusalem was conducted june 7 to july 15, 1099, during the first crusade ( 1096 - 1099 ). armies & commanders siege of jerusalem - background : having captured antioch in june 1098, the crusaders remained in the area debating their course of action. while some were content to establish themselves on the already captured lands, others began conducting their own small campaigns or calling for a march on jerusalem. on january 13, 1099, having concluded the siege of maarat, raymond of toulouse began moving south towards jerusalem assisted by tancred and robert of normandy. this group was followed the next month by forced led by godfrey of bouillon. advancing down the mediterranean coast, the crusaders met little resistance from local leaders. recently conquered by the fatimids, these leaders had limited love for their new overlords and were willing to grant free passage through their lands as well as trade openly with the crusaders. arriving at arqa, raymond laid siege to the city. joined by godfrey ' s forces in march, the combined army continued the siege though tensions among the commanders ran high. breaking off the siege on may 13, the crusaders moved south. as the fatimids were still attempting to consolidate their hold on the region, they approached the crusader leaders with offers of peace in exchange for halting their advance. these were rebuffed and the christian army moved through beirut and tyre before turning inland at jaffa. reaching ramlah on june 3, they found the village abandoned. aware of the crusader ' s intentions, the fatimid governor of jerusalem, iftikhar ad - daula, began preparing for a siege. though the city ' s walls were still damaged from the fatimid capture of the city a year earlier, he expelled jerusalem ' s christians and poisoned several of the area ' s wells. while tancred was dispatched to capture bethlehem ( taken on june 6 ), the crusader army arrived before jerusalem on june 7. the siege of jerusalem : lacking sufficient men to invest the entire city, the crusaders deployed opposite jerusalem ' s northern and western walls. while godfrey, robert of normandy, and robert of flanders covered the northern walls as far south as the tower of david, raymond took responsibility for attacking from the tower to mount zion. though food was not an immediate issue, the crusaders had problems obtaining water. this, combined with reports that a relief force was departing egypt forced them to move quickly. attempting a frontal assault on june 13, the crusaders were turned back


to mount zion. though food was not an immediate issue, the crusaders had problems obtaining water. this, combined with reports that a relief force was departing egypt forced them to move quickly. attempting a frontal assault on june 13, the crusaders were turned back by the fatimid garrison. four days later the crusader hopes were boosted when genoese ships arrived at jaffa with supplies. the ships were quickly dismantled and the timber rushed to jerusalem for building siege equipment. this work began under the eye of the genoese commander, guglielmo embriaco. as preparations progressed, the crusaders made a penitential procession around the city walls on july 8 which culminated with sermons on the mount of olives. in the following days, two siege towers were completed. aware of the crusader ' s activities, ad - daula worked to strengthen the defenses opposite where the towers were being built. the final assault : the crusader ' s attack plan called for godfrey and raymond to attack at opposite ends of the city. though this worked to split the defenders, the plan was most likely the result of animosity between the two men. on july 13, godfrey ' s forces began their attack on the northern walls. in doing so, they caught the defenders by surprise by shifting the siege tower further east during the night. breaking through the outer wall on july 14, they pressed on and attacked the inner wall the next day. on the morning of july 15, raymond ' s men began their assault from the southwest. facing prepared defenders, raymond ' s attack struggled and his siege tower was damaged. as the battle raged on his front, godfrey ' s men had success in gaining the inner wall. spreading out, his troops were able to open a nearby gate to the city allowing the crusaders to swarm into jerusalem. when word of this success reached raymond ' s troops, they redoubled their efforts and were able to breach the fatimid defenses. with the crusaders entering the city at two points, ad - daula ' s men began fleeing back towards the citadel. seeing further resistance as hopeless, ad - daula surrendered when raymond offered protection. aftermath of the siege of jerusalem : in the wake of the victory, the crusader forces began a widespread massacre of the defeated garrison and the city ' s muslim and jewish populations. this was largely sanctioned as a method for " cleansing " the city while also removing a threat to the crusader rear as they would soon need to march out against the egyptian relief troops. having taken the objective of the crusade, the leaders began dividing


contrary to hollywood ’ s portrayal of gigantic man - eating sharks, the three largest species of shark spend their time peacefully roaming the ocean ’ s surface munching on the ocean ’ s smallest creatures. basking sharks, the second largest species of shark, cruise the seas in search of plankton, filtering up to 2, 000 tons of water across its gills per hour. reaching lengths of thirty five feet, this shark exists worldwide, yet very little is known about how they live or where they go. to discover more information about this vulnerable species, scientists from the pacific shark research center ( psrc ) and the national marine fisheries service ( nmfs ) have begun a new type of shark hunt. unlike the crazed and frantic scenes from the jaws movie, this shark hunt only requires a boat, camera and telephone! the spot a basking shark project enlists the help of local sea - farers to uncover the demographics and distribution of the california basking shark. once common along the california coast, these gentle giants are now a rare sight. in the past, these social creatures were seen in schools of hundreds or thousands ; however since 1993 no more than three basking sharks have been spotted together. fishing and eradication efforts by fishermen who believed them to be ‘ man - eaters ’ contributed heavily to their population decline. despite the fishery closure in the late 1950s, basking shark numbers have remained low, mostly due to human impacts like vessel strikes, fisheries bycatch and illegal shark fining. based on the decline of basking shark numbers and lack of species information, the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) has listed this species as endangered. if you see a basking shark, the psrc and nmfs want to know! these sharks can be identified by their large size, pointed snouts, and large gill slits that encircle the head. basking sharks have dorsal fins up to three feet tall that are visible as they slowly swim along the surface with mouths wide open catching plankton. if you see a basking shark, call or email the psrc with your location, date and time of the sighting and any photos or videos. your information helps the psrc document and understand these majestic and peaceful creatures.


