jsrrc ' s confirmations of veterans exposure are unacceptable unless based on dod, rather that other government agency, materials. dismissed thereby are c - 123 veterans ' proofs of exposure established by government scientists at cdc / atsdr, nih / national toxicology program, nih / neihs, the us public health service and the epa. dismissed earlier as unacceptable to the va were independent expert opinions confirming c - 123 veterans ' exposure submitted by dr. jeanne stellman, professor emerita at columbia university, dr. fred berman of oregon health sciences university, dr. arnold schecter at university of texas medical school, and other acknowledged dioxin authorities. in may 2013 c - 123 veterans were barred from the agent orange registry health exam, via an internal, unpublished va procedure restricting such exams and care to only veterans able to prove exposure to liquid herbicides. exposed c - 123 veterans unsuccessfully cite the federal register of 8 may 2001 in which va states veterans exposed to agent orange in any situation will be cared for just as are vietnam veterans, and thus the situation evolves where the issue of " exposure " is debated. va in 2013 introduced the requirement of " bioavailability " as a prerequisite for a veteran ' s exposure to be considered, in that no bioavailability ( medical nexus ) implies no exposure. in 1978, the u. s. environmental protection agency suspended spraying of agent orange in national forests, due to a threefold increase in miscarriages in women living near forests that had been sprayed. on december 23, 1982, the epa announced it had identified dangerous levels of dioxin in the soil of times beach, missouri. panic spread through the town, with many illnesses, miscarriages and animal deaths attributed to the dioxin. by 1985, the town was evacuated except for one elderly couple who refused to leave, and the site was quarantined. residents were shunned in their new communities by people who feared the effects of exposure to dioxin were contagious. a december 2006 department of defense report listed agent orange testing, storage, and disposal sites at 32 locations throughout the united states, as well as in canada, thailand, puerto rico, korea, and in the pacific ocean. the veteran administration has also acknowledged that agent orange was used domestically by u. s. forces in test sites throughout the us. eglin air force base in florida was one of the primary testing sites throughout the 1960s. see also - environmental impact of war -


administration has also acknowledged that agent orange was used domestically by u. s. forces in test sites throughout the us. eglin air force base in florida was one of the primary testing sites throughout the 1960s. see also - environmental impact of war - scorched earth - u. s. - vietnam dialogue group on agent orange / dioxin - vietnam syndrome - york, geoffrey ; mick, hayley ; " last ghost of the vietnam war ", the globe and mail, july 12, 2008 - jessica king ( 2012 - 08 - 10 ). " u. s. in first effort to clean up agent orange in vietnam ". cnn. retrieved 2012 - 08 - 11. - hay, 1982 : p. 151 - pellow, david n. resisting global toxics : transnational movements for environmental justice, mit press, 2007, p. 159, ( isbn 0 - 262 - 16244 - x ). - stellman et al. 2003 : pp 681 – 687 - kolko, gabriel ( 1994 ). anatomy of a war : vietnam, the united states, and the modern historical experiences. new press. pp. 144 – 145. isbn 1 - 56584 - 218 - 9. - luong, 2003 : pp. 4 - furukawa, hisao ( 2004 ). ecological destruction, health, and development : advancing asian paradigms. trans pacific press. p. 143. isbn 978 - 1 - 920901 - 01 - 1. - sbsg, 1971 : p. 36 - luong, 2003 : p. 3 - fawthrop, tom ; " vietnam ' s war against agent orange ", bbc news, june 14, 2004 - fawthrop, tom ; " agent of suffering ", guardian, february 10, 2008 - iom, 1994 : p. 90 - frumkin, 2003 : pp. 245 – 255 - young, 2009 : p. 2 - young, 2009 : p. 6 - schuck, 1987 : p. 18 - schuck, 1987 : p. 17 - dwyer and flesch - janys, " editorial : agent orange in vietnam ", american journal of public health, april 1995, vol 85. no. 4, p. 476 - " committee recommendations : 2, 3, 7, 8 - tetrachlorodibenzo - p - dioxin ( tcdd ) ". ntp. niehs. nih. gov. retrieved 2012 - 07 -


. p. 190. isbn 978 - 0 - 262 - 70084 - 9. - vietnam ministry of foreign affairs – support agent orange victims in vietnamese. - hatfield consultants. evaluation of contamination at the agent orange dioxin hot spots in bien hoa, phu cat and vicinity, vietnam. june 2009 - hatfield consultants and the office of the national steering committee 33. assessment of dioxin contamination in the environment and human population in the vicinity of da nang airbase, viet nam. vancouver, canada : hatfield consultants, 2007. final report. - furukawa, 2004 : p. 215 - chiras, daniel d. ( 2010 ). environmental science ( 8th ed. ). jones & bartlett. p. 499. isbn 978 - 0 - 7637 - 5925 - 4. - vallero, daniel a. ( 2007 ). biomedical ethics for engineers : ethics and decision making in biomedical and biosystem engineering. academic press. p. 73. isbn 978 - 0 - 7506 - 8227 - 5. - furukawa, 2004 : pp. 221 – 222 - verwey, 1977 : p. 115 - frumkin, 2003 : p. 3 - mitchell, jon, " evidence for agent orange on okinawa ", japan times, 12 april 2011, p. 12. - hermann, kenneth j. ; " killing me softly : how agent orange murders vietnam ' s children " [ dead link ], political affairs, april 25, 2006 - fleischer, doris zames ; zames, freida ( 2001 ). the disability rights movement : from charity to confrontation. temple university press. p. 178. isbn 978 - 1 - 56639 - 812 - 1. - wilcox, 1983 : [ page needed ] - scott, wilbur j. ( 1993 ). the politics of readjustment : vietnam veterans since the war. transaction. p. 130. isbn 978 - 0 - 202 - 30406 - 9. - " ' ' dying veteran may speak from beyond the grave in court : lakeland ledger ". news. google. com. 1980 - 01 - 25. retrieved 2012 - 07 - 07. - croft, steve ; agent orange, cbs evening news, may 7, 1980 - " the mayerson law offices ". the mayerson law offices. retrieved may 4, 2010. - " pottstown mercury ". pottsmerc. com. retrieved 2012 - 07 - 07. - stanley, jay ; blair, john


" the mayerson law offices ". the mayerson law offices. retrieved may 4, 2010. - " pottstown mercury ". pottsmerc. com. retrieved 2012 - 07 - 07. - stanley, jay ; blair, john d., ed. ( 1993 ). challenges in military health care : perspectives on health status and the provision of care. transaction publishers. p. 164. isbn 978 - 1 - 56000 - 650 - 3. - harrington, john c. ( 2005 ). the challenge to power : money, investing, and democracy. chelsea green publisher. p. 260. isbn 978 - 1 - 931498 - 97 - 5. - chambers, john whiteclay ; anderson, fred, eds. ( 1999 ). " toxic agents : agent orange exposure ". the oxford companion to american military history. oxford university press. p. 725. isbn 978 - 0 - 19 - 507198 - 6. - fawthrop, tom ( november 4, 2004 ). " agent orange victims sue monsanto ". corpwatch. - new york times, july 3, 1996 [ clarification needed ] - " dioxins and dibenzofurans in blood and adipose tissue of agent orange — exposed vietnam veterans and matched controls ", journal of the american medical association, vol. 259 no. 11, march 18, 1988, p. 1661 – 1667 - " agent orange – office of public health and environmental hazards ".. va. gov. 2009 - 11 - 11. retrieved 2012 - 07 - 07. - " pl 102 - 4 and the national academy of sciences ".. nationalacademies. org. 1981 - 11 - 03. retrieved 2012 - 07 - 07. - baker, mike ( september 2, 2010 ). " costs of aging vets concern deficit commission ". the air force times. retrieved september 4, 2010. - young, 2009 : p. 310 - " us, vietnam to hold fourth joint advisory meeting on agent orange / dioxin ". retrieved august 11, 2011. - joint statement between the socialist republic of vietnam and the united states of america. pres. george w bush whitehouse press office. accessed december 31, 2008. ( original no longer available pdf available at http : / / www. warlegacies. org / bush. pdf. ) [ unreliable source? ] - martin, may 2009 : p. 2 - " statement of senator patrick leahy on the legacy of agent orange ".


pdf available at http : / / www. warlegacies. org / bush. pdf. ) [ unreliable source? ] - martin, may 2009 : p. 2 - " statement of senator patrick leahy on the legacy of agent orange ". retrieved august 11, 2011. - " remarks by secretary clinton, vietnam foreign minister khiem ". retrieved august 11, 2011. - " us helps vietnam to eradicate deadly agent orange ". bbc news. june 17, 2011. - ives, mike. " us starts landmark agent orange cleanup in vietnam ". yahoo news. retrieved 8 august 2012. - " february 22, 2008 decision by the second circuit court of appeals re : vietnam association of victims of agent orange v. dow chemical co. " ( pdf ). retrieved 2012 - 07 - 07. - " order list " ( pdf ). the united states supreme court. march 2, 2009. p. 7. archived from the original on 5 june 2010. retrieved may 4, 2010. - vietnam ministry of foreign affairs ; " americans support compensations for agent orange victims : poll " [ dead link ], november 22, 2004 - " vietnam friendship village project ". archived from the original on 17 september 2008. retrieved august 18, 2008. - " vietnam association of victims of agent orange ". retrieved august 11, 2011. - statement by amb. ngo quang xuan to the u. s. house foreign affairs subcommittee of asia, pacific and global environment, june 2009, p. 3 - mo, vuong. " living with the sufferings ". vietnam news agency. [ dead link ] - " public - private group has plan in the works to resolve issue ". chicagotribune. com. 2009 - 12 - 08. retrieved 2012 - 07 - 07. - by margie mason associated press writer ( 2010 - 06 - 16 ). " plan addresses agent orange legacy in vietnam ". msnbc. retrieved 2012 - 07 - 07. - " special report : agent orange ". washingtonmonthly. com. 2010 - 01 - 06. retrieved 2012 - 07 - 07. - congressional record – senate, september 16, 2010 - john rossie. " agent orange information site ". bluewaternavy. org. retrieved 2012 - 07 - 07. - " specifics of agent orange use " ( pdf ). retrieved 2012 - 07 - 07. - mcmahon, barbara ; " australia cancer deaths linked to agent orange ", guardian, may 19, 2008 - kevin danaher, ed. (


