that the tools of laboratory molecular biology could be used to program computations with dna in vitro. the huge information storage capacity of dna and the low energy dissipation of dna processing lead to an explosion of interest in massively parallel dna computing. for serious proponents of the field however, there really never was a question of brute search with dna solving the problem of an exponential growth in the number of alternative solutions indefinitely. in a new field, one starts with the simplest algorithms and proceeds from there : as a number of contributions and patents have shown, dna computing is not limited to simple algorithms or even, as we argue here, to a fixed hardware configuration. after 1994, universal computation and complexity results for dna computing rapidly ensued ( recent examples of ongoing projects here are reported in this collection by rozenberg, and csuhaj - varju ). the laboratory procedures for manipulating populations of dna were formalized and new sets of primitive operations proposed : the connection with recombination and so called splicing systems was particularly interesting as it strengthened the view of evolution as a computational process. essentially, three classes of dna computing are now apparent : intramolecular, intermolecular and supramolecular. cutting across this classification, dna computing approaches can be distinguished as either homogeneous ( ie well stirred ) or spatially structured ( including multi - compartment or membrane systems, cellular dna computing and dataflow like architectures using microstructured flow systems ) and as either in vitro ( purely chemical ) or in vivo ( ie inside cellular life forms ). approaches differ in the level of programmability, automation, generality and parallelism ( eg simd vs mimd ) and whether the emphasis is on achieving new basic operations, new architectures, error tolerance, evolvability or scalability. the japanese project lead by hagiya focuses on intramolecular dna computing, constructing programmable state machines in single dna molecules which operate by means of intramolecular conformational transitions. intermolecular dna computing, of which adleman ' s experiment is an example, is still the dominant form, focusing on the hybridization between different dna molecules as a basic step of computations and this is common to the three projects reported here having an experimental component ( mccaskill, rozenberg and amos ). beyond europe, the group of wisconsin are prominent in exploiting a surface based approach to intermolecular dna computing using dna chips. finally, supramolecular dna computing, as pioneered


mccaskill, rozenberg and amos ). beyond europe, the group of wisconsin are prominent in exploiting a surface based approach to intermolecular dna computing using dna chips. finally, supramolecular dna computing, as pioneered by eric winfree, harnesses the process of self - assembly of rigid dna molecules with different sequences to perform computations. the connection with nanomachines and nanosystems is then clear and will become more pervasive in the near future. in my view, dna computation is exciting and should be more substantially funded in europe for the following reasons : the difference with quantum computing is dramatic. quantum computing involves high physical technology for the isolation of mixed quantum states necessary to implement ( if this is scalable ) efficient computations solving combinatorially complex problems such as factorization. dna computing operates in natural noisy environments, such as a glass of water. it involves an evolvable platform for computation in which the computer construction machinery itself is embedded. embedded computing is possible without electrical power in microscopic, error prone and real time environments, using mechanisms and technology compatible with our own make up. because dna computing is linked to molecular construction, the computations may eventually also be employed to build three dimensional self - organizing partially electronic or more remotely even quantum computers. moreover, dna computing opens computers to a wealth of applications in intelligent manufacturing systems, complex molecular diagnostics and molecular process control. the papers in this section primarily deal with biomolecular computing. the first contribution outlines the european initiative in coordinating molecular computing ( emcc ). three groups present their multidisciplinary projects involving joint theoretical and experimental work. two papers are devoted to extending the range of formal models of computation. the collection concludes with a small sampler from the more established approach to biologically inspired computation using neural network models. it is interesting that one of these contributions addresses the application of neural modelling to symbolic information processing. however, the extent to which informational biomolecules play a specific role in long term memory and the structuring of the brain, uniting neural and molecular computation, still awaits clarification. john mccaskill - gmd tel : + 49 2241 14 1526


vision changes and problems can be caused by many different conditions. some include : presbyopia - - difficulty focusing on objects that are close. this problem often becomes noticeable in your early to mid 40s. cataracts - - cloudiness over the eye lens, causing poor nighttime vision, halos around lights, and sensitivity to glare. cataracts are common in the elderly. glaucoma - - increased pressure in the eye, which is most often painless. vision will be normal at first, but over time you can develop poor night vision, blind spots, and loss of vision to either side. glaucoma can also happen suddenly, which is a medical emergency. macular degeneration - - loss of central vision, blurred vision ( especially while reading ), distorted vision ( straight lines will appear to be wavy ), and colors that look faded. the most common cause of blindness in people over age 60. eye infection, inflammation, or injury floaters - - tiny particles drifting inside the eye, which may be confused with retinal detachment. treatments depend on the cause. surgery will be recommended for some conditions. regular eye checkups from an ophthalmologist or optometrist are important. they should be done once a year if you are over age 65. some experts recommend annual eye exams starting at an earlier age. how long you go between exams is based on how long you can wait before detecting an eye problem that has no symptoms. your health care provider will recommend earlier and more frequent exams if you have known eye problems or conditions that are known to cause eye problems, such as diabetes or high blood pressure. these important steps can prevent eye and vision problems : wear sunglasses to protect your eyes. wear safety glasses when hammering, grinding, or using power tools. if you need glasses or contact lenses, keep the prescription up to date. limit how much alcohol you drink. stay at a healthy weight. keep your blood pressure and cholesterol under control. keep your blood sugar under control if you have diabetes. eat foods rich in antioxidants, like green leafy vegetables. u. s. preventive services task force. screening for impaired visual acuity in older adults. u. s. preventive services : task force recommendation statement. ann intern med. 2009 ; 151 : 37 - 43. yanoff m, cameron d. diseases of the visual system. in : goldman l, schafer ai, eds. cecil medicine. 24th ed. philadelphia, pa : saunders


bar harbor, maine - - jackson laboratory researchers and their collaborators have reported their discovery of a gene implicated in an acute and severe form of glaucoma known as angle - closure glaucoma ( acg ). the gene ' s activity points to previously unsuspected mechanisms involved in both acg and infant eye development. glaucoma is one of the most common eye diseases and a leading cause of blindness. an increase in fluid pressure in the eye ( intraocular pressure or iop ) leads to damage to the optic nerve, causing loss of vision. most people with the more familiar chronic ( open - angle ) glaucoma don ' t even know they have the disease until it ' s detected in an eye exam. the condition develops slowly and can usually be managed with eyedrops and laser surgery. but acg can be another story : acute attacks of acg are a medical emergency. sudden, debilitating symptoms include severe eye pain, headache, blurred vision, nausea and vomiting, and without prompt intervention to reduce iop, very rapid loss of vision can occur. simon w. m. john, ph. d., the jackson laboratory professor and howard hughes medical investigator who led the glaucoma research team, describes acg as " a particularly severe and debilitating subtype of glaucoma, which is very poorly understood at the molecular level. " acg, which affects about 16 million people worldwide, accounts for half of all glaucoma blindness. acg patients typically have eyes that are slightly smaller than normal, with a lens that is large for the size of the eye, and an abnormally short axial ( front - to - back ) length of the eye. these features predispose to blockage or closing of the angle of the eye, which contains an important drain for ocular fluid. as a result, the fluid does not drain properly and can quickly build up, sharply raising iop. however, notes study author sai nair, ph. d., project head and associate research scientist in the john lab, " it ' s now clear that the mechanisms of iop elevation are more complicated than simple blockage by the iris, and must include other physiological disturbances. " the research team identified a mouse strain that has anatomical features similar to those seen in patients with acg, and that develops high iop. because this iop elevation causes the optic nerve to degenerate, these mice represent an important and much needed mouse model for acg.


strain that has anatomical features similar to those seen in patients with acg, and that develops high iop. because this iop elevation causes the optic nerve to degenerate, these mice represent an important and much needed mouse model for acg. further, studies in the mouse suggest that depending on genetic background, the mutated gene can cause variable reduction in axial length, ranging from modest to severe. in collaboration with mounira hmani - aifa and colleagues at universite de sfax in tunisia, they found that mutation in the same gene can result in severe reduction in axial length in people with extreme hyperopia. in finding a genetic mutation in the mice that produces a previously unknown protein ( one that acts as a protease to break down other proteins ), the researchers make the first link between the protein ' s activity and acg, as well as eye development in infants. the john research group also included zain ali, alison kearney, danilo macalinao, ioan cosma, gareth howell and richard smith. funding was provided by the national eye institute, the barbara and joseph cohen foundation and the tunisian ministere de l ' enseignement superieur, de la recherche scientifique et de la technologie. this is the third major paper on glaucoma to come out of the john lab since early march. in the journal of clinical investigation, the researchers reported on their new analysis technique that detects early stages of glaucoma in mice, and on their success in blocking the disease by targeting some of the molecular events in those early stages. and a paper in science demonstrated their findings that rna granules — key players in messenger rna ( mrna ) processing — can affect eye development, leading to juvenile cataracts and glaucoma in humans and mice. the jackson laboratory is a nonprofit biomedical research institution and national cancer institute - designated cancer center based in bar harbor, maine. its mission is to discover the genetic basis for preventing, treating and curing human diseases, and to enable research and education for the global biomedical community. nair et al. : alteration of the serine protease prss56 causes angle - closure glaucoma in mice and posterior microphthalamia in humans and mice. nature genetics, may 1, 2011, http : / / dx. doi. org / 10. 1038 / ng. 813. aaas and eurekalert! are not responsible for the accuracy of news releases posted to eureka