october 7, 2012 5 : 05 pm oct. 7 1571 battle of lepanto - muslim defeatan important day in christian history. interesting that the pope warned europe about the danger of muslim invasion, but the northern european countries were too distracted with the reformation and fighting catholicism to band against their common enemy. a lesson for today? view larger image a battle not forgotten. the future author of don quixote, miguel de cervantes, served on one of the christian galleys in what he called the greatest naval sea battle in history and the most important to that time for the safety of europe. the turks had been massing an enormous fleet for an invasion of italy. the preparations began to be reported on many months in advance. it was the year 1571 when that fleet was gathered near a port in greece, not far from the gulf of lepanto. for over a year, pope pius v had tried to alert the great powers of europe to the coming menace. but england, france, and the regional powers of what later became germany were preoccupied with the turmoil of the reformation. [ my emphasis ] only don juan of austria, the bastard son of the king of spain, was stirred by the danger. despite his youth, despite his modest standing, don juan sent out urgent appeals and eventually gathered a sturdy fleet, outfitted with new warfare technologies invented in the west and rapidly mass - produced by the fledgling ship - building and armament firms of what was later to be called " western capitalism. " he gathered fleets from venice and genoa, from spain, and from the knights of malta. in a deliberately preemptive strike, blessed by the pope, this small fleet set sail to catch the turkish armada before it left the waters of greece. the venetians, on the left flank of the battle line, were especially passionate. not long before, the turks had so battered an island port maintained by venetians ( and others ) that the venetian commander, marcantonio bragadino appealed for a truce. the turks promised him and his subjects safe passage - - and then took him prisoner, beat him, cut off his nose and ears, put a collar on him, and made him crawl like a dog before the conquering army. in a little cage, he was hoisted up on the mast of the galley so that all in the fleet and on land could see him. then he was brought down flayed mercilessly, his skin carefully stripped from his body as he died ( the skin was later stuffed with straw and


we ’ ll soon know if tombstone, arizona — site of the famous gunfight at the o. k. corral — really is the “ town too tough to die, ” because the federal government is attempting to snuff it out of existence : [ t ] he u. s. forest service is refusing to allow tombstone to repair its mountain spring water lines after forest fires, floods and torrential mudslides destroyed them in the monument fire of 2011. not content with allowing forest fires to burn down some of the most beautiful land in arizona, the forest service is willing to risk the lives and properties of tombstone residents and tourists due to the loss of adequate fire suppression capabilities and safe drinking water. between may and july 2011, the monument fire engulfed a large part of the eastern portion of the huachuca mountains. record - breaking monsoon rains followed. with no vegetation to absorb the runoff, huge mudslides forced boulders to tumble down the mountain sides, crushing tombstone ’ s mountain spring waterlines, destroying reservoirs and shutting off tombstone ’ s main source of water. in some areas, tombstone ’ s pipeline is under 12 feet of mud, rocks and other debris ; while in other places, it is hanging in mid - air due to the ground being washed out from under it. in response, federal bureaucrats are refusing to allow tombstone to unearth its springs and restore its waterlines unless they jump through a lengthy permitting process that will require the city to use horses and hand tools to remove boulders the size of volkswagens. tombstone is located in the sonoran desert. cutting off its water is like cutting off a diver ’ s air hose. why would bureauthugs in faraway washington deliberately kill an iconic american town? because tombstone is devoted to keeping history alive. it represents the rugged individualist spirit of the old west — a spirit our liberal rulers are determined to eradicate. on a tip from varla.


these straightforward guidelines show how to design and analyze a simple structure for bandstop filters using multi - layer micromachined microstrip asymmetrical couplers. dr. nadia benabdallah, nasreddine ben ahmed, fethi tarik bendimerad, and dr. boumediene benyoucef millimeter - wave frequency bands have long held the appeal of enormous bandwidths for high - data - rate, line - of - sight communications. the main limitation on the increased use of millimeter - wave components and systems has been the cost of manufacturing hardware with such small dimensions ( as a function of wavelength ) and with the corresponding tight tolerances. but silicon ( si ) micromachining has been applied to microwave and millimeter - wave circuits in many ways since its introduction in the late 1980s and offers great potential for realizing cost - effective millimeterwave products. micromachining, or sculpting crystal si, can be made using either orientation - dependent ( anisotropic ) or orientation - independent ( isotropic ) etchants. silicon micromachined, dielectric membrane supported structures, such as antennas, transmission lines, and filters, have shown improved performance and have extended the operating range of planar circuits to w - band frequencies and beyond. 1 - 3 in addition, silicon micromachined - based packaging provides a high - isolation self - package without the need for external carriers or external hermetic shielding. this method of circuit integration provides a comprehensive technique to integrate a very large degree of functionality with extremely high density and at a relatively low cost. the vertically layered structure of a micromachined circuit presents an excellent opportunity for threedimensional integration, resulting in the potential for substantial reductions in size. micromachined circuits are an ideal way to integrate microelectromechanical - systems ( mems ) devices and provide components with performance and size advantages from 1 ghz to terahertz frequencies. they demonstrate their greatest promise at k - band and above. micromachining is truly an excellent integration technology with the opportunity for an order of magnitude or more reduction in the size, weight, and cost of planar circuits, which can have a major impact on radar and communications system designs in military, commercial and space applications. micromachining techniques can be applied to any semiconductor substrate, but the use of si substrate layers as the foundation of the micromachined structure has major advantages of low cost and allowing direct integration of silicon


in military, commercial and space applications. micromachining techniques can be applied to any semiconductor substrate, but the use of si substrate layers as the foundation of the micromachined structure has major advantages of low cost and allowing direct integration of silicon - germanium ( sige ) and cmos circuits. highresistivity si also has mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties that compare well with the best ceramic substrates, and as a result has been successfully demonstrated as the substrate of choice in three - dimensional integrated circuit. 4 cost comparisons have been made for simple circuit applications and show one - and twoorders of magnitude cost reductions over the same circuit packaged in ceramic. circuit integration based on micromachined fabrication technology promises to be the key to achieving the very demanding cost, size, weight, and simplicity goals required for the next advances in communications and radar systems commercial, space, and military applications. the aim of this article is the analysis and the design of a simple structure for bandstop filters using multilayer micromachined microstrip asymmetrical couplers. the analysis is done using the method of moments ( mom ) in two dimensions. 5 this technique is adapted to study the complex configuration of the line ' s system, which does not have a simple analytical solution. the modeling of this structure consists in analyzing the primary inductive and capacitive matrices ( and ). when and are found, it is possible to estimate the resulting scattering parameters of the bandstop filter using an adapted numerical model. 6 the results of a multilayer micromachined bandstop filter using asymmetrical strips show excellent performance in terms of rejection, size, and simplicity. bandstop filters are useful for a wide range of applications in eliminating unwanted signals and interference. when the low cost, size, weight, and simplicity are required, the design at high frequencies of such filters can be greatly simplified with a simple structure fabricated on multilayer micromachined microstrip substrates. the new filter architecture is well suited for rejecting unwanted carrier frequencies of a communications system. a bandstop filter using multilayer microstrip was presented in ref. 7. its design involves a double - layer microstrip resonator coupled to a microstrip line. the filter was designed to operate around a center frequency ( f0 ) of 1. 8425 ghz and reject unwanted carrier frequencies in the intermediate - frequency ( if ) processing unit of a dcs cellular communications receiver. what follows are the analysis and the design of a shielded bandstop