. - " specifics of agent orange use " ( pdf ). retrieved 2012 - 07 - 07. - mcmahon, barbara ; " australia cancer deaths linked to agent orange ", guardian, may 19, 2008 - kevin danaher, ed. ( 1994 ). 50 years is enough. south end press. p. 45. isbn 978 - 0 - 89608 - 495 - 7. - " quiet complicity : canadian involvement in the vietnam war, by victor levant ( 1986 ). ". the canadian encyclopedia. archived from the original on 18 may 2011. retrieved april 18, 2011. - " people angry with agent orange package turn to class - action lawsuit ". the canadian press. september 13, 2007. retrieved october 1, 2007. - " agent orange class action ". merchant law group llp. archived from the original on 2 october 2007. retrieved october 1, 2007. - shawn berry ( august 4, 2009 ). " moncton judge rules in agent orange lawsuit ". the times and transcript. retrieved may 4, 2010. - berry, shawn ; " moncton judge rules in agent orange lawsuit ", times & transcript, august 4, 2009. - " veterans affairs canada agent orange benefits rev 1. 0 ". retrieved 6 july 2012. - " star exclusive : agent orange " soaked " ontario teens by diana zlomislic ". the star ( toronto ). february 17, 2011. retrieved february 17, 2011. - " ontario probes agent orange poisoning by diana zlomislic ". the star ( toronto ). february 17, 2011. retrieved february 17, 2011. - " agent orange probe widens by diana zlomislic ". the star ( toronto ). february 18, 2011. retrieved february 18, 2011. - " toxic ' agent orange ' sprayed in b. c. : documents ". - u. s. department of veterans affairs. " agent orange : information for veterans who served in vietnam ". retrieved august 18, 2008. - [ unreliable source? ] " agent orange units sprayed outside of vietnam ( korea ) ". archived from the original on 20 july 2010. retrieved july 15, 2010. - " valley veteran blows whistle on burial of agent orange ". [ dead link ] - " release copy of ministry of environment ". - " army : no evidence of agent orange on camp carroll ". - " psychological warfare during the malayan emergency by herbert a friedman ". archived from the original on 29 may 2010. retrieved april 27, 2010. - " operational


environment ". - " army : no evidence of agent orange on camp carroll ". - " psychological warfare during the malayan emergency by herbert a friedman ". archived from the original on 29 may 2010. retrieved april 27, 2010. - " operational evaluation of super - orange " national security archives at george washington university. retrieved 10 - 24 - 12 - ; nzpa " concern prompts review of dioxin study ", new zealand herald, november 25, 2006 - mitchell, jon ( january 14, 2012 ). " " herbicide stockpile " at kadena air base, okinawa : 1971 u. s. army report on agent orange ". the asia - pacific journal, vol 11, issue 1, no. 5,. retrieved 2 february 2013. - " " an ecological assessment of johnston island, " produced through funding from the chemical materials agency, united states department of the army. page 4 ". retrieved july 2, 2012. - mitchell ( june 21, 2012 ). " agent orange at okinawa ' s futenma base in 1980s ". the asia - pacific journal : japan focus. retrieved august 16, 2012. - " thailand military bases and agent orange exposure ". retrieved 6 july 2012. - nass, meryl ; " monsanto ' s agent orange : the persistent ghost from the vietnam war ", organic consumers association, 2002 - nicosia and swofford, 2004 : p. 446 - " link to times beach, missouri wikipedia page ". - young, 2006 : pp. 5 – 6 - u. s. department of veterans affairs. " report on dod herbicides outside of vietnam ". retrieved september 7, 2008. - buckingham, william ( 1992 ). operation ranch hand : the airforce and herbicides in southeast asia 1961 – 1971. office of air force history. - butler, david a. ( 2005 ). " the early history of scientific and medical research on agent orange ". brooklyn journal of law and policy 13 ( 2 ) : 527. - frumkin h ( 2003 ). " agent orange and cancer : an overview for clinicians ". ca : a cancer journal for clinicians 53 ( 4 ) : 245 – 55. doi : 10. 3322 / canjclin. 53. 4. 245. pmid 12924777. - furukawa, hisao ( 2004 ). ecological destruction, health, and development : advancing asian paradigms. trans pacific press. isbn 978 - 1 - 920901 - 01 - 1


245. pmid 12924777. - furukawa, hisao ( 2004 ). ecological destruction, health, and development : advancing asian paradigms. trans pacific press. isbn 978 - 1 - 920901 - 01 - 1. - hay, alastair ( 1982 ). the chemical scythe : lessons of 2, 4, 5 - t, and dioxin. springer. isbn 978 - 0 - 306 - 40973 - 8. - iom ( institute of medicine ) ( 1994 ). veterans and agent orange : health effects of herbicides used in vietnam. national academies press. isbn 978 - 0 - 309 - 04887 - 3. - iom ( institute of medicine ) ( october 11, 2000 ). veterans and agent orange : herbicide / dioxin exposure and type 2 diabetes. national academies press. - luong, hy v. ( 2003 ). postwar vietnam : dynamics of a transforming society. rowman & littlefield. isbn 978 - 0 - 8476 - 9865 - 3. - martin, michael f. ; vietnamese victims of agent orange and us - vietnam relations, congressional research service, report to united states congress, may 28, 2009 - ngo, anh d. ; taylor, richard ; roberts, christine l. ; nguyen, tuan v. ( march 16, 2006 ). " association between agent orange and birth defects : systematic review and meta - analysis ". international journal of epidemiology. - nicosia, gerald ; swofford, anthony ( 2004 ). home to war : a history of the vietnam veterans movement. carroll & graf. isbn 978 - 0 - 7867 - 1403 - 2. - ntp ( national toxicology program ) ; " toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of 2, 3, 7, 8 - tetrachlorodibenzo - p - dioxin ( tcdd ) in female harlan sprague - dawley rats ( gavage studies ) ", casrn 1746 - 01 - 6, april 2006. - sbsg ( stanford biology study group ) ( may 1971 ). " the destruction of indochina ". bulletin of the atomic scientists 27 ( 5 ) : 36 – 40. issn 0096 - 3402. - schuck, peter ( 1987 ). agent orange on trial : mass toxic disasters in the courts. harvard university press. isbn 978 - 0 - 674 - 01026 - 0. - stellman et


pp. 14 – 20. isbn 978 - 0 - 89608 - 525 - 1. - griffiths, philip jones ( 2004 ). agent orange : collateral damage in vietnam. alpen editions. isbn 978 - 1 - 904563 - 05 - 1. - linedecker, clifford ; ryan, michael ; ryan, maureen ( 1982 ). kerry : agent orange and an american family ( 1st ed. ). st. martins press. isbn 978 - 0 - 312 - 45112 - 7. - schecter, arnold ( 1994 ). dioxins and health. springer. isbn 978 - 0 - 306 - 44785 - 3. - uhl, michael ; ensign, tod ( 1980 ). gi guinea pigs : how the pentagon exposed our troops to dangers deadlier than war ( 1st ed. ). playboy press. isbn 978 - 0 - 87223 - 569 - 4. - zierler, david ( 2011 ). the invention of ecocide. university of georgia press. isbn 978 - 0 - 8203 - 3827 - 9. - wilcox, fred ( 2011 ). scorched earth : legacies of chemical warfare in vietnam. seven stories press. isbn 978 - 1 - 60980 - 138 - 0. - wilcox, fred ( 2011 ). waiting for an army to die : the tragedy of agent orange. seven stories press. isbn 978 - 1 - 60980 - 136 - 6. journal articles / papers - weisman, joan murray. the effects of exposure to agent orange on the intellectual functioning, academic achievement, visual motor skill, and activity level of the offspring of vietnam war veterans. doctoral thesis. hofstra university. 1986. - kuehn, bridget m. ; agent orange effects, journal of the american medical association, 2010 ; 303 ( 8 ) : 722. government / ngo reports - " agent orange in vietnam : recent developments in remediation : testimony of ms. tran thi hoan ", subcommittee on asia, the pacific and the global environment, u. s. house of representatives, committee on foreign affairs. july 15, 2010 - " agent orange in vietnam : recent developments in remediation : testimony of dr. nguyen thi ngoc phuong ", subcommittee on asia, the pacific and the global environment, u. s. house of representatives, committee on foreign affairs. july 15, 2010 - agent orange policy, american public health association, 2007 - " assessment of the health risk of dioxins


subcommittee on asia, the pacific and the global environment, u. s. house of representatives, committee on foreign affairs. july 15, 2010 - agent orange policy, american public health association, 2007 - " assessment of the health risk of dioxins ", world health organization / international programme on chemical safety, 1998 - operation ranch hand : herbicides in southeast asia history of operation ranch hand, 1983 - " agent orange dioxin contamination in the environment and food chain at key hotspots in viet nam " boivin, tg, et al., 2011 - fawthrop, tom ; agent of suffering, guardian, february 10, 2008 - cox, paul ; " the legacy of agent orange is a continuing focus of vvaw ", the veteran, vietnam veterans against the war, volume 38, no. 2, fall 2008. - barlett, donald p. and steele, james b. ; " monsanto ' s harvest of fear ", vanity fair may 2008 - quick, ben " the boneyard " orion magazine, march / april 2008 - cheng, eva ; " vietnam ' s agent orange victims call for solidarity ", green left weekly, september 28, 2005 - children and the vietnam war 30 – 40 years after the use of agent orange - tokar, brian ; " monsanto : a checkered history ", z magazine, march 1999 - agent orange : the last battle. dir. stephanie jobe, adam scholl. dvd. 2005 - " hades " dir. caroline delerue, screenplay mauro bellanova 2011 - agent orange association of vietnam - donate to agent orange association of vietnam link - vietnamese victims of agent orange web site - u. s. environmental protection agency – dioxin web site - " agent orange / dioxin lawsuit " in " vietnam pictorial ", vietnam news agency - agent orange office of public health and environmental hazards, u. s. department of veteran affairs - poisoned lives - the aspen institute advocacy and exchange program on agent orange / dioxin - make agent orange history - agent orange record - blue water navy association - advocacy group and extensive ao documentation library - the short film agent orange study ( june 26, 1990 ) is available for free download at the internet archive [ more ] - the short film agent orange studies ( july 11, 1989 ) is available for free download at the internet archive [ more ]