researchers from the universities of nottingham and leicester are leading the largest ever study of the genetics relating to lung disease. the project will investigate what determines an individual ' s lung health and why smoking harms the lungs of some people more than others and will use health information held by uk biobank, a major national resource holding health information from half a million volunteers. the study, funded by the medical research council ( mrc ) and also involving scientists at st george ' s, university of london, is aiming to shed light on why some people are genetically more prone to suffer from lung disease, particularly chronic obstructive pulmonary disease ( copd ). copd includes conditions such as chronic bronchitis and emphysema and is the sixth most common cause of death in the uk ( around 30, 000 deaths per year ). it affects approximately 900, 000 people in the uk and costs the nhs £150m every year. at present, avoiding taking up smoking or, for those who already smoke, stopping smoking remain the most effective ways to prevent copd. the world health organisation ( who ) estimates that copd is the 4th leading cause of death worldwide but it is predicted to move into 3rd place in the near future. the new project is being launched on wednesday november 14, which is world copd day. the research aims to discover the genes which affect lung function and also those which may affect the chances of developing lung disease for both smokers and non - smokers. it will also investigate whether genes play a part in the ability, or failure, to maintain good lung health for smokers and non - smokers. the researchers will also be able to investigate genetic factors that may affect the likelihood of an individual becoming addicted to smoking. the study, which is called uk bileve ( uk biobank lung exome variant evaluation ), will be one of the first projects to make use of uk biobank, the world ' s largest resource of its kind. all uk biobank participants have already had their lung function measured and given information about their smoking habits, past and present. in this study, researchers will use anonymous data from 50, 000 of these participants to determine genetic variants associated with susceptibility to copd. they will look at both rare and common single nucleotide polymorphisms ( tiny variations in genes ) in the participants ' dna and the lung function of those who are heavy smokers and those who have never smoked. leading the research is professor ian hall, dean of the university of nottingham ' s medical school


polymorphisms ( tiny variations in genes ) in the participants ' dna and the lung function of those who are heavy smokers and those who have never smoked. leading the research is professor ian hall, dean of the university of nottingham ' s medical school. he said : " we currently know very little about why there is such a wide difference in lung health, even among smokers. we believe genetic factors play an important role so we ' re extremely excited about using the unique resource of biobank to test this theory in detail. this study couldn ' t be done anywhere else in the world. " professor david lomas, chair of the mrc population and systems medicine board, said : " we know that smoking is unhealthy for anyone but we know little about why the lungs of most smokers are seriously affected, while those of some seem to stay relatively healthy. if we knew more about the genetics that cause this variation we would be better able to direct treatments to those who are most at risk and have an increased chance of developing drugs to target this type of lung disease. " professor sir rory collins, uk biobank principal investigator, said : " we are extremely grateful to the half a million people throughout britain who went out of their way to join uk biobank. their commitment will provide key insights into a wide range of illnesses that kill and cause pain and suffering. last week we heard of plans to use the resource to study dementia. this week uk biobank helps scientists tackle a serious lung condition. uk biobank will become a key resource to improve health in the 21st century. we are grateful to the mrc, wellcome trust and department of health for having the vision to back such an initiative. " aaas and eurekalert! are not responsible for the accuracy of news releases posted to eurekalert! by contributing institutions or for the use of any information through the eurekalert! system.


this is a common task. we have a list of dates and we want to get the corresponding weekdays. we can use the weekday ( ) function to get it and the result will be like this : on column a we have our dates and on column b, using the weekday ( ) function we get the number corresponding to the weekday. but this is not a good way of displaying the weekday, we would like it to display it as the name of the weekday, not a number, right? there are numerous ways that we can change that. i ’ m going to show you two of them. the first, and simplest way, is to format column b with a custom format. for that, just select the values on column b and right - click to select format cells and on the number tab, choose the custom category and insert type as dddd. this will give the names of the weekdays like “ sunday ”. if you insert a type ddd it will show you the names like “ sun ”. this is how it will look like after the formatting : another way you could do this is using the choose ( ) function with a formula like this on cell b2 and then copy down : the result will be the same. this last method is just to show you that there are lots of ways of doing the same thing in excel.


at night we navigate from espanola to floreana island. floreana, also known as charles or santa maria, is one of the four inhabited islands, and the first one to be officially inhabited by ecuadorians, when ecuador took possession of the islands in 1832. back in those days, the islands were not a national park, thus, hundreds of animals and plants were introduced to help the first inhabitants survive in such a hard and isolated environment. nowadays, floreana holds a small population of about 130 people entirely dedicated to agriculture, fishing and tourism activities. this small island has many visitor sites, and today before breakfast, we landed at punta cormorant. this site is well known by its green beach, due to the presence of small crystals of olivine that have been eroded from lava rocks. the mineral olivine ( or peridot, when of gem - quality ) is a common mineral found in the earth ' s subsurface. at punta cormorant, we were greeted by a group of four playful young sea lions and once we had enough pictures of them, we continued along the cinder trail, surrounded by typical vegetation from the arid zone, a mixture between endemic and native plants. the trail here, skirts along a large salt pond where we had the chance to observe few flamingos, pintails and other shorebirds. flamingos eventually arrived to galapagos from the caribbean area and finding good feeding and nesting grounds and very little ground predators ; successfully colonized the islands and became an endemic subspecies. today the islands are home of few hundred flamingos. by the end of the trail we reached a beautiful white coral sand beach, nesting site of sea turtles that eventually start their nesting season in few more weeks. back aboard for breakfast, the ship repositioned to a small offshore volcanic cone named champion islet. this is the only island where a small population of the floreana mockingbird — which was driven to extinction by cats, rats and other introduced predators on the main island — still exists. we explored this tiny islet by zodiac, with a glass bottom boat excursion and by snorkeling. following lunch, the national geographic endeavour lifted anchor once more to spend the rest of afternoon visiting the famous post office bay, where a barrel is still used for an old mail swap tradition going back to whaling days, probably established in 1793 by a british captain named james colnett. here we went through hundreds of postcards and letters left by previous visitors from over the world, to see


stephen k. barnhart, department of agronomy spring hay and pasture seedings are normally done from late february through late april in iowa. the extended period of wet weather and possible flooding in 2010 has many producers wondering when they can get their forages planted. can spring forage stands still successfully be plant? the short answer is – yes, into the first ten days to two weeks of may. the end of the spring forage planting season is limited by seedling development and growth into the summer months. most forage seedlings are emerging and growing root systems into the top one to three inches of the seedbed during the three to four weeks following germination. the increasingly dry and hot soil surfaces in late may and june increase the risk that the small forage seedlings do not establish. so, the risk depends on rainfall and soil temperatures from here on. if conditions turn normal or hotter and dryer than normal, the risk of late planted forage seeding failures increases. if late may and early june conditions remain cooler and wetter than normal, then later - than - desired spring forage seedings may survive very well. planting later than desired, adds to vulnerability to erosion and weed competition. keep cereal companion crop planting rates to half of a full seeding rate or less, and mow or clip new seedings several times during the early seedling development months to allow light to reach small developing legume and grass seedlings. also scout for and manage potato leafhoppers in new alfalfa seedings. what about skipping spring planting and planting the new hay and pasture fields in late - summer? the success of late summer planted forages is set by both the planting window that provides for a six to eight week establishment time requirement for seedlings before the first killing freeze of the fall, and the necessity of adequate existing soil moisture and likelihood of average or better fall rain. for alfalfa and other forage legumes, the seed should be planted by aug. 10 for the northern third of iowa, by aug. 20 for the middle third of the state and by late august or the first week of september for the southern third of the state. cool - season forage grasses can be planted a few weeks later in each of these zones. the risk of stand failure is high if seed is planted in dry soil, and rainfall patterns for the remainder of the fall season are erratic. can purchased seed be carried over until fall or next spring? seed is perishable. germination declines over extended storage


the sun is a natural nuclear fusion reactor, fusing hydrogen to helium. our current understanding of physics is quite clear about what happens, four hydrogen nuclei ( protons ), with and without the help of catalysts are transformed into helium, neutrinos and energy. the energy is released as gamma rays and as kinetic energy of the particles, including the neutrinos. neutrinos were originally theorized to make up the energy and angular momentum difference when a neutron decays into a proton and an electron. neutrinos were later demonstrated to exist, but accomplishing this was difficult because they have negligible mass, travel very close to the speed of light, and have no electric charge nor magnetic moment ( thus don ' t interact electromagnetically ). they also don ' t interact through the strong nuclear force. neutrinos do interact with other matter through the weak nuclear force ( that is how they are produced ). large heavy water ( water that has deuterium instead of hydrogen ) tanks with arrays of photocells are usually used to detect neutrinos. the detectors used to capture solar neutrinos are huge, usually deep underground to avoid noise from cosmic rays. as the technology progressed, and bigger detectors were built, it became clearer that we just weren ' t getting as many neutrinos from the sun as our models of solar combustion predicted. in various experiments, the number of detected neutrinos was between 1 / 3 and 1 / 2 of the predicted number. therefore either our models of the sun were wrong or our models of neutrino behavior were wrong. this is known as the solar neutrino problem. the solutions based on the models of the sun being wrong were based on the premise that the temperature and pressure in the interior of the sun was not what we thought it was. for example, since neutrinos measure the amount of current nuclear fusion, it was suggested that the nuclear processes in the core of the sun might have temporarily shut down, and since it takes thousands of years for heat energy to move from the core to the surface of the sun, this would not immediately be apparent. solutions based on incorrect understanding of solar physics were rendered untenable by helioseismology which observes how waves propagate through the sun. based on these observations it became possible to measure the interior temperatures of the sun and these agreed with the standard solar models. currently, the solar neutrino problem is believed to result from an inadequate understanding of the


waves propagate through the sun. based on these observations it became possible to measure the interior temperatures of the sun and these agreed with the standard solar models. currently, the solar neutrino problem is believed to result from an inadequate understanding of the properties of neutrinos. according to the standard model of particle physics ( prior to 1999 ), there are three different kinds of neutrinos : the first evidence for neutrino oscillation came in 1998 from the super - kamiokande collaboration in japan. it produced observations consistent with muon - neutrinos ( produced in the upper atmosphere by cosmic rays ) changing into tau - neutrinos. more direct evidence came in 2002 from the sudbury neutrino observatory ( sno ) in canada. it detected all types of neutrinos coming from the sun, and was able to distinguish between electron - neutrinos and the other two flavors. after extensive statistical analysis, it was found that about 35 % of the arriving solar neutrinos are electron - neutrinos, with the others being muon - or tau - neutrinos. the total number of detected neutrinos agrees quite well with the earlier predictions from nuclear physics based on the fusion reactions inside the sun.