around a center frequency ( f0 ) of 1. 8425 ghz and reject unwanted carrier frequencies in the intermediate - frequency ( if ) processing unit of a dcs cellular communications receiver. what follows are the analysis and the design of a shielded bandstop filter using multilayer micromachined microstrip asymmetrical coupler. figure 1 shows a schematic representation of the shielded membrane microstrip ( smm ) line with a parallel open stub, which brings about a stopband effect around frequency f0. in microwave and millimeter - wave circuits, where space is limited, it might be preferred to use the most compact smm configuration possible. a possibility proposed by the author of ref. 7 consists of rotating the open smm structure and placing it on top of the access lines, with an additional layer of substrate between them. figure 2 gives the equivalent circuit of the bandstop filter, where its output is matched with a characteristic impedance, zco = 50 o. figure 2 shows that for a selected length, l, the bandstop filter consists of two coupled transverse - electromagnetic ( tem ) or quasi - tem transmission lines. the left end of the top line is connected to that of the bottom line, and its right end is kept open. figure 3 shows the cross section of the filter as having an inhomogeneous multilayer micromachined structure with a dielectric material ( si ) of a relative dielectric constant of er3 = 11. 7 and with asymmetrical microstrip construction ( wi, i = 1, 2 ) wide and placed on membranes ( sio2 / si3n4 / sio2 ) of thickness ( hmi, i = 1, 2 ) having a relative dielectric constant of er2 = 4. 5. this type of multilayer micromachined bandstop filter is used here to create a low effective dielectric permittivity environment ( eeff 1 ) in which modes will propagate at the same velocity for the asymmetrical coupler. electrically, the shielded bandstop filter using multilayer micromachined microstrip asymmetrical coupler can be described in terms of its primary parameters, the inductance and capacitance matrices, and : the inductance matrix contains the self - inductances of the two strips, on the diagonal, and the mutual inductances between strips in the offdiagonal terms. the capacitance matrix


) of 600 m ; ( lbi ) of 750 m and ( a ) of 900 m ; relative dielectric constant ( εr3 ) of 11. 7 ; filter length ( l ) of 1800 m ; and rejection frequency ( f0 ) of 40 ghz. figure 4 shows the segmentation of the charged surfaces used to analyze the cross section of the shielded bandstop filter using a multilayer smm asymmetrical coupler. the features mentioned above were kept constant and the width ( w2 ) of the top smm line was varied as needed from ( w1 ) to ( lbs ) in order to change the electromagnetic parameters ( em ) and consequently the minimum of s12 of the bandstop filter. all of the electromagnetic parameters obtained for the shielded bandstop filter are presented in the table. the table clearly shows the influence of the ratio ( w2 / w1 ) on the bandstop filter ' s em parameters (, ) and, consequently on the minimum module ( s12 ) of its rejection frequency, f0. finally, for w2 / w1 = 5, the authors analyzed the filter response for the same physical and geometrical parameters mentioned above using matpar software. 6figure 5 provides plots of the scattering coefficient ( s12 ) as a function of frequency for the proposed bandstop filter structure using multilayer smm asymmetrical coupler. figure 5 shows that a minimum value of ( s12 ) = - 90 db is obtained at f0 = 40. 25 ghz, where the - 3 - db rejection bandwidth frequency is calculated as 30 ghz. in conclusion, a simple structure for bandstop filters using a multilayer shielded micromachined microstrip asymmetrical coupler has been proposed, analyzed, and designed. the designed filter is only 900?? 183? 1800 m in size and can be easily designed and fabricated. the rejection bandwidth of the designed filter is between 30 and 50 ghz, with the minimum value of ( s12 ) of - 90 db obtained at a rejection frequency ( f0 ) of 40. 25 ghz. to achieve these results, it was necessary to determine the electromagnetic parameters of the bandstop filter using the multilayer micromachined smm asymmetrical coupler. in the frequency range of 10 to 70 ghz, the resolution of the problem is based on the quasi - static assumption and was studied by mom analysis. micromachined microstrip bandstop filters can be designed at any operating frequency from 1 to 120 ghz


frequency range of 10 to 70 ghz, the resolution of the problem is based on the quasi - static assumption and was studied by mom analysis. micromachined microstrip bandstop filters can be designed at any operating frequency from 1 to 120 ghz, using the em parameters values presented in this article. 1. t. m. weller, l. p. katehi and g. m. rebeiz, " high - performance microshield line components, " ieee transaction on microwave theory and techniques, vol. 43, no. 3, march 1995, pp. 534 - 543. 2. r. f drayton, t. m. weller and l. p. katehi, " development of miniaturized circuits for high - frequency applications using micromachining techniques, " international journal of microcircuits and electronic packaging, vol. 18, no. 3, third quarter 1995, pp. 217 - 223. 3. l. p. katehi, " si micromachining in high - frequency applications, " crc press, boca raton, 1995. 4. r. m. henderson and l. p. katehi, " silicon - based micromachined packages for high - frequency applications, " ieee transaction on microwave theory and techniques, vol. 47, no. 8, august 1999, pp. 1600 - 1607. 5. a. r. djordjevic, m. b. bazdar and t. k. sarkan, linpar for windows : matrix parameters of multiconductor transmission lines, software and user ' s manual, artech house, 1999. 6. a. r. djordjevic, m. bazdar, g. vitosevic, t. sarkar, and r. f. harrington, scattering parameters of microwave networks with multiconductor transmission lines, artech house, norwood, ma, 1990. 7. d. jaisson, " a multilayer microstrip bandstop filter for dcs, " applied microwave & wireless, 1998, pp. 64 - 70.


apr 7, 2011 graphene transistor shines on diamond - like substrate diamond - like carbon could be an ideal substrate for graphene transistors. so say researchers in the us who have made advanced devices with a record - high cut - off frequency of 155 ghz and the shortest gate length ever of just 40 nm. the field - effect transistors, which also function all of the way down to temperatures as low as 4. 3 k, operate at radio frequencies and so could be used in wireless communications. graphene is a flat sheet of carbon just one atom thick that conducts electrons at extremely high speeds. indeed, the electrons behave like relativistic particles with no rest mass. this, and other unusual physical properties, means that graphene is often touted to replace silicon as the electronic material of choice and might be used to make faster transistors than any that exist today. transistors made from graphene could be used in radio - frequency microelectronic devices for wireless communications. these devices can be made by transferring high - quality graphene sheets, produced by a technique called chemical vapour deposition ( cvd ), onto a suitable, insulating substrate – such as silicon dioxide. however, the problem is that the substrate can severely degrade the electronic properties of graphene because of scattering of charge carriers ( electrons and holes ) in graphene. this scattering, which drastically limits the speed of the electrons and holes, comes about due to interactions between graphene and the dielectric substrate material. diamond - like, but cheap now, phaedon avouris and colleagues at the ibm thomas j. watson research center, new york, may now have come up with an answer to this challenge. the team used diamond - like carbon as the top layer of the substrate, with the carbon atop a standard silicon wafer. diamond - like carbon is already widely used in the semiconductor industry and is created by chemical vapour deposition ( cvd ). it is a non - polar dielectric material, which means that it does not trap charges nor does it scatter charge as much as silicon dioxide does. it is also cheap to make in large areas ; does not absorb much water ; and has excellent thermal conductivity. “ the cut - off frequency we obtained is the highest so far for transistors made from cvd - graphene, ” avouris said. “ however, it is not, by far, the limit of what can be achieved because the quality of the cvd -


