- join over 1. 2 million students every month - accelerate your learning by 29 % - unlimited access for just £4. 99 per month evaluation of cultural, social and technological diffusion in the modern world the first 200 words of this essay... an evaluation of cultural, social and technological diffusion in the modern world when two different cultures come together, their better ideas, innovations and ideals tend to mesh into one another. it pertains mostly to technological advances that one people have on meeting another group, that this second group then learns of and takes advantage of. this happens invariably whenever two cultural groups interact for a sustained time ; it is particularly acute when developed culture collides with a less developed one. diffusion is the process of cultural integration by the mixing of ideas and objects. to some critics, this process is a destruction of smaller ethnic cultures and a loss of diversity, driving them to term it ' cultural contamination. the following are several specific cases in which such ' contamination ' or diffusion has occurred, and an appraisal of its effect on the world. the great cities in africa are prime examples of diffusion. the cultural and ethnic diversity there spans a broad range. while the common people may still wash their clothing and get their drinking at a village or personal well, they can also be found talking on cell phones, which have become found what you ' re looking for? - start learning 29 % faster today - over 150, 000 essays available - just £4. 99 a month not the one? we have 100 ' s more anthropology ( view all ) - chinese architecture. this essay shortly describes the ancie... - to what extent do individuals script their own lives and to... - a demographic, socioeconomic and socio - political evaluation... - anthropology : study notes ( trobrianders ) - in search of respect chapter 3 handout " " yvette agars. senior history teacher. saint john ' s college. whyalla s. a. " " asmaa, uae. gcse student. biology, physics, chemistry, maths and english.


last week ’ s definitive guide to fats gave us a chance to unpack the essential fatty acids. but we thought they deserved a closer look still. just to review, omega - 3 and omega - 6 are known as “ essential ” fatty acids because the body can ’ t produce them itself. so, it ’ s up to us to incorporate them into our diet. the typical western diet is rich in omega - 6. ( think corn, soy, peanut, safflower, and other oils. ) as for the prevalence of omega - 3? not so much. ( think fish, flax, algae, walnuts, and animal products from grass fed livestock. ) we talked about the importance of ratio last time. experts estimate that the typical american diet has as much as 30 parts omega - 6 to 1 part omega - 3 ( 30 : 1 ). uff da. as we said last time, there ’ s some squabbling to be certain about the proper ratio. some nutritionists go as high as 4 : 1. others suggest 2 : 1. but since we ’ re all about the primal here, we ’ re taken in by the ratio most experts agree characterized hunter gatherer diets. and that would be an elegant 1 : 1 ratio. you gotta love simple. so, what ’ s with the bickering about ratios anyway? the fact is, omega - 3 keeps omega - 6 in check. omega - 6, when left to its own devices, wreaks havoc, inciting and oxidizing ldl in the body ( a real cholesterol threat ). lower ratios have been associated with higher bone density and decreased risk for diabetes, arrhythmia and heart disease. among other cultures, the ratio is much more favorable, and death from heart disease is much lower. greenland eskimos, because of high fish consumption, are estimated to have a 1 : 1 ratio. according to one study, their rate of death due to heart disease is approximately 15 % of what it is for those in the u. s. and europe who eat a typical western diet. furthermore, the traditional diets of the mediterranean and okinawa, japan, are characterized by high levels of omega - 3 fatty acids and a low 6 to 3 ratio of 4 : 1 or less. ratios have also been assessed in the context of particular diseases and physiological conditions. a 2 : 1 ratio was found to reduce inflammation associated with rheumatoid arthritis, while even a 5 : 1 ratio relieved symptoms


of 4 : 1 or less. ratios have also been assessed in the context of particular diseases and physiological conditions. a 2 : 1 ratio was found to reduce inflammation associated with rheumatoid arthritis, while even a 5 : 1 ratio relieved symptoms in those with asthma. with all the fervor over omega - 3 fatty acids, there ’ s a lot of questions out there regarding recommended amounts. the world health organization recommends two servings of fish ( particularly fatty fish like salmon, herring, sardines and mackerel ) as well as the use of oils containing omega - 3. other experts recommend three to four servings of low toxin fish each week. and how much is too much, especially if you choose to take an omega - 3 supplement? or is there such a thing? although there isn ’ t an official rda for omega - 3 fatty acids, you can consider anywhere between 1 - 3 grams daily to be optimal. there is some concern about the fatty acid ’ s ability to thin the blood too much with higher doses. we ’ d advise talking with your doctor about beginning a supplement. if you ’ re taking a blood thinner or a daily aspirin regimen, that conversation and perhaps some monitoring will be essential. there has been some indication that larger doses of omega - 3 fatty acids can be ( in very rare cases ) associated with an increased risk of stroke. many doctors will also suggest that you stop taking the supplement within a week or more of surgery. with all that said, supplementing your diet with a high - quality omega - 3 fatty acid supplement is, in our estimation, one of the best things you can do for your body. thoughts? comments? further questions? shoot us a line. subscribe to mark ’ s daily apple feeds


counting calories, tallying nutrients, avoiding junk food - - they ' re smart dietary practices for anyone, but they ' re even more essential for pregnant women. in fact, new research suggests that the foods you eat can play a role in how your baby ' s genes are expressed, affecting factors such as weight and intelligence. dr. oz, host of " the dr. oz show, " and dr. michael roizen share healthy eating tips for pregnant women from their new book, " you : having a baby. " eating for two? try 1. 1 one of the most widely held myths about pregnancy is that expectant mothers should eat for two. actually, research suggests that women should increase their caloric intake by 10 percent - - you ' re really eating for 1. 1. during the first trimester, you should shoot for an increase of about 100 calories per day more than a typically healthy intake of calories, the equivalent of an extra glass of skim milk. during the second trimester, you ' ll want to increase to an extra 250 calories per day, and for the third, about an extra 300 calories. don ' t forget fat - - healthy fat there are certain fats that our bodies need but cannot make, and dha ( docosahexaenoic acid ) is a prime example. dha is an omega - 3 fatty acid found in fish oil. it ' s essential for the development of a baby ' s brain, nervous system, and vision, both in the womb and as a newborn. in addition to products with added dha, such as eggs and milk, try these naturally dha - rich foods : - light canned tuna go nuts for nuts when cravings hit and you ' re tempted to reach for unhealthy junk food, try healthy nuts instead. almonds, hazelnuts, and walnuts are all great choices for that midday snack. not only will the extra dose of magnesium give you a great energy boost, but the healthy unsaturated fats, fiber, and vitamin e they contain will keep you looking healthy and radiant from the inside out.


maryland ’ s 7 best practices, aligned! this page contains links to maryland ’ s updated 7 best practices, which have been aligned to fit with the national youth leadership council ’ s ( nylc ) k - 12 service - learning standards for quality practice. in 2008, nylc put out eight nationally recognized standards that were supported by credible research. by tweaking the language in maryland ’ s 7 best practices to align with nylc ’ s standards, we can now use the same research to support what we ’ ve known and practiced all along – effective and meaningful service - learning projects as a viable instructional strategy. this page contains links to basic introductions to service - learning. these resources are great for professional development sessions and basic information that everyone should know about service - learning. from fact sheets to training guides, this is the perfect place to start educating yourself or your staff about service - learning. resources specifically meant for administrators, these links include information about school improvement and strategies to improve the implementation of service - learning in your building. how effectively are you implementing service - learning in your classroom? your school? your district? use these rubrics to help you determine what you are doing well and what can be improved. character education and service - learning these links will all pertain to effectively implementing character education and service - learning in your school. 21st century community learning centers and service - learning these links will all pertain to effectively implementing service - learning in 21st century schools.


there are essentially two classes of delegation. it is defined as follows : if an authentication mechanism provides an effective identity different from the validated identity of the user then it is called identity delegation at the authentication level, provided the owner of the effective identity has previously authorized the owner of the validated identity to use his identity. the existing techniques of identity delegation using sudo or su commands of unix are very popular. to use sudo command, a person first has to start his session with his own original identity. it requires the delegated account password or explicit authorizations granted by the system administrator. the user login delegation described in the patent of mercredi and frey is also an identity delegation. the most common way of ensuring computer security is access control mechanisms provided by operating systems such as unix, linux, windows, mac os, etc. if the delegation is fine grained, like role - based access control ( rbac ) delegation, then there is always a risk of under - delegation, i. e., the delegator does not delegate all the necessary permissions to perform a delegated job. this may cause the denial of service, which is very undesirable in some environments, such as in safety critical systems or in health care. in rbac based delegation, one option to achieve delegation is by reassigning a set of permissions to the role of a delegatee, however, finding the relevant permissions for a particular job is not an easy task for large and complex systems. moreover, by assigning these permissions to a delegatee role, all other users who are associated with that particular role get the delegated rights. if the delegation is achieved by assigning the roles of a delegator to a delegatee then it would not only be a case of over - delegation but also the problem that the delegator has to figure out what roles, in the complex hierarchy of rbac, are necessary to perform a particular job. these types of problems are not present in identity delegation mechanism and normally the user interface is simpler. more details can be found in the literature of rbac.