historyhistory to independence the twa were the original inhabitants of rwanda and were followed ( c. a. d. 1000 ), and then outnumbered, by the hutus. in the 14th or 15th cent., the tutsis migrated into the area, gained dominance over the hutus, and established several states. by the late 18th cent. a single tutsi - ruled state occupied most of present - day rwanda. it was headed by a mwami ( king ), who controlled regionally based vassals who were also tutsi. they in turn dominated the hutus, who, then as now, made up the vast majority of the population. rwanda reached the height of its power under mutara ii ( reigned early 19th cent. ) and kigeri iv ( reigned 1853 – 95 ). kigeri established a standing army, equipped with guns purchased from traders from the e african coast, and prohibited most foreigners from entering his kingdom. nonetheless, in 1890, rwanda accepted german overrule without resistance and became part of german east africa. a german administrative officer was assigned to rwanda only in 1907, however, and the germans had virtually no influence over the affairs of the country and initiated no economic development. during world war i, belgian forces occupied ( 1916 ) rwanda, and in 1919 it became part of the belgian league of nations mandate of ruanda - urundi ( which in 1946 became a un trust territory ). until the last years of belgian rule the traditional social structure of rwanda was not altered ; considerable christian missionary work, however, was undertaken. in 1957 the hutus issued a manifesto calling for a change in rwanda ' s power structure that would give them a voice in the country ' s affairs commensurate with their numbers, and hutu political parties were formed. in 1959, mutara iii died and was succeeded by kigeri v. the hutus contended that the new mwami had not been properly chosen, and fighting broke out between the hutus and the tutsis ( who were aided by the twa ). the hutus emerged victorious, and some 100, 000 tutsis, including kigeri v, fled to neighboring countries. hutu political parties won the election of 1960 ; gregoire kayibanda became interim prime minister. in early 1961 a republic was proclaimed, which was confirmed in a un - supervised referendum later in the year. belgium granted independence to rwanda on july 1, 1962. kayibanda was elected as the first president under the constitution adopted


interim prime minister. in early 1961 a republic was proclaimed, which was confirmed in a un - supervised referendum later in the year. belgium granted independence to rwanda on july 1, 1962. kayibanda was elected as the first president under the constitution adopted in 1962 and was reelected in 1965 and 1969. in 1964, following an incursion from burundi, which continued to be controlled by its tutsi aristocracy, many tutsis were killed in rwanda, and numerous others left the country. in 1971 – 72, relations with uganda were bitter after president idi amin of uganda accused rwanda of aiding groups trying to overthrow him. in early 1973 there was renewed fighting between hutu and tutsi groups, and some 600 tutsis fled to uganda. on july 5, 1973, a military group toppled kayibanda without violence and installed maj. gen. juvenal habyarimana, a moderate hutu who was commander of the national guard. in 1978 a new constitution was ratified and habyarimana was elected president. he was reelected in 1983 and 1988. in 1988 over 50, 000 refugees fled into rwanda from burundi. two years later rwanda was invaded from uganda by forces of the rwandan patriotic front ( rpf ), consisting mainly of tutsi refugees. they were repulsed, but habyarimana agreed to a new multiparty constitution, promulgated in 1991. in early 1993, after habyarimana signed a power - sharing agreement, hutu violence broke out in the capital ; subsequently, rpf forces launched a major offensive, making substantial inroads. a new accord was signed in august, and a un peacekeeping mission was established. however, when habyarimana and burundi ' s president were killed in a suspicious plane crash in apr., 1994, civil strife erupted on a massive scale. rwandan soldiers and hutu gangs slaughtered an estimated 500, 000 – 1 million people, mostly tutsis and moderate hutus. the rpf resumed fighting and won control of the country, but over 2 million rwandans, nearly all hutus, fled the country. the rpf named pasteur bizimungu, a hutu, as president, but there were reprisals against hutus by elements of the tutsi - dominated army, and real power lay with rpf leader paul kagame, who became vice president and defense minister. the hutu refugees remained crowded into camps in the congo ( then called zaire ) and other neighboring countries, where hutu ex


- dominated army, and real power lay with rpf leader paul kagame, who became vice president and defense minister. the hutu refugees remained crowded into camps in the congo ( then called zaire ) and other neighboring countries, where hutu extremists held power and, despite relief efforts by the united nations and other international organizations, disease claimed some 100, 000 lives. in 1995, a un - appointed tribunal, based in tanzania, began indicting and trying a number of higher - ranking people for genocide in the hutu - tutsi atrocities ; however, the whereabouts of many suspects were unknown. a number of former senior rwandan government and military officials were convicted of organizing the genocide or having participated in it. many more individuals were tried and convicted in rwandan courts over the next two decades, with nearly 2 million suspects, most of whom were accused of looting and other property crimes, tried in semitraditional community courts. over a million hutu refugees flooded back into the country in 1996 ; by 1997, there was a growing war between the rwandan army and hutu guerrilla bands. in 1998, rwandan soldiers began aiding antigovernment rebels in the congo who were attempting to overthrow the congolese president, laurent kabila ; rwanda had helped kabila overthrow mobutu sese seko 18 months earlier. president bizimungu resigned in mar., 2000, accusing the parliament of using an anticorruption campaign to attack hutu members of the government. kagame officially succeeded bizimungu as president in april, becoming the first tutsi to be president of rwanda. fighting in 1999 and 2000 between rwandan and ugandan forces in the congo has led to tense relations between the two nations and occasional fighting between proxy forces in the congo ; each nation also accused the other of aiding rebels against its own rule. rwandan troops were withdrawn from the congo in 2002 as the result of the signing of a peace agreement, but rwanda forces fighting hutu rebels subsequently made incursions into the congo and burundi as well. ( in 2010 a leaked un report on the congo civil war accused rwanda ' s army and its congolese allies of massacring civilian rwandan and congolese hutus during the conflict. ) also in 2002, bizimungu, who had become a critic of the government and established an opposition party, was arrested and charged with engaging in illegal political activity ; he was convicted in 2004, but released in 2007 after being pardoned. in may, 2003,


bizimungu, who had become a critic of the government and established an opposition party, was arrested and charged with engaging in illegal political activity ; he was convicted in 2004, but released in 2007 after being pardoned. in may, 2003, votes approved a new constitution. in the subsequent presidential election in july, president kagame faced three hutu candidates, the most prominent of which was former prime minister faustin twagiramungu. the election, the first in which rwandans could vote for an opposition candidate, was won by kagame, with 95 % of the vote, but some observers accused the government of voting irregularities, and the campaign was marred by continual government interference with opposition rallies. the rpf also won a majority of the elected seats in the chamber of deputies in september. the main hutu rebel group, based in e congo ( kinshasa ), announced in mar., 2005, that it would disarm and return peacefully to rwanda, but the rwandan government said that rebels who participated in the 1994 genocide would face trial when they returned. in late 2006, a french judge investigating the crash that killed habyarimana and provoked the genocide concluded that kagame and a number of his aides should be tried for their roles in shooting down the plane ; the judge was investigating the crash because of the deaths of the plane ' s french crew. the rwandan government, which had accused extremist hutus of assassinating habyarimana and which also was investigating what it said was french complicity in the massacres that followed the crash, angrily denounced the judge ' s action and expelled the french ambassador. ties between the two nations were fully reestablished only in late 2009. in aug., 2008, a rwandan report was released that accused france and french leaders of playing a direct part in the genocide ( france rejected the charges ), and a jan., 2010, report again blamed hutu extremists in the government for the killing of habyarimana. a new french investigation concluded in jan., 2012, that the most likely perpetrators of the attack on habyarimana were elite rwandan presidential troops. in the sept., 2008, legislative elections the rpf received more than 78 % of the vote for the popularly elected seats. rwanda joined the commonwealth of nations in nov., 2009, becoming only the second nation with no historic ties to britain to join that body. in feb., 2010, human rights watch accused the government of intimidating the opposition in advance


cuban missile crisis 1962 the cuban missile crisis begins on october 14, 1962, bringing the united states and the soviet union to the brink of nuclear conflict. photographs taken by a high - altitude u - 2 spy plane offered incontrovertible evidence that soviet - made medium - range missiles in cuba - capable of carrying nuclear warheads - were now stationed 90 miles off the american coastline. tensions between the united states and the soviet union over cuba had been steadily increasing since the failed april 1961 bay of pigs invasion, in which cuban refugees, armed and trained by the united states, landed in cuba and attempted to overthrow the government of fidel castro. king wins peace prize 1964 african american civil rights leader dr martin luther king, jr, is awarded the nobel peace prize for his nonviolent resistance to racial prejudice in america. at 35 years of age, the georgia - born minister was the youngest person ever to receive the award. martin luther king, jr, was born in atlanta in 1929, the son of a baptist minister. he received a doctorate degree in theology and in 1955 organised the first major protest of the civil rights movement : the successful montgomery bus boycott. influenced by mohandas gandhi, he advocated non - violent civil disobedience to racial segregation. krushchev out 1964 nikita khrushchev is ousted as both premier of the soviet union and chief of the communist party after 10 years in power. he was succeeded as head of the communist party by his former prota©ga© leonid brezhnev, who would eventually become the chief of state as well. the new soviet leadership increased military aid to the north vietnamese without trying to persuade them to attempt a negotiated end to hostilities. with this support and no external pressure to negotiate, the north vietnamese leadership was free to carry on the war as they saw fit.