irish americans. as cermak climbed the local political ladder, the resentment of the party leadership grew. when the bosses rejected his bid to become the mayoral candidate, cermak swore revenge. he formed his political army from the non - irish elements, and even persuaded black politician william l. dawson to switch from the republican to the democratic party. dawson later became u. s. representative ( from the 1st district ) and soon the most powerful black politician in illinois. cermak ' s political and organizational skills helped create one of the most powerful political organizations of his day. with support from franklin d. roosevelt on the national level, cermak gradually wooed members of chicago ' s growing black community into the democratic fold. walter wright, the superintendent of parks and aviation for the city of chicago also aided cermak in stepping into office. when cermak challenged the incumbent " big bill " thompson in the 1931 mayor ' s race, thompson, representative of chicago ' s existing power structure, responded with ethnic slurs : - i won ' t take a back seat to that bohunk, chairmock, chermack or whatever his name is. - tony, tony, where ' s your pushcart at? - can you picture a world ' s fair mayor? - with a name like that? cermak ' s reply, " he doesn ' t like my name... it ' s true i didn ' t come over on the mayflower, but i came over as soon as i could. " it was a sentiment to which ethnic chicagoans could relate and thompson ' s slur largely backfired. the flamboyant thompson ' s reputation as a buffoon and the voters ' disgust with the corruption of his machine and his inability or unwillingness to clean up organized crime in chicago were cited as major factors in cermak capturing 58 % of the vote in the mayoral election on april 6, 1931. cermak ' s victory finished thompson as a political power and largely ended the republican party ' s power in chicago ; indeed, all of the mayors of chicago since 1931 have been members of the democratic party. for nearly his entire administration, cermak had to deal with a major tax revolt. from 1931 to 1933, the association of real estate taxpayers mounted a " tax strike. " at its height, aret, which was headed by john m. pratt and james e. bistor, had over thirty thousand members. much to cermak ' s dismay, it successfully


of real estate taxpayers mounted a " tax strike. " at its height, aret, which was headed by john m. pratt and james e. bistor, had over thirty thousand members. much to cermak ' s dismay, it successfully slowed down the collection of real estate taxes through litigation and promoting refusal to pay. in the meantime, the city found it difficult to pay teachers and maintain services. while shaking hands with president - elect franklin d. roosevelt at bayfront park in miami, florida, on february 15, 1933, cermak was shot in the lung and seriously wounded when giuseppe zangara, who at the time was believed to have been engaged in an attempt to assassinate roosevelt, hit cermak instead. at the critical moment, lilian cross, a doctor ' s wife, hit zangara ' s arm with her purse and spoiled his aim. in addition to cermak, zangara hit four other people, one of whom, a woman, also died of her injuries. zangara told the police that he hated rich and powerful people, but not roosevelt personally. later, rumors circulated that cermak, not roosevelt, had been the intended target, as his promise to clean up chicago ' s rampant lawlessness posed a threat to al capone and the chicago organized crime syndicate. according to roosevelt biographer jean edward smith, there is no proof for this theory. one of the first people to suggest the organized crime theory was reporter walter winchell, who happened to be in miami the evening of the shooting. long - time chicago newsman len o ' connor offers a different view of the events surrounding cermak ' s death. he has written that aldermen " paddy " bauler and charlie weber informed him that relations between cermak and fdr were strained because cermak fought fdr ' s nomination at the democratic convention in chicago, and the legend that his last words were " i ' m glad it was me instead of you " was, according to o ' connor, totally fabricated by weber and bauler. author ronald humble offers his view as to why cermak was killed. in his book frank nitti : the true story of chicago ' s notorious enforcer, humble contends that cermak was as corrupt as thompson and that the chicago outfit hired zangara to kill cermak in retaliation for cermak ' s attempt to murder frank nitti. cermak died on march 6, partly because of his wounds. on


the unhired assassin. " in philip k. dick ' s man in the high castle, fdr is killed by not having a zippo lighter in his pocket, leading into a series of events, including increased american isolationism, that ended in the victory of the axis powers in world war ii, and subsequent occupation of the united states. see also - hirsch, arnold r. " democratic party. " encyclopedia of chicago. - wendt, lloyd ( 1979 ). chicago tribune. chicago : rand mcnally. isbn 0 - 528 - 81826 - 0. - " freedom of information act : franklin d. roosevelt ( assassination attempt ) ". retrieved 2008 - 08 - 04. [ dead link ] - smith, page 297. - smith, pages 297 - 298. - gumbel, andrew : steal this vote. nation books, 2005. isbn 1 - 56025 - 676 - 1, page 157. - smith, jean edward, fdr ( 2007 ), random house, isbn 978 - 1 - 4000 - 6121 - 1, page 715n. - " meet len o ' connor... chicago ' s pioneer broadcast street reporter ". rich samuels. retrieved 11 november 2012. - o ' connor, len : clout : mayor daley and his city. mcgraw - hill / contemporary, 1984. isbn 0 - 8092 - 5424 - 7. - reveals colitis fatal to cermak ", pittsburgh post - gazette, march 31, 1933, p1 - babylon 5 magazine # 4 - beito, david t. taxpayers in revolt : tax resistance during the great depression. chapel hill : university of north carolina press, 1989. - gottfried, alex. boss cermak of chicago : a study of political leadership. seattle : university of chicago press, 1962. media related to anton cermak at wikimedia commons - cermak ' s tomb at bohemian national cemetery - the man who dared ( 1933 ) at the internet movie database - the gun of zangara ( 1960 ) ( tv ) at the internet movie database - anton cermak at find a grave | cook county board president william hale thompson | mayor of chicago frank j. corr


fallacy of division - a boeing 747 can fly unaided across the ocean. - a boeing 747 has jet engines. - therefore, one of its jet engines can fly unaided across the ocean. the converse of this fallacy is called fallacy of composition, which arises when one fallaciously attributes a property of some part of a thing to the thing as a whole. both fallacies were addressed by aristotle in sophistical refutations. - functioning brains think. - functioning brains are nothing but the neurons that they are composed of. - if functioning brains think, then the individual neurons in them think. - individual neurons do not think. - functioning brains do not think. ( from 3 & 4 ) - functioning brains think and functioning brains do not think. ( from 1 & 5 ) since the premises entail a contradiction ( 6 ), at least one of the premises must be false. we may diagnose the problem as located in premise 3, which quite plausibly commits the fallacy of division. an application : famously and controversially, in the philosophy of the greek anaxagoras ( at least as it is discussed by the roman atomist lucretius ), it was assumed that the atoms constituting a substance must themselves have the salient observed properties of that substance : so atoms of water would be wet, atoms of iron would be hard, atoms of wool would be soft, etc. this doctrine is called homeomeria, and it plainly depends on the fallacy of division. if a system as a whole has some property that none of its constituents has ( or perhaps, it has it but not as a result of some constituent having that property ), this is sometimes called a strongly emergent property of the system. see also - " division ". the fallacy files. | this philosophy - related article is a stub. you can help wikipedia by expanding it. |


wadi ara or nahal iron ( arabic : وادي عارة, hebrew : נחל עירון, ואדי עארה ), refers to an area within israel that is mostly populated by arabs. it is located northwest of the green line and is mostly within israel ' s haifa district. today, highway 65 runs through the wadi. wadi ara is a 20 km wadi in northern israel, that begins at the meeting point of samaria, the plain of manasseh, and the sharon plain. the riverbed begins near umm al - fahm, and runs sw on the boundary between the manasseh hills and the umm al - fahm hills. approximately 1 km west of the border patrol intersection on highway 65, the wadi opens into the sharon plain, and becomes a tributary of the hadera stream, south of talmei elazar and north of tel zeror. in the late bronze age, the egyptian king, thutmose iii, is known to have used the route, then called aruna, to surprise his enemies, and take control of megiddo. according to information from a stela from armant - the king of kadesh advanced his army to megiddo. thutmose iii mustered his own army and departed egypt, passing through the border fortress of tjaru ( sile ). thutmose marched his troops through the coastal plain as far as jamnia, then inland to yehem, a small city near megiddo. the ensuing battle of megiddo probably was the largest battle in any of thutmose ' s seventeen campaigns. a ridge of mountains jutting inland from mount carmel stood between thutmose and megiddo, and he had three potential routes to take. the northern route and the southern route, both of which went around the mountain, were judged by his council of war to be the safest, but thutmose, in an act of great bravery ( or so he boasts, but such self - praise is normal in egyptian texts ), accused the council of cowardice and took a dangerous route through the aruna mountain pass, which he alleged was only wide enough for the army to pass " horse after horse and man after man. " originally captured by arab league forces ( iraqi ) in the 1948 arab - israeli war, it was ceded to israel in an apparent exchange for territory south of hebron in the 1949 israel - jordan armistice. in march 1949, as the


after man. " originally captured by arab league forces ( iraqi ) in the 1948 arab - israeli war, it was ceded to israel in an apparent exchange for territory south of hebron in the 1949 israel - jordan armistice. in march 1949, as the iraqi forces withdrew from palestine and handed over their positions to the smaller jordanian legion, 3 israeli brigades moved into positions in operation shin - tav - shin. following the operation, israel renegotiated the cease fire line in the wadi ara area of the northern west bank in an agreement reached on 23 march 1949 and incorporated into the general armistice agreement. it has been estimated that 15 villages were ceded to israel. proposed land exchange the area has come under political attention as some israeli politicians such as avigdor lieberman of the yisrael beiteinu party have brought up transferring the area to the sovereignty and administration of the palestinian authority for a future palestinian state. in return the palestinian authority would transfer specific large israeli settlement " blocs " within the west bank east of the green line to the israel. according to politicians who support this land - swap, israel would ensure and secure itself as a primarily jewish state. however many politicians within the knesset disagree and believe it would only decrease israel ' s arab population by a mere 10 %, while most israeli arabs object to trading israeli citizenship for palestinian citizenship. localities in wadi ara - harosheth haggoyim canaanite fortress and archaeological site - ar ' ara ( ' ara included in municipal borders ) - baqa - jatt ( merger of baqa al - gharbiyye and jatt ) - basma ( merger of barta ' a west, ein as - sahala, and muawiya ) - dar al - hanoun - ein ibrahim - kafr qara - khor saqr - ma ' ale iron ( baiyada, musmus, zalafa, musheirifa, salim ) - umm al - fahm - umm al - qutuf see also - redford, donald b. egypt, canaan, and israel in ancient times. p. 156 - 7. princeton university press, princeton nj, 1992. - steindorff, george ; and seele, keith. when egypt ruled the east. p. 53 - 4. university of chicago, 1942. - the politics of partition ; king abdullah, the zionists, and palestine 1921 - 1951 avi shlaim oxford university press revised edition 2004 isbn 0 - 19 - 829459 - x pp