your doctor will talk with you about your medical history and symptoms. he or she will also perform a pelvic exam and may order lab tests. specialists at mayo clinic use high - resolution imaging studies to diagnose adnexal tumors. in tests that involve radiation, specialists carefully monitor doses to avoid the risk of radiation overexposure. tests may include x - rays or some of these imaging techniques : - ultrasound. ultrasound is a painless procedure in which a technician moves a wand - like device ( transducer ) over the surface of your body while monitoring the image on a screen. transabdominal ( through the abdomen ) and transvaginal ( through the vagina ) doppler ultrasound technology is available at mayo clinic. - computerized tomography ( ct ) scan. ct scans generate 2 - d cross - sectional images of the abdomen and pelvis that show whether cancer has spread to other tissues or organs in your body. technology at mayo clinic allows for 3 - d reconstruction of the ct images. - magnetic resonance imaging ( mri ) scan. mri technology uses magnetic fields and radio waves to create detailed images of your pelvis and abdomen. this highly sensitive technology can identify small abnormalities in your body. - positron emission tomography ( pet ). to perform a pet scan, doctors inject sugar ( glucose ) and a very small amount of radiation into your bloodstream. the scan helps show if a tumor has spread, because tumors typically pick up the sugar and appear on the image as " hot spots. " to see if an adnexal tumor contains cancerous cells, a doctor may remove a small piece of the suspected tumor ( biopsy ), usually during surgery. a pathologist will examine the tissue under a microscope. read more about ultrasound, ct scan, mri, pet scan and biopsy.


raleigh — even hippos and whales, it turns out, can get fat. but how can you tell, let alone slim one down? obesity among zoo animals is such a complex problem that zoo nutritionists, scientists and others, from as far away as england, gathered at north carolina state university for a two - day symposium on such weighty matters as how to tell when an oyster ' s weight is about right. " it ' s actually a huge problem, and a multifaceted one, " said michael stoskopf, a professor at the college. " you have to look at not only diets themselves and the amount of calories delivered, but also things like exercise. " the basic cause of chubbiness is no different for moray eels and wildebeests than for humans : " if the energy going in exceeds the energy going out, you ' re going to get fat, " said karen lisi, a nutritionist at the smithsonian national zoological park. " we don ' t like to hear that, but that ' s pretty much how it is for us, too. " with so much variation among creatures, though, nutritionists have to treat the diet of each species almost like an individual scientific study, determining what it eats in the wild and how best to approximate it in captivity, said richard bergl, curator of conservation and research at the n. c. zoological park in asheboro. read the full story at newsobserver. com.


[ note : this essay, written in october 1996, remains one of my most requested web documents, downloaded 2349 times during a week in september 2002. though the web has changed a great deal since 1996, the font element is still around, and still exhibits all the harmful effects described below, even in modern browsers. fortunately, style sheets are much more widespread than they were, and these can avoid most of the harmful effects of the font element. ] when netscape introduced its font element, with its size = and color = attributes, many web authors welcomed the promise of control over the presentation of their documents ; the same authors felt a twinge of anticipation when microsoft introduced an additional face = attribute. many of these authors did not realize that their documents would become invisible, illegible, or inaccessible to many viewers. yet this is exactly what has happened, due to mistaken expectations and faulty implementation in popular browsers. extensions to html are said to " degrade gracefully " if they do not interfere with basic legibility in browsers that do not support these extensions. for character - mode browsers such as lynx, or other browsers that do not support font sizes, colors, and styles, the effects of the font element are relatively benign. if the author tries to emphasize specific text by its size or color, the user of the text - mode browser will see the text, but will not see the emphasis. if the author uses font settings instead of html headings, the same user will not see headings, and neither will the search engine or indexer looking for keywords in high - level headings to display prominently in the search results. but at least, the lynx user will be able to see the text. the truly insidious effects of the font element are reserved for users of popular graphic browsers like netscape and internet explorer. the font tag is a hindrance to communication over the world wide web because it makes too many assumptions about the user ' s system, browser, and configuration. cascading style sheets, on the other hand, negotiate between author and viewer to create a carefully - designed appearance that is accessible to all. people create web documents for many reasons. if you have something to say, information to provide, a message to preach, feelings to express, a product to sell, then it ' s in your interest to make your work accessible. smart web authors, who want to get their message across, stay far away from the font element. is the font element ever appropriate? not the color


after the agents for viral hepatitis a and b were identified in the 60s and 70s it was evident that there was a group of hepatitides caused by some other virus which would infect by blood and would be ultrafiltrable. this elusive virus was called " non - a, non - b ". it took 20 years to demonstrate its existence by nucleic acid analysis and still in 1996 we cannot see it with electron microscopy the reason is that its concentration in the blood is very low, probably 1 - 10 virions per ml. it took 5 - 6 years of work to extract it from infected patients by a group of investigators in california ( usa ), ( choo et al, science 244 : 359 - 361, 1989 ). the serum was concentrated into a pellet. rna was extracted from this pellet and its complimentary dna ( cdna ) placed into the genome of e. coli. numerous clones of this organism were tested by enzymatic immuno assay technique ( eia ) against the serum of patients convalescent of non - a non - b hepatitis until one clone was found producing a small protein that reacted with igg from the serum of these patients.. the reacting antigen was called c - 100 and the infective agent, hepatitis c virus ( hcv ). the virus contains a single - stranded genome of rna with approximately 10, 000 nucleotides, a capsid, a matrix and an envelope. it encodes a single polyprotein precursor which is fragmented in 3 structural ( c, e1, e2 ) and in 4 - 6 non structural proteins ( ns1, ns2, ns3, ns4, ns5 ) forming the following antigens : c100, c22, c33, c300, 5 - 1 - 1 other components are proteases, rna polymerase and transcriptases, not reverse transcriptase. we don ' t know the structure of the hcv because the virus has not been seen yet with the electron microscope due to the very scarce concentration of viral particles in the blood and tissues. probably only 1 - 10 virions per ml are present in the blood. hcv appears to be similar to flaviviruses which produce only acute illnesses especially in animals, the prototype being yellow fever virus. hcv does not integrate into host dna like hepatitis b virus. hcv has very high mutation rate producing many similar species. this variation accounts for resistance to antibodies. the transmission is by contaminated blood and


in animals, the prototype being yellow fever virus. hcv does not integrate into host dna like hepatitis b virus. hcv has very high mutation rate producing many similar species. this variation accounts for resistance to antibodies. the transmission is by contaminated blood and blood products. before screening was available, 90 % of post - transfusion hepatitis was due to hepatitis c, now only 5 %. practically all hemophiliacs were infected. it is rarely or not at all sexually transmitted especially among monogamous partners. hepatitis c carriers should not donate blood, organs or semen. maternal - infant transmission is low. incubation period is 2 - 26 ( mean. 7. 8 ) weeks, most infected patients, 80 - 85 %, are asymptomatic. circa 25 % of post blood transfusion patients are symptomatic and develop jaundice and alt to high levels. 40 % of all infected patients develop a chronic course. almost all chronic hepatitis c infections do not improve spontaneously. the infection persists mostly in a mild chronic form and only a minority of cases develop cirrhosis and / or hepatocellular carcinoma. the complications are greatly influenced by alcohol. in mild chronic cases the disease does not deteriorate in about 2 / 3 of the cases. it progresses to moderate or severe chronic active forms in about 1 / 3 and ends in cirrhosis in fewer than 10 %. in moderate cases, 50 % will progress to more severe chronic forms. in all severe cases usually the disease progress to cirrhosis. progressive cases should be identified and should receive interferon treatment. histology is a valuable predictor of progression. these evolutionary changes develop slowly, in an average of 15 years. in summary, viral hepatitis c has a long natural history with mostly benign course, therefore, the frequency of death from all causes in long - standing hepatitis c patients and in controls is identical. 1 - - cirrhosis may take 10 - 20 years or more to appear and will have a long indolent course. in exceptional cases ( hypogammaglobulinemia, hiv ) cirrhosis may have a rapid 5 year course. 2 - - hepatocellular carcinoma develops in the presence or absence of cirrhosis. ( de mitri, j hepathology 21 ( suppl 1 ) : s17, 1994 ). it may take 30 - 60 years to appear. hcv rna can be demonstrated in the tumor as well as in surrounding liver tissue although hc


de mitri, j hepathology 21 ( suppl 1 ) : s17, 1994 ). it may take 30 - 60 years to appear. hcv rna can be demonstrated in the tumor as well as in surrounding liver tissue although hcv rna cannot be integrated in the hepatocytic dna. 3 - - essential cryoglobulinemia - which produce purpura, arthralgia and weakness. relationship between hcv and cryoglobulin in not clear. 4 - - porphyria cutanea tarda due to decrease of uroporphyrinogen decarboxylase consists of cutaneous vesicles in exposed areas. 5 - - lichen planus. it can be exacerbated by alpha - interferon treatment. 6 - - mooren ' s corneal ulcers. they improve with alpha - interferon. infection in special subjects | the course is similar to that in adults. there is no growth retardation. children don ' t die of hepatitis c because in this disease cirrhosis takes 10 - 20 years to develop and cause death. treatment with alpha - interferon has produced same results as in adults. no problems in the development of the fetus. perinatal transmission is less than 5 %. perinatal gamma globulin administration has no benefit. prenatal screening of pregnant women for hepatitis c is not recommended. hcv is not detected in milk. the incidence of patients on dialysis affected by membranous glomerulopathy and positive for hcv is high but they may acquire hcv infection through blood transfusions, infected organs and instrumentation. hcv does not appear to be directly nephrotropic besides being hepatotropic. infected patients on dialysis should, therefore, be isolated from non - infected patients both by dialysis machine and by area. hcv infection does not influence the outcome of renal transplants. viral hepatitis c infection induces the general changes of hepatitis, namely, necroinflammation and fibrosis. these two parameters are morphologically estimated according to the scoring system presented in the discussion of viral hepatitis b. ( see contents, li - 5 - 3 ). as in hepatitis b, the damage of hepatocytes is considered to be immunomediated, ( acadia, intervirology 37 ( 2 ) : 126 - 132, 1994 ), although direct viral cytopathogenicity is also