stay connected with fine gardening or browse all plants this hardy annual has vibrant, ornamental red, yellow, and green foliage that lends a tropical effect to the garden. small flowers, borne from summer to early autumn, are inconspicuous in comparison to the effect of the foliage. cultivars feature yellow and maroon - shaded leaves, but the species still offers the showiest foliage. as an herb, a. graveolens is commonly grown for the culinary attributes of its leaves and seeds. its distinctive foliage texture and flower color and form make this plant a nice companion in a mixed border. it provides a valuable food source for butterfly larvae and attracts beneficial insects also. gorgeous new series of boliviensis begonias in six colors – red, orange, yellow, creamy yellow, pink and white. perfect for baskets and containers. plants are more sun and drought tolerant than other begonias. crackling fire begonias are low maintenance and self - cleaning. plants are loaded with flowers and bloom continuously until frost. their sturdy, upright habit prevents breakage. plants reach a height of 4 - 10 inches with a spread of up to 10 inches. crackling fire is perfect as a container plant or hanging basket and thrives in full to partial sun. - suntory collection this pepper boasts the most dramatically deep purple - black leaves and fruit imaginable. the vigorous, bushy plants grow to 18 inches tall and almost as wide. flowers are lilac, and dark black peppers emerge in fall. this colorful annual legume bears attractive yellow flowers that have reddish - purple spots at their base. the compound, feathery leaves look like those of sensitive plant. fruit is contained in a pea pod, which adds additional garden interest and may attract birds. this unique annual produces quilled blossoms of hollow, tube - shaped petals that radiate from the center in shades of white, pink, or carmine red. the flowers, which bloom all summer long, sometimes have bicolored interior and exterior tubes. this series of annuals produces extra large, cup - shaped blossoms to 3 - 1 / 2 inches across in shades of white or pink all summer long. this series produces compact plants 1 foot tall and about as wide with large blossoms in pure white and many shades of pink. these season - long performers make fine edging plants. cosmos are branching annuals with ferny foliage and pink, crimson, or white flowers that work well in the back of a border. although introduced in 1799, cosmos did not beome popular for


these season - long performers make fine edging plants. cosmos are branching annuals with ferny foliage and pink, crimson, or white flowers that work well in the back of a border. although introduced in 1799, cosmos did not beome popular for the garden or as the subject of breeding efforts until the early 1900s. the rest is now history. the variety ' sensation ' won the all - american selection award of merit in 1936 for its clear colors of pink and white, on early - blooming, 3 - to 4 - foot - tall plants. ' purity ' is the glistening white form of cosmos in the ' sensation ' series. ' sea shells ' has quilled florets. the sonata series cultivars are dwarf plants only growing to about a foot or two tall. the intense scarlet red blooms and yellow centers of this bedding plant will stop you in your tracks. ‘ cosmic red ’ blooms all summer and looks great at the front of the border and in containers. as with other cosmos cultivars, grow this plant in full sun and moist, well - drained soil. the already hypnotic color will intensify as light levels increase. california poppies grow to about 12 inches tall, and their pretty foliage is ferny, like carrot tops. they come in a variety of colors, from the standard golden orange, to yellow, cream, and red. grow them in a border or rock garden. california poppies grow to about 12 inches tall, and their pretty foliage is ferny, like carrot tops. this cultivar has soft rose colored, double blooms with yellow centers. blue is hard to get one ' s hands on in the garden, but blue my mind™ evolvus fills the void! this heat - tolerant beauty makes a stunning addition to containers beds alike, and it ' s so polite that it doesn ' t even need deadheading. cardinal climber is a twining annual with deeply lobed mid - green leaves and 1 - inch crimson blooms with white throats appearing in summer. love - in - a - mist - bears delicate flowers 1. 5 inches across in various shades of blue and white, surrounded by finely divided foliage. blooms appear mainly in may and june, and sporadically throughout the summer, followed by attractive 1 - inch - wide green seedpods that change to cream and burgundy over time. long, narrow leaves grow in rosettes near the ground. flower stems shoot upward to 2 feet with 3 - inch - wide, petunia - like, purple, blue, or scarlet


green seedpods that change to cream and burgundy over time. long, narrow leaves grow in rosettes near the ground. flower stems shoot upward to 2 feet with 3 - inch - wide, petunia - like, purple, blue, or scarlet flowers marked with broad veins of gold. cultivars include ' splash, ' ' bolero, ' and the more compact - growing ' casino '. this fragrant annual is covered with delicate, daisy - like yellow blossoms in july and august. it is best grown as a groundcover, between paving stones, or in a rock garden. it has needle - like, almost ferny leaves and grows to 1 foot tall and wide. ' torch ' is a quick - growing annual that produces vivid red or orange - red dahlia - like flowers from mid - summer on. its leaves are somewhat attractive, being dark green and lobed. plants can reach up to 6 feet tall and 2 feet wide in just a few months. this outstanding hybrid blooms from spring until frost and has beautifully dissected foliage. innumerable clusters of purple blossoms cover this plant and look fantastic cascading over the edges of a hanging basket. verbenas are excellent for annual borders, containers — especially hanging baskets — and for the mixed herbaceous border. this upright, 30 - inch - tall, bushy annual cloaks itself all summer in purple blossoms up to 2 inches across. but more important, it is the forebear of scores of varieties that can be found in almost any place you can buy seeds. there ' s the whirligig series, the california giants, the profusion series, the state fair series — the list goes on and on. alliums all season long deer resistant and dynamic, these bulbs provide color from the first showers of spring to the last leaves of fall by stephanie cohen these little blue jewels bring early spring delight to the garden by ilene sternberg planting spring bulbs in containers by richard hartlage sweetly scented tulips a fragrant few are pleasing to see and to smell by susanne mandigo a flurry of snowdrops for blossoms at winter ' s end, plant a drift of bulbs this fall by kathleen s. dickson finegardening. com and vegetablegardener. com are part ofthe taunton home and garden network taunton home | books & videos | contact us | product recall information copyright notice | taunton guarantee | user agreement | about us | work for us | contact us | press room | | subscriber alert © 2013


chapter one : comments from the lens design team. 1the dual challenge of achieving high performance within a compact body. the solution : fixed - type lens. - the x100 was originally conceived as a slim and compact camera for users to take with them wherever they go. when we first began considering the lens design, we examined the many possibilities from a variety of perspectives, for example, the aperture value and lens size in the case of a zoom lens and lens - body combinations in the case of an interchangeable lens system. as a result, we determined that a non - collapsible, single focal length lens was the ideal choice to meet our two goals of achieving the product concept and delivering the high level of quality demanded by professional users. - regarding the focal length, we considered the 135 equivalent of 24mm, 28mm, 35mm and 50mm. for each length, we evaluated the relationship between the f value and lens size, capability to satisfy user expectations, and the breadth of their application. we selected the 35mm lens as the best match for the camera concept. 2road to the f2 aperture value. - designing an f1. 6 or f1. 8 lens is not so difficult ; however, in the case of a digital camera, even if an aperture larger than f2 is used, the light receiving elements on the sensor cannot effectively use the brighter portion of the incoming light because of low incident light gathering efficiency. - also by choosing an aperture of f2, it is possible to achieve a higher mtf * level when the aperture is closed to f4, f5. 6, f8, etc. in most photographic situations, we envisage that users will often use an aperture that is 1 to 2 stops higher than f2. therefore, in designing the lens, we put a priority on capturing superior quality photos with exceptional expression of detail in the aperture range of f4 to f5. 6. * mtf : modulation transfer function is an index of the image formation performance of the lens. the value indicates the ability to reproduce contrast over a range of spatial frequencies. 3the double - sided aspheric lens combined with high refractive index glass, results in optimum performance. - the use of an aspheric lens increases the freedom in lens design ; however, it does not necessarily lead to the development of a good lens. for the x100, spherical lens elements are used as much as possible, and one double - sided aspheric lens made by a glass moulding process has