the following html text is provided to enhance online readability. many aspects of typography translate only awkwardly to html. please use the page image as the authoritative form to ensure accuracy. science evolution and creationism biological evolution is the centralorganizing principle of modern biology. the study of biological evolution has transformed our understanding of life on this planet. evolution provides a scientific explanation for why there are so many different kinds of organisms on earth and how all organisms on this planet are part of an evolutionary lineage. it demonstrates why some organisms that look quite different are in fact related, while other organisms that may look similar are only distantly related. it accounts for the appearance of humans on earth and reveals our species ’ biological connections with other living things. it details how different groups of humans are related to each other and how we acquired many of our traits. it enables the development of effective new ways to protect ourselves against constantly evolving bacteria and viruses. [ trait : a physicalor behavioralcharacteristic ofan organism. ] biological evolution refers to changes in the traits of organisms over multiple generations. until the development of the science of genetics at the beginning of the 20th century, biologists did not understand the mechanisms responsible for the inheritance of traits from parents to offspring. the study of genetics showed that heritable traits originate from the dna that is passed from one generation to the next. dna contains segments called genes that direct the production of proteins required for the growth and function of cells. genes also orchestrate the development of a single - celled egg into a multicellular organism. dna is therefore responsible for the continuity of biological form and function across generations. [ dna : deoxyribonucleic acid. a biological molecule composedof subunits knownas nucleotides strungtogether in long chains. the sequences of thesenucleotides contain theinformation that cellsneed in order to grow, to divide into daughtercells, and to manufacture new proteins. ] [ protein : a largemolecule consisting ofa chain of smaller molecules called aminoacids. the sequenceof amino acids andthe molecule ’ s three - dimensional structuredetermine a protein ’ sspecific function incells or organisms. ] however, offspring are not always exactly like their parents. most organisms in any species, including humans, are genetically variable to some extent. in sexually reproducing species, where each parent contributes only one - half of its genetic information to its offspring ( the offspring receives the full amount of genetic information


. most organisms in any species, including humans, are genetically variable to some extent. in sexually reproducing species, where each parent contributes only one - half of its genetic information to its offspring ( the offspring receives the full amount of genetic information when a sperm cell and an egg cell fuse ), the dna of the two parents is combined in new ways in the offspring. in addition, dna can undergo changes known as mutations from one generation to the next, both in sexually reproducing and asexually reproducing organisms ( such as bacteria ). [ mutation : a changein the sequence ofnucleotides in dna. such changes can alterthe structure of proteins or the regulationof protein production. ] when a mutation occurs in the dna of an organism, several things can happen. the mutation may result in an altered trait that harms the organism, making it less likely to survive or produce offspring than other organisms in the population to which it belongs. another possibility is that the mutation makes no difference to the well - being or reproductive success of an organism. or the new mutation may result in a trait that enables an organism to take better advantage of the resources in its environment, thereby enhancing its ability to survive and produce offspring. for example, a fish might appear with a small modification to its fins that enables it to move more easily through shallow water ( as occurred in the lineage leading to tiktaalik ) ; an insect might [ population : a group of organismsof the same species thatare in close enoughproximity to allowthem to interbreed. ]


the unprecedented attacks by sharks on human beings along the middle atlantic coast of the united states in the summer of 1916, resulting in the death of four bathers, produced a profound sensation and materially interfered with the attendance at seaside resorts, while leading to an astonishing amount of newspaper discussion in the course of which the public was regaled with more fiction and also more facts about sharks in general than ever before in our history. several departments of the federal government became involved in the matter, various individuals and committees offered rewards for the capture of " man - eating " sharks, and a bill was introduced in congress appropriating money for the purpose of enabling the department of commerce to cooperate in the extermination of man - eating sharks on the new jersey coast. the bureau of fisheries was incessantly importuned to explain why sharks were behaving as they were, and to take action that would prevent further attacks. there was some criticism of our inability to cope with the situation, although obviously there was little that could he done. the culprits were never identified. it was not known whether one individual shark of a species common to the region was running amuck ; whether representatives of several local species had been forced to attack human beings because of certain undetermined biological or physical conditions ; or whether there was an advent of a shark or sharks from distant waters with feeding habits different from those of the domestic species, which in no former years had exhibited any man - eating tendency and were dangerous only when they themselves were attacked. there were no attacks reported after the middle of july and the scare subsided ; but out of all the excitement and discussion there has arisen a keen lay interest in sharks — their kinds, habits, size, distribution, and economic value ; and in answer to that interest there have been special displays in museums and publication of much authentic matter in the secular and scientific press. — hugh m. smith. note : where necessary, the latin binomials in this text have been updated courtesy of r. aidan martin, co - author of “ sociable killers, ” an article about white sharks featured in the october 2006 issue. the term “ man - eater ” is applied by the public to almost any shark of medium or large size, and during the recent scare any shark over five feet long was likely to be called a “ man - eater ” and recorded as such in the daily press. the writer saw a published photograph of a “ man - eater ” shark and its proud captor ; assuming the height of the man


over five feet long was likely to be called a “ man - eater ” and recorded as such in the daily press. the writer saw a published photograph of a “ man - eater ” shark and its proud captor ; assuming the height of the man to have been six feet, the shark could not have exceeded three feet in length. in fish literature the name “ man - eater ” is restricted to the white shark ( carcharodon carcharias ), known also as the great blue shark the name man - eater is justified, however, only by the large size, formidable teeth, voracity, and obvious ability of the fish to kill and eat human beings ; it is certainly not warranted by a confirmed man - eating habit. ( 1 ) while this fish occurs regularly, although not abundantly, in summer along parts of our coast where sea bathing is extensively indulged in, it must be regarded as comparatively inoffensive in our waters even if the recent fatalities on the new jersey coast are attributable to it. the genus carcharodon reached its climax in the past, during the eocene or miocene, when fish immensely larger than any now existing must have roamed the seas. it has been thought that, because of the size of the fossil teeth ( opinion of the late dr. george brown goode ), individuals seventy to eighty feet long must have been common. the model of the jaws of a shark of this genus in the american museum of natural history ( see photograph below ) suggests the colossal proportions attained in geological times. in these degenerate modern days the maximum length reached by the white shark appears to be about forty feet, with teeth three inches long. the british museum contains the jaws of a specimen thirty - six feet long from australia. ( 2 ) the gustatory feats that can be performed by fish of such size may be judged by the accomplishment of a thirty - foot individual on the california coast which had in its stomach an entire sea lion weighing one hundred pounds. the writer has before him a note on a shark of this species collected by a bureau of fisheries party at menemsha bight, martha ’ s vineyard, on august 19, 1916 ; it was twelve feet eight inches long, and more than five feet in girth at the pectorals, and was estimated to weigh one thousand pounds. ( 3 ) [ media : node / 1473 right medium caption horizontal ] in the same family with carcharodon, and distinguished therefrom by having