in hepatitis b, the damage of hepatocytes is considered to be immunomediated, ( acadia, intervirology 37 ( 2 ) : 126 - 132, 1994 ), although direct viral cytopathogenicity is also probable. a few quantitative differences of pathological changes appear to be associated more with hepatitis c : 1 - - a mild but constant necroinflammation in the parenchyma. ( gerber, ver. deu.. ges. path. 79 : 162 - 70, 1995 ). ( lobular hepatitis ). 2 - - more common lymphocytosis in sinusoids. 3 - - a strong lymphocytic infiltration of portal fields. 4 - - epithelial damage of portal bile ducts. 5 - - macro and microvesicular steatosis. 6 - - mallory body - like material. ( lefkowitch, gastroenterology 104 : 595 - 603, 1993 ). 7 - - hemosiderin granules in endothelium of portal and septal venules. ( kaji, human path. 26 ( 10 ) : 1080 - 5, 1995 ). 8 - - perivenular fibrosis similar to alcohol. ( uchimura, liver 15 ( 6 ) : 300 - 6, 1995 ) hcv antigens can be detected in the cytoplasm of infected hepatocytes with antibodies especially in frozen tissue with immunohistochemistry. hcv rna can be detected in fixed liver tissue by in situ hybridization. this test is more sensitive than immunohistochemistry. | fig. 115 - lobular | fig. 116 - sinusoidal | fig. 117 - steatosis | fig. 118 - mallory - like | fig. 119 - portal | fig. 120 - bile duct | fig. 121 - fibrosis | fig. 122 - hcvag 1 - serological tests for hcv specific antibodies. a ) ( eia ). enzyme immuno assay. hcv has multiple antigen proteins. serological testing for these proteins forms the basis for demonstrating the infection. the first test consisted of enzyme immunoassaying for one protein, c100 - 3 ( eia - 1 ). assaying for multiple antigen by same enzymatic method improved sensitivity to 94 - 100 % and specificity to 97 %. false negative results were seen in : - - patients tested


protein, c100 - 3 ( eia - 1 ). assaying for multiple antigen by same enzymatic method improved sensitivity to 94 - 100 % and specificity to 97 %. false negative results were seen in : - - patients tested before seroconversion ( before developing antibodies to hcv antigens ) - - immunosuppressed patients ( hiv, organ transplants ). - - viral heterogeneity ( viral mutant different than usa predominant virus ( type 1a ). false positive results were seen in : - - connective tissue disorders. b ) ( riba ). recombinant immuno blot assay. it is performed on a cellulose strip. four hcv antigens are blotted and reacted with patient ' s sera. reactivity in at least 2 bands ( riba - 2 ) indicate positive results which are obtained in 85 % of patient infected with hcv. 2 - direct demonstration of hcv rna by pcr. the viral rna from whole blood, serum, plasma, fixed tissues, is converted to complimentary dna ( cdna ) by reverse transcriptase and then amplified by pcr. this is a highly sensitive and highly specific confirmatory test. there are, however false negative but not false positive results. the test is especially useful to monitor the effectiveness of the interferon treatment. for this purpose : 3 - quantification of hcf rna has been developed. the test results could separate responders from non - responders to treatment. 4 - determination of hcv genotypes will also help in the determination of aggressivnes, possible outcome and management of the infection. there are conflicting reports as to which genotype is more aggressive and which is more benign. it seems that type 1b is more aggressive responding less to interferon therapy and requiring more liver transplants, type 2 seems to be more benign and responds better to interferon treatment. this test with serology and morphology will have a determining place in the management of hepatitis c. there are two conditions that can be confused with hepatitis c : 1 - - autoimmune chronic active hepatitis. 2 - - alcoholic liver disease. instances have been reported of patients who were treated with alpha - interferon for hepatitis c without any result and responded dramatically to cortisone therapy indicating presence of an autoimmune hepatitis. according to a most recent report from germany " distinction between autoimmune liver disease and viral hepatitis c could be made reliably


c without any result and responded dramatically to cortisone therapy indicating presence of an autoimmune hepatitis. according to a most recent report from germany " distinction between autoimmune liver disease and viral hepatitis c could be made reliably on clinical and laboratory grounds and - - - - a link between hepatitis a, b, or c virus infection and autoimmune liver diseases is high unlikely ". ( lohse et al, zeitschrift fur gastr. 33 ( 9 ) : 527 - 33, 1995 ). in case of doubt it is better to try first treatment with cortisone than with alpha - interferon. alcohol seem to aggravate hepatitis c, actually " patients with hepatitis c who develop cirrhosis under age 50 are those who consume alcohol daily ". ( bader, viral hepatitis, page 141, h & h publishers, 1994 ). thus, patients with alcoholic liver disease should be tested for hepatitis c especially if rapid deterioration of the " alcoholic " cirrhosis is observed. the existing treatment is, so far ( 1996 ) alpha - 2b interferon, which is of long duration, with serious side effects and expensive. it produces temporary results in about 40 % and permanent results in only 20 % of the patients. the best responders are those cases without cirrhosis, without severe inflammation, with low serum ferritin, low serum ggt ( gamma - glutamyl transpeptidase ), low body weight, low viremia hcv. in a series of patients who remained viremic after a sustained biochemical response to interferon therapy 53 % of the cases positive for hcv rna relapsed in a 4 year time. test for hcv rna 1 year after a sustained biochemical response to interferon therapy should be done to determine whether the response is complete and permanent. ( chemello ann. int. med. 124 ( 12 ) : 1058 - 60, 1996 ). positivity for hcv rna was encountered in patients who were older, had received smaller doses of interferon and were infected more frequently with hcv genotype 2. it appears that reinfection of transplanted liver in pre - transplant recipients positive for hcv rna is universal. its course also appears to be not as indolent as it was thought. in the following report ( greenson, am. j. surg. path. 20 ( 6 ) : 731 - 8, 1996 )


a saliva gland test may be enough to diagnose parkinson ' s disease, a new study suggests. the study, which will be presented at the american academy of neurology ' s 65th annual meeting in san diego in march, found that testing a portion of a saliva gland might be a way to determine whether a person has parkinson ' s. " there is currently no diagnostic test for parkinson ' s disease, " study author dr. charles adler, with the mayo clinic arizona and a fellow of the american academy of neurology, said in a statement. " we have previously shown in autopsies of parkinson ' s patients that the abnormal proteins associated with parkinson ' s are consistently found in the submandibular salivary glands, under the lower jaw, and this is the first study demonstrating the value of testing a portion of the saliva gland to diagnose a living person for parkinson ' s disease, " adler said. " making a diagnosis in living patients is a big step forward in our effort to understand and better treat patients, " he added. adler and his team studied 15 people with an average age of 68 who had parkinson ' s disease for an average of 12 years. researchers said that the patients had responded to parkinson ' s medication and did not have known salivary gland disorders. researchers took biopsies from two different salivary glands in each of the participants. the two glands examined in the study included the gland just beneath the lower jaw and the minor salivary gland in the lower lip. researchers then stained the biopsied tissue samples and looked to see whether there was any evidence of the abnormal parkinson ' s protein. researchers noted that there was not enough sample tissue in four of the initial lower jaw biopsies to complete the tests. however, the abnormal parkinson ' s protein was detected in nine of the 11, or 82 percent, of the patients with enough tissue to study. " while still under analysis, the rate of positive findings in the biopsies of the lower lip glands appears to be much lower than for the lower jaw gland, " adler said. researchers said that the latest findings provide the first " direct evidence " to support the use of lower jaw gland biopsies as a diagnostic test for patients with parkinson ' s disease. " this finding may be of great use when needing tissue proof of parkinson ' s disease, especially when considering performing invasive procedures such as deep brain stimulation surgery or gene therapy, " he concluded. published by medicaldaily. com


the standard ecg provides 12 different vector views of the heart ' s electrical activity as reflected by electrical potential differences between positive and negative electrodes placed on the limbs and chest wall. six of these views are vertical ( using frontal leads i, ii, and iii and limb leads avr, avl, and avf ), and 6 are horizontal ( using precordial leads v1, v2, v3, v4, v5, and v6 ). the 12 - lead ecg is crucial for establishing many cardiac diagnoses, especially arrhythmias and myocardial ischemia ( see table 4 : cardiovascular tests and procedures : interpretation of abnormal ecgs ). it can also identify atrial enlargement, ventricular hypertrophy ( see table 5 : cardiovascular tests and procedures : criteria for ecg diagnosis of left ventricular hypertrophy ), and conditions that predispose to syncope or sudden death ( eg, wolff - parkinson - white syndrome, long qt syndrome, brugada syndrome ). a useful ecg tutorial is available from the university of utah. standard ecg components by convention, the ecg tracing is divided into the p wave, pr interval, qrs complex, qt interval, st segment, t wave, and u wave ( see fig. 2 : cardiovascular tests and procedures : ecg waves. ). the p wave represents atrial depolarization. it is upright in most leads except avr. it may be biphasic in leads ii and v1 ; the initial component represents right atrial activity, and the 2nd component represents left atrial activity. an increase in amplitude of either or both components occurs with atrial enlargement. right atrial enlargement produces a p wave > 2 mm in leads ii, iii, and avf ( p pulmonale ) ; left atrial enlargement produces a p wave that is broad and double - peaked in lead ii ( p mitrale ). normally, the p axis is between 0° and 75°. the pr interval is the time between onset of atrial depolarization and onset of ventricular depolarization. normally, it is 0. 10 to 0. 20 sec ; prolongation defines 1st - degree atrioventricular block. the qrs complex represents ventricular depolarization. the q wave is the initial downward deflection ; normal q waves last < 0. 05 sec in all