design ; however, it does not necessarily lead to the development of a good lens. for the x100, spherical lens elements are used as much as possible, and one double - sided aspheric lens made by a glass moulding process has been adopted as the most effective element for delivering maximum performance. - the x100 lens delivers performance in a compact body, and also boasts excellent results. the shape of the aspheric lens not only provides performance but also ease of manufacturing. as the other lens elements are spherical, a high level of design performance can be achieved when they are actually assembled in the product. - high - refractive - index glass is used for all 4 convex lens elements. this is necessary to correct image field curvature and achieve optimum image quality. 45. 6mm back focus. - in the case of the x100, the lens back focus, ( the distance between the rear lens element and the sensor ), is remarkably only 5. 6mm. incorporating the large - diameter rear lens element in the body and shaving tenths of millimeters from the lens elements and their integration, has also allowed us to retain a very slim and compact design. - the sensor has been specially customised just for this lens. unlike film, the sensors of most digital cameras require incoming light to strike the sensor surface at an angle that is as perpendicular to the sensor surface as possible. because this is difficult to achieve with a slim lens, the positioning of the microlens on the sensor of the x100 has been customised to allow the capture of light rays with up to a 20° angle of incidence. without this sensor customisation, it would be necessary to lengthen the size of the lens by 10mm. 5large - diameter internal lens structure – unnoticeable from the front. - exploiting the benefits of a fixed lens, the rear lens element is larger than the front lens element. by giving it a diameter of 27mm, which is about the same as the sensor ' s diagonal dimension of 28. 4mm, ample light volume can be received in the edge areas of the sensor. 69 - blade aperture diaphragm and a high - performance lens shutter system. - in order to capture images with a beautiful " bokeh " effect with the background softly out of focus, a 9 - blade aperture diaphragm has been adopted for the x100. - the 4 - blade shutter achieves a maximum shutter speed of 1 / 4000s. because the x100 uses a lens


to view links or images in this forum your post count must be 10 or greater. you currently have 0 posts. originally posted by locke to view links or images in this forum your post count must be 10 or greater. you currently have 0 posts. i ’ d be happy to!!! unfortunately the figures didn ’ t copy over, but anyone who wants to can see them in the main article, i am beginning to wonder if maybe you didn ’ t expand out the entire article and thought that the abstract was all that was there, that ’ d be funny, everything i said was there is, as you can clearly see, below … domestic animals are crucial to modern human society, and it is likely that the first animal to be domesticated was the dog. claims of early, fossilised dog remains include a 33, 000 - year - old doglike canid from the altai mountains in siberia1, whereas fossils dating from 12, 000 – 11, 000 years bp found buried together with humans in israel2 could represent the earliest verified dog remains. patterns of genomic variation indicate that dog domestication started at least 10, 000 years bp3, 4 in southern east asia4 or the middle east5. dog domestication may however have been more complex, involving multiple source populations and / or backcrossing with wolves. it is unclear why and how dogs were domesticated. humans may have captured wolf pups for use in guarding or hunting, resulting in selection for traits of importance for these new roles. alternatively, as humans changed from a nomadic to sedentary lifestyle during the dawn of the agricultural revolution, wolves may themselves have been attracted to dumps near early human settlements to scavenge6. natural selection for traits allowing for efficient use of this new resource may have led to the evolution of a variety of scavenger wolves that constituted the ancestors of modern dogs. regardless of how dog domestication started, several characteristics separating modern dogs from wolves, including reduced aggressiveness and altered social cognition capabilities7, suggest that behavioural changes were early targets of this process6. dogs also differ morphologically from wolves, showing reduced skull, teeth and brain sizes6. artificial selection for tameness in silver foxes indicates that selection on genetic variation in developmental genes may underlie both behavioural and morphological changes, potentially representing an important mechanism throughout animal domestication7, 8. at present, only a handful of genes separating wild from domestic forms have been identified in any domestic animals, including coat colour variants in mc1r in pig9 and a mutation


changes, potentially representing an important mechanism throughout animal domestication7, 8. at present, only a handful of genes separating wild from domestic forms have been identified in any domestic animals, including coat colour variants in mc1r in pig9 and a mutation in tshr likely to affect seasonal reproduction in chicken10, but to our knowledge in dogs no genome - wide sequence - based searches have been performed until now. to identify genomic regions under selection during dog domestication we performed pooled whole - genome resequencing of dogs and wolves followed by functional characterization of candidate genes. uniquely placed sequence reads from pooled dna representing 12 wolves of worldwide distribution and 60 dogs from 14 diverse breeds ( supplementary table 1 ) covered 91. 6 % and 94. 6 %, respectively, of the 2, 385 megabases ( mb ) of autosomal sequence in the canfam 2. 0 genome assembly11. the aligned coverage depth was 29. 8× for all dog pools combined and 6. 2× for the single wolf pool ( supplementary table 1 and supplementary fig. 1 ). we identified 3, 786, 655 putative single nucleotide polymorphisms ( snps ) in the combined dog and wolf data, 1, 770, 909 ( 46. 8 % ) of which were only segregating in the dog pools, whereas 140, 818 ( 3. 7 % ) were private to wolves ( supplementary table 2 ). similarly we detected 506, 148 short indels and 26, 619 copy - number variations ( cnvs ) ( supplementary files 1 and 2 ). we were able to experimentally validate 113 out of 114 tested snps ( supplementary table 3 and supplementary discussion, section 1 ). to detect signals of strong recent selection we searched the dog genome for regions with reduced pooled heterozygosity ( hp ) 10 and / or increased genetic distance to wolf ( fst ). as evident from the skewed distribution of heterozygosity scores in dog relative to wolf ( fig. 1a and supplementary fig. 2 ), a major challenge to this approach is to separate true signals of selection from those caused by random fixation of large genomic regions during the formation of dog breeds11. we alleviate this problem by combining sequence data from all dog pools before selection analyses and require that detected signals span at least 200 kilobases ( kb ; methods and supplementary discussion, sections 2 and 3 ). given the complex and partly unknown demographic history of dogs, it


by combining sequence data from all dog pools before selection analyses and require that detected signals span at least 200 kilobases ( kb ; methods and supplementary discussion, sections 2 and 3 ). given the complex and partly unknown demographic history of dogs, it is furthermore difficult to assign strict thresholds that distinguish selection and drift. we propose that the best way to validate regions detected here is to study genetic data from additional individuals and provide evidence for functional change associated with putatively selected regions. eventually, indications that similar pathways changed during independent domestication events may provide conclusive evidence for selection. here we z - transform the autosomal hp ( z ( hp ) ) and fst ( z ( fst ) ) distributions ( see supplementary discussion, section 4 for an analysis of the x chromosome ) and focus our description of putatively selected regions to those that fall at least five standard deviations away from the mean ( z ( hp ) < −5 and z ( fst ) > 5 ), as these represent the extreme ends of the distributions. by applying these thresholds we identified 14 regions in the dog genome with extremely low levels of heterozygosity ( average length = 400 kb, average hp = 0. 036 ( range 0. 015 – 0. 056 ), average autosomal hp = 0. 331 ) ( fig. 1c and supplementary table 4 ) and 35 regions with strongly elevated fst values ( average length = 340 kb, average fst = 0. 734 ( range 0. 654 – 0. 903 ), average autosomal fst = 0. 223 ) ( fig. 1b and supplementary table 5 ). all fst regions are characterized by low levels of heterozygosity in either dog or wolf ( although all do not pass the z ( hp ) < −5 threshold ), indicating that the two statistics detect the same events ( methods and supplementary discussion, sections 2 and 3 ). in total, 36 unique autosomal candidate domestication regions ( cdrs ) containing 122 genes were identified by the two approaches combined ( supplementary table 6 and fig. 1b, c ). none of these regions overlaps those of a previous genotype - based study5 ( supplementary discussion, section 3 ), stressing the importance of identifying domestication regions directly by sequencing or by comprehensively ascertaining snps in wild ancestors before genotyping. figure 1 : selection analyses identified 36 candidate domestication regions. a, distribution of z - transformed average


the importance of identifying domestication regions directly by sequencing or by comprehensively ascertaining snps in wild ancestors before genotyping. figure 1 : selection analyses identified 36 candidate domestication regions. a, distribution of z - transformed average pooled heterozygosity in dog ( z ( hp ) dog ) and wolf ( z ( hp ) wolf ) respectively, as well as average fixation index ( z ( fst ) ), for autosomal 200 kb windows ( σ, standard deviation ; μ, average ). b, the positive end of the z ( fst ) distribution plotted along dog autosomes 1 – 38 ( chromosomes are separated by colour ). a dashed horizontal line indicates the cut - off ( z > 5 ) used for extracting outliers. c, the negative end of the z ( hp ) distribution plotted along dog autosomes 1 – 38. a dashed horizontal line indicates the cut - off ( z < −5 ) used for extracting outliers. full size image ( 153 kb ) download powerpoint slide ( 336k ) next we searched for significantly overrepresented gene ontology terms among genes in autosomal cdrs and identified 25 categories, representing several groups of interrelated terms ( table 1 and supplementary table 7 ), none of which was indicated in a separate analysis of selection in wolf ( supplementary discussion, section 8 ). the most conspicuous cluster ( 11 terms ) relates to the term ‘ nervous system development ’. the eight genes belonging to this category ( supplementary tables 7 and 8 ) include mbp, vwc2, smo, tlx3, cyfip1 and sh3gl2, of which several affect developmental signalling and synaptic strength and plasticity12, 13, 14, 15, 16. we surveyed published literature and identified 11 additional cdr genes with central nervous system function ( supplementary table 9 ), adding to a total of 19 cdrs that contain brain genes. these findings support the hypothesis that selection for altered behaviour was important during dog domestication and that mutations affecting developmental genes may underlie these changes7. table 1 : enriched gene ontology terms among cdr genes figures / tables index the gene ontology analysis also pinpoints two genes involved in the binding of sperm and egg : zpbp encodes the zona pellucida binding protein that mediates binding of sperm to the zona pellucida glycoprotein layer ( zp ) of the egg, and z