wang meng ( artist ) wang meng ( 王, wang meng ; zi : shuming 明, hao : xiangguang jushi 香 光 士 ) ( c. 1308 – 1385 ) was a chinese painter during the yuan dynasty. he was born in huzhou ( 州 ), now known as wuxing ( ), zhejiang. he was a maternal grandson of zhao mengfu, thus making him a descendant of the song dynasty ' s royal bloodline. wang meng is considered to be one of the four masters of the yuan dynasty, along with huang gongwang, wu zhen, and ni zan. they famously refused to serve the mongolian rulers of their country. in contrast to many renowned painters in previous history, these artists mostly worked on paper instead of silk, an indication of the importance they gave to the calligraphic touch of the brush on paper. they exclusively painted landscapes, which they believed to be the visible key to the invisible reality. they restricted their acquaintanceship to each other, and like - minded " wen ren " ( gentleman - scholars ). wang meng was the youngest of the group, and the least famous in his own time. nevertheless, his style greatly influenced later chinese painting. in contrast to the relatively spare style of his compatriots, his ropy brushstrokes piled one on the other to produce masses of texture combined in dense and involved patterns. his most famous works are the ge zhichuan relocating, forest grotto at juqu, writing books under the pine trees, the simple retreat, and dwelling in the qingbian mountains. most of his masterpieces are now located in notable museums around the world, such as the palace museum, national palace museum, shanghai museum, cleveland museum of art and the metropolitan museum of art. in 2011, a lesser known work of his from a private collection, titled zhichuan resettlement, was sold for 402. 5 million yuan ( us $ 62. 1 million ) at art auction. writing books under the pine trees, cleveland museum of art forest grotto in juqu, national palace museum dwelling in the qingbian mountains, shanghai museum the simple retreat, metropolitan museum of art - lee, pages 460 - 463 - lee, pages 466 - 467 - lee, page 467 - lee page 467 - lee, sherman e. ( 1994 ), a history of far eastern art, ( 5th ed. ), harry n. abrams inc., new york, ny | wi


the wild horse ( equus ferus ) is a species of the genus equus, which includes as subspecies the domesticated horse as well as the undomesticated tarpan and przewalski ' s horse. the tarpan became extinct in the 19th century, and przewalski ' s horse was saved from the brink of extinction and reintroduced successfully to the wild. the possible ancestor of the domestic horse was the tarpan, which roamed the steppes of eurasia at the time of domestication. however, other subspecies of equus ferus may have existed and could have been the stock from which domesticated horses are descended. since the extinction of the tarpan, attempts have been made to reconstruct the phenotype of the tarpan, resulting in horse breeds such as the konik and heck horse. however, the genetic makeup and foundation bloodstock of those breeds is substantially derived from domesticated horses, and therefore these breeds possess domesticated traits. the term " wild horse " is also used colloquially to refer to free roaming herds of feral horses such as the mustang in the united states, the brumby in australia, and many others. these feral horses are untamed members of the domestic horse subspecies ( equus ferus caballus ), and should not be confused with the two truly " wild " horse subspecies. subspecies and their history e. ferus had several subspecies. three survived into modern times : - the domestic horse ( equus ferus caballus ). - the tarpan or eurasian wild horse ( equus ferus ferus ), once native to europe and western asia. the tarpan became effectively extinct in the late 19th century, and the last specimen died in captivity in a ukraine zoo in 1909. - przewalski ' s horse ( equus ferus przewalskii ), also known as the mongolian wild horse or takhi, native to central asia and the gobi desert. the latter two are the only never - domesticated " wild " groups that survived into historic times. however, other subspecies of equus ferus may have existed and could have been the stock from which domesticated horses are descended. przewalski ' s horse przewalski ' s horse occupied the eastern eurasian steppes, perhaps from the urals to mongolia, although the ancient border between tarpan and przewalski distributions has not been clearly defined. przewalski ' s horse was limited to d


ferus, and domesticated horse, equus ferus caballus, form a single homogeneous group ( clade ) and are genetically indistinguishable from each other. the genetic variation within this clade shows only a limited regional variation, with a notable exception of przewalski ' s horse. przewalski ' s horse has several unique genetic differences that distinguishes it from the other subspecies, including 66 instead of 64 chromosomes, unique y - chromosome gene haplotypes, and unique mtdna haplotypes. besides genetic differences, osteological evidence from across the eurasian wild horse range, based on cranial and metacarpal differences, indicates the presence of only two subspecies in post - glacial times, the tarpan and przewalski ' s horse. scientific naming of the species at present, the domesticated and wild horses are considered a single species, with the valid scientific name for the horse species being equus ferus. the wild tarpan subspecies is equus ferus ferus, przewalski ' s horse is equus ferus przewalskii, and the domesticated horse is equus ferus caballus. the rules for the scientific naming of animal species are determined in the international code of zoological nomenclature, which stipulates that the oldest available valid scientific name is used to name the species. previously, when taxonomists considered domesticated and wild horse two subspecies of the same species, the valid scientific name was equus caballus linnaeus 1758, with the subspecies labeled equus caballus caballus ( domesticated horse ), equus caballus ferus boddaert, 1785 ( tarpan ) and equus caballus przewalskii poliakov, 1881 ( przewalski ' s horse ). however, in 2003, the international commission on zoological nomenclature decided that the scientific names of the wild species have priority over the scientific names of domesticated species, therefore mandating the use of equus ferus for the horse, independent of the position of the domesticated horse. difference from feral horses horses that live in an untamed state but have ancestors who have been domesticated are not truly " wild " horses ; they are feral horses. for example, when the spanish reintroduced the horse to the americas beginning in the late 15th century, some horses escaped and formed feral herds, the best - known being the mustang. the australian equivalent to the mustang is the br


; they are feral horses. for example, when the spanish reintroduced the horse to the americas beginning in the late 15th century, some horses escaped and formed feral herds, the best - known being the mustang. the australian equivalent to the mustang is the brumby, descended from horses strayed or let loose in australia by english settlers. there are isolated populations of feral horses in a number of places, including portugal, scotland, and a number of barrier islands along the atlantic coast of north america from sable island off nova scotia, to the shackleford banks of north carolina. while these are often referred to as " wild " horses, they are not truly " wild " in the biological sense of having no domesticated ancestors. status unclear in 1995, british and french explorers discovered a new population of horses in the riwoche valley of tibet, unknown to the rest of the world, but apparently used by the local khamba people. it was speculated that the riwoche horse might be a relict population of wild horses, but testing did not reveal genetic differences with domesticated horses, which is in line with news reports indicating that they are used as pack and riding animals by the local villagers. these horses only stand 12 hands ( 48 inches, 122 cm ) tall and are said to resemble the images known as " horse no 2 " depicted in cave paintings alongside images of przewalski ' s horse. see also - boyd, l. & king, s. r. b. ( 2011 ). " equus ferus ". iucn red list of threatened species. version 2011. 2. international union for conservation of nature. retrieved 18 january 2012. - grubb, p. ( 2005 ). " order perissodactyla ". in wilson, d. e. ; reeder, d. m. mammal species of the world ( 3rd ed. ). johns hopkins university press. p. 630 - 631. isbn 978 - 0 - 8018 - 8221 - 0. oclc 62265494. - " the first horses : the przewalskii and tarpan horses ", the legacy of the horse ( international museum of the horse ), archived from the original on october 30, 2007, retrieved 2009 - 02 - 18 - groves, colin p. ( 1994 ). in boyd, lee and katherine a. houpt. the przewalski horse : morphology, habitat and taxonomy. przewalski ' s horse : the history and biology of an endangered species.


groves, colin p. ( 1994 ). in boyd, lee and katherine a. houpt. the przewalski horse : morphology, habitat and taxonomy. przewalski ' s horse : the history and biology of an endangered species. albany, new yorkcolin p. groves : state university of new york press. - kavar, tatjana ; peter dovc ( 2008 ). " domestication of the horse : genetic relationships between domestic and wild horses ". livestock science 116 : 1 – 14. doi : 10. 1016 / j. livsci. 2008. 03. 002. - weinstock, j. ; et al. ( 2005 ). " evolution, systematics, and phylogeography of pleistocene horses in the new world : a molecular perspective ". plos biology 3 ( 8 ) : e241. doi : 10. 1371 / journal. pbio. 0030241. pmc 1159165. pmid 15974804. retrieved 2008 - 12 - 19. - bowling, ann t. ; anatoly ruvinsky ( 2000 ). " genetic aspects of domestication, breeds and their origin ". in ann t. bowling, anatoly ruvinsky. the genetics of the horse. cabi publishing. isbn 978 - 0 - 85199 - 429 - 1. - colin groves, 1986, " the taxonomy, distribution, and adaptations of recent equids, " in richard h. meadow and hans - peter uerpmann, eds., equids in the ancient world, volume i, pp. 11 - 65, wiesbaden : ludwig reichert verlag. - don e. wilson & deeann m. reeder, ed. ( 2005 ). " equus caballus ". mammal species of the world. a taxonomic and geographic reference ( 3rd ed. ). johns hopkins university press. - wallner, b. ; brem, g. ; muller, m. ; achmann, r. ( 2003 ). " fixed nucleotide differences on theychromosome indicate clear divergence betweenequus przewalskiiandequus caballus ". animal genetics 34 ( 6 ) : 453 – 456. doi : 10. 1046 / j. 0268 - 9146. 2003. 01044. x. pmid 14687077. - lindgren, g. ; backstrom, n.