; prolongation defines 1st - degree atrioventricular block. the qrs complex represents ventricular depolarization. the q wave is the initial downward deflection ; normal q waves last < 0. 05 sec in all leads except v1 - 3, in which any q wave is considered abnormal, indicating past or current infarction. the r wave is the first upward deflection ; criteria for normal height or size are not absolute, but taller r waves may be caused by ventricular hypertrophy. a 2nd upward deflection in a qrs complex is designated r ′. the s wave is the 2nd downward deflection if there is a q wave and the first downward deflection if not. the qrs complex may be r alone, qs ( no r ), qr ( no s ), rs ( no q ), or rsr ′, depending on the ecg lead, vector, and presence of heart disorders. normally, the qrs interval is 0. 07 to 0. 10 sec. an interval of 0. 10 to 0. 11 sec is considered incomplete bundle branch block or a nonspecific intraventricular conduction delay, depending on qrs morphology ; ≥ 0. 12 sec is considered complete bundle branch block or an intraventricular conduction delay. normally, the qrs axis is 90° to −30°. an axis of −30° to −90° is considered left axis deviation and occurs in left anterior fascicular block ( −60° ) and inferior mi. an axis of 90° to 180° is considered right axis deviation ; it occurs in any condition that increases pulmonary pressures and causes right ventricular hypertrophy ( cor pulmonale, acute pulmonary embolism, pulmonary hypertension ), and it sometimes occurs in right bundle branch block or left posterior fascicular block. the qt interval is the time between onset of ventricular depolarization and end of ventricular repolarization. the qt interval must be corrected for heart rate using the formula : where qtc is the corrected qt interval ; r - r interval is the time between 2 qrs complexes. all intervals are recorded in seconds. qtc prolongation is strongly implicated in development of torsades de pointe ventricular tachycardia ( see arrhythmias and conduction disorders : long qt syndrome and torsades de pointes ventricular tachycard


prolongation is strongly implicated in development of torsades de pointe ventricular tachycardia ( see arrhythmias and conduction disorders : long qt syndrome and torsades de pointes ventricular tachycardia ). qtc is often difficult to calculate because the end of the t wave is often unclear or followed by a u wave with which it merges. numerous drugs are implicated in prolonging the qt interval ( see qtdrugs. org ). the st segment represents completed ventricular myocardial depolarization. normally, it is horizontal along the baseline of the pr ( or tp ) intervals or slightly off baseline. st segment elevation can be caused by st segment depression can be caused by the t wave reflects ventricular repolarization. it usually takes the same direction as the qrs complex ( concordance ) ; opposite polarity ( discordance ) may indicate past or current infarction. the t wave is usually smooth and rounded but may be of low amplitude in hypokalemia and hypomagnesemia and may be tall and peaked in hyperkalemia, hypocalcemia, and left ventricular hypertrophy. the u wave appears commonly in patients who have hypokalemia, hypomagnesemia, or ischemia. it is often present in healthy people. specialized ecg tests a standard 12 - lead ecg represents only a single brief period of cardiac activity ; enhanced techniques can provide additional information. additional precordial leads : additional precordial leads are used to help diagnose right ventricular and posterior wall mi. right - sided leads are placed across the right side of the chest to mirror standard left - sided leads. they are labeled v1r to v6r ; sometimes only v4r is used, because it is the most sensitive for right ventricular mi. additional left - sided leads can be placed in the 5th intercostal space, with v7 at the posterior axillary line, v8 at the midscapular line, and v9 at the left border of the spine. these leads are rarely used but may help diagnose a true posterior mi. an esophageal lead is much closer to the atria than surface leads ; it is an option when the presence of p waves on a standard recording is uncertain and when detecting atrial electrical activity is important, as when atrial or ventricular origin


repolarization heterogeneity. increased dispersion suggests electrically heterogeneous myocardium caused by ischemia or fibrosis, with increased risk of reentrant arrhythmias and sudden death. qt dispersion predicts mortality risk but is not widely measured because measurement error is common, values in patients with and without disease overlap substantially, there is no reference standard, and other validated risk predictors are available. heart rate variability : this measurement reflects the balance between sympathetic and parasympathetic ( vagal ) input to the heart. decreased variability suggests decreased vagal input and increased sympathetic input, which predict increased risk of arrhythmias and mortality. the most common measure of variability is the mean of the standard deviations of all normal r - r intervals in a 24 - h ecg recording. heart rate variability is used primarily in research, but evidence suggests that it provides useful information about left ventricular dysfunction after mi, heart failure, and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. most holter monitors have software that measures and analyzes heart rate variability. holter monitoring is continuous monitoring and recording of the ecg, bp, or both for 24 or 48 h. it is useful for evaluating intermittent arrhythmias and, secondarily, for detecting hypertension. the holter monitor is portable, enabling patients to participate in normal daily activities ; it may also be used for sedentary hospitalized patients if automated monitoring is unavailable. patients are asked to record symptoms and activities so that they may be correlated with events on the monitor. the holter monitor does not automatically analyze the ecg data ; a physician does so at a later date. event recorders are worn for up to 30 days and can detect infrequent rhythm disturbances that 24 - h holter monitoring may miss. the recorder may operate continuously and also be activated by the patient when symptoms occur. a memory loop enables information to be stored for seconds or minutes before and after activation. the patient can transmit ecg data by telephone or satellite to be read by a physician. if patients have serious events ( eg, syncope ) at intervals of > 30 days, an event recorder may be placed subcutaneously ( implantable loop recorder ) ; it can be activated by a small magnet. battery life for subcutaneous recorders is 24 mo. last full review / revision december 2012 by michael j. shea, md content last modified january 2013


youth members with special needs advancement for youth members with special needs ( quoted from : # 33088, p. 39 ) the following are the guidelines for membership and advancement in scouting for persons having disabilities or other special needs. the american with disabilities act of 1990 ( ada ) provides the following definition of an individual with a disability : " an individual is considered to have a ' disability ' if s / he has a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities ( e. g.,... seeing hearing, speaking, walking, breathing, performing manual tasks, learning, caring for oneself, and working ), has a record of such impairment, or is regarded as having such an impairment. " an individual with epilepsy, paralysis, hiv infection, aids, a substantial hearing or visual impairment, mental retardation, or a specific learning disability, is covered, but an individual with a minor, nonchronic condition of short duration, such as a sprain, broken limb, or the flu would not be covered by the ada. " the ada definition protects individuals with a record of a disability and would cover, for example, a person who has recovered from cancer or mental illness. " and the ada protects individuals who are regarded as having a substantially limiting impairment, even though they may not have such an impairment. for example... a qualified individual with a severe facial disfigurement is protected from being denied employment because an employer feared the ' negative reactions ' of customers or coworkers. " the department of education identifies a severely handicapped child as one who, because of the intensity of his physical, mental, or emotional problems, or a combination of such problems, needs education, social, psychological, and medical services beyond those that have been offered by traditional regular and special educational programs, in order to maximize his full potential for useful and meaningful participation in society and for self - fulfillment. such children include those classified as seriously emotionally disturbed or profoundly and severely mentally retarded, and those with two or more serious handicapping conditions, such as the mentally retarded blind, and the cerebral - palsied deaf. ( quoted from : # 33088, p. 40 ) the chartered organizations using scouting determine, with approval from appropriate medical authorities, whether a youth member is qualified to register ( based on the above definitions ) beyond the normal registration age. the cubmaster ' s signature on the cub scout application, the scoutmaster ' s signature on the boy scout application, the varsity scout


authorities, whether a youth member is qualified to register ( based on the above definitions ) beyond the normal registration age. the cubmaster ' s signature on the cub scout application, the scoutmaster ' s signature on the boy scout application, the varsity scout coach ' s signature on the varsity scout application, the advisor ' s or skipper ' s signature on the venturing application, or on the unit ' s charter renewal application certify the approval of the chartered organization for the person to register. the local council must approve these registrations on an individual basis. the medical condition of all candidates for membership beyond the normal registration age must be certified by a physician licensed to practice medicine, or an evaluation statement must be certified by an educational administrator. use the personal health and medical record form. any corrective measures, restrictions, limitations, or abnormalities must be noted. in the case of mentally retarded or emotionally disturbed candidates for membership, their condition must be certified by a licensed psychologist or psychiatrist. current health, medical, or certification records of all youth members beyond the normal registration age who have disabilities are to be retained in the unit file at the council service center. advancement for boy scout with disabilities ( quoted from : # 33088, p. 40 ) all current requirements for an advancement award ( ranks, merit badges, or eagle palms ) must be actually met by the candidate. there are no substitutions or alternatives permitted except those which are specifically stated in the requirements as set forth in the current official literature of the boy scouts of america. requests can be made for alternate rank requirements for tenderfoot, second class, and first class using the information outlined in this chapter. no council, district, unit, or individual has the authority to add to, or to subtract from, any advancement requirements. the scout is expected to meet the requirements as stated - - no more and no less. furthermore, he is to do exactly what is stated. if it says, " show or demonstrate, " that is what he must do. just telling about it isn ' t enough. the same thing holds true for such words as " make, " " list, " " in the field, " and " collect, identify, and label. " alternate requirements for tenderfoot, second class, and first class ranks ( quoted from : # 33088, p. 42 ) a scout who has a permanent physical or mental disability and is unable to complete all of the requirements for tenderfoot, second class, or first class rank may submit a request to the