of sperm and egg : zpbp encodes the zona pellucida binding protein that mediates binding of sperm to the zona pellucida glycoprotein layer ( zp ) of the egg, and zp2 codes for one of the proteins that make up zp itself. in addition, a cdr on chromosome 6 encompasses pdilt that also affects binding of sperm to zp17, altogether indicating that sperm competition may have been an important evolutionary force during dog domestication18. overrepresented terms ‘ starch metabolic process ’, ‘ digestion ’ and ‘ fatty acid metabolism ’ include genes involved in starch digestion ( mgam ) and glucose uptake ( sglt1 ), as well as a candidate gene for insulin resistance ( acsm2a ) that initiates the fatty acid metabolism19. a total of 6 cdrs harbour 10 genes with functions related to starch and fat metabolism ( supplementary table 10 ). we propose that genetic variants within these genes may have been selected to aid adaptation from a mainly carnivorous diet to a more starch rich diet during dog domestication. the breakdown of starch in dogs proceeds in three stages : ( 1 ) starch is first cleaved to maltose and other oligosaccharides by alpha - amylase in the intestine ; ( 2 ) the oligosaccharides are subsequently hydrolysed by maltase - glucoamylase20, sucrase and isomaltase to form glucose ; and ( 3 ) finally, glucose is transported across the plasma membrane by brush border protein sglt121. here we present evidence for selection on all three stages of starch digestion during dog domestication. whereas humans have acquired amylase activity in the saliva22 via an ancient duplication of the pancreatic amylase gene, dogs only express amylase in the pancreas23. in dogs the amy2b gene, encoding the alpha - 2b - amylase, resides in a 600 - kb cdr on chromosome 6 with z ( hp ) and z ( fst ) scores of −4. 60 and 7. 16, respectively ( figs 1 and 2a ). interestingly, an 8 - kb sequence spanning the amy2b locus showed a several - fold increase in aligned read depth in dog relative to wolf ( fig. 2b ), suggestive of a copy number change. formal comparisons of regional and local pool coverage, and wolf and dog coverage ( methods


amy2b locus showed a several - fold increase in aligned read depth in dog relative to wolf ( fig. 2b ), suggestive of a copy number change. formal comparisons of regional and local pool coverage, and wolf and dog coverage ( methods ), respectively, also suggest a substantial increase in copy numbers in all dog pools compared to wolf at this locus ( supplementary discussion, section 5 ). figure 2 : selection for increased amylase activity. a, pooled heterozygosity, hp ( blue ), and average fixation index, fst ( orange ), plotted for 200 - kb windows across a chromosome 6 region harbouring amy2b. b, heterozygosity, h ( blue ), and fixation index, fst ( orange ), for single snps in the selected region. dog relative to wolf coverage, rc ( green line ), indicates increase in amy2b copy number in dog. genes in the region are shown below panel b. c, histogram showing the distribution of diploid amylase copy number in wolf ( n = 35 ) ( blue ) and dog ( n = 136 ) ( red ). d, amylase messenger rna expression levels in pancreas of wolf ( n = 12 ) and dog ( n = 9 ). e, amylase activity in serum from wolf ( n = 13 ) and dog ( n = 12 ). full size image ( 124 kb ) download powerpoint slide ( 293k ) next we confirmed this cnv by quantifying amy2b copy numbers in 136 dogs and 35 wolves ( supplementary table 11 ) using real - time quantitative pcr ( qpcr ). whereas all wolves tested carried only 2 copies ( 2n = 2 ), diploid copy numbers in dog ranged from 4 to 30 ( p < 0. 001, wilcoxon ) ( fig. 2c ), corresponding to a remarkable 7. 4 - fold average increase in dog amy2b copy numbers. to assess whether this change correspond to a difference in amylase activity, we first compared amy2b gene expression in pancreas from dog ( n = 9 ) and wolf ( n = 12 ) and noted a 28 - fold higher average expression in dog ( p < 0. 001, wilcoxon, fig. 2d ). we then quantified amylase activity in frozen serum ( fig. 2e ) and found a 4. 7 - fold higher activity in dog ( 9. 6 – 18. 4 μkat l−1 ( n =


, fig. 2d ). we then quantified amylase activity in frozen serum ( fig. 2e ) and found a 4. 7 - fold higher activity in dog ( 9. 6 – 18. 4 μkat l−1 ( n = 12 ) ) relative to wolf ( 1. 4 – 4. 3 μkat l−1 ( n = 13 ) ) ( p < 0. 001, wilcoxon ). similar results were obtained in comparisons of a limited number of fresh samples ( supplementary tables 12 and 13 ). the change in amy2b gene copy number together with a correlated increase in both expression level ( rho = 0. 84, p < 0. 0001, spearman ) ( supplementary fig. 3 ) and enzyme activity ( rho = 0. 63, p < 0. 01, spearman ) ( supplementary fig. 4 ) indicates that duplications of the alpha - amylase locus conferred a selective advantage to early dogs by causing an increase in amylase activity. maltase - glucoamylase is responsible for the second step in the breakdown of starch, catalysing the hydrolysis of maltose to glucose20. no copy number changes were observed in the mgam locus so we decided to study haplotype diversity across the region to facilitate the identification of causal variants. we genotyped 47 randomly selected snps in 71 dogs representing 38 diverse breeds and 19 wolves of worldwide distribution ( referred to as ‘ the reference panel ’, supplementary table 14 ). sixty - eight of the seventy - one dogs tested carried at least one copy of a 124 - kb long haplotype spanning the entire mgam and a small neighbouring locus encoding the bitter taste mediating taste receptor 2 member 38 ( tasr38 ) ( fig. 3a – c ). whereas none of the wolves carried the selected haplotype, 55 dogs were homozygous for it, 13 were heterozygous and only three dogs lacked it ( 2 west highland white terriers and 1 chinese crested dog ). this high degree of haplotype differentiation between dog and wolf ( average fst for genotyped snps = 0. 75 ) indicates that this haplotype may harbour genetic variation of selective advantage to dogs ( supplementary discussion, sections 3 and 6 ). figure 3 : selection is associated with increased maltase activity. a, pooled heterozygosity, hp ( blue ), and average fixation index, fst ( orange ), plotted for 200 - kb windows across a


6 ). figure 3 : selection is associated with increased maltase activity. a, pooled heterozygosity, hp ( blue ), and average fixation index, fst ( orange ), plotted for 200 - kb windows across a chromosome 16 region harbouring mgam. b, heterozygosity, h ( blue ), and fixation index, fst ( orange ), for single snps in the selected region. c, haplotypes inferred from genotyping of 47 snps across the mgam locus in 71 dogs and 19 wolves ( red and blue colour are major and minor dog allele, respectively ). genes in the genotyped region are shown below panel c. d, mgam mrna expression levels in pancreas of wolf ( n = 8 ) and dog ( n = 9 ). e, mgam activity in serum from wolf ( n = 8 ) and dog ( n = 7 ). full size image ( 222 kb ) download powerpoint slide ( 332k ) previousfigures / tables index we identified several candidate mutations within mgam that may have been targeted by selection in this region ( supplementary table 15 ). first a conservative amino acid substitution located in the duplicated trefoil domain of mgam ( residue 1001 ) is nearly fixed for isoleucine in wolf and for valine in dogs. eleven out of fourteen mammals have valine at this position, whereas the omnivorous rat, and the insectivorous hedgehog and short - tailed opossum, carry isoleucine like the wolf ( supplementary table 16 ). second, another conservative substitution, methionine to valine, located in the beta sheet of the maltase enzyme ( residue 797 ), is segregating in wolf but fixed for methionine in dog. the insectivorous hedgehog and common shrew are the only mammals without methionine at this evolutionarily conserved position ( supplementary table 17 ) and in silico modelling using the sdm - server indicates that a change from methionine to valine at this residue is destabilizing24. third, a fixed two - base - pair deletion in dog disrupts the stop codon, thereby extending the carboxy - terminal end of dog mgam by two amino acids : asparagine and phenylalanine. in 32 mammals studied only herbivores ( rabbit, pika, alpaca and cow )


, thereby extending the carboxy - terminal end of dog mgam by two amino acids : asparagine and phenylalanine. in 32 mammals studied only herbivores ( rabbit, pika, alpaca and cow ) and omnivores ( mouse lemur and rat ) share an extension like that seen in dog ( supplementary table 18 ). a fourth candidate mutation in intron 37 affects a predicted binding site for the glucose metabolism regulator nr4a2 protein25 by shifting the wolf sequence away from the canonical nr4a2 - binding motif. three out of four mammals with the wolf allele at this site rely heavily on insects or fish for their nutritional requirements ( supplementary table 19 ). to decipher whether the candidate mutations act primarily on expression or protein activity we examined mgam expression in pancreas and the resulting enzymatic activity in serum. dogs showed a ~ 12 - fold higher expression ( p < 0. 001, wilcoxon, ndog = 9, nwolf = 8 ) ( fig. 3d ) and a ~ twofold increase in maltose to glucose turnover compared to wolves ( average glucose produced in dogs : 0. 94 δa570 nm ( 0. 64 – 1. 23, n = 7 ) and wolves : 0. 52 δa570 nm ( 0. 44 – 0. 66, n = 8 ), p = 0. 0012, wilcoxon ) ( fig. 3e ). although we cannot rule out that diet - induced plasticity contributed to this difference26, our results indicate that the mutation affecting a nr4a2 - binding site or another unknown variant probably affect the expression of mgam. selection may thus clearly have led to increased mgam expression, but we cannot rule out that the strong selection affecting this locus may have favoured the accumulation of protein - coding changes on the same haplotype. similar scenarios have been seen for white coat colour in dogs and pigs, where repeated selection for additional mutations has resulted in an allelic series of white spotting at the mitf and kit loci, respectively27. once starch has been digested to glucose it is absorbed through the luminal plasma membrane of the small intestine by the sodium / glucose cotransporter 1 ( sglt1 ) 21. to benefit from an increased capacity to digest starch, dogs would therefore be expected to show a parallel increase in glucose uptake. a cdr on chromosome 26 ( supplementary fig. 5a, b ) encompasses sg