453 – 456. doi : 10. 1046 / j. 0268 - 9146. 2003. 01044. x. pmid 14687077. - lindgren, g. ; backstrom, n. ; swinburne, j. ; hellborg, l. ; einarsson, a. ; sandberg, k. ; cothran, g. ; vila, c. et al. ( 2004 ). " limited number of patrilines in horse domestication ". nature genetics 36 ( 4 ) : 335 – 336. doi : 10. 1038 / ng1326. pmid 15034578. - " przewalski ' s horse, " smithsonian national zoological park, accessed june 25, 2006 - " an extraordinary return from the brink of extinction for worlds last wild horse " zsl living conservation, december 19, 2005. - the american museum of natural history when is a wild horse actually a feral horse? - orlando, l. ; et al. ( 2008 ). " ancient dna clarifies the evolutionary history of american late pleistocene equids ". journal of molecular evolution 66 ( 5 ) : 533 – 538. doi : 10. 1007 / s00239 - 008 - 9100 - x. pmid 18398561. - cai, dawei ; zhuowei tang, lu han, camilla f. speller, dongya y. yang, xiaolin ma, jian ' en cao, hong zhu, hui zhou ( 2009 ). " ancient dna provides new insights into the origin of the chinese domestic horse ". journal of archaeological science 36 ( 3 ) : 835 – 842. doi : 10. 1016 / j. jas. 2008. 11. 006. - vila, carles ; jennifer a. leonard, anders gotherstrom, stefan marklund, kaj sandberg, kerstin liden, robert k. wayne, hans ellegren ( 2001 ). " widespread origins of domestic horse lineages ". science 291 ( 5503 ) : 474 – 477. doi : 10. 1126 / science. 291. 5503. 474. pmid 11161199. - benirschke, poliakoff k. ; n. malouf, r. j. low, h. heck ( 16 april 1965 ). " chromosome complement : differences between equus caballus and equus przewalskii ".


poliakoff k. ; n. malouf, r. j. low, h. heck ( 16 april 1965 ). " chromosome complement : differences between equus caballus and equus przewalskii ". science 148 ( 3668 ) : 382 – 383. doi : 10. 1126 / science. 148. 3668. 382. pmid 14261533. - lau, allison ; lei peng, hiroki goto, leona chemnick, oliver a. ryder, kateryna d. makova ( 2009 ). " horse domestication and conservation genetics of przewalski ’ s horse inferred from sex chromosomal and autosomal sequences ". mol. biol. evol. 26 ( 1 ) : 199 – 208. doi : 10. 1093 / molbev / msn239. pmid 18931383. - jansen, thomas, peter forster, marsha a. levine, hardy oelke, matthew hurles, colin renfrew, jurgen weber, and klaus olek ( august 6, 2002 ). " mitochondrial dna and the origins of the domestic horse ". proceedings of the national academy of sciences 99 ( 16 ) : 10905 – 10910. doi : 10. 1073 / pnas. 152330099. pmc 125071. pmid 12130666. retrieved 2008 - 12 - 18. - eisenmann, vera ( 1998 ). " quaternary horses : possible candidates to domestication ". the horse : its domestication, diffusion and role in past communities. proceedings of the xiii international congress of prehistoric and protohistoric sciences, forli, italia, 8 – 14 september 1996 1. abaco edizioni. pp. 27 – 36. - international commission on zoological nomenclature ( 2003 ). " usage of 17 specific names based on wild species which are pre - dated by or contemporary with those based on domestic animals ( lepidoptera, osteichthyes, mammalia ) : conserved. opinion 2027 ( case 3010 ). ". bull. zool. nomencl. 60 ( 1 ) : 81 – 84. - linnaeus, carolus ( 1758 ). systema naturae per regna tria naturae : secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis


- linnaeus, carolus ( 1758 ). systema naturae per regna tria naturae : secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. 1 ( 10th ed. ). holmiae ( laurentii salvii ). p. 73. retrieved 30 january 2009. - nimmo, d. g. ; miller, k. k. ( 2007 ). " ecological and human dimensions of management of feral horses in australia : a review ". wildlife research 34 : 408 – 417. doi : 10. 1071 / wr06102. - dohner, janet vorwald ( 2001 ). " equines : natural history ". in dohner, janet vorwald. historic and endangered livestock and poultry breeds. topeka, ks : yale university press. pp. 400 – 401. isbn 978 - 0 - 300 - 08880 - 9. - peissel, michel ( 2002 ). tibet : the secret continent. macmillan. p. 36. isbn 0 - 312 - 30953 - 8, 9780312309534 check - humi, peter ( 17 november 1995 ). " tibetan discovery is ' horse of a different color ' ". cnn. retrieved 2009 - 09 - 09. - equid specialist group 1996. equus ferus. in : iucn 2006. 2006 iucn red list of threatened species. < www. iucnredlist. org >. downloaded on 22 may 2006 from http : / / www. iucnredlist. org / search / details. php? species = 41763. - moelman, p. d. 2002. equids. zebras, assess and horses. status survey and conservation action plan. iucn / ssc equid specialist group. iucn, gland, switzerland.


| part of the series on | | part of a series on | communism ( from latin communis - common, universal ) is a revolutionary socialist movement to create a classless, moneyless and stateless social order structured upon common ownership of the means of production, as well as a social, political and economic ideology that aims at the establishment of this social order. this movement, in its marxist – leninist interpretations, significantly influenced the history of the 20th century, which saw intense rivalry between the " socialist world " ( socialist states ruled by communist parties ) and the " western world " ( countries with capitalist economies ). marxist theory holds that pure communism or full communism is a specific stage of historical development that inevitably emerges from the development of the productive forces that leads to a superabundance of material wealth, allowing for distribution based on need and social relations based on freely associated individuals. the exact definition of communism varies, and it is often mistakenly, in general political discourse, used interchangeably with socialism ; however, marxist theory contends that socialism is just a transitional stage on the road to communism. leninism adds to marxism the notion of a vanguard party to lead the proletarian revolution and to secure all political power after the revolution for the working class, for the development of universal class consciousness and worker participation, in a transitional stage between capitalism and communism. council communists and non - marxist libertarian communists and anarcho - communists oppose the ideas of a vanguard party and a transition stage, and advocate for the construction of full communism to begin immediately upon the abolition of capitalism. there is a very wide range of theories amongst those particular communists in regards to how to build the types of institutions that would replace the various economic engines ( such as food distribution, education, and hospitals ) as they exist under capitalist systems — or even whether to do so at all. some of these communists have specific plans for the types of administrative bodies that would replace the current ones, while always qualifying that these bodies would be decentralised and worker - owned, just as they currently are within the activist movements themselves. others have no concrete set of post - revolutionary blueprints at all, claiming instead that they simply trust that the world ' s workers and poor will figure out proper modes of distribution and wide - scale production, and also coordination, entirely on their own, without the need for any structured " replacements " for capitalist state - based control. in the modern lexicon of what many sociologists and political commentators refer to as the " political mainstream ", communism is often used


also coordination, entirely on their own, without the need for any structured " replacements " for capitalist state - based control. in the modern lexicon of what many sociologists and political commentators refer to as the " political mainstream ", communism is often used to refer to the policies of communist states, i. e., the ones totally controlled by communist parties, regardless of the practical content of the actual economic system they may preside over. examples of this include the policies of the socialist republic of vietnam where the economic system incorporates " doi moi ", the people ' s republic of china ( prc ) where the economic system incorporates " socialist market economy ", and the economic system of the soviet union which has been described as " state capitalist ". etymology and terminology in the schema of historical materialism, communism is the idea of a free society with no division or alienation, where the people are free from oppression and scarcity. a communist society would have no governments, countries, or class divisions. in marxist theory, the dictatorship of the proletariat is the intermediate system between capitalism and communism, when the government is in the process of changing the means of ownership from privatism to collective ownership. in political science, the term " communism " is sometimes used to refer to communist states, a form of government in which the state operates under a one - party system and declares allegiance to marxism - leninism or a derivative thereof. in modern usage, the word " communism " is still often used to refer to the policies of self - declared socialist governments comprising one - party states which were single legal political party systems operating under centrally planned economies and a state ownership of the means of production, with the state, in turn, claiming that it represented the interests of the working classes. a significant sector of the modern communist movement alleges that these states never made an attempt to transition to a communist society, while others even argue that they never achieved a legitimate socialism. most of these governments claimed to base their ideology on marxism - leninism ( though this, too, may be erroneous ), but they did not call the system they had set up " communism ", nor did they even necessarily claim at all times that the ideology was the sole driving force behind their policies : mao zedong, for example, pursued new democracy, and vladimir lenin in the early 1920s enacted war communism ; later, the vietnamese enacted doi moi, and the chinese switched to socialism with chinese characteristics. the governments labeled by other governments as " communist " generally claimed that they


for example, pursued new democracy, and vladimir lenin in the early 1920s enacted war communism ; later, the vietnamese enacted doi moi, and the chinese switched to socialism with chinese characteristics. the governments labeled by other governments as " communist " generally claimed that they had set up a transitional socialist system. this system is sometimes referred to as state socialism or by other similar names. " pure communism " is a term sometimes used to refer to the stage in history after socialism, although just as many communists use simply the term " communism " to refer to that stage ; the term is synonymous with " full communism ". the classless, stateless society that characterises this communism is one in which decisions on what to produce and what policies to pursue are made in the best interests of the whole of society, a society ' of, by, and for the working class ', rather than one in which a rich class controls the wealth and everyone else works for the rich on a wage basis. in such a full communism the interests of every member of society is given equal weight in the practical decision - making process in both the political and economic spheres of life. karl marx, as well as some other communist philosophers, deliberately never provided a detailed description as to how communism would function as a social system, nor the precise ways in which the working class could or should rise up, nor any other material specifics of exactly how to get to communism from capitalism. in the communist manifesto, marx does lay out a 10 - point plan advising the redistribution of land and production to begin the transition to communism, but he ensured that even this was very general and all - encompassing. it has always been presumed that marx intended these theories to read this way specifically so that later theorists in specific situations could adapt communism to their own localities and conditions. the origins of communism are debatable, and there are various historical groups, as well as theorists, whose beliefs have been subsequently described as communist. german philosopher karl marx saw primitive communism as the original, hunter - gatherer state of humankind from which it arose. for marx, only after humanity was capable of producing surplus, did private property develop. the idea of a classless society first emerged in ancient greece. plato in his the republic described it as a state where people shared all their property, wives, and children : " the private and individual is altogether banished from life and things which are by nature private, such as eyes and ears and hands, have become common, and in some way see and hear and act in common, and all men