ranks ( quoted from : # 33088, p. 42 ) a scout who has a permanent physical or mental disability and is unable to complete all of the requirements for tenderfoot, second class, or first class rank may submit a request to the council advancement committee to complete alternate requirements. below are the procedures for applying for alternate requirements. to keep scouts with disabilities as much in the advancement mainstream as possible, some advancement accommodations may be required. thus, a scout in a wheelchair can meet the requirements for hiking by making a trip to a place of interest in his community. giving more time and permitting the use of special aids are other ways leaders can help scouts with disabilities in their efforts to advance. the substitute should provide a similar learning experience. bear in mind the outcome of the scouting experience should be one of fun and learning, and not completing requirements for rank advancements, which might place unrealistic expectations on the special - needs scout. step 1 - do as many standard requirements as possible. before applying for alternate requirements, the scout must complete as many of the standard requirements as his ability permits. he must do his very best to develop himself to the limit of his abilities and resources. step 2 - secure a medical statement. a clear and concise medical statement concerning the scout ' s disabilities must be submitted by a licensed health - care provider it must state that the disability is permanent and outline what physical activities the scout may not be capable of completing. in the case of a mental disability, an evaluation statement should be submitted by a certified educational administrator relating the ability level of the scout. step 3 - prepare a request for alternate requirements. a written request must be submitted to the council advancement committee for the scout to work on alternate requirements for tenderfoot, second class, and first class ranks. the request should include the standard requirements the scout has completed and the suggested alternate requirements for those requirements the scout cannot complete. this request should be detailed enough to give the advancement committee enough information to make a decision. the request should be prepared by the scout, his parents, and his scoutmaster. a copy of the medical statement in step 2 should be included. step 4 - the advancement committee reviews the request. the council advancement committee should review the request, utilizing the expertise of professional persons involved in scouts with disabilities. the advancement committee may want to interview the scout, the parents, and the leader to fully understand the request and to make a fair determination. the decision of the advancement committee should be recorded and delivered to the scout and the scoutmaster. the council


. the advancement committee may want to interview the scout, the parents, and the leader to fully understand the request and to make a fair determination. the decision of the advancement committee should be recorded and delivered to the scout and the scoutmaster. the council advancement committee must then secure approval of the council executive board. the scout executive must attach a letter to the application indicating that the executive board has approved the application. when applicable, the candidate ' s application for his award must be made on the eagle scout rank application or quartermaster award application and also recorded on the advancement report form. in the application of these policies for scouts with special needs, reasonable accommodation in the performance of requirements for advancement may be made. these may include such things as the extension of time, adaptation of facilities, or the use of equipment or necessary devices consistent with the known physical or mental limitations of the handicapped individual it is urged that common sense be employed. ( quoted from : # 33088, p. 42 ) certification must be given by the appropriate local council committee responsible for advancement that each eagle scout candidate over the age of 18 and venturing award candidate over the age of 21 has met the requirements as stated in the current official literature of the boy scouts of america. ( a representative of the council advancement committee must be a member of the eagle board of review. ) the council committee responsible for advancement must then secure approval of the council executive board. the scout executive must attach a letter to the application indicating that the executive board has approved the application. the candidate ' s application for the award must be made on the eagle scout rank application or quartermaster award application and recorded on the advancement report form. in the application of these policies for scouts with special needs, reasonable accommodation in the performance of requirements may be made. these may include things such as the extension of time, adaptation of facilities, or the use of equipment or necessary devices consistent with the known physical or mental limitations of the handicapped individual. it is urged that common sense be employed. alternate merit badges for the eagle scout rank ( quoted from : # 33088, p. 43 ) - 1. the eagle scout rank may be achieved by a boy scout, varsity scout, or qualified venturer who has a physical or mental disability by qualifying for alternate merit badges. this does not apply to individual requirements for merit badges. merit badges are awarded only when all requirements are met as stated. - 2. the physical or mental disability must be of a permanent rather than a temporary nature. - 3. a clear and concise medical statement concerning


to individual requirements for merit badges. merit badges are awarded only when all requirements are met as stated. - 2. the physical or mental disability must be of a permanent rather than a temporary nature. - 3. a clear and concise medical statement concerning the scout ' s disabilities must be made by a physician licensed to practice medicine, or an evaluation statement must be certified by an educational administrator. - 4. the candidate must earn as many of the required merit badges as his ability permits before applying for an alternate eagle scout rank merit badge. - 5. the candidate must complete as many of the requirements of the required merit badges as his ability permits. - 6. the application for alternate eagle scout award merit badges must be completed prior to qualifying for alternate merit badges. - 7. the alternate merit badges chosen must be of such a nature that they are as demanding of effort as the required merit badges. - 8. when alternates chosen involve physical activity, they must be approved by the physician. - 9. the unit leader and the board of review must explain that to attain the eagle scout rank, a candidate is expected to do his best in developing himself to the limit of his resources. - 10. the application must be approved by the council committee responsible for advancement, utilizing the expertise of professional persons involved in scouting for people with special needs. - 11. the candidate ' s application for eagle must be made on the eagle scout rank application, with the application for alternate eagle scout award merit badges attached. woods services award ( quoted from : # 33088, p. 43 ) this annual award was established to recognize volunteers who have performed exceptional service and leadership in the field of scouts with disabilities. nomination forms are sent annually to councils every september with a december 31 deadline. one person is selected each spring for national recognition. torch of gold certificate ( quoted from : # 33088, p. 43 ) this is for local council use in recognizing adults for outstanding service to youth with disabilities. order no. 33733. official sources for related information http : / / www. scouting. org / factsheets / 02 - 508. html - scouts with disabilities and special needs - boy scouts of america unofficial sources for related information http : / / www. wwswd. org / - working with scouts with disabilities http : / / www. rfbd. org / - recordings for the blind and dyslexic ( enter scout in the search form ) http : / / www. aph. org / louis. htm - american


any small fleshy fruit, as the strawberry, mulberry, huckleberry, etc. a small fruit that is pulpy or succulent throughout, having seeds loosely imbedded in the pulp, as the currant, grape, blueberry. a juicy fruit with seeds immersed in pulp a fleshy fruit containing 1 to many seeds a fleshy or pulpy indehiscent fruit with the seed ( s ) embedded in the fleshy tissue of the pericarp. cf. drupe, pyrene. a fleshy fruit ( remaining closed when mature ) with the seed or seeds surrounded by pulp. a fleshy or pulpy fruit from a single ovary with one to many embedded seeds, such as tomato and grape. a pulpy, indehiscent fruit with several carpels, each with one or more seeds. a small fruit with pulpy flesh enclosing one or more seeds or an assembly of small sacs of juice each encloses one seed within it or on its surface. a fleshy indehiscent pulpy multi - seeded fruit resulting from a single pistil. a fruit with pericarp wholly pulpy. indehiscent, fleshy fruit with ( one or ) a few to many seeds ; the flesh may be more or less homogeneous, or the outer part of the fruit may be firm, hard, or leathery. a small, fleshy fruit or dry seed or kernel of various plants. a fleshy fruit that contains small seeds n. ( as. berie, berry ) any fleshy simple fruit with one or more seeds and a skin, as a tomato, cranberry, banana, grape, etc. ; a several - sided indehiscent fruit with a fleshy pericarp and without a stony layer surrounding the seeds. all fruits with fleshy walls and multiple seeds. any of numerous small and pulpy edible fruits ; used as desserts or in making jams and jellies and preserves a small fruit having any of various structures, e. g., simple ( grape or blueberry ) or aggregate ( blackberry or raspberry ) a fleshy fruit that carries no stony layer in the any fruit, but also contains one to many seeds a kind of fruit a simple fruit having a skin surrounding one or more seeds in a fleshy pulp a small juicy fruit without a stone a fleshy fruit with 1 or more seeds a fleshy indehisent pulpy, succulent fruit with immersed seeds


fruit a simple fruit having a skin surrounding one or more seeds in a fleshy pulp a small juicy fruit without a stone a fleshy fruit with 1 or more seeds a fleshy indehisent pulpy, succulent fruit with immersed seeds. a pulpy or freshy fruit with pericarp containing one or more hard - coated seeds. the fleshy fruit containing the seeds ; the ovary after fertilization. a many - seeded, succulent fruit. an outer skin encloses a thick fleshy interior, with an inner thin layer. a fruit that is fleshy throughout. fleshy fruit with one or more seeds in the pulp, not enclosed in hard shell ( grape ) fleshy fruit, containing several or many seeds ; any pulpy or juicy fruit a pulpy indehiscent fruit with one to many seeds ; such as the grape, cranberry, blueberry or tomato. a fruit with the seeds surrounded only by fleshy material. a pulpy, indehiscent fruit with few to many seeds. a type of fruit with seeds contained in or about the pulp or flesh a fleshy, several - seeded fruit with fleshy inner and outer walls a stoneless, pulpy fruit containing one or more embedded seeds ( e. g., grape ). fleshy fruit of a plant with a pulpy interior, containing seeds. fleshy fruit with ( 1 - ) several seeds immersed in soft flesh, but seeds without a stony outer layer, e. g. tomato ( see drupe ). parent term : indehiscent plural : berries difficulty level a simple fleshy fruit, with seeds embedded in the pulpy mass a type of simple fruit having a fleshy exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp. example : tomato. fleshy fruit, with succulent pericarp, as in vitis. fleshy fruit with relatively thin skin and containing several seeds, usually round or nearly so a fleshy fruit developed from a single pistil, fleshy throughout. a berry is a small, juicy, fleshy, stoneless fruit that contains one or many seeds. this simple fruit has a pulpy pericarp surrounding the seed. some berries include the gooseberry, tomato, currant, and grape. the term berry, in common parlance and in cuisine, refers generically to any small, edible fruit with multiple seeds ; in this sense, the tomato is a berry and the strawberry is not. aggregate fruits such as