( sglt1 ) 21. to benefit from an increased capacity to digest starch, dogs would therefore be expected to show a parallel increase in glucose uptake. a cdr on chromosome 26 ( supplementary fig. 5a, b ) encompasses sglt1 and a gene ( sglt3 ) encoding the glucose - sensing sodium / glucose cotransporter 3 protein28. to characterize the haplotype diversity we genotyped 48 randomly chosen snps across this cdr in the reference panel and identified a 50. 5 - kb region, spanning the 3 ′ section of sglt1 as well as the 3 ′ end of sglt3, that is highly divergent between dog and wolf ( supplementary fig. 5c ). in this region all dogs tested were carriers of a particular haplotype, for which 63 were homozygous and eight heterozygous. this contrasts to 19 wolves where a single individual carried one copy of the haplotype. based on the high haplotype differentiation ( average fst for 18 snps in 50. 5 - kb haplotype = 0. 81 ) it is likely that sglt1 and its 3 ′ region represents an additional dog domestication locus. the 50. 5 - kb region includes a conservative isoleucine to valine substitution in sglt1 ( residue 244 ) that affects a loop facing the extracellular side of the luminal membrane ( supplementary table 15 ). heterologous expression analysis29 shows that glycosylation at a nearby site ( residue 248 ) affects glucose transport, indicating that it is possible that dogs acquired improved glucose uptake as a result of the observed substitution. in addition, we see only non - significant differences in sglt1 expression in pancreas of dog ( n = 9 ) and wolf ( n = 4 ) ( p = 0. 39, wilcoxon ) ( supplementary fig. 6 ), indicating that selection primarily targeted a structural rather than regulatory mutation in sglt1. in conclusion, we have presented evidence that dog domestication was accompanied by selection at three genes with key roles in starch digestion : amy2b, mgam and sglt1. our results show that adaptations that allowed the early ancestors of modern dogs to thrive on a diet rich in starch, relative to the carnivorous diet of wolves, constituted a crucial step in early dog domestication. this may suggest that a change of ecological niche could have been the driving force behind the domestication process, and that


on a diet rich in starch, relative to the carnivorous diet of wolves, constituted a crucial step in early dog domestication. this may suggest that a change of ecological niche could have been the driving force behind the domestication process, and that scavenging in waste dumps near the increasingly common human settlements during the dawn of the agricultural revolution may have constituted this new niche6. in light of previous results describing the timing and location of dog domestication, our findings may suggest that the development of agriculture catalysed the domestication of dogs. the results presented here demonstrate a striking case of parallel evolution whereby the benefits of coping with an increasingly starch - rich diet during the agricultural revolution caused similar adaptive responses in dog and human30. this emphasizes how insights from dog domestication may benefit our understanding of human recent evolution and disease. finally, by understanding the genetic basis of adaptive traits in dogs we have come closer to unlocking the potential in dog and wolf comparisons to decipher the genetics of behaviour dna was extracted from tissue using qiagen tissue dna extraction kits or from edta blood using either manual salt precipitation or the qiasymphony dna midi kit ( qiagen ) on the qiasymphony robot ( qiagen ). we pooled dna from 12 individuals per pool before mate - pair library construction and sequencing on the ab solid system, version 3, according to standard manufacturer protocols ( applied biosystems ). sequencing reads were aligned to the canfam 2. 0 reference sequence using the bioscope 1. 1 software. we removed duplicated ( to view links or images in this forum your post count must be 10 or greater. you currently have 0 posts. ) and poorly mapped reads ( mapping quality < 20 in samtools ) 31 and retained only uniquely mapped reads for further analyses. we searched for variable sites in data combined from all pools ( including wolf ) to increase sensitivity to rare alleles. we required a minimum of three reads supporting an alternative allele to call a snp, and applied a further filtering step implemented in samtools. pl varfilter ( settings : – q25 – q10 – d3 – d120 – g25 – w10 – n2 – l30 ) to ensure a high call accuracy that is largely unaffected by, for example, paralogous sequence variants. we called genotypes for all snps in all dog pools and the single wolf pool by counting sequencing reads supporting the reference and variant allele, given a minimum base quality of


largely unaffected by, for example, paralogous sequence variants. we called genotypes for all snps in all dog pools and the single wolf pool by counting sequencing reads supporting the reference and variant allele, given a minimum base quality of 20, to estimate allele frequencies in the dog and wolf populations. a random selection representing 25 % of the sequencing reads from pools 4 and 5 were included in this process to achieve unbiased allele frequency estimates. allele counts and allele frequencies at all identified variable sites were used to search the dog genome for regions that may have been affected by selection during the early phase of dog domestication using two complementary approaches. first we calculated the average pooled heterozygosity ( hp ) in 200 - kb windows sliding 100 kb at a time, for all five dog pools combined, and in the single wolf pool separately, following the methodology described in ref. 10. briefly, this method sums all minor and major allele counts, respectively, at all variable sites within a window, and estimates the heterozygosity based on the combined allele counts for the entire window. the advantage of this method over calculating a simple arithmetic mean of all single - site heterozygosity estimates is that it accounts for variable sequence coverage across the window. to avoid spurious selection signals we discarded 49 out of 21, 927 windows containing fewer than 10 informative sites from both this and the subsequent fst analysis. we z - transformed the resultant distribution of hp scores and extracted putatively selected windows in the extreme tail of the distribution by applying a z ( hp ) < −5 cut - off. second we calculated fst values between dog and wolf for individual snps using a method that adjusts for sample size differences32. we averaged fst values across 200 - kb windows, sliding 100 kb at a time and z - transformed the resultant distribution. putative selection targets were extracted from the extreme tail of the distribution by applying a z ( fst ) > 5 cut - off, and attributed to selection in dog if the corresponding z ( hp ) dog < z ( hp ) wolf, to selection in wolf if z ( hp ) wolf < z ( hp ) dog ( three regions ), and to selection in both taxa if z ( hp ) wolf < −4 and z ( hp ) wolf < −4. gene ontology analysis we used the ensembl gene annotations to identify genes residing within regions extending 100 kb up - and downstream of cdrs to


z ( hp ) wolf < −4 and z ( hp ) wolf < −4. gene ontology analysis we used the ensembl gene annotations to identify genes residing within regions extending 100 kb up - and downstream of cdrs to include potential effects of regulatory changes on loci at some distance, and to reduce the risk of excluding the outermost portions of the selected haplotypes by using sliding windows of fixed size. we tested for enrichment of gene ontology terms ( goa - human ) assigned to the subset of these cdr genes for which human orthology could be established ( 79 out of 122 ) using the gostat program33. we designed an iplex assay targeting 124 snps located in cdrs showing a high degree of homozygosity or population differentiation. a total of 71 dogs, representing 38 different breeds, and 19 wolves ( supplementary table 14 ) were genotyped using standard protocols provided by the manufacturer ( sequenome ). haplotypes were phased using fastphase34. qpcr cnv detection we quantified dna copy number variation using multiplex taqman assays containing primers and probes ( supplementary table 20 ) matching both the target and reference sequence ( housekeeping gene c7orf28b ) according to the manufacturer ’ s protocol. all reactions were run in triplicate and data was analysed using the copycaller software ( applied biosystems ). copy numbers for each target were normalized to the same wolf to account for inter - plate variability. qpcr expression analyses pancreatic tissue samples from dogs and wolves where collected post mortem, stored in rnalater at 4 °c for 24 h and subsequently freeze - stored at −80 °c. we used trizol to isolate rna from these samples, followed by complementary dna synthesis using the advantage rt for pcr kit according to the manufacturers ’ protocols ( life technologies and clontech, respectively ). we designed exonic primers ( supplementary table 21 ) and quantified the amount of cdna using sybr green real - time pcr ( applied biosciences ) on a 7900ht fast real time pcr system ( applied biosystems ) and analysed the data using the qbaseplus ( biogazelle ) software according to the δδct method. all reactions where run in triplicate and normalized by comparisons to housekeeping genes rpl32 and rpl13a. peripheral edta and serum blood