girth at the pectorals, and was estimated to weigh one thousand pounds. ( 3 ) [ media : node / 1473 right medium caption horizontal ] in the same family with carcharodon, and distinguished therefrom by having the edges of the teeth entire instead of serrate, are the mackerel sharks, of which four species may be found on the atlantic coast ( all of these are now placed in the genus isurus by garman ; the plagiostomia, 1913 ). one of these ( 4 ), a cosmopolitan species in temperate latitudes, is the “ porbeagle ” of england ( lamna nasus ). it attains a length of ten to twelve feet. the common species on the east coast of the united states is the “ blue shark ” of the cape cod fishermen, readily distinguishable by the large black spot on the pectoral fin. it reaches a length of eight to ten feet. the mackerel sharks are handsome, trim, and active species, and are so named because they are present chiefly during the mackerel season and prey largely on that fish. they are sometimes very annoying to purse - seine, pound - net, and gill - net fishermen. related to the mackerel sharks anatomically, but differing markedly from them in habits and disposition, is the basking shark or bone shark ( cetorhinus maximus ). these names have been applied by our fishermen in allusion to the facts that the fish often remains quiet at the surface for a long time and that the gill arches are provided with strainers which resemble whalebone. this fish was described by the norwegian bishop gunner in 1765 in a learned paper in which he sought to prove that this must have been the “ great fish ” that swallowed jonah. from the standpoint of mere size, the basking shark fulfills all the requirements, for it is one of the largest of sharks and the ingestion of a prophet would have entailed no difficulty or inconvenience. a length of fifty feet has been claimed for it, but the available authentic records give a maximum of under forty feet. it is at home in the arctic seas, but sometimes has strayed as far southward as virginia and california. in former years it was not uncommon on the new england coast and also on the shores of western europe ; and it was regularly hunted for its oil in ireland and norway. in the early eighteenth century, and in the early part of the last century, it was not


it was not uncommon on the new england coast and also on the shores of western europe ; and it was regularly hunted for its oil in ireland and norway. in the early eighteenth century, and in the early part of the last century, it was not infrequently harpooned by the maine and massachusetts fishermen, and the liver of a large specimen has been known to yield twelve barrels of oil. from eastport, maine, and provincetown, massachusetts, and even from the lower harbor of new york, quite a number of individuals ranging from twenty - eight to thirty - five feet in length have been reported, but recently the species is rare in our waters. its disposition is peaceful, and it is dangerous only because of its great bulk. when attacked, its powerful tail easily demolishes boats, and its pursuit has been attended by considerable excitement and risk. the thrasher or swingle - tail ( alopias vulpinus ) is another large and active pelagic shark which is common along the coasts of new england and western and southern europe, and is known also from california. it is at once distinguished from all other sharks by its prodigious tail, the tipper lobe of which, in the form of a scythe blade, is half the total length of the fish. the fishermen tell tales of the ferocity of this shark in attacking whales, which, when they come to the surface to breathe, are said to be flailed by the thrasher ’ s flexible tail, so that the resounding whacks may be heard for several miles in calm weather. authentic observations of this habit are lacking. the species is certainly harmless for man, in spite of its large size — it attains a length of fifteen feet and a weight of five hundred pounds. it is a source of some annoyance to our mackerel fishermen because it often becomes entangled in the nets. in july, 1904, an imperfect skeleton of this fish about ten and one - half feet long, with cranium and two hundred and seventy - four vertebrae, was exhibited at atlantic city, as that of a “ sea serpent, ” and an impossible account of its capture was published in the local newspapers at the time ( for identity of this skeleton, see note by the writer in forest and stream, december 3, 1904 ). in strong contrast with the striking modification of the tail in the foregoing species, the hammer - head and the bonnet - head sharks ( sphyrna zygaena and s. tiburo


in forest and stream, december 3, 1904 ). in strong contrast with the striking modification of the tail in the foregoing species, the hammer - head and the bonnet - head sharks ( sphyrna zygaena and s. tiburo ), present grotesque lateral expansions of the head. both species range from the tropics along our east coast as far as massachusetts. the former is a voracious species and, attaining a length of more than fifteen feet, is formidable to man ; the latter, much the commoner on our south atlantic coast, rarely exceeds five feet in length. mitchill ’ s fishes of new york records the capture of three hammer - heads in a net at riverhead, new york, september, 1805 ; the largest, eleven feet long, contained the detached remains of a man and also a striped cotton shirt. the sand shark ( carcharias taurus ) is one of the best - known sharks of our atlantic coast. it is sometimes called “ shovel - nose shark ” and “ dogfish shark ” on the shores of new england. its usual length is under five feet, but it is said, perhaps on account of error in identification, to attain a length of twelve feet and a weight of two hundred and fifty pounds. it is built on rakish lines, its snout is sharp, its crescentic mouth is armed with long and narrow teeth, the fishermen say it has a wicked eye, and its disposition is vicious. it is able to do very serious injury to careless fishermen who are trying to remove it from their nets or boats, and the writer has seen it inflict fearful wounds on other species of sharks confined with it in the observation pool at woods hole, massachusetts. the largest family of sharks in our waters is the carcharinidae. ( 5 ) the many genera however are not always easily distinguishable until the teeth and dermal denticles are carefully examined ( see illustration ). two of the most interesting are the blue shark ( mustelus canis ), a world - wide species attaining a moderate size, characterized by the very dark blue color of the upper parts ; and the tiger shark, or leopard shark ( galeocerdo cuvier ), an active, graceful, ferocious species, with razor - like teeth. the latter is known from provincetown, woods hole, and other places on the atlantic coast. ( 6 ) scientific names of fish are not always expressive of obvious habits or structure, but somniosus microcephalus, or the