cut the paper towel tube to the desired length and glue on feathers according to the type of bird being depicted. twist and mold the chenille stems so that they resemble the head, beak and feet of the assigned bird. leave ends of the stems free so that they can be attached to the tube. teachers, using a sharpened pencil or other pointed object, poke small holes in the tube where the chenille stems will be attached. poke the ends of the molded stems ( head, beak and feet ) through the holes. if possible, twist to secure. if not, use a dab of glue. allow to dry, then bend the chenille stems so that the bird can balance on its legs and so its head is in the correct position. using the last chenille stems, bend them in a webbed foot shape and twist the rest up the legs for stability. adult supervision is required at all times. save cardboard paper towel tubes. birds are more mobile than other animals because they can fly. define migratory and non - migratory birds, explaining that many birds migrate when the seasons change. each bird species prefers certain climates and needs certain temperatures, water and food to survive. help the students to make a list of the birds in their communities. are these birds around all year? when do some birds arrive or leave their communities? where do they migrate to? to complete this unit of study, have the students choose their favorite bird and create a 3 - d model of their bird.


wilhelm von humboldt [ new individualist review, 1961 ] when oswald spengler in one of his minor books scornfully characterized german classical liberalism as " a bit of the spirit of england on german soil, " he was merely displaying the willful blindness of the school of militaristic statist german historians, who refused to acknowledge as a true compatriot any thinker who did not form part of the " intellectual bodyguard of the house of hohenzollern. " spengler had apparently forgotten that germany had had its enlightenment, and the ideals of freedom which were conceived and propagated in england, scotland, and france towards the end of the 18th century, had found an echo and a support in the works of writers such as kant, schiller, and even the young fichte. although by 1899 william graham sumner could write that, " there is today scarcely an institution in germany except the army, " it is nevertheless true that there existed a native german tradition of distinguished, libertarian thought, which had, in the course of the 19th century, to some degree at least been translated into action. of the thinkers who contributed to this tradition, wilhelm von humboldt was unquestionably one of the greatest. born in 1767, humboldt was descended from a junker family which had faithfully served the rulers of prussia for generations — a fact which was later to cause surprise to some of those who heard young humboldt in conversation passionately defend personal liberty. he was educated at frankfurt - am - oder, and later at gottingen, at that time one of the centers of liberal ideas in germany. in the summer of 1789, humboldt undertook a trip to paris, in the company of his former tutor, campe, who was a devotee of the philosophes, and now eager to see with his own eyes " the funeral rites of french despotism. " his pupil did not share his enthusiasm for the revolution, however, for from what humboldt had witnessed at paris and from conversations with friedrich gentz ( at that time a supporter of the french revolution ) there issued a brief article, " ideas on the constitutions of states, occasioned by the new french constitution. " this little essay, orginally intended as a letter to a friend, is noteworthy for a number of reasons. in the first place, humboldt appears to have arrived at some of the major conclusions of burke, without at that time being familiar with the briton ' s work. he states, for instance, that " reason is


noteworthy for a number of reasons. in the first place, humboldt appears to have arrived at some of the major conclusions of burke, without at that time being familiar with the briton ' s work. he states, for instance, that " reason is capable to be sure of giving form to material already present, but it has no power to create new material. … constitutions cannot be grafted upon men as sprigs upon trees. " for a new political order to be successful, it is necessary for " time and nature " to have prepared the ground. since this has not been the case in france, historical analogy compels us to answer no to the question whether this new constitution will succeed. in addition, this essay is interesting because it anticipates an idea which was central to the thesis of humboldt ' s most important work on political theory, and which was never far from his mind whenever he deliberated on the nature of man — the notion that " whatever is to flourish in a man must spring from within him, and not be given him from without. " nevertheless, humboldt does not, in this essay, display the hostility towards the french people that was characteristic of burke. he realizes that if the french had given themselves over to ill - considered schemes for remolding their society according to a preconceived plan, it was a reaction which might have been expected, given the provocations of the old regime. " mankind had suffered at the hands of one extreme ; it understandably sought its salvation at the other. " on his return to berlin, humboldt had been given a minor post at the law court. but the relative freedom of thought that had been enjoyed in prussia under frederick the great was at this time being replaced by persecutions of the press and religious intolerance, and humboldt did not find the atmosphere of public life congenial. added to this was the disinclination that he felt to interfere in the lives of others ( a nicety of feeling almost grotesquely out of place in a " public servant " ). most important of all, perhaps, was the new conception that he was beginning to formulate of the legitimate functions of government, a conception that virtually compelled him to look on the states of his time as engines of injustice. in the spring of 1791, humboldt resigned his position. the genesis of his major work on political theory, and the one of most interest to individualists, is also to be found in discussions with a friend — karl von dalberg, who was


. in the spring of 1791, humboldt resigned his position. the genesis of his major work on political theory, and the one of most interest to individualists, is also to be found in discussions with a friend — karl von dalberg, who was a proponent of the " enlightened " state paternalism then prevalent in germany. he pressed humboldt for a written exposition of his views on the subject, and humboldt responded, in 1792, by composing his classic, the sphere and duties of government. this little book was later to have a good deal of influence. it was of importance in shaping some of john stuart mill ' s ideas in this field, and may even have provided the immediate occasion for his on liberty. in france, laboulaye, the late - 19th - century individualist, owed much to this work of humboldt ' s, and in germany it exercised an influence even over such a basically unsympathetic mind as von treitschke ' s. but it is also a book that has an inherent value, because in it are set forth — in some cases, i believe, for the first time — some of the major arguments for freedom. humboldt begins his work by remarking that previous writers on political philosophy have concerned themselves almost exclusively with investigating the divisions of governmental power and what part the nation, or certain sectors of it, ought to have in the exercise of this power. these writers have neglected the more fundamental question, " to what end ought the whole apparatus of the state to aim, and what limits ought to be set to its activity? " it is this question that humboldt intends to answer. " the true end of man — not that which capricious inclination prescribes for him, but that which is prescribed by eternally immutable reason — is the highest and most harmonious cultivation of his faculties into one whole. for this cultivation, freedom is the first and indispensible condition. " humboldt thus begins by placing his argument within the framework of a particular conception of man ' s nature, but it ought to be noted that the validity of his argument does not depend upon the correctness of his view of " the true end of man. " of primary importance are his ideas in regard to the mechanism of individual and social progress, and here even such a socially minded utilitarian as john stuart mill could find instruction and inspiration. for the full flourishing of the individual, humboldt asserts, there is requisite, besides freedom, a " manifoldness of situations, " which, while logical


here even such a socially minded utilitarian as john stuart mill could find instruction and inspiration. for the full flourishing of the individual, humboldt asserts, there is requisite, besides freedom, a " manifoldness of situations, " which, while logically distinct from freedom, has always followed upon it. it is only when men are placed in a great variety of circumstances that those experiments in living can take place that expand the range of values with which the human race is familiar, and it is through expanding this range that increasingly better answers can be found to the question, " in exactly what ways are men to arrange their lives? " a free nation, according to humboldt, would be one in which " the continuing necessity of association with others would urgently impel each gradually to modify himself " in the light of his appreciation of the value of the life patterns others have accepted. in such a society, " no power and no hand would be lost for the elevation and enjoyment of human existence. " each man, in applying his reason to his own life and circumstances, would contribute to the education of other men, and would, in turn, learn from their experience. this is humboldt ' s view of the mechanism of human progress. it should be clear, however, that this progressive refinement of the individual personality can only take place under a regime of freedom, since " what is not chosen by the individual himself, that in which he is only restricted and led, does not enter into his being. it remains foreign to him, and he does not really accomplish it with human energy, but with mechanical address. " this is one of the central ideas of the book, and merits some discussion. it is an idea that no one will dispute when it is a question of scientific progress. no one expects worthwhile scientific thought to take place where the scientist is compelled or restricted in some important facet of his work. he must be free to develop his ideas, in accordance with the self - imposed standards of his profession, out of his own orginality. but scientific knowledge is only one type of knowledge ; there are other types, some at least as socially useful. there is the knowledge that consists in skills and techniques of production, and the type that, as we have seen, is embedded in values and ways of life : besides the sort of knowledge which is acquired through abstract thought, there is the sort acquired through practical thought and through action. the argument for freedom in the elaboration of scientific knowledge, therefore, is simply a special instance of