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lamar river overview located in the northeast corner of yellowstone national park, the lamar river is the major tributary to the yellowstone within the park. the lamar is not only home to fantastic fly fishing for native yellowstone cutthroat, but is also one of the best place in the park to view wildlife, ranging from wolves and bears, to elk and buffalo. the scenery is also stunning and it can be hard to focus on the task at hand with all the amazing distractions that this corner of the park offers. the lamar valley the lamar spills forth from a range of towering mountains and canyons and then spreads out into the fertile, wildlife rich meadows of the lamar valley. it is here that the angler will ply the long cobble strewn flats and runs of the lamar, searching for large native cutthroat that rise eagerly to a range of aquatic and terrestrial insects. the lamar canyon just downstream of the long and wide lamar valley, the river tumbles down a narrow and short canyon that is noted for its rocks the size of cars. here among the boulders, small pockets and runs offer solitude for both the fish and the angler. it is also here that the angler will find a few rainbows intermixed with the native yellowstone cutthroat. this is rugged fishing ; hopping from boulder to boulder, laying a delicate cast into a small secluded piece of quiet water tucked amongst raging white water. action can be fast, so be sure to watch your step. the lower lamar the lamar river cascades from the short canyon and veers far away from any roads for its last leg before meeting with the yellowstone. it is also here that the hiking angler can fish water that rarely sees any other fisherman. the character of the river here is a mixture of meadow water and short canyon pocket water. large boulders are always present. be sure to pack bear spray and bells, as this is yellowstone backcountry at its finest, and this is their home, we are just visitors. | salmonflies | | june 25th - july 10th | | goldenstone | | june 25th - july 15th | | green drakes | | july 1st - july 20th | | drake mackerals | | september 1st - september 20th | | gray drakes | | june 20th - july 20th | | hydropsyche caddis | | june 15th - july 31st | | terrestrials | | july 1st - september 30th | | heptagenia mayflies | | august 1st - september 15th | | baetis mayflies | | august 20th


elasmobranchii ( sharks and rays ) > carcharhiniformes ( ground sharks ) > sphyrnidae ( hammerhead, bonnethead, or scoophead sharks ) etymology : sphyrna : greek, sphyra = hammer ( ref. 45335 ). environment / climate / range marine ; brackish ; pelagic - oceanic ; oceanodromous ( ref. 51243 ) ; depth range 1 - 300 m ( ref. 37816 ). subtropical ; 45°n - 37°s, 180°w - 180°e length at first maturity / size / weight / age maturity : lm?, range 250 - 300 cm max length : 610 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref. 244 ) ; common length : 370 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref. 13562 ) ; max. published weight : 449. 5 kg ( ref. 40637 ) soft rays : 0. a very large hammerhead also with a notch at the center of the head ( ref. 5578 ). front margin of head gently curved in juveniles, becoming nearly straight in adults, with slight median notch ( ref. 26938 ). 1st dorsal fin very high and curved ; 2nd dorsal and pelvic fins high and with deeply concave rear margins. light grey or grey - brown above, white below ; fins without conspicuous markings ( ref. 5578 ). circumglobal in coastal warm temperate and tropical seas ( ref. 13562 ). western atlantic : north carolina, usa to uruguay, including the gulf of mexico and caribbean. eastern atlantic : mediterranean and morocco to senegal. indo - pacific : throughout the indian ocean ; ryukyu islands to new caledonia and french polynesia. eastern pacific : southern baja california, mexico to peru. highly migratory species, annex i of the 1982 convention on the law of the sea ( ref. 26139 ). a coastal - pelagic, semi - oceanic shark, found close inshore and well offshore, over the continental shelves, island terraces, and in passes and lagoons ( ref. 244, 58302 ). often bottom and reef associated at 1 - 80 m ( ref. 58302 ). prefers to feed on stingrays and other batoids, groupers and sea catfishes, but also preys on other small bony fishes, crabs, squid, other sharks, rays, and lobsters ( ref. 244, 13562, 160


to feed on stingrays and other batoids, groupers and sea catfishes, but also preys on other small bony fishes, crabs, squid, other sharks, rays, and lobsters ( ref. 244, 13562, 1602 ). a viviparous species, with 13 - 42 of about 56 to 70 cm young in a litter ( ref. 26938, 1602 ). potentially dangerous to people ( ref. 13562 ) but only few, if any, of the attacks on people can be definitely attributed to it because of the apparent difficulty of distinguishing large hammerhead species involved in attacks ( ref. 244 ). caught occasionally by target shark longline, demersal tangle net and tuna gillnet fisheries ( ref. 58048 ). meat utilized for human consumption ( fresh, fresh - frozen, dried - salted, and smoked ), liver oil for vitamins, fins for soup, hides for leather, and carcasses for fishmeal ( ref. 244 ). its large fins, including the tail, sail - like first dorsal fin, are prized in the oriental sharkfin trade ( ref. 47737 ). compagno, l. j. v., 1984. fao species catalogue. vol. 4. sharks of the world. an annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date. part 2 - carcharhiniformes. fao fish. synop. 125 ( 4 / 2 ) : 251 - 655. rome : fao. iucn red list status ( ref. 90363 ) referencesaquacultureaquaculture profilestrainsgeneticsallele frequenciesheritabilitydiseasesprocessingmass conversion estimates of some properties based on empirical models phylogenetic diversity index ( ref. 82805 = 0. 5059 [ uniqueness, from 0. 5 = low to 2. 0 = high ]. bayesian length - weight : a = 0. 00211 ( - 0. 13279 - 0. 13700 ), b = 3. 15 ( 3. 06 - 3. 23 ), based on lwr estimates for species & family - bs ( ref. 93245 trophic level ( ref. 69278 ) : 4. 3 ±0. 7 se ; based on diet studies. resilience ( ref. 69278 ) : low, minimum population doubling time 4. 5 - 14 years ( fec = 13 ). vulnerability ( ref. 5915


n. pl. to · ma · toes 1. a widely cultivated south american plant ( lycopersicon esculentum ) having edible, fleshy, usually red fruit. 2. the fruit of this plant. 2. slang. a woman regarded as attractive. [ alteration of spanish tomate, from nahuatl tomatl. ] to · mato · ey ( - t - ) adj. word history : among the greatest contributions to world civilization made by the early inhabitants of the americas are plant foods such as the potato and squash. the tomato, whose name comes ultimately from the nahuatl language spoken by the aztecs and other groups in mexico and central america, was another important contribution. when the spanish conquered this area, they brought the tomato back to spain and, borrowing the nahuatl word tomatl for it, named it tomate, a form shared in french, portuguese, and early modern english. tomate, first recorded in 1604, gave way to tomato, a form created in english either because it was assumed to be spanish or under the influence of the word potato. as is well known, people at first resisted eating this new world food because its membership in the nightshade family made it seem potentially poisonous, but it is now is an important element of many world cuisines.


usda farm to school team site visit jefferson county public schools in on may 25 - 26, 2010, the usda farm to school team met with jefferson county public schools ( jcps ) nutrition services department and their partners to learn, firsthand, about the district ’ s farm to school efforts. jcps is a large, urban school district in louisville, kentucky, that enrolls 98, 000 students and serves over 61, 000 lunches every day. approximately 62 percent of the students are eligible for free or reduced - priced meals. the district ’ s impressive nutrition service center is a 68, 000 square - foot warehouse and central kitchen, which is used to distribute and prepare meals for the district ’ s 144 schools. every school has an operational kitchen where meals are received from the central kitchen, assembled, heated and served. in 2007, jcps kicked off their local purchasing initiative by reaching out to an apple producer located approximately 20 miles from the city of louisville. they successfully made a single bulk purchase for enough apples to serve one to each student in all 144 schools. building on this initial success, jcps has increased the variety and volume of local food used in the school nutrition programs ; expanded farm to school education programs ; and established a number of community and business partnerships. food service personnel value the strong working relationships they have with distributors and local farmers. in addition to an occasional bulk purchase of apples, the school district contracts with five local produce distributors to fill regular orders placed by school kitchen managers. in order to meet jcps demand for local produce, the distributors partner with local farmers. to help facilitate this process, the kentucky department of agriculture organizes an annual grower - buyer meeting to give local farmers, school district personnel, distributors, and other key stakeholders an opportunity to meet and discuss marketing opportunities. with purchasing locally grown produce, agriculture and health education is an important farm to school component at jcps. currently, there are approximately 70 school gardens in use by students from kindergarten to grade 12. the garden programs receive grant support and technical assistance from local nonprofits. the gardens are used for educational programs, and on a very limited basis, students and teachers grow cherry tomatoes and a variety of herbs to sample in the classroom. starting in the 2011 - 12 school year, jcps plans to enlist multiple school gardens to grow herbs ( e. g., basil or rosemary ) in order to scale - up production for use in the school lunch program. to supplement the school garden program, jcps offers students farm - based learning experiences in partnership with a


causes and consequences two decades of civil war few would have imagined in the early 1980s that the civil war between tamil militants and the sri lankan state would be so protracted and intractable. the mid - 1980s saw several militant groups engage the sri lankan armed forces and each other in sporadic battles throughout the north - east. in 1987 there was a pause in fighting with the arrival of an indian peacekeeping force ( ipkf ) to attempt to broker a settlement. the presence of the ipkf was eventually resented by both tamil militants and sections of the sinhalese polity. following the ipkf withdrawal in 1990, hostilities eventually resumed between a strengthened ltte, which had emerged as the dominant tamil group, and the sri lankan state. major battles were fought in the early 1990s until the election, in 1994, of an slfp - led coalition under chandrika kumaratunga on a manifesto of peace. negotiations between delegates of the government and the ltte broke down in early 1995, and hostilities resumed on an even larger scale. late in 1995 the ltte lost control of the city of jaffna and its surrounds ( an area that the ltte had controlled during the early 1990s ). the late 1990s saw most battles take place in the rural hinterland of the north - east known as the vanni, though sporadic attacks on army establishments in jaffna and bombings in colombo did take place. in late 2001, following the election this time of a unp - led coalition on a platform of peace, negotiations began again. with facilitation provided by envoys of the norwegian government, the ltte and the government signed an indefinite ceasefire in february 2002. the agreement permitted the ltte to retain control of large parts of the vanni, and the establishment of border points to allow movement of people and goods between government - and ltte - controlled areas ( something that had been very difficult during the war ). a neutral observer mission staffed by scandinavian monitors was also set up. in late 2002, following a joint appeal to donors for funds to reconstruct the north - east, the two parties began direct peace talks. several rounds of talks took place in international locations, and considerable progress was made on several fronts, especially with regard to economic development. however, citing the slow pace of progress in the delivery of a ' peace dividend ' to the people of the north - east, the ltte withdrew from talks in april 2003. in late 2003 the ceasefire agreement was put under further pressure when hostilities between the ' co -