wives, and children : " the private and individual is altogether banished from life and things which are by nature private, such as eyes and ears and hands, have become common, and in some way see and hear and act in common, and all men express praise and feel joy and sorrow on the same occasions. " in the history of western thought, certain elements of the idea of a society based on common ownership of property can be traced back to ancient times. examples include the spartacus slave revolt in rome. the 5th century mazdak movement in iran has been described as " communistic " for challenging the enormous privileges of the noble classes and the clergy, criticizing the institution of private property and for striving for an egalitarian society. at one time or another, various small communist communities existed, generally under the inspiration of scripture. in the medieval christian church, for example, some monastic communities and religious orders shared their land and other property ( see religious and christian communism ). these groups often believed that concern with private property was a distraction from religious service to god and neighbour. communist thought has also been traced back to the work of 16th century english writer thomas more. in his treatise utopia ( 1516 ), more portrayed a society based on common ownership of property, whose rulers administered it through the application of reason. in the 17th century, communist thought surfaced again in england, where a puritan religious group known as the " diggers " advocated the abolition of private ownership of land. eduard bernstein, in his 1895 cromwell and communism argued that several groupings in the english civil war, especially the diggers espoused clear communistic, agrarian ideals, and that oliver cromwell ' s attitude to these groups was at best ambivalent and often hostile. criticism of the idea of private property continued into the age of enlightenment of the 18th century, through such thinkers as jean jacques rousseau in france. later, following the upheaval of the french revolution, communism emerged as a political doctrine. francois noel babeuf, in particular, espoused the goals of common ownership of land and total economic and political equality among citizens. various social reformers in the early 19th century founded communities based on common ownership. but unlike many previous communist communities, they replaced the religious emphasis with a rational and philanthropic basis. notable among them were robert owen, who founded new harmony in indiana ( 1825 ), and charles fourier, whose followers organized other settlements in the united states such as brook farm ( 1841 – 47 ). later in the 19th century, karl marx described these


notable among them were robert owen, who founded new harmony in indiana ( 1825 ), and charles fourier, whose followers organized other settlements in the united states such as brook farm ( 1841 – 47 ). later in the 19th century, karl marx described these social reformers as " utopian socialists " to contrast them with his program of " scientific socialism " ( a term coined by friedrich engels ). other writers described by marx as " utopian socialists " included saint - simon. in its modern form, communism grew out of the socialist movement of 19th century europe. as the industrial revolution advanced, socialist critics blamed capitalism for the misery of the proletariat — a new class of urban factory workers who laboured under often - hazardous conditions. foremost among these critics were marx and his associate friedrich engels. in 1848, marx and engels offered a new definition of communism and popularized the term in their famous pamphlet the communist manifesto. engels, who lived in manchester, observed the organization of the chartist movement ( see history of british socialism ), while marx departed from his university comrades to meet the proletariat in france and germany. the 1917 october revolution in russia was the first time any avowedly communist party, in this case the bolshevik party, seized state power. the assumption of state power by the bolsheviks generated a great deal of practical and theoretical debate within the marxist movement. marx predicted that socialism and communism would be built upon foundations laid by the most advanced capitalist development. russia, however, was one of the poorest countries in europe with an enormous, largely illiterate peasantry and a minority of industrial workers. marx had explicitly stated that russia might be able to skip the stage of bourgeois rule. other socialists also believed that a russian revolution could be the precursor of workers ' revolutions in the west. the moderate mensheviks opposed lenin ' s bolshevik plan for socialist revolution before capitalism was more fully developed. the bolsheviks ' successful rise to power was based upon the slogans such as " peace, bread, and land " which tapped the massive public desire for an end to russian involvement in the first world war, the peasants ' demand for land reform, and popular support for the soviets. the usage of the terms " communism " and " socialism " shifted after 1917, when the bolsheviks changed their name to communist party and installed a single party regime devoted to the implementation of socialist policies under leninism. the second international had dissolved in 1916 over national divisions, as the separate national parties that composed it did not maintain a unified front


the bolsheviks changed their name to communist party and installed a single party regime devoted to the implementation of socialist policies under leninism. the second international had dissolved in 1916 over national divisions, as the separate national parties that composed it did not maintain a unified front against the war, instead generally supporting their respective nation ' s role. lenin thus created the third international ( comintern ) in 1919 and sent the twenty - one conditions, which included democratic centralism, to all european socialist parties willing to adhere. in france, for example, the majority of the french section of the workers ' international ( sfio ) party split in 1921 to form the french section of the communist international ( sfic ). henceforth, the term " communism " was applied to the objective of the parties founded under the umbrella of the comintern. their program called for the uniting of workers of the world for revolution, which would be followed by the establishment of a dictatorship of the proletariat as well as the development of a socialist economy. ultimately, if their program held, there would develop a harmonious classless society, with the withering away of the state. during the russian civil war ( 1918 – 1922 ), the bolsheviks nationalized all productive property and imposed a policy of war communism, which put factories and railroads under strict government control, collected and rationed food, and introduced some bourgeois management of industry. after three years of war and the 1921 kronstadt rebellion, lenin declared the new economic policy ( nep ) in 1921, which was to give a " limited place for a limited time to capitalism. " the nep lasted until 1928, when joseph stalin achieved party leadership, and the introduction of the first five year plan spelled the end of it. following the russian civil war, the bolsheviks, in 1922, formed the union of soviet socialist republics ( ussr ), or soviet union, from the former russian empire. following lenin ' s democratic centralism, the communist parties were organized on a hierarchical basis, with active cells of members as the broad base ; they were made up only of elite cadres approved by higher members of the party as being reliable and completely subject to party discipline. the great purge of 1937 – 1938 was stalin ' s attempt to destroy any possible opposition within the communist party. in the moscow trials many old bolsheviks who had played prominent roles during the russian revolution of 1917, or in lenin ' s soviet government afterwards, including kamenev, zinoviev, rykov, and bukharin, were accused, pleaded guilty,


the moscow trials many old bolsheviks who had played prominent roles during the russian revolution of 1917, or in lenin ' s soviet government afterwards, including kamenev, zinoviev, rykov, and bukharin, were accused, pleaded guilty, and executed. following world war ii, communists consolidated power in central and eastern europe, and in 1949, the communist party of china ( cpc ), led by mao zedong, established the people ' s republic of china, which would follow its own ideological path of communist development following the sino - soviet split. cuba, north korea, vietnam, laos, cambodia, angola, and mozambique were among the other countries in the third world that adopted or imposed a communist government at some point. by the early 1980s almost one - third of the world ' s population lived in communist states, including the former soviet union and prc. its leading role in the second world war saw the emergence of the soviet union as a superpower, with strong influence over eastern europe and parts of asia. at the same time the existing european empires were shattered and communist parties played a leading role in many independence movements. governments modelled on soviet communism took power with soviet assistance in bulgaria, czechoslovakia, east germany, poland, hungary and romania. a communist government was also created under marshal tito in yugoslavia, but tito ' s independent policies led to the expulsion of yugoslavia from the cominform, which had replaced the comintern. titoism, a new branch in the world communist movement, was labelled " deviationist ". albania also became an independent communist nation after world war ii. by 1950, the chinese communists held all of mainland china, thus controlling the most populous nation in the world. other areas where rising communist strength provoked dissension and in some cases led to actual fighting through conventional and guerrilla warfare include the korean war, laos, many nations of the middle east and africa, and notably succeeded in the case of the vietnam war against the military power of the united states and its allies. with varying degrees of success, communists attempted to unite with nationalist and socialist forces against what they saw as western imperialism in these poor countries. communism was seen as a rival, and a threat to western democracies and capitalism for most of the 20th century. this rivalry peaked during the cold war, as the world ' s two remaining superpowers, the united states and the soviet union, polarized most of the world into two camps of nations. this was characterized in the west as the free world vs. behind the iron curtain. it supported


as the world ' s two remaining superpowers, the united states and the soviet union, polarized most of the world into two camps of nations. this was characterized in the west as the free world vs. behind the iron curtain. it supported the spread of their respective economic and political systems ( capitalism and communism ) and strengthened their military powers. as a result, the camps developed new weapon systems, stockpiled nuclear weapons, and competed in space exploration. near the beginning of the cold war, on february 9, 1950, senator joseph mccarthy from wisconsin accused 205 americans working in the state department of being " card - carrying communists ". the fear of communism in the u. s. spurred mccarthyism, aggressive investigations and the red - baiting, blacklisting, jailing and deportation of persons suspected of following communist or other left - wing ideologies. many famous actors and writers were placed on a blacklist from 1950 to 1954, which meant they would not be hired and would be subject to public disdain. after the collapse of the soviet union in 1985, mikhail gorbachev became leader of the soviet union and relaxed central control, in accordance with reform policies of glasnost ( openness ) and perestroika ( restructuring ). the soviet union did not intervene as poland, east germany, czechoslovakia, bulgaria, romania, and hungary all abandoned communist rule by 1990. in 1991, the soviet union dissolved. by the beginning of the 21st century, states controlled by communist parties under a single - party system include the people ' s republic of china, cuba, laos, vietnam, and north korea. communist parties, or their descendant parties, remain politically important in a number of other countries. president dimitris christofias of cyprus is a member of the progressive party of working people, but the country is not run under single - party rule. the south african communist party is a partner in the african national congress - led government. in india, communists lead the governments of three states, with a combined population of more than 115 million. in nepal, communists hold a majority in the parliament. the communist party of brazil is a part of the parliamentary coalition led by the ruling democratic socialist workers ' party and is represented in the executive cabinet of dilma rousseff. the people ' s republic of china has reassessed many aspects of the maoist legacy ; it, along with laos, vietnam, and, to a lesser degree cuba, has reduced state control of the economy in order to stimulate growth. chinese economic reforms