and ways of life : besides the sort of knowledge which is acquired through abstract thought, there is the sort acquired through practical thought and through action. the argument for freedom in the elaboration of scientific knowledge, therefore, is simply a special instance of the argument for freedom in general. professor michael polanyi has described the benefits of " individualism in the cultivation of science " : the pursuit of science can be organized … in no other manner than by granting complete independence to all mature scientists. they will then distribute themselves over the whole field of possible discoveries, each applying his own special ability to the task that appears most profitable to him. thus as many trails as possible will be covered, and science will penetrate most rapidly in every direction towards that kind of hidden knowledge which is unsuspected by all but its discoverer, the kind of new knowledge on which the progress of science truly depends. few will doubt that scientific progress would have been appallingly retarded if, for instance, einstein had been compelled to obtain permission from a board in charge of " planning science " before he could undertake his researches ( or if a government commission had been empowered to pass on galileo ' s intended work! ). but if men like henry ford had not been free to put their ideas into operation, industrial progress would have been no less stanched. we may freely concede that the abstract scientific thought of an einstein is a loftier thing, representing a greater achievement of the human mind. but this has no bearing on the argument. we believe that individual scientists should be unhindered in the pursuit of their aims, because those who would be in charge of the central direction of scientific research, or those who had power to restrict scientists in essential ways, would not know as well as the scientists themselves — each of whom has an immediate knowledge of the relevant factors in his particular situation — which are the most promising lines to be explored. in addition, a self - chosen activity, or one that may be freely followed up in all of its ramifications, will summon forth energy that will not be available in cases where a task is imposed from without, or where the researcher meets up against countless frustrations in the pursuit of his goal — the free activity, in other words, will command greater incentive. but both of these propositions are equally true of activities involving practical knowledge, or knowledge in action, of which techniques of production are an example. the socialist who believes in central direction of economic activity ought, consistently, to believe also in the central planning


but both of these propositions are equally true of activities involving practical knowledge, or knowledge in action, of which techniques of production are an example. the socialist who believes in central direction of economic activity ought, consistently, to believe also in the central planning of science, and those who favor widespread government control of economic life, because the state " knows better, " should, if they were consistent, favor a return to the system that shackled the scientific enterprise as well. it was partly because force necessarily interferes with individual self - development and the proliferation of new ideas, by erecting a barrier between the individual ' s perception of a situation and the solution he thinks it best to attempt, that humboldt wanted to limit the activities of the state as severely as possible. another argument in favor of this conclusion is that a government wishing to supervise to even a modest degree such a complex phenomenon as society simply cannot fit its regulations to the peculiarities of various concatenations of circumstances. but measures that ignore such peculiarities will tend to produce uniformity, and contract the " manifoldness of situations " which is the spur to all progress. but what is the indispensible minimum of government activity? humboldt finds that the one good that society cannot provide for itself is security against those who aggress against the person and property of others. his answer to the question that he posed at the beginning of his work, " what limits ought to be set to the activity of the state, " is " that the provision of security, against both external enemies and internal dissensions must constitute the purpose of the state, and occupy the circle of its activity. " as for the services that it is commonly held must fall within the scope of government action, as, for instance, charity, humboldt believes that they need not be provided by political institutions, but can safely be entrusted to social ones. " it is only requisite that freedom of association be given to individual parts of the nation or to the nation itself " in order for charitable ends to be satisfactorily fulfilled. in this, as indeed throughout his whole book, humboldt shows himself to be a thoughtful but passionate believer in the efficacy of truly social forces, in the possibility of great social ends being achieved without any necessity for direction on the part of the state. humboldt thus allies himself with the thinkers who rejected the state in order to affirm society. parts of humboldt ' s book appeared in two german periodicals in 1792, but difficulties with the prussian censorship, and a certain apparently innate lack of confidence


the state. humboldt thus allies himself with the thinkers who rejected the state in order to affirm society. parts of humboldt ' s book appeared in two german periodicals in 1792, but difficulties with the prussian censorship, and a certain apparently innate lack of confidence in his own works, caused him to put off publication of the work until it could be revised. the day for revision never came, however, and it was only sixteen years after the author ' s death that the sphere and duties of government was published in its entirety. for ten years after the completion of this book, humboldt devoted himself to traveling and private studies, principally in aesthetics and the classics, linguistics, and comparative anthropology. from 1802 to 1808 he served as prussian minister to rome, a post that involved a minimum of official business, and that he accepted chiefly out of his love for the city. humboldt ' s real " return to the state " occurred in 1809, when he became director of the section for public worship and education, in the ministry of interior. in this capacity, he directed the reorganization of the prussian public education system, and, in particular, founded the university of berlin. that so unquestionably sincere a man as humboldt could have acted in such disharmony with the principles set forth in his only book on political philosophy ( among them, that the state should have no connection with education ) requires some explanation. the reason is to be sought in his patriotism, which had been aroused by the utter defeat suffered by prussia at the hands of napoleon. humboldt wished to contribute to the regeneration of his country that was being undertaken by men such as stein and hardenberg, and the reform of the educational system fitted his abilities and inclinations. this task completed, humboldt served in various diplomatic posts for a number of years, including that of prussian minister to the congress of vienna, and, after peace had been established, as a member of the council of state. but the spirit that now predominated in berlin, as well as throughout europe, was the spirit of metternich, who, always able accurately to identify the enemies of his system, had already in 1814 termed humboldt a " jacobin. " humboldt ' s opposition to the reactionary policies of his government gained for him as much ill will at court as it did popularity among the people. he was hated and intrigued against by the reactionaries at court ; they went so far as to open his mail, as if he had in actuality been a jacobin. when, in 1819, metternich induced prussia


popularity among the people. he was hated and intrigued against by the reactionaries at court ; they went so far as to open his mail, as if he had in actuality been a jacobin. when, in 1819, metternich induced prussia to agree to the karlsbad decrees, which attempted to establish a rigid censorship for all of germany, humboldt termed the regulations " shameful, unnational and provoking to a great people, " and demanded the impeachment of bernstorff, the prussian minister who had signed them. it was clear that a man like humboldt was an anomaly in a government that treacherously refused to fulfill its wartime promises of a constitution, and whose domestic policies were largely dictated by metternich. in december 1819, humboldt was dismissed. he refused the pension offered him by the king. the rest of his life he devoted to his studies, of which the researches into linguistics were the most important and gained for him the reputation of a pioneer in the field. he died in 1835. if we ask what are the primary contributions of humboldt to libertarian thought, we will find the answer in his ideas on the value of the free, self - sustaining activity of the individual, and of the importance of the unhindered collaboration — often unconscious — of the members of society. the first is a conception which is finding remarkable support and application in the work of the client - centered, or nondirective school, of psychotherapists, while the second has been explored in the recent books of writers such as f. a. hayek and michael polanyi. that ideas that were set forth by humboldt should be proving so relevant to contemporary research into man and society is a sign of the clearly discernible trend towards individualism in present - day thought at the highest levels. " ideen uber staatsverfassung, durch die neue franzosische constitution veranlasst, " in humboldt ' s gesammelte schriften, vol. i. ( berlin, 1903 ), pp. 77 – 85. it was under this title that humboldt ' s book appeared in english, in 1854. the german title is, ideen zu einem versuch, die grenzen der wirksamkeft des staats zu bestimmen ; in humboldt op., cit. vol. i, pp. 97 – 254. [ libertyfund has the text here. – ed. ] michael polanyi, the logic of liberty,


ludwig von mises the task and scope of the science of human action i. the nature and development of the social sciences 6. the logical character of the universally valid science of human action the science of human action that strives for universally valid knowledge is the theoretical system whose hitherto best elaborated branch is economics, in all of its branches this science is a priori, not empirical. like logic and mathematics, it is not derived from experience ; it is prior to experience. it is, as it were, the logic of action and deed. human thought serves human life and action. it is not absolute thought, but the forethought directed toward projected acts and the afterthought that reflects upon acts done. hence, in the last analysis, logic and the universally valid science of human action are one and the same. if we separate them, so as to contrast logic and practice, we must show at what point their paths diverge and where the special province of the science of action is to be found. one of the tasks with which thought must cope in order to fulfill its function is that of comprehending the conditions under which human action takes place. to treat these in their concrete detail is the work of the natural sciences and, in a certain sense, also of history and the other historical sciences. our science, on the other hand, disregarding the accidental, considers only the essential. its goal is the comprehension of the universal, and its procedure is formal and axiomatic. it views action and the conditions under which action takes place not in their concrete form, as we encounter them in everyday life, nor in their actual setting, as we view them in each of the sciences of nature and of history, but as formal constructions that enable us to grasp the patterns of human action in their purity. only experience makes it possible for us to know the particular conditions of action in their concrete form. only experience can teach us that there are lions and microbes and that their existence can present definite problems to acting man ; and it would be absurd, without experience, to indulge in speculations about the existence or nonexistence of some legendary beast. the existence of the external world is given through experience ; and if we pursue definite plans, only experience can teach us how we must act vis -? - vis the external world in concrete situations. however, what we know about our action under given conditions is derived not from experience, but from reason. what we know about the fundamental categories of action? action, econo