teeth. the latter is known from provincetown, woods hole, and other places on the atlantic coast. ( 6 ) scientific names of fish are not always expressive of obvious habits or structure, but somniosus microcephalus, or the “ small - headed sleeper, ” aptly describes a large boreal shark that makes occasional visits to our coasts as far south as cape cod and oregon. its body seems to have developed at the expense of its brain, for it is a sluggish stupid glutton that reaches a length of twenty - five to thirty feet. it is said to be a very active foe of whales. when caught in the fisheries of western europe, the sleeper shark is brought in by the fishermen and offered for sale as food, although its market value is small. the writer has seen it in the markets of grimsby, cuxhaven, and hamburg. [ media : node / 1474 horizontal caption medium right ] one of the rarest and at the same time most strongly differentiated sharks on the coasts of the united states is the cow shark ( hexanchus griseus ), at once recognizable by its single dorsal fin, and its six gill apertures. the dentition also is peculiar ( in the front of the tipper jaw there are four pointed teeth, on each side of which are three with one or several cusps, and laterally the teeth have many cusps ; while in the middle of the lower jaw there are a small tooth with or without a cusp, and lateral serrated teeth with many cusps ). there appears to be only one instance of the occurrence of ’ this shark in our waters, although it is said by poey to be often found about cuba. an individual ten feet two inches long was taken in 1886 at currituck inlet, n. c., a plaster cast of which is in the united states national museum. on the shores of western and southern europe, where the cow shark is most common, it attains a length of twenty - six feet or over. among the most interesting sharks of the world are the deep - sea species. the extreme depth at which sharks have been found is about one and one - sixth miles. the deep - sea forms are for the most part small, of a blackish or dark brownish color, and do not exhibit any marked structural differentiation from the littoral and pelagic species. there have been taken off the east coast of africa and in the gulf of aden ( on the “


part small, of a blackish or dark brownish color, and do not exhibit any marked structural differentiation from the littoral and pelagic species. there have been taken off the east coast of africa and in the gulf of aden ( on the “ valdivia ” cruise ), at a maximum depth of 1, 006 fathoms, several specimens of a hitherto unknown shark ( apristurus indicus ). the largest is thirteen inches long. this species inhabits a greater depth than any other shark, as far as known. ( 7 ) one of the most striking of the deep - sea sharks is a form taken by the “ albatross ” in batangas bay, luzon, philippine islands, at a depth of one hundred and seventy fathoms ( it was made the type of a new genus and called squaliolus laticaudus by smith & radcliffe. it is cylindrical, slender, with very narrow peduncle and very broad tail, and is jet black, with the fins wholly or partly white. the species is represented by a single pair, of which the fully developed male ( which is larger than the female ) measures less than six inches in length. it is believed that no other shark is so diminutive. we have not yet spoken of the largest of all sharks — which means the largest of all fishes of the world. this is the “ whale shark ” ( rhinodon typus ), originally described from cape of good hope, but now known from india, japan, south america, panama, california, and various other places. there have been two individuals taken on the coast of florida, the first, a rather small one ( eighteen feet long ) obtained at ormond in 1902 ; the second a veritable monster, caught at knight ’ s key in june, 1912. the skin of the fish was stuffed in a distorted shape ( see photo below ) and exhibited in various parts of the country as “ the only creature of the kind in the world. ” the advertised length of the fish was forty - five feet, but from the best information obtainable it was somewhat more than thirty - eight feet long before stuffing. this shark has a very broad and obtuse snout and an exceedingly wide mouth armed with numerous minute teeth ; the dark - colored body is marked with many small whitish spots. the species is stated to attain a length of seventy feet and is known to exceed fifty feet. notwithstanding its immense size, however, it is harmless to man unless attacked, and


teeth ; the dark - colored body is marked with many small whitish spots. the species is stated to attain a length of seventy feet and is known to exceed fifty feet. notwithstanding its immense size, however, it is harmless to man unless attacked, and feeds on the small creatures for which its teeth are adapted. its huge bulk makes it dangerous in the same way that a whale is dangerous. years ago it was reported that the sperm - whale fishermen on the island of saint denis, in the indian ocean, dreaded to harpoon a whale shark by mistake, and stories are told of how a harpooned fish “ having by a lightning - like dive exhausted the supply of rope which had been accidentally fastened to the boat, dived deeper still, and so pulled a pirogue and crew to the bottom. ” [ media : node / 1476 full left caption ] the sharks most numerous on the united states coasts are the small forms known as dogfishes, which belong in two distinct families and get their name from their habit of going in droves or packs like wild clogs. the smooth dogfish ( mustelus canis ), is one of the omnipresent fishes of the atlantic coast in summer from cape cod to cape hatteras, and is abundant on the lower carolina coast in spring. it is a slender graceful species, without spines in the dorsal fins, reaching a length of three feet, and having pavement - like teeth adapted for crushing lobsters, crabs, and other bottom - loving creatures. the horny or spiny dogfish ( squalus acanthias ) is found on both sides of the north atlantic and is easily the most abundant and most destructive of our east - coast sharks. the spiny dogfish ranges as far north as the gulf of st. lawrence and south to north carolina, and reaches its maximum abundance north of cape cod. coming along our shores in schools containing untold millions, and one school following another often with slight intermission, these fishes do immense damage for fishermen by devouring or mutilating the food fish taken in the gill nets, by eating the bait and the line - caught fish, by chewing and tearing nets and lines, by filling pound nets to the exclusion of other fish, and by devouring lobsters in and out of the lobster pots. when the schools of dogfish appear, the fishermen must abandon their efforts, and the loss of fish and apparatus is thus supplemented by loss of time. there have been seasons when the damage to the


b complex vitamins what are b complex vitamins? b vitamins refer to a group of water soluble vitamins that play an incredibly important role in cellular metabolism. in the past it was believed that there was only one type of vitamin b as is the case for other types of vitamins such as vitamin a and vitamin c. but as research progressed scientists began to understand that there actually eight chemically distinct types of vitamin b. they are all referred to as being in the family of vitamin b due to the fact that they are chemically and molecularly related in structure and function. they just have a few chemical differences that change how they interact with the body. you can take b vitamins either individually or as part of a vitamin b complex. a ' vitamin b complex ' is the term used for a supplement that contains more than one type of vitamin b, but doesn ' t have to contain all eight different types of the vitamin. some complex b vitamins can contain different levels of b vitamins depending on what an individual patient needs. types of b vitamins - vitamin b1 - thiamine - vitamin b2 - riboflavin - vitamin b3 - niacin - vitamin b5 - pantothenic acid - vitamin b6 - pyridoxine hydrochloride - vitamin b7 - biotin - vitamin b9 - folic acid - vitamin b12 - cyanocobalamin functions of vitamin b all of the different types of vitamin b are essential to keeping you healthy by allowing many essential bodily functions to operate smoothly and effectively. vitamin b is necessary in supporting and even increasing your bodies rate of metabolism. this means that it helps your body use energy more efficiently and effectively. if you are trying to lose or maintain a certain weight, having enough b vitamins in your diet is essential. vitamin b can help maintain healthy skin, hair and muscle tone as well as enhancing and maintaining your immune and nervous systems. it promotes the growth of bodily cells, the most important of them being red blood cells. vitamin b has also been shown to reduce ones risk of contracting pancreatic cancer when ingested in the food you eat. vitamin b deficienciesvitamin b deficiencies can lead to absolutely detrimental health complications. there are eight different types of vitamin b, and in order to remain healthy, you need to ensure that you are receiving a healthy daily dose of them in order to avoid a deficiency of any of the eight different kinds of vitamin b. the complete list of complications that can occur should your experience any