people ' s republic of china has reassessed many aspects of the maoist legacy ; it, along with laos, vietnam, and, to a lesser degree cuba, has reduced state control of the economy in order to stimulate growth. chinese economic reforms started in 1978 under the leadership of deng xiaoping ; since then, china has managed to bring down the poverty rate from 53 % in the mao era to just 6 % in 2001. the people ' s republic of china runs special economic zones dedicated to market - oriented enterprise, free from central government control. several other communist states have also attempted to implement market - based reforms, including vietnam. theories within marxism as to why communism in central and eastern europe was not achieved after socialist revolutions pointed to such elements as the pressure of external capitalist states, the relative backwardness of the societies in which the revolutions occurred, and the emergence of a bureaucratic stratum or class that arrested or diverted the transition process in its own interests. marxist critics of the soviet union, most notably trotsky, referred to the soviet system, along with other communist states, as " degenerated " or " deformed workers ' states ", arguing that the soviet system fell far short of marx ' s communist ideal and he claimed the working class was politically dispossessed. the ruling stratum of the soviet union was held to be a bureaucratic caste, but not a new ruling class, despite their political control. anarchists who adhere to participatory economics claim that the soviet union became dominated by powerful intellectual elites who in a capitalist system crown the proletariat ' s labour on behalf of the bourgeoisie. | part of a series on | like other socialists, karl marx and friedrich engels sought an end to capitalism and the systems which they perceived to be responsible for the exploitation of workers. whereas earlier socialists often favored longer - term social reform, marx and engels believed that popular revolution was all but inevitable, and the only path to socialism and communism. according to the marxist argument for communism, the main characteristic of human life in class society is alienation ; and communism is desirable because it entails the full realization of human freedom. marx here follows georg wilhelm friedrich hegel in conceiving freedom not merely as an absence of restraints but as action with content. according to marx, communism ' s outlook on freedom was based on an agent, obstacle, and goal. the agent is the common / working people ; the obstacles are class divisions, economic inequalities, unequal life


as action with content. according to marx, communism ' s outlook on freedom was based on an agent, obstacle, and goal. the agent is the common / working people ; the obstacles are class divisions, economic inequalities, unequal life - chances, and false consciousness ; and the goal is the fulfilment of human needs including satisfying work, and fair share of the product. they believed that communism allowed people to do what they want, but also put humans in such conditions and such relations with one another that they would not wish to exploit, or have any need to. whereas for hegel the unfolding of this ethical life in history is mainly driven by the realm of ideas, for marx, communism emerged from material forces, particularly the development of the means of production. marxism holds that a process of class conflict and revolutionary struggle will result in victory for the proletariat and the establishment of a communist society in which private property and ownership is abolished over time and the means of production and subsistence belong to the community. ( private property and ownership, in this context, means ownerships of the means of production, not private possessions ). marx himself wrote little about life under communism, giving only the most general indication as to what constituted a communist society. it is clear that it entails abundance in which there is little limit to the projects that humans may undertake. in the popular slogan that was adopted by the communist movement, communism was a world in which each gave according to their abilities, and received according to their needs. the german ideology ( 1845 ) was one of marx ' s few writings to elaborate on the communist future : " in communist society, where nobody has one exclusive sphere of activity but each can become accomplished in any branch he wishes, society regulates the general production and thus makes it possible for me to do one thing today and another tomorrow, to hunt in the morning, fish in the afternoon, rear cattle in the evening, criticise after dinner, just as i have a mind, without ever becoming hunter, fisherman, herdsman or critic. " — marx ' s lasting vision was to add this vision to a theory of how society was moving in a law - governed way towards communism, and, with some tension, a political theory that explained why revolutionary activity was required to bring it about. in the late 19th century, the terms " socialism " and " communism " were often used interchangeably. however, marx and engels argued that communism would not emerge from capitalism in a fully developed state, but would pass through


to bring it about. in the late 19th century, the terms " socialism " and " communism " were often used interchangeably. however, marx and engels argued that communism would not emerge from capitalism in a fully developed state, but would pass through a " first phase " in which most productive property was owned in common, but with some class differences remaining. the " first phase " would eventually evolve into a " higher phase " in which class differences were eliminated, and a state was no longer needed. lenin frequently used the term " socialism " to refer to marx and engels ' supposed " first phase " of communism and used the term " communism " interchangeably with marx and engels ' " higher phase " of communism. these later aspects, particularly as developed by vladimir lenin, provided the underpinning for the mobilizing features of 20th century communist parties. leninism and marxism - leninism | part of a series on | leninism is the political movement developed by vladimir lenin, which has become the foundation for the organizational structure of most major communist parties. leninists advocate the creation of a vanguard party led by dedicated revolutionaries in order to lead the working class revolution to victory. leninists believe that socialism will not arise spontaneously through the natural decay of capitalism and that workers are unable to organize and develop socialist consciousness without the guidance of the vanguard party. after taking power, vanguard parties seek to create a socialist state continually led by the vanguard party in order to direct social development and defend against counterrevolutionary insurrection. the mode of industrial organization championed by leninism and marxism - leninism is the capitalist model of scientific management pioneered by fredrick taylor. marxism - leninism is a version of leninism merged with classical marxism adopted by the soviet union and most communist parties across the world today. it shaped the soviet union and influenced communist parties worldwide. it was heralded as a possibility of building communism via a massive program of industrialization and collectivisation. despite the fall of the soviet union and the ' eastern bloc ' ( meaning communist countries of eastern and central europe ), many communist parties of the world today still lay claim to uphold the marxist - leninist banner. marxism - leninism expands on marxist thoughts by bringing the theories to what lenin and other communists considered, the age of capitalist imperialism, and a renewed focus on party building, the development of a socialist state, and democratic centralism as an organisational principle. lenin ' s pamphlet what is to be done? ( 1902 ), proposed that the ( urban ) proletaria


imperialism, and a renewed focus on party building, the development of a socialist state, and democratic centralism as an organisational principle. lenin ' s pamphlet what is to be done? ( 1902 ), proposed that the ( urban ) proletariat can successfully achieve revolutionary consciousness only under the leadership of a vanguard party of professional revolutionaries — who can achieve aims only with internal democratic centralism in the party ; tactical and ideological policy decisions are agreed via democracy, and every member must support and promote the agreed party policy. to wit, capitalism can be overthrown only with revolution — because attempts to reform capitalism from within ( fabianism ) and from without ( social democracy ) will fail because of its inherent contradictions. the purpose of a leninist revolutionary vanguard party is the forceful deposition of the incumbent government ; assume power ( as agent of the proletariat ) and establish the dictatorship of the proletariat. moreover, as the government, the vanguard party must educate the proletariat — to dispel the societal false consciousness of religion and nationalism that are culturally instilled by the bourgeoisie in facilitating exploitation, and to instil the material scientific outlook of the world and the sense of proletarian internationalism. the dictatorship of the proletariat is governed with a de - centralized direct democracy practised via soviets ( councils ) where the workers exercise political power ( cf. soviet democracy ) ; the fifth chapter of state & revolution, describes it : ".... the dictatorship of the proletariat — i. e. the organisation of the vanguard of the oppressed as the ruling class for the purpose of crushing the oppressors.... an immense expansion of democracy, which for the first time becomes democracy for the poor, democracy for the people, and not democracy for the rich :... and suppression by force, i. e. exclusion from democracy, for the exploiters and oppressors of the people — this is the change which democracy undergoes during the transition from capitalism to communism. " — the post - revolutionary bolshevik government was hostile to nationalism, especially to russian nationalism, the " great russian chauvinism ", which was seen as an obstacle to establishing the dictatorship of the proletariat. however, under the regime of joseph stalin, during the great patriotic war, russian nationalism brought back into favour. the hallmarks of marxism - leninism are : the revolutionary vanguard party, revolution as a means to overthrow capitalism, and democratic centralism. " we want to achieve


of joseph stalin, during the great patriotic war, russian nationalism brought back into favour. the hallmarks of marxism - leninism are : the revolutionary vanguard party, revolution as a means to overthrow capitalism, and democratic centralism. " we want to achieve a new and better order of society : in this new and better society there must be neither rich nor poor ; all will have to work. not a handful of rich people, but all the working people must enjoy the fruits of their common labour. machines and other improvements must serve to ease the work of all and not to enable a few to grow rich at the expense of millions and tens of millions of people. this new and better society is called socialist society. the teachings about this society are called ' socialism '. “ - vladimir lenin, " to the rural poor " ( 1903 ) ; collected works, vol 6, p. 366 leninism is the revolutionary theories developed by vladimir lenin, including the organizational principles of democratic centralism, vanguardism and the political theory of imperialism. leninist theory postulates that, with the strongly determined will of the bourgeoisie to establish imperialism, socialism will not arise spontaneously through the natural decay of capitalism, and that workers by themselves, who may be more or less sedated by reactionary propaganda, are unable to effectively organise and develop socialist consciousness, therefore requiring the leadership of a revolutionary vanguard organized on the basis of democratic centralism. as a result, leninism promotes a vanguard party in order to lead the working - class and peasants in a revolution. because this revolution takes place in underdeveloped, largely pre - capitalist countries such as russia, leninism establishes a single - party, authoritarian state, justifying single - party control over the state and economy as a means to safeguard the revolution against counter - revolutionary insurrection and foreign invasion. although the creation of a vanguard party was outlined by marx and engels in chapter ii : " proletarians and communists " of the communist manifesto, lenin modified this position by changing the role of the vanguards to professional revolutionaries, who were to hold power post - revolution and direct the national economy and society in developing world socialism. after disposing of the bourgeois dictatorship through socialist revolution, leninists seek to create a socialist state in which the working class would be in power, which they see as being essential for laying the foundations for a transitional withering of the state towards communism ( stateless society ). in this state, the vanguard party would act as a central nucleus in the organisation of socialist society, presiding over


power, which they see as being essential for laying the foundations for a transitional withering of the state towards communism ( stateless society ). in this state, the vanguard party would act as a central nucleus in the organisation of socialist society, presiding over a single - party political system. leninism rejects political pluralism, seeing it as divisive and destructive. instead, leninism advocates the concept of democratic centralism as a process to ensure the voicing of concern and disagreement and to refine policy. generally, the purpose of democratic centralism is " diversity in ideas, unity in action. " leninist revolutionary theory alongside marxist economic theory forms the ideology of marxism - leninism. after lenin ' s death in 1924, leninism branched into multiple ( sometimes opposing ) interpretations, including trotskyism, stalinism, and maoism. " socialist dreams turned into the socialist struggle of millions only when marx ' s scientific socialism had linked up the urge for change with the struggle of a definite class. outside the class struggle, socialism is either a hollow phrase or a naive dream. " — vladimir lenin stalinism was the political system of the soviet union and the countries within the soviet sphere of influence during the leadership of joseph stalin. the term usually defines the style of a government rather than an ideology. the ideology was officially marxism - leninism theory, reflecting that stalin himself was not a theoretician, in contrast to marx and lenin, and prided himself on maintaining the legacy of lenin as a founding father for the soviet union and the future socialist world. stalinism is an interpretation of their ideas, and a certain political regime claiming to apply those ideas in ways fitting the changing needs of soviet society, as with the transition from " socialism at a snail ' s pace " in the mid - twenties to the rapid industrialization of the five - year plans. the main contributions of stalin to communist theory were : - the groundwork for the soviet policy concerning nationalities, laid in stalin ' s 1913 work marxism and the national question, praised by lenin. - socialism in one country, stating that communists should attain socialism in their own country as a prelude to internationalising. - the theory of aggravation of the class struggle along with the development of socialism, a theoretical base supporting the repression of political opponents as necessary. the legitimacy of stalin ' s claim to the role of leadership in the soviet union ( and thus the international communist movement as a whole ) is a matter of some debate. advocates of stalinism cite both lenin ' s praising of the


opponents as necessary. the legitimacy of stalin ' s claim to the role of leadership in the soviet union ( and thus the international communist movement as a whole ) is a matter of some debate. advocates of stalinism cite both lenin ' s praising of the early works of stalin and the economic successes of the five - year plans. opponents, however, point out that certain aspects of stalinism ( socialism in one country, " revolutionary patriotism ", etc. ) are not found in leninism, and argue that some aspects are even contradictory to marxism - leninism. also, in lenin ' s testament, a document written by vladimir lenin in the last weeks of 1922 and the first week of 1923 outlining his proposed changes to the structure of the soviet governing bodies, lenin suggested " that the comrades think about a way of removing stalin from [ the secretary - general ] post and appointing another man in his stead who in all other respects differs from comrade stalin in having only one advantage, namely, that of being more tolerant, more loyal, more polite and more considerate to the comrades, less capricious, etc. " both sides of this debate identify as being ideologically orthodox to leninism and criticise the other as being " revisionist. " trotskyism is the branch of marxism that was developed by leon trotsky. it supports the theory of permanent revolution and world revolution instead of the two stage theory and socialism in one country. it supported proletarian internationalism and another communist revolution in the soviet union, which, under the leadership of stalin, trotsky claimed had become a degenerated worker ' s state, rather than the dictatorship of the proletariat, in which class relations had re - emerged in a new form. trotsky and his supporters organized into the left opposition and their platform became known as trotskyism. stalin eventually succeeded in gaining control of the soviet regime and trotskyist attempts to remove stalin from power resulted in trotsky ' s exile from the soviet union in 1929. trotsky later founded the fourth international, a trotskyist rival to the comintern, in 1938. trotskyist ideas have continually found a modest echo among political movements in some countries in latin america and asia, especially in argentina, brazil, bolivia and sri lanka. many trotskyist organizations are also active in more stable, developed countries in north america and western europe. trotsky ' s politics differed sharply from those of stalin and mao, most importantly in declaring


argentina, brazil, bolivia and sri lanka. many trotskyist organizations are also active in more stable, developed countries in north america and western europe. trotsky ' s politics differed sharply from those of stalin and mao, most importantly in declaring the need for an international proletarian revolution ( rather than socialism in one country ) and unwavering support for a true dictatorship of the proletariat based on democratic principles. however, as a whole, trotsky ' s theories and attitudes were never accepted in worldwide mainstream communist circles after trotsky ' s expulsion, either within or outside the soviet bloc. this remained the case even after the secret speech and subsequent events which critics claim exposed the fallibility of stalin. | part of a series on | maoism is the marxist - leninist trend of communism associated with chairman mao zedong of the communist party of china and was mostly practiced within china. nikita khrushchev ' s reforms heightened ideological differences between china and the soviet union, which became increasingly apparent in the 1960s. parties and groups that supported the communist party of china ( cpc ) in their criticism against the new soviet leadership proclaimed themselves as ' anti - revisionist ' and denounced the communist party of the soviet union and the parties aligned with it as revisionist " capitalist - roaders. " the sino - soviet split resulted in divisions amongst communist parties around the world. notably, the party of labour of albania sided with the people ' s republic of china. effectively, the cpc under mao ' s leadership became the rallying forces of a parallel international communist tendency. definitions of maoism vary. within the chinese context, maoism can refer to mao ' s belief in the mobilization of the masses, particularly in large - scale political movements ; it can also refer to the egalitarianism that was seen during mao ' s era as opposed to the free - market ideology of deng xiaoping ; some scholars additionally define personality cults and political sloganeering as " maoist " practices. contemporary maoists in china criticize the social inequalities created by a capitalist and ' revisionist ' communist party. prachanda path refers to the ideological line of the unified communist party of nepal. this thought is an extension of marxism, leninism and maoism, totally based on home - ground politics of nepal. the doctrine came into existence after it was realized that the ideology of marxism, leninism and maoism could not be practiced completely as it was done in the past. and an ideology suitable, based on the ground reality


home - ground politics of nepal. the doctrine came into existence after it was realized that the ideology of marxism, leninism and maoism could not be practiced completely as it was done in the past. and an ideology suitable, based on the ground reality of nepalese politics was adopted by the party. another variant of anti - revisionist marxism - leninism appeared after the ideological row between the communist party of china and the party of labour of albania in 1978. the albanians rallied a new separate international tendency, which would demarcate itself by a strict defence of the legacy of joseph stalin and fierce criticism of virtually all other communist groupings as revisionism. critical of the united states, the soviet union, and china, enver hoxha declared the latter two to be social - imperialist and condemned the soviet invasion of czechoslovakia by withdrawing from the warsaw pact in response. hoxha declared albania to be the world ' s only marxist - leninist state after 1978. the albanians were able to win over a large share of the maoists, mainly in latin america such as the popular liberation army, but also had a significant international following in general. this tendency has occasionally been labelled as ' hoxhaism ' after him. after the fall of the communist government in albania, the pro - albanian parties are grouped around an international conference and the publication ' unity and struggle '. elements of titoism are characterized by policies and practices based on the principle that in each country, the means of attaining ultimate communist goals must be dictated by the conditions of that particular country, rather than by a pattern set in another country. during tito ' s era, this specifically meant that the communist goal should be pursued independently of ( and often in opposition to ) the policies of the soviet union. the term was originally meant as a pejorative, and was labelled by moscow as a heresy during the period of tensions between the soviet union and yugoslavia known as the informbiro period from 1948 to 1955. unlike the rest of central and eastern europe, which fell under stalin ' s influence post – world war ii, yugoslavia, due to the strong leadership of marshal josip broz tito and the fact that the yugoslav partisans liberated yugoslavia with only limited help from the red army, remained independent from moscow. it became the only country in the balkans to resist pressure from moscow to join the warsaw pact and remained " socialist, but independent " until the collapse of soviet socialism in the late 1980s and early 1990s. throughout his time in office, tito prided himself on yugoslavia ' s


country in the balkans to resist pressure from moscow to join the warsaw pact and remained " socialist, but independent " until the collapse of soviet socialism in the late 1980s and early 1990s. throughout his time in office, tito prided himself on yugoslavia ' s independence from russia, with yugoslavia never accepting full membership of the comecon and tito ' s open rejection of many aspects of stalinism as the most obvious manifestations of this. juche is a development of marxism - leninism which is the official ideology of north korea and developed under its leader kim il sung. it emphasises economic and military self - reliance. as the communist bloc split, collapsed, or embraced market reforms, juche was increasingly emphasised by the north korean regime over the wider theories of communism. eurocommunism was a trend in the 1970s and 1980s within various western european communist parties to develop a theory and practice of social transformation that was more relevant in a western european democracy and less aligned to the influence or control of the soviet union. parties such as the italian communist party ( pci ), the french communist party ( pcf ), and the communist party of spain ( pce ), were politically active and electorally significant in their respective countries. the main theoretical foundation of eurocommunism was antonio gramsci ' s writing about marxist theory which questioned the sectarianism of the left and encouraged communist parties to develop social alliances to win hegemonic support for social reforms. eurocommunist parties expressed their fidelity to democratic institutions more clearly than before and attempted to widen their appeal by embracing public sector middle - class workers, new social movements such as feminism and gay liberation and more publicly questioning the soviet union. early inspirations can also be found in the austromarxism and its seeking of a " third " democratic " way " to socialism. libertarian marxism refers to a broad scope of economic and political philosophies that emphasize the anti - authoritarian aspects of marxism. early currents of libertarian marxism, known as left communism, emerged in opposition to marxism – leninism and its derivatives, such as stalinism, maoism, and trotskyism. libertarian marxism is also critical of reformist positions, such as those held by social democrats. libertarian marxist currents often draw from marx and engels ' later works, specifically the grundrisse and the civil war in france ; emphasizing the marxist belief in the ability of the working class to forge its own destiny without the need for a revolutionary party or state to mediate or aid its liberation. along with anarch


specifically the grundrisse and the civil war in france ; emphasizing the marxist belief in the ability of the working class to forge its own destiny without the need for a revolutionary party or state to mediate or aid its liberation. along with anarchism, libertarian marxism is one of the main currents of libertarian socialism. libertarian marxism includes such currents as luxemburgism, council communism, left communism, socialisme ou barbarie, the johnson - forest tendency, world socialism, lettrism / situationism and operaismo / autonomism, and new left. libertarian marxism has often had a strong influence on both post - left and social anarchists. notable theorists of libertarian marxism have included anton pannekoek, raya dunayevskaya, clr james, antonio negri, cornelius castoriadis, maurice brinton, guy debord, daniel guerin, ernesto screpanti and raoul vaneigem. council communism is a far - left movement originating in germany and the netherlands in the 1920s. its primary organization was the communist workers party of germany ( kapd ). council communism continues today as a theoretical and activist position within both left - wing marxism and libertarian socialism. the central argument of council communism, in contrast to those of social democracy and leninist communism, is that democratic workers ' councils arising in the factories and municipalities are the natural form of working class organisation and governmental power. this view is opposed to both the reformist and the leninist ideologies, with their stress on, respectively, parliaments and institutional government ( i. e., by applying social reforms, on the one hand, and vanguard parties and participative democratic centralism on the other ). the core principle of council communism is that the government and the economy should be managed by workers ' councils composed of delegates elected at workplaces and recallable at any moment. as such, council communists oppose state - run authoritarian " state socialism " / " state capitalism ". they also oppose the idea of a " revolutionary party ", since council communists believe that a revolution led by a party will necessarily produce a party dictatorship. council communists support a worker ' s democracy, which they want to produce through a federation of workers ' councils. left communism is the range of communist viewpoints held by the communist left, which criticizes the political ideas of the bolsheviks at certain periods, from a position that is asserted to be more authentically marxist and proletarian than the views of leninism held by the communist international after its