won peace with egypt and jordan, the israelis began secret negotiations with the palestinians. in 1994 came the oslo accords, an agreement to trade land for peace. as sadat got back the sinai by making peace with israel, palestinians would get a nation of their own in return for recognizing israel. israel had broken out of her isolation and won acceptance from egypt, jordan and even arafat ’ s plo. but in 1995, prime minister rabin, who had won the nobel peace prize for oslo and had come to believe in the necessity of trading land for peace, was assassinated by an israeli fanatic determined to prevent any surrender of west bank land. when sharon came to power, he gave up gaza, but refused to yield on jerusalem or the west bank. his successor, ehud olmert, like rabin and ehud barak before him, came to believe that israel had to give up the west bank for peace, or she would never know peace. but olmert failed to negotiate that peace. looking back, israel has prevailed in all her wars, from the war of independence, to the sinai campaign, to the six - day and yom kippur wars, to the 1982 invasion of lebanon, to the first and second intifadas, the lebanon war of 2006 and the gaza war of 2008. but today israel is more isolated than she has ever been, and the prospects are bleak that she can break out of this isolation. hamas rules gaza. hezbollah rules lebanon. the turks have turned hostile. the palestinian authority has given up on barack obama and is demanding a state from the security council and u. n. general assembly. israel ’ s partner in egypt, hosni mubarak, is gone. the israeli embassy in cairo has been sacked. mobs in amman have sought to do the same. george w. bush was persuaded by neocons that an invasion of iraq would start the dominoes of arab tyranny falling and usher in an era of pro - western democracies in the region. not quite. the arab spring that followed the u. s. invasion by a decade is bringing down the despots but also unleashing the demons of ethnonationalism and islamic fundamentalism that are anti - american and anti - zionist. israel ’ s great patron, america, is in retreat from the region, with her army in iraq home by year ’ s end and her autocratic allies down in egypt and tunisia and tottering in bahrain and yemen. by 2050


the central part of indiana, prior to settlement, was primarily covered in forest. today, with all residential, commercial, industrial and transportation land cover, most of the forest areas have disappeared. that means many children have lost any association with what forests are or were. however, a new website, " finding my forest, " has developed to provide some connections to the forest again. the site offers interdisciplinary lessons allowing parents, teachers and outdoor educators to connect with children ' s diverse learning styles. the free forest conservation educational material and curriculum may be accessed at www. findingmyforest. org. today ' s children have little free time, between school, scheduled activities, television, computers and cell phones. " finding my forest " provides the tools needed to help integrate the wonder of forests right into youth education efforts. interested individuals may start by taking a " virtual hike, " downloading the curriculum or exploring the rest of the site to find information about forests, what to do when there and ways to connect with other " forest friends. " the material is designed for grades 3 - 8. the curriculum helps make natural spaces, from the schoolyard outside, to public forests around the country, more relevant to students. the site offers simple ways to create a classroom blog and link it to the iforest network google map, which connects participating classrooms from across the nation. the site includes tools and resources from partner organizations. one area of the site that is particularly fun is the online ( by zip code ) field guide, at www. enature. com / zipguides /. it is a great site to learn details about birds, butterflies, mammals, reptiles, amphibians, trees, wild flowers, for the area chosen. pictures, habitat information and in the case of the birds, interested individuals may even listen to their sounds. " finding my forest " is part of a usda forest service and adcouncil campaign aimed at connecting children and parents with nature. for more information about the campaign and other resources, visit www. discovertheforest. org. additional conservation education resources from the usda forest service may be accessed at www. na. fs. fed. us. coned /.


buried inside robert bryce ’ s relatively new book entitled power hungry is a call to “ aggressively pursue taxes or caps on the emissions of neurotoxins, particularly those that come from burning coal ” to generate electricity such as mercury and lead. this is notable not because bryce agrees with many environmental and human health experts, but also because the book credibly debunks the move to tax or cap carbon dioxide emissions both from technical and political perspectives. the word “ neurotoxic ” literally translates as “ nerve poison ”. broadly described, a neurotoxicant is any chemical substance which adversely acts on the structure or function of the human nervous system. as its subtitle signals, power hungry also declares policies subsidizing renewable sources of electricity, biofuels and electric vehicles as too costly and impractical to make a significant difference in making the u. s. power and transportation systems more sustainable. so why take aim at mercury and lead, which is certain to drive up the cost of coal - fired electricity just as a carbon cap or tax would? because, bryce asserts, “ arguing against heavy metal contaminants with known neurotoxicity will be far easier than arguing against carbon dioxide emissions. cutting the output of mercury and the other heavy metals may, in the long run, turn out to have far greater benefits for the environmental and human health. ” bryce draws a parallel to the u. s. government ordering oil refiners to remove lead from gasoline starting in the 1970s. in the book, which has has received predominantly good reviews on amazon. com, bryce makes some valid points about the carbon density of our energy sources. among his overarching messages is that the carbon density of the world ’ s major economies is actually declining ( see graph below ). not to be missed : his attack on carbon sequestration, pp. 160 - 165. his case about the threat of neurotoxins begins on p. 167. there ’ s a lot more to this challenge of reducing america ’ s reliance on coal - fired power plants than this. but considering the failure by the u. s. congress to agree on a carbon tax or cap, his idea has serious merit and deserves a broad discussion, especially as congress reassess its budget priorities. this includes billions of dollars of tax breaks and incentives for oil and other fossil fuels.