and in order to remain healthy, you need to ensure that you are receiving a healthy daily dose of them in order to avoid a deficiency of any of the eight different kinds of vitamin b. the complete list of complications that can occur should your experience any serious vitamin b deficiency is quite lengthy. some mild deficiencies can cause mood alterations, fatigue, weight loss, irregular heartbeats, acne, insomnia, and a weakened immune systems. if you should ever experience a serious vitamin b deficiency you might be at risk for psychosis, peripheral neuropathy, hypertension, dementia, pseudo - syphilis, amnesia and other severe complications that can result in death if you don ' t receive treatment. vitamin b foods vitamin b is most commonly found in whole and unprocessed foods. processed foods such as some less expensive cheeses, canned soups, processed sugars, candy, deli meats and canned meats tend to have lower levels of vitamin b due to the fact that most of it has been removed due to the processing process. you can look for good sources of vitamin b in foods such as whole grains, kombucha, potatoes, bananas, lentils, tempeh, beans, chili peppers, brewers yeast and unprocessed sugars such as molasses. vitamin b complexes and other forms of vitamin b supplements can provide a good source of this essential vitamin, but studies have shown that it is more effective to get a good dose of vitamin b from the food you eat. natural supplement + 271 se cody ave. suite # 330 phoenix, az 85002 ph : ( 602 ) 261 - 2817 monday - friday 8am - 5pm closed weekends & holidays " i ' ve been going to natural supplement plus for about a year now, and i love the help. they ' re all very friendly and know exactly what they ' re talking about. " " my doctor said i needed to start taking vitamin e supplements. i had no idea what to look for, natural supplement plus helped me find exactly what i need "


नपाली भाषामा गरन आवशयक । नपालीमा । नपालीमा लखन तरिका हरन यहा कलिक गरनहोस । सटरचर is a मडिकल उपकरण used for short - term carrying of patients who require medical care. stretchers are primarily used in acute out - of - hospital care situations by ems, military, and search and rescue personnel. सटरचरहर can be equipped with a variable height lower frame containing wheels, tracks, or skids to allow the stretcher to be moved more easily. a simple stretcher does not have such a frame and therefore needs to be carried by two or more people. despite these differences, their essential function remains the same. they can often be referred to as a cot, litter, gurney, bed, cart, or ( for bariatric stretchers ) land barge. [ समपादन गरन ] stretchers have been used since antiquity, on battlefields and in emergency situations, where wheeled vehicles are hindered by rough terrain. in their simplest form, they generally consisted of a canvas sling with long edges sewn to themselves to form pockets through with wooden poles could be slid. this form was common with militaries right through the middle of the 20th century, and in disaster situations, where rapid triage and movement of patients based on severity of injuries is critical, they are still used by emergency response providers. many stretcher are referred to as " gurneys ". the name gurney comes from its similarity to a horse - drawn cab patented in the u. s. in 1883 by j. theodore gurney. सटरचरका परकारहर [ समपादन गरन ] - ems stretchers used in ambulances have wheels that makes transportation over pavement easier, and have a lock inside the ambulance and seatbelts to secure the victim during transport. an integral lug on the gurney locks into a sprung latch within the ambulance in order to prevent movement during transport. modern stretchers may often in have the addition of battery - powered hydraulics to raise and collapse the legs automatically. this eases the workload on ems personnel, who are statistically at high risk of back injury from repetitive raising and lowering of patients. specialized bariatric stretchers are


addition of battery - powered hydraulics to raise and collapse the legs automatically. this eases the workload on ems personnel, who are statistically at high risk of back injury from repetitive raising and lowering of patients. specialized bariatric stretchers are also available, which feature a wider frame and higher weight capacity for heavier patients. stretchers are usually covered with a disposable sheet or wrapping and cleaned after each patient in order to prevent the spread of infection. shelves, hooks and poles for medical equipment and intravenous medication are also frequently included. - simple stretchers are the most rudimentary type. they are lightweight and portable, being made of canvas or other synthetic material suspended between two poles or tubular aluminum frame. many are stored as disaster supplies and are often former military surplus. - the folding stretcher, also known as a top deck or collapsible stretcher, is similar in design to the simple stretcher, but features one or more hinged points of articulation to allow the stretcher to be collapsed into a more compact form for easier handling or storage. some models may even allow the patient to sit upright in a fowler ' s or semi - fowler ' s position. - the scoop stretcher is used for lifting patients, for instance from the ground onto an ambulance stretcher or long board. the two ends of the stretcher can be detached from each other, splitting the stretcher into two longitudinal halves. to load a patient, one or both ends of the stretcher are detached, the halves placed under the patient from either side and fastened back together. with obese patients, the possibility exists of accidentally pinching the patient ' s back when closing the stretcher, so care must be made not to injure them when carrying out this procedure. - a reeves stretcher, reeves sleeve, sked, or ' flexible stretcher ' is a flexible stretcher that is often supported longitudinally by wooden or plastic planks. it is a kind of tarpaulin with handles. it is primarily used to move a patient through confined spaces ( e. g. a narrow hallway ), or to lift obese patients ( reeves stretchers have 6 handholds, allowing multiple rescuers to assist extrication ). - the stokes basket, also known as litter or rescue basket, is designed to be used where there are obstacles to movement or other hazards : for example, in confined spaces, on slopes, in wooded terrain. typically it is shaped to accommodate an adult in a face up position and