we must act vis -? - vis the external world in concrete situations. however, what we know about our action under given conditions is derived not from experience, but from reason. what we know about the fundamental categories of action? action, economizing, preferring, the relationship of means and ends, and everything else that, together with these, constitutes the system of human action? is not derived from experience. we conceive all this from within, just as we conceive logical and mathematical truths, a priori, without reference to any experience. nor could experience ever lead anyone to the knowledge of these things if he did not comprehend them from within himself. as an a priori category the principle of action is on a par with the principle of causality. it is present in all knowledge of any conduct that goes beyond an unconscious reaction. " in the beginning was the deed. " in our view the concept of man is, above all else, also the concept of the being who acts. our consciousness is that of an ego which is capable of acting and does act. the fact that our deeds are intentional makes them actions. our thinking about men and their conduct, and our conduct toward men and toward our surroundings in general, presuppose the category of action. nevertheless, we are quite incapable of thinking of this fundamental category and the system deduced from it without also thinking, at the same time, of the universal prerequisites of human action. for example, we are unable to grasp the concept of economic action and of economy without implying in our thought the concept of economic quantity relations and the concept of an economic good. only experience can teach us whether or not these concepts are applicable to anything in the conditions under which our life must actually be lived. only experience tells us that not all things in the external world are free goods. however, it is not experience, but reason, which is prior to experience, that tells us what is a free and what is an economic good. consequently, it would be possible to construct, by the use of the axiomatic method, a universal praxeology so general that its system would embrace not only all the patterns of action in the world that we actually encounter, but also patterns of action in worlds whose conditions are purely imaginary and do not correspond to any experience. a theory of money would still be meaningful even if throughout history there had never been any indirect exchange. that such a theory would have no practical importance in a world that did not use money would in


are purely imaginary and do not correspond to any experience. a theory of money would still be meaningful even if throughout history there had never been any indirect exchange. that such a theory would have no practical importance in a world that did not use money would in no way detract from the truth of its statements. because we study science for the sake of real life? and, it should be remembered, the desire for pure knowledge for its own sake is also a part of life? and not as a form of mental gymnastics, we generally do not mind forgoing the gratification that could be offered by a perfect, comprehensive system of the axioms of human action, a system so universal that it would comprise all thinkable categories of the conditions of action. instead, we are satisfied with the less universal system that refers to the conditions given in the world of experience. nevertheless, this reference to experience in no way changes the aprioristic character of our knowledge. in this connection, experience is of absolutely no concern to our thinking. all that we owe to experience is the demarcation of those problems that we consider with interest from problems that we wish to leave aside because they are uninteresting from the point of view of our desire for knowledge. hence, experience by no means always refers to the existence or nonexistence of the conditions of action, but often only to the presence of an interest in the treatment of a problem. in experience there is no socialist community ; nevertheless, the investigation of the economy of such a community is a problem that in our age arouses the greatest of interest. a theory of action could conceivably be constructed on the assumption that men lacked the possibility of understanding one another by means of symbols, or on the assumption that men? immortal and eternally young? were indifferent in every respect to the passage of time and therefore did not consider it in their action. the axioms of the theory could conceivably be framed in such universal terms as to embrace these and all other possibilities ; and it would be conceivable to draw up a formal praxeological system patterned after the science of logic or the science built upon the axioms of, for example, hilbertian geometry. we forgo these possibilities because conditions that do not correspond to those we encounter in our action interest us only in so far as thinking through their implications in imaginary constructions enables us to further our knowledge of action under given conditions. the method actually employed by economists in the treatment of their problems can be seen with


correspond to those we encounter in our action interest us only in so far as thinking through their implications in imaginary constructions enables us to further our knowledge of action under given conditions. the method actually employed by economists in the treatment of their problems can be seen with particular clarity in the case of the problem of imputation. conceivably it would be possible to formulate the theory of the appraisement and pricing of the factors of production ( goods of higher order, producers ' goods ) in the broadest generality so that, for one thing, we would work only with an unqualified concept, viz., means of production. we could then elaborate the theory in such a way that the three factors of production that are enumerated in the customary presentation would appear as special cases. but we proceed differently. we do not bother to furnish a universal imputation theory of the means of production as such, but proceed immediately to the treatment of the three categories of means of production : land, labor, and capital. this practice is altogether warranted by the object of our investigation, of which we must never lose sight. however, the renunciation of axiomatic universality and precision also conceals many dangers, and it has not always been possible to avoid them. it is not only the marxist theory of classes that has failed to grasp the categorial character of each of these specific groups of factors of production. to be sure, it was noted that the peculiarity of land as a factor of production lies in the difference in the usefulness of individual pieces of land from the point of view of the goals of action ; the theory of ground rent never lost sight of the fact that land is appraised differently according to its quality and location. however, the theory of wages did overlook the fact that labor too is of different quality and intensity and that on the market there is never a supply of or a demand for " labor " as such, but only a supply of and a demand for labor of a definite kind. even after this fact was recognized, an attempt was made to evade its consequences by assuming that what forms the bulk of the supply and is chiefly in demand is unskilled labor and that it is permissible to ignore, as quantitatively negligible, skilled, " higher " labor. the theory of wages would have been spared many errors had it been kept in mind what function the special treatment of labor in the theory of distribution is called upon to fulfill and at what point it becomes necessary to speak no longer


, " higher " labor. the theory of wages would have been spared many errors had it been kept in mind what function the special treatment of labor in the theory of distribution is called upon to fulfill and at what point it becomes necessary to speak no longer simply of labor, but of labor of a definite quality that is offered or sought at a given time in a given place. it was still more difficult for the theory of capital to free itself of the idea of abstract capital, where the categorial difference between land, labor, and capital is no longer in question, but where the appraisement of definite capital goods, supplied or demanded in a definite place at a definite time, is to be considered. likewise in the theory of distribution and in the theory of imputation, it was not easy to shake off the influence of the universalist view. our science deals with the forms and patterns of action under the various categories of its conditions. in pointing this out we are not drafting a plan for a future science. we do not maintain that the science of human action should be made aprioristic, but that it is so already. we do not want to discover a new method, but only to characterize correctly the method that is actually used. the theorems of economics are derived not from the observation of facts, but through deduction from the fundamental category of action, which has been expressed sometimes as the economic principle ( i. e., the necessity to economize ), sometimes as the value principle or as the cost principle. they are of aprioristic derivation and therefore lay claim to the apodictic certainty that belongs to basic principles so derived. several great economists were at the same time great logicians : hume, whately, john stuart mill, and stanley jevons. cf. slutsky, " ein beitrag zur formal - praxeologischen grundlegung der? konomik, " annales de la classe des sciences sociales -? conomiques ( kiev : acad? mie oukra? enne des sciences, 1926 ), vol. iv. on this point cf. my socialism, trans. by j. kahane ( new ed. ; new haven, 1951 ), pp. 331 f. on the universalist view cf. below pp. 153 f. for a special application of the reasoning outlined in the text to the theory of capital, cf. below pp. 217 ff.


the mises institute monthly, free with membership volume 13, number 12 don ' t recycle : throw it away! roy e. cordato recycling has a high moral status, mostly because kids come home with bad information schools and, in turn, use it to intimidate their parents. one poll revealed that 63 % of kids have told mom or dad to recycle. parents, be ashamed no more! throw that trash away. there ' s no virtue in recycling trash that market won ' t pay you for. what our kids are learning is grounded in left - wing ideology, not fact one argument for recycling is that we are running out of landfill space. a " public service " advertisement on nickelodeon shows images of a city being buried in its own trash. this is typical of what passes for environmental education. just as hysterical are american education publishing ' s " comprehensive curriculum " series and 50 simple things kids can do to in fact, there is no landfill shortage. if all the solid waste for the next thousand years were put into a single space, it would take up 44 miles of landfill, a mere. 01 % of the u. s. landspace. how about the claim that recycling paper saves trees? every school kid knows it does. paper made from trees. why not make new paper from old paper and save more trees from being cut actually, that doesn ' t work. supply meets demand. if tomorrow we suddenly stopped making bread from wheat, there would be less wheat in the world one year from now. the supply would have fallen drastically. if everyone stopped eating chicken, the chicken population would not grow but fall. the same logic applies to the relationship between paper and trees. if we stopped using there would be fewer trees planted. in the paper industry, 87 % of the trees used are planted to produce paper. for every 13 trees " saved " by recycling, 87 will never get planted. it is because of the demand for paper that the number of trees has been increasing in this country for the last fifty years. the lesson is this : if your goal is to maximize the number of trees, don ' t recycle. others assertions made by recycling advocates are equally problematic. recycling doesn ' t resources. in general, recycling is more expensive than landfilling, with the only exception being aluminum. as former epa official j. winston porter admitted, " trash management is becoming much more costly due to... the generally high cost of recycling. " children are also told that recycling will reduce pollution. they


, with the only exception being aluminum. as former epa official j. winston porter admitted, " trash management is becoming much more costly due to... the generally high cost of recycling. " children are also told that recycling will reduce pollution. they are not told that the process itself generates a great deal of pollution. recycling newspapers requires old ink to be bleached from the pages. this is a chemically intensive process that generates large amounts of toxic waste, as opposed to the benign waste that would result from simply throwing the papers also, curbside recycling programs require more trash pickups per week. this means more on the road generating more air pollution. due to mandatory recycling, new york city had to add two additional pickups per week and los angeles has had to double its fleet of trash trucks. the recyclers have a much more ambitious agenda than they admit to children in public in waste management : towards a sustainable society, o. p. kharband and e. a. even complain that builders throw away bent nails and that hospitals use disposable syringes. " the so - called ' standard of living, ' " they conclude " has to be reduced. " here we have the real goal of the recycling elite. and tragically this reduction in living has been achieved in the many cities that bought monstrously expensive recycling plants leading to fantastic waste, high taxes, and financially crippled local governments. recyclers are not better citizens. they are just ill - informed. save the earth, save the trees, pollution, and this holiday season, unwrap those presents, stuff the paper in a big plastic bag, and throw it all away. roy e. cordato teaches economics at campbell university