although most of guatemala ' s children have enough food to eat, many are not receiving the right kind of food. samuel loewenberg reports on the country ' s growing crisis of chronic malnutrition. in the clean, toy - filled interior of a clinic in chiquimula, a 9 - year - old girl appears to be frowning. her name is domitila, and her muscles are too weak to form a smile ( see webvideo ). her body is fragile : arms and legs wasted, patches of hair missing, the veins in her legs forming a black web - like pattern that shows through her delicate skin. domitila is one of about a dozen children in the bethania rehabilitation clinic in the far - eastern town of jocotan, near to the honduran border. in an adjoining room, a 3 - year - old boy, israel, cannot even support his own weight. he has been placed in a walker, on which he is sprawled. he tries several times to raise himself, but cannot lift his head. a pair of 4 - month - old babies, twins, lie in their cribs crying, both emaciated. across the room, a nurse gently drops food into the mouth of an infant so small it barely looks human. the cases of israel, domitila, and the other children here are the extreme edge of the hunger crisis in guatemala, which has some of the worst rates of chronic malnutrition in the world. these children in the clinic are severely malnourished, many have kwashiorkor. although these children are still the exception, chronic malnutrition can tip over to catastrophe, especially now, in the wake of the global food, climate, and financial crises. unlike the more commonly known wasting in severe malnutrition, with chronic malnutrition, the problem is not a lack of food, but a lack of the right kind of food, with enough protein and micronutrients to keep children healthy. “ the chronic malnutrition could at any moment turn acute with the current economic crisis ”, said wayne nilsestuen, who heads the us agency for international development ' s ( usaid ) office in guatemala. half the children in guatemala have chronic malnutrition. in some areas the rate is as high as 90 %. this is startling, because in terms of gross domestic product, guatemala is a fairly prosperous country. yet the rates of stunting here are on par with failed states like haiti


##nutrition. in some areas the rate is as high as 90 %. this is startling, because in terms of gross domestic product, guatemala is a fairly prosperous country. yet the rates of stunting here are on par with failed states like haiti — the national census of height in 2008 found that nearly half of children younger than 5 years are stunted. research published in the lancet last year shows that children who have chronic malnutrition face not only stunted growth but also a diminished mental capacity and a substantial decrease in earning power. guatemala has stark divisions between its rich and poor communities. the populations affected by malnutrition are largely the indigenous mayan communities that make up most of the country ' s rural farmers, mostly sharecroppers, who have twice the rates of stunting of the non - indigenous population. most of the hunger hotspots also track with the places in which the civil war was most fierce, like the province of quiche in the highlands. this was not by mistake. “ budgets were shifted to keep some populations less developed ”, said andres botran, who pioneered some of his country ' s anti - hunger programmes in the last government. “ for us it is a national shame. ” it is often said that guatemala is really two countries in one, divided between the few rich and the many poor. it is among the most unequal countries in the world, with 20 % of the population receiving 60 % of the income. an extremely low tax base means that the government has very little to work with to alleviate the poverty. around 6 million of the country ' s population of 14 million live in poverty, and nearly half of those in extreme poverty. botran himself is one of guatemala ' s ruling elite, the scion of the powerful rum dynasty that bears his name. it was botran who took up the issue in the early part of the decade as an adviser to the oscar berger government, which was more conservative than the one currently in power. botran admits that he came across the malnutrition issue almost by mistake, which occurred to him as a ripe political issue while he was helping the campaign. he says that when his assistant first presented him with data that half his country ' s children were malnourished, he did not believe it and accused him of making a mistake. but the numbers were right. 9 - year - old domitila at the bethania rehabilitation centre in chiquimula, guatemala parents and children queue to see a doctor at a health