known as litter or rescue basket, is designed to be used where there are obstacles to movement or other hazards : for example, in confined spaces, on slopes, in wooded terrain. typically it is shaped to accommodate an adult in a face up position and it is used in search and rescue operations. the person is strapped into the basket, making safe evacuation possible. the litter has raised sides and often includes a removable head / torso cover for patient protection. after the person is secured in the litter, the litter may be wheeled, carried by hand, mounted on an atv, towed behind skis, snowmobile, or horse, lifted or lowered on high angle ropes, or hoisted by helicopter. - the nimier stretcher ( brancard nimier ) was a type of stretcher used by the french army during world war i. the casualty was placed on his back, but in a " seated position ", ( that is, the thighs were perpendicular to the abdomen ). thus, the stretcher was shorter and could turn in the trenches. this type of stretcher is rarely seen today. ( see a picture ). अर परकारका सटरचरहर [ समपादन गरन ] with healthcare changing, a new type of ' hybrid ' device is now being used by healthcare facilities. this hybrid device is referred to as a ' transmotion. ' a ' transmotion ' is a type of medical patient handling device that combines the following devices into one ; a stretcher, a recliner chair, and a treatment or procedural table. nursing back injuries are ranking at an all - time high, and healthcare is demanding a more integrated device like the transmotion. सटरचर बनाउन तरिका [ समपादन गरन ] | यो अनभाग खालि । कलिक गरनहोस ।. | यी पनि हरनहोस [ समपादन गरन ] बाहिरी कडीहर [ समपादन गरन ] | विकिमीडिया कमनसमा अर धर सामागरीहर : stretcher | | हरनहोस सटरचर विकसनरी, खलला


a delegation is the commission to another of jurisdiction, which is to be exercised in the name of the person delegating. jurisdiction is defined as the power of anyone who has public authority and pre - eminence over others for their rule and government. in ancient roman law, delegation was the substitution of one debtor for another ; the second debtor making payment in the name of the first. in modern civil law, the term delegations is used for committees of representatives or judges, who in the name of the parliament of the judiciary consider and determine the special matters confided to them. in canon law, delegation is the spiritual jurisdiction or power which a person exercises in virtue of a commission from one having ordinary jurisdiction ( see jurisdiction ), with the understanding that such delegate must act in the name of the one delegating. the canons distinguish between delegation ab homine, and delegation a jure. the former is that which comes from a person in the strict sense of the word ; while the latter may have its source in a juridical or moral person. thus, it is through delegation a jure, that is in virtue of jurisdiction granted by the council of trent, that bishops have certain powers in regard to exempted regulars. whenever the common law designates a person as having powers which belong to another by ordinary right, the one upon whom they are conferred is said to be a delegate a jure. if bishops exercise such powers " as delegates of the apostolic see ", an appeal against their actions would have to be made to the pope, for it is really his jurisdiction they are employing ; while if the common law refers to them as acting " also as delegates of the holy see ", an appeal could be taken to the metropolitan, as in such a case the bishop acts in virtue of both ordinary and delegated jurisdiction. historically, the origin of canonical delegation is to be sought most probably in the fifth ( in the latin version, the seventh ) canon of the council of sardica ( a. d. 347 ), which speaks of judges delegated for roman appeals. from the fifth century onwards, instances of appointment of delegates by the popes are distinctly recorded, and such delegation became more frequent as time went on, particularly since the pontificate of gregory i ( 590 - 604 ). anyone having ordinary jurisdiction may delegate another, unless such power be expressly withheld from him. it is necessary to mention this restriction, for although parish priests have ordinary jurisdiction for the tribunal of penance, yet


i ( 590 - 604 ). anyone having ordinary jurisdiction may delegate another, unless such power be expressly withheld from him. it is necessary to mention this restriction, for although parish priests have ordinary jurisdiction for the tribunal of penance, yet they cannot strictly delegate another for that task, because the hearing of confessions belongs to the external forum and all confessions need episcopal approbation. the person delegated by the lawful superior must be a cleric well versed in the matter for which he receives delegation, and he must not be excommunicate. while the age of twenty years is prescribed by law for the delegate, it is also provided that the age of eighteen will suffice, if those concerned are satisfied. several delegates may be appointed for the same matter. in this case each may receive such a commission that if he undertake the matter alone the other delegates may no longer interfere, unless the first be hindered from determining it ( delegatus in solidum ) ; or the power in a cause may be delegated to several persons so that they must act together to make the effect of their delegation valid ( delegatus simpliciter ). if the delegate be commissioned by the pope, he should ordinarily be an ecclesiastical dignitary or a cathedral canon, and the case should be heard in a city or place of some religious or civic distinction. it is evident, however, that the sovereign pontiff may, if he choose, derogate from these laws in all their aspects. general defects disqualifying a person to receive delegation are infamy, deafness, insanity, dumbness, slavery, and the like. it was stated that the person delegated should be a cleric ; for neither bishops nor those inferior to them can delegate a layman for spiritual matters or for criminal causes of ecclesiastics. it is disputed whether a delegation made by them to lay judges to determine even civil causes of clerics would be valid. the pope, however, may delegate laymen for such cases when there is question of an individual instance. reiffenstuel says that to commit in general all causes of ecclesiastics to laymen, would be to do away with the forensic privilege of clerics ( privilegium fori ) and therefore is outside the sphere of papal prerogatives, as the exemption of clerics is probably of divine right. the granting of a delegation may be verbal, except in cases where the law expressly prescribes that it be in writing.


therefore is outside the sphere of papal prerogatives, as the exemption of clerics is probably of divine right. the granting of a delegation may be verbal, except in cases where the law expressly prescribes that it be in writing. the delegation must also be the free act of the superior, for delegated faculties obtained absolutely against the will of the donor would be invalid. if, however, they be extorted by fear, they will not be void, for then they would not be absolutely against the will of the superior. delegated powers are necessary, either for the liceity or validity of an act performed by the delegate. if there be question only of the liceity of an act, permission reasonably presumed is sufficient. this would be the case, for example, in the administration of the sacraments, except penance and possibly matrimony. if, however, it be a question of the validity of an act, the delegation must be express, or at least rest upon a presumption of outward signs indicating actual consent. such, for example, would be the delegation requisite for valid absolution in the tribunal of penance. in general, a delegate may not proceed to the exercise of his power until it be formally notified to him, for, according to an axiom of law, jurisdiction is acquired only by one knowing and accepting. in certain cases, this knowledge and acceptance may be only implicitly implied, but it is then considered sufficient. the fact of delegation must be proved to those concerned in the matter at stake, either by showing them the written instrument or exhibiting unexceptionable testimony that the power has been received. the delegate must also carefully observe the form of procedure specified by the superior who has empowered him to act. in case of grievance, an appeal may be made against the delegate to the tribunal of the person who delegated him. this fact shows that the power of the vicar - general of a diocese is not delegated power, for there is no appeal from his tribunal to that of the bishop, because their tribunal is declared to be one and the same. the power of a vicar - general is most correctly characterized as quasi - ordinary, for on the one hand, he holds an office to which certain faculties are annexed, and on the other, he exercises his powers in the name of another. some canonists, however, maintain that a vicar - general has delegated, and others that he has ordinary jurisdiction. finally, no inferior ordinaries can