did not believe it and accused him of making a mistake. but the numbers were right. 9 - year - old domitila at the bethania rehabilitation centre in chiquimula, guatemala parents and children queue to see a doctor at a health clinic in the chiquimula region “ malnutrition does not get any headlines unless there is the picture, the money shot ”, such as a child with a distended belly and flies buzzing around, he said. after berger won the election in 2003, botran was appointed to a head an agency focusing on malnutrition. “ one of our main issues was to communicate the reality of food insecurity in guatemala ” to the political and business elite that ran the country, to explain that the malnutrition threatened to destabilise the economy. “ our democracy was not safe, our society was becoming more and more frail ”, he said. the reasons for chronic malnutrition in guatemala are attributable to several factors : the stark income inequality ; a lack of education ; the increased price of beans and eggs, which are one of the only sources of protein for villagers ; poor, or in some cases non - existent, infrastructure, meaning no electricity or running water, and certainly no clean water : so diarrhoea is a major factor. and guatemala remains a highly dysfunctional society, still badly damaged by the 36 - year - old civil war that wiped out an estimated 200 000 people, most of them civilians. there are also 24 different indigenous groups, each with their own language ; many of whom speak only rudimentary spanish. underlying this situation is poverty. the malnutrition, which is hidden from guatemala ' s wealthy urban populace, happens in places like the mountainous region of quiche. 80 % of the population lives on under us $ 2 a day, according to claudia nieves of save the children usa. in the mountain town of xobor, villagers live in huts with dirt floors and tin roofs, with little patches of land out back to grow corn or lettuce or a cassava - type root. some families are lucky enough to have chicken pens or the occasional pig, but the animal ' s products are usually sold rather than eaten, and even eggs are a luxury. a visit to a village in chiquimula illustrates the problem. in a two - room hut at the bottom of a hill, maria boton canto prepares lunch for her five children. she works over a wood fired stove


are a luxury. a visit to a village in chiquimula illustrates the problem. in a two - room hut at the bottom of a hill, maria boton canto prepares lunch for her five children. she works over a wood fired stove, rhythmically patting her hands to make dozens of corn tortillas, accompanied by a small bowl of pasta and a spoonful of refried beans ( in the wake of rising food costs, important sources of protein like beans and eggs only come a few times a week ). her youngest daughter is being treated for malnourishment, and the other children appeared to be stunted as well. they wolf down their tortillas and drink a soft drink to fill their stomachs. “ intra - uterine malnutrition is where the problem starts ”, said nieves. she also noted that in the period before guatemala ' s civil war, which began around 1960, the country had a sanitation corps and hygiene programmes. that has all gone now. dirty water and nearly non - existent sanitation in many areas of the country ensure that disease and malnutrition remain rampant. if he had more money, “ there is no doubt i would put it into water and sanitation ”, said juan aguilar, the current head of guatemala ' s nutrition and food security agency. while the very rich reap the benefits of guatemala ' s agricultural bounty ( the top 20 % of the population take two - thirds of the country ' s income ), they give little back. tax revenues in guatemala are among the very lowest in latin america, smaller even than its poorer neighbours. “ there ' s not enough money for the state to perform its functions ”, said usaid ' s nilsestuen. among latin american countries, guatemala is the only one to have failed to decrease its malnutrition over the past decade — even countries with worse income inequality, like brazil, or ones that are poorer, like honduras and nicaragua, have had much bigger successes in addressing the problem. so far, in guatemala, efforts are just going towards treating the symptoms. it is not enough. “ in the broader sense this is really a problem of political will ”, said john hoddinott, a senior research fellow at the international food policy research institute in washington, dc, usa, who has worked on malnutrition issues in guatemala since the 1960s. per head income figures in guatemala are four or five times higher than in haiti — yet the two nations have roughly similar rates of stunting, said


washington, dc, usa, who has worked on malnutrition issues in guatemala since the 1960s. per head income figures in guatemala are four or five times higher than in haiti — yet the two nations have roughly similar rates of stunting, said hoddinott. in general, poor people themselves do not realise that stunting is an issue because the problem is so widespread. the rates of malnutrition are twice as bad for the indigenous population as they are for non - indigenous. that is a problem of distribution of resources. the indigenous parts of the country are so much poorer and so isolated that most people are unaware of their situation. “ if you go to a place where everybody is stunted, nobody has a reference group ”, said hoddinott. in the rehabilitation clinic in jocotan, 9 - year - old domitila sits listlessly on a bench. some of the younger children are rambunctious, running around with toys despite their wasted state. at the clinic, funded by a belgian charity, doctor evelin nufio explains that domitila ' s family is extremely poor, as is her whole village, and that when she came to the clinic she was in even worse shape than now. she has brothers and sisters, some of whom are in even worse states, but she was the one sent to the clinic because she has a foreign sponsor. that money goes to feed the whole family, and apparently her parents were concerned that in her underfed state, if they sent a photo of her to the sponsors they would not receive any more money, so they sent her to the clinic to get healthy. it is a cycle that is likely to be repeated. hunger is a way of life in the arid region of chiquimula. farmers grow beans and corn and not much else. water is scarce, often many kilometres from homes. by march, the production of food diminishes and the hunger season starts. the two clinics for severely malnourished children around here typically get around 15 patients at a time, who stay for about 3 weeks. nufio explains that the clinic is careful not to give the children special foods, because when they return home those will no longer be available, so instead the children are rehabilitated on such staple items as beans, eggs, and tortillas. the symptoms of severe malnutrition occur at the most fundamental level. for some children, their normally jet black hair turns blond due to vitamin deficiency. in more severe cases, the


such staple items as beans, eggs, and tortillas. the symptoms of severe malnutrition occur at the most fundamental level. for some children, their normally jet black hair turns blond due to vitamin deficiency. in more severe cases, the hair falls out in patches. the skin may peel and darken. most confusingly, many of the children look puffy, almost obese. this is because they are retaining liquid and their internal organs are not working properly, which may include increased liver size, said juan manuel mejia terranza, a doctor at the nutritional recuperation center of jocotan. the government, working with the world food programme ( wfp ), has a programme to distribute supplementary food to undernourished children. the supplement, called vitacereal, arrives once a month at the far - flung villages. the monthly distributions of the enriched corn - soya blend are an event for the remote communities. it also the only time that the children see a doctor. people come from kilometres around to receive the food. on one scorching day high in the mountains in the village of pelillo negro, a mother and her three children indicated that they had hiked all the way across a valley and far up the mountain for nearly 2 hours to come for the food. at the town community centre, the gathered mothers crowded around with their infants and toddlers, waiting for food and to see the doctor. first, the babies must be weighed on a portable hanging scale and measured with a collapsable device. the children howl as they are placed in the slings or forced to stretch their legs out by a volunteer. but most worrying are the handful of children too listless to respond, who instead simply lie there, too weak to protest. in some cases, the children are deemed by the doctor to be severely malnourished. inside the clinic, doctor melvin omar tomillos tries to convince a family to send their daughter to the rehabilitation clinic. the little girl weighs only 9 kg, making her about 5 kg underweight for her age of 2 years and 8 months. “ the girl, if she continues to lose a lot of weight, her defence system will diminish. her defences are so low that a small cold could become pneumonia and she could die ”, he said. a health worker explains the preparation of vitacereal to a village in chiquimula but the parents are resistant. the mother would have to go with the girl to take care of her at the


pneumonia and she could die ”, he said. a health worker explains the preparation of vitacereal to a village in chiquimula but the parents are resistant. the mother would have to go with the girl to take care of her at the clinic, and the father says that she is needed to take care of the house and the children while he is at work. it is a frustrating scene. the man says he only earns about 25 queztales a day ( $ 3 ), and so cannot provide for his family. the girl, yolanda perez, has been losing weight. the family has been getting the vitacereal for the past 3 months, but it is being divided between all four children, said lida escobar, a wfp field worker. so instead of lasting a month as it is supposed to, it is gone in a week. also, the mother dilutes the mixture too much, a common problem that undermines the feeding programme. the mother does not seem to know what to do : “ at 1 year she escaped death, for 2 nights she was unconscious, she wouldn ' t breastfeed ”, she says. “ so the person who has least access to the vitacereal is the girl in the programme ”, says escobar. “ she ' s consuming the least and that ' s why she ' s losing weight. ” the father does not earn enough money, “ so he cannot provide for his family. that is why this is going on ”. funds for sl to travel to guatemala were provided by the pulitzer center for crisis reporting


by paul craig roberts ( archive ) april 14, 2003 now that you have paid your income taxes, calculate how much you own of your own labor. you can do this by dividing the federal, state and local income taxes you paid ( including social security and medicare ) by your taxable income. generally speaking, the higher your income, the less you own of yourself. a person with $ 300, 000 in taxable income will discover that government in the year 2002 has a claim to about one - third of his labor – the maximum tax that could be levied on a medieval serf. if you have a low income or work primarily off the books, you will be rewarded with an “ earned income tax credit, ” that is, you will receive a tax “ refund ” even though you paid no tax. you not only own all your own labor, but also have legal claims to the incomes of higher income persons. democracy produces the opposite results of feudalism. instead of an upper class living off the sweat of a lower class, the lower class lives off the sweat of an upper class. philosophers such as john rawls created a philosophy to justify the latter as “ moral ” and the former as “ immoral, ” but it all comes down to the same thing : some people live off other people ’ s activities. income taxes are not the only taxes. there are property taxes, wealth taxes, excise taxes, and sales taxes. if you add together all the taxes you paid, you might find that you own no more of your own income than a 19th century slave. ( a slave owed his master about half his work product, the rest being necessary for his own maintenance. )


but it isn ' t feasible to study every single species on the planet in depth - there are hundreds and thousands of types of insects alone! fortunately, it has become clear that there are often many parallels between the biological systems at work in many types of creature, from yeast to humans. this had led to the establishment of a number of so - called " model organisms ", which are studied consistently by investigators the world over. the consistent use of these particular critters allows us to make and test ideas about biology in a rapid and reproducible way. in the case of some very important mechanisms, the use of very simple animals has managed to tell us a great deal about humans. to do the same experiments with people would be very time - consuming ( not to mention unethical ). the vast majority of model organisms used by scientists in the uk are small simple animals. the most common of these include microscopic nematode worms, fruit flies and african claw - toed frogs. or to give them their official names, caenorhabditis elegans, drosophila melanogaster and xenopus laevis. i ' ll stick with worms, flies and frogs to keep it simple. all these animals have the advantage of being available in large numbers, and are easy to breed. in the case of worms and flies, we have the complete sequence of their dna. this makes it very easy to spot important genes and to use them for further study. as well as the breeding benefits, these animals have told us much about how animals develop from the egg. in particular, we have discovered how simple creatures work out which way is up, down, left and right when they are developing. unfortunately, mammals such as mice and humans don ' t develop in the same way. plant biologists often use a specific type of cress as a model, although you probably wouldn ' t want to sprinkle arabidopsis thaliana on your egg sandwiches. many experiments are also performed on brewer ' s yeast, a. k. a. saccharomyces cerevisiae. let ' s hope the campaign for real ale don ' t get too upset. this may seem unbelievable, but these yeasty beasties have huge similarities to the cells found in more complex animals, even humans. for example, the way that dna is wrapped up to fit in the cell is the same in all these organisms, from yeast upwards. similarly, the basic ways that genes are activated and turned off is preserved.


in more complex animals, even humans. for example, the way that dna is wrapped up to fit in the cell is the same in all these organisms, from yeast upwards. similarly, the basic ways that genes are activated and turned off is preserved. even the way that cells from yeast and animals multiply is the same. for me, one of the most breath - taking things about studying biology is finding that a gene that plays a particular role in the humble yeast is also of paramount importance in humans. so why can ' t we just study yeast and flies to learn all about humans? the simple answer is that although many systems are the same in most cells, many are not - or have fundamental differences. as i mentioned before, mammals such as mice and humans don ' t make their embryos in the same way as flies, frogs or worms. the use of mammals in research is an emotive issue for some people, yet it is an inescapable fact that to study certain things only a mammalian model will do. in the uk, the use of such animals is very tightly regulated to ensure that only essential experiments are performed. there is a dazzling array of technology available to study the effects of genes in mice. this has led to the development of mice which model a wide range of human diseases, including diabetes, down syndrome, muscular dystrophy, obesity, deafness and many other inherited syndromes. the list goes on, as do the exploitable benefits to our understanding and treatment of human diseases. these " diseased " mice are created by the removal ( or addition ) of a particular gene by genetic engineering. although the majority of disease models are mad in mice, there are a few syndromes which can be mimicked in other animals. for example, it ' s possible to breed fruit flies that have some of the symptoms of alzheimer ' s disease. one other technology which is developing into a model system in its own right is the growing of cells on plastic dishes in incubators, known as cell culture. cultured cells can be taken from a wide range of sources. these may include human donors with particular diseases, such as cancers or inherited diseases. cells can also be taken from animals such as the genetically engineered mice already mentioned. the only problem with devoting all our studies to cultured cells is the sad fact that the characteristics of these cells tends to change over time. this is because the cells pick up mutations from the culturing process. some cell types, particularly the most popular ones, are now so


mild drought conditions persist in part of state streamflows and groundwater recovery levels continue to lag behind for this time of year. the latest drought depiction by the council shows central north carolina in a moderate drought, and the coastal and mountain regions are experiencing abnormally dry conditions. council member ryan boyles with the state climate office said that even though the recent rain events have been helpful, the state is not out of the woods regarding drought. despite april showers, precipitation deficits since jan. 1 range from three to five inches across the state. while reservoirs in north carolina are near normal levels, reservoir inflows have quickly receded since the rainfall. streamflows increased to normal levels following the rains of the past two weeks, but began to drop shortly after the rain stopped. without additional rainfall, streams are expected to drop to below - normal levels for this time of year. as a consequence of the dry conditions, there have been more than 4, 000 wildfires this year. the n. c. division of forest resources reports that the recent rainfall has mitigated wildfire activity in many areas ; however, the state remains in spring fire season. everyone planning to conduct any outdoor burning is still urged to use caution. the leading cause of wildfires in north carolina is debris burning. the drought management advisory council encourages water users in areas experiencing drought or dry conditions to adhere to all local water use restrictions. the council was formed by the general assembly following the drought of 2002. more like this story


aliciabutterfield, ma, united states elizabethbutterfield, ma, united states kiarabutterfield, ma, united states 12 & under robert haighbutterfield, ma, united states karen fredettebutterfield, ma, united states social sciences & culture > cultures history & government > world history ages 9 and up we would share notes and ideas with everyone in our group. we went through a tough spot. there were a lot of people we needed approval from to get the historical society photos. our couch asked us if we wanted to start over with a new topic and we said no. at the time, it wasn ' t looking too good for us. we didn ' t think they would allow us to help. we told our coach that we have worked too hard together and liked the subject too much to just pass this topic by. to get it approved our couch went to a meeting during vacation. she told the historical society that we said we didn ' t want to give up. they were impressed that we still wanted to go on and so they approved our offer to help. we worked through thick and thin. so, remember if you work hard enough together anything can happen. our team is very different from each other. we have different ethnic origins. preserving local history preserves your memories, culture and history. photos are important because you can never remember everything. people have different perspectives and memories of what took place in the past. photos help us remember what happened in the past. when you know what happened in your past, it can help save your future.


nasa said tuesday it has suspended use of one of the mineral - identifying tools on the opportunity mars rover due to a problem. the robot ' s thermal emission spectrometer was acting up, and engineers are obtaining data from it while troubleshooting. the problem might be related to a malfunctioning optical switch that tells a mirror in the instrument when to begin moving. or the mirror might not be properly moving at a constant velocity. " if it is the optical switch, we could use a redundant one built into the instrument, " said phil christensen of arizona state university, lead scientist for the miniature thermal emission spectrometers on both rovers. in a statement released by nasa, christensen added that if the root cause cannot be remedied, scientists could still get useful data from the instrument in its currently impaired condition. the rovers have been on mars since january 2004 and were guaranteed for only three months of work. mission officials had always expected that if nothing unexpected cropped up, the rovers would operate longer. opportunity is continuing to operate, observing a crater called vostok. the problem dates back to march 3 and 4, when eight of 17 attempted readings by the instrument yielded incomplete data sets, according to the statement. the spectrometer sits high on the rover ' s mast and observes rocks and other targets from afar. it measures infrared radiation. © 2013 space. com. all rights reserved. more from space. com.


opening the tomb of petamenophis in luxor a first look by jane akshar today ( december 7th, 2005 ) was the official opening of the tomb of petamenophis ( padiamenope, xry. y - hb hrj - tp ) ( tt33 ) by dr sabry abd el aziz, the deputy of dr zahi hawass. it is located next to the tomb of harwa ( tt39 ). the tomb is hugely significant, being, well huge. at this point, it is the largest tomb in egypt and yet we really do not know why the owner of it was so blessed, but perhaps future work may reveal this secret. indeed, he was a high official, describing himself as " sealbearer and sole beloved friend, lector and scribe of the records in the sight of the king ". in this inscription the king is not named, but there is an inscription in the northern part of the great outer courtyard, discovered by lepsius, with a cartouche containing the name of a king haremhab ( horemheb? ), next to the name of petamenophis. however, stylistically, many scholars believe that pteamenophis ' tomb could not be dated as early as the 18th or early 19th dynasty. in this regard, the tomb appears to date no earlier than the ethiopian period ( when nubians ruled egypt ). some scholars believe that petamenophis may have lived during the rule of psammetichus i, the first king of the 26th dynasty. in any event, petamenophis must have been, to judge from his titles, a learned man and theologian. it should be noted that there is a statue of petamenophis in the egyptian antiquities museum in cairo. the tomb of petamenophis, located in the assasif section of tombs on the west bank at luxor ( ancient thebes ), was first described in detail by lepsius in his pioneering work, denkmaeler aus aegypten und aethiopien. the tomb was later visited and described separately by wilkinson, by duemichen and others, before maspero, seeing its deteriorating condition and realizing the necessity of protecting it from despoliation, had it sealed at the end of the last century. it remained closed until 1936 when w. f. von bissing obtained permission to reopen it with the purpose of performing a definitive survey and publication. braving the billions


from despoliation, had it sealed at the end of the last century. it remained closed until 1936 when w. f. von bissing obtained permission to reopen it with the purpose of performing a definitive survey and publication. braving the billions of bats infesting the place and the thick air ( the ventilation shafts left much to be desired ) he persevered, and within two years ( 1938 ) published a detailed description of the finds. thereafter, for decades, the tomb was used as a storeroom with boxes, some labeled, some not. there were boxes from the tomb of tutankhamun with biological matter ( plants ), statues, sarcophagi and altogether some 1, 000 objects. there were registers for some of these boxes. one from 1964 was compiled by the polish team working at deir el - bahri, and showed lists which accompanied black and white photos. this material has now been moved to a storage facility near the carter house near the valley of the kings. lately, actually over the last two years, a team from the university of strasbourg, led by m. traurecker, has been clearing the first three chambers of this huge tomb and it has just now been opened for a first official viewing. the opening was attended by many important officials from the supreme council and other archaeologists working in the area, such as francesco tiradritti. the next stage will be the cleaning, restoration and conservation of the tomb. it has important texts such as the book of the dead which need to be studied. in fact it is one of the most important, if not the most important, source for sacred texts during the period of egyptian history. for example, there is also a late period version of the book of caverns in the tomb, which has yielded otherwise missing parts of this text. but the most amazing thing about this tomb is it ' s sheer size, with some 330 meters of corridors. it may be some time yet before this tomb is open to the public, but perhaps now we may see an end in sight when the public will be able to explore this vast monument. perhaps, more importantly, there may be more to learn as work progresses toward that end last updated : 12 / 07 / 2005 who are we? tour egypt aims to offer the ultimate egyptian adventure and intimate knowledge about the country. we offer this unique experience in two ways, the first one is by organizing a tour and coming to egypt for a visit, whether alone or in a group, and living it firsthand.


norfolk island is a pristine island, populated mostly by the descendants of the " bounty " mutineers who left the pitcairn islands for more space, provides the opportunity for visitors to unwind. although getting to norfolk island is not cheap, expenses on the island are minimal and visitors to norfolk island will enjoy a tranquillity and peace that only this level of isolation can provide. activities on the island include bush walking, mountain biking, golf, scuba diving and low - tax shopping. the first european known to have sighted the island was captain james cook, in 1774, on his second voyage to the south pacific on hms resolution. he named it after the duchess of norfolk, wife of edward howard, 9th duke of norfolk ( 1685 - 1777 ). the duchess was dead at the time of the island ' s sighting by cook, but cook had set out from england in 1772 and could not have known of her may 1773 death. in 1786 the british government included norfolk island as an auxiliary settlement, as proposed by john call, in its plan for colonization of new south wales. during the 18th and 19th century, it was used as a penal settlement just like australia before. on 8 june 1856, the next settlement began on norfolk island. these were the descendants of tahitians and the bounty mutineers, resettled from the pitcairn islands, which had become too small for their growing population. the british government had permitted the transfer of the pitcairners to norfolk, which was thus established as a colony separate from new south wales but under the administration of that colony ' s governor. they left pitcairn islands on 3 may 1856 and arrived with 194 persons on 8 june. although some families decided to return to pitcairn in 1858 and 1863, the island ' s population continued to slowly grow as the island accepted settlers, often arriving with whaling fleets. after the creation of the commonwealth of australia in 1901, norfolk island was placed under the authority of the new commonwealth government to be administered as an external territory. during world war ii, the island became a key airbase and refuelling depot between australia and new zealand, and new zealand and the solomon islands. in the late 1960 ' s a mini - invasion by british ex - pats followed after the island was featured on a bbc television documentary presented by alan whicker. fifty families decided to emigrate from the united kingdom to norfolk island as a result of the programme. in 1979, norfolk was granted limited self - government by australia, under which the


was featured on a bbc television documentary presented by alan whicker. fifty families decided to emigrate from the united kingdom to norfolk island as a result of the programme. in 1979, norfolk was granted limited self - government by australia, under which the island elects a government that runs most of the island ' s affairs. as such, residents of norfolk island are not represented in the commonwealth parliament of australia, making them the only group of residents of an australian state or territory not represented there. in 2006, a formal review process took place, in which the australian government considered revising this model of government. the review was completed on 20 december 2006, when it was decided that there would be no changes in the governance of norfolk island. norfolk island is located 1610 kilometres northeast of sydney, australia and 1, 063 kilometres north - west of auckland, new zealand. it is a 8 by 5 kilometre volcanic outcrop totalling roughly 3, 855 hectares. two smaller uninhabited islands, nepean and phillip, lie to the south at a distance of 1 kilometre and 6 kilometres respectively. one of the best activities on norfolk island is diving. the waters around norfolk and the smaller islands of nepean and philip offer over 30 world - class dive sites, offering caves, tunnels, chasms and chimneys with a wide variety of fish and marine algae. visibility is at least 20 metres but usually more and the temperature of the water hoovers around 18 to 20 at least, more in summer. snorkelling is popular at the reef near emily and slaughter bays at low tide. there is abundance of fish, coral and sea life. in emily bay, you can also joing boat tours with glass - bottom boats. apart from the great nature and marine life there is actually som fascinating history which is very important to the local population. prove of this you will find in its restored historic buildings, museums and cemeteries. probably the most popular place and definately the highlight is the historic settlement of kingston which was built by convicts from the second penal colony established on the island. also the old cemetery at the eastern end of quality row is worth a visit. the lovely norfolk island national park and the adjacent botanic gardens offer some great walking trails. on the way, you will enjoy the fantastic views from the top of mount bates ( 321 metres ) and mount pitt ( 320 metres ). you can also visit the museum of natural history in this park. much of the island can be explored on foot by walking one of many bush and coastal tracks which are


the top of mount bates ( 321 metres ) and mount pitt ( 320 metres ). you can also visit the museum of natural history in this park. much of the island can be explored on foot by walking one of many bush and coastal tracks which are all well signposted. norfolk ' s climate is subtropical with an average rainfall of 1, 328 mm per year. summer days range from 24 °c - 28 °c, with nights around 19 °c - 21 °c. in winter temperatures drop to around 19 °c during the day and 12 °c at night. a $ 30 departure fee is payable at the airport on day of departure. travel times are : there is no regular passenger service to norfolk island by sea. cruise ships occasionally call at norfolk island. the local shipping agent, transam argosy, lists details of cruise ships calling at norfolk island. all passengers are ferried ashore using either the ships tenders or zodiac inflatables – weather permitting. car hire is reasonably priced and as there is no public transport, it is also the most convenient. options are rent - a - car ( ph : 22656 ) or martin ’ s ( ph : 22021 ). driving is on the left, with a speed limit outside burnt pine of 50 km / h and inside burnt pine of 40 km / h ( 30 km / h in the school zone ). seatbelts, while fitted to all cars, are rarely used and rarely necessary. when driving outside of the town, remember that cows and other animals have right of way. also remember to watch out for the " norfolk wave ", a wave ( ranging from a raised index finger off the steering wheel through to an enthusiastic movement of the arm ) used by all locals to greet passing traffic. a limited number of bikes can be hired through the tourist office, or by calling bill ’ s push bike hire ( ph : 22551 ) all visitors arriving on the island must have pre - booked accommodation or be staying with friends or relatives to be able to enter norfolk island through immigration. all visitors travelling to norfolk island must have a valid passport and a return airline ticket. australian citizens who do not have a passport can obtain a document of identity through australia post. australian and new zealand passport holders can enter norfolk island without any further documentation. all other international passport holders must be able to obtain an australian visa for entry to australia prior to entry to norfolk island. a $ 30 departure fee is payable at the airport on day of departure. see also money matters norfolk island uses the australian dollar (


other international passport holders must be able to obtain an australian visa for entry to australia prior to entry to norfolk island. a $ 30 departure fee is payable at the airport on day of departure. see also money matters norfolk island uses the australian dollar ( aud ). australian dollar notes come in $ 5, $ 10, $ 20, $ 50 and $ 100 and coins come in 5¢, 10¢, 20¢, 50¢, $ 1 and $ 2. there are two atms on norfolk island. see also travel health there are no vaccinations legally required to travel to norfolk island. there is one exception though. you need a yellow fever vaccination if you have travelled to a country ( 7 days or less before entering norfolk island ) where that disease is widely prevalent. it ' s a good thing to get your vaccinations in order before travelling to norfolk island. the general vaccination against diphtheria, tetanus and polio ( dtp ) is recommended. also a hepatitis a vaccination is recommended and when travelling longer than 2 weeks also typhoid. vaccination against hepatitis b is also sometimes recommended for stays longer than 3 months. dengue sometimes occurs as well. there is no vaccinations, so buy mosquito repellent ( preferably with 50 % deet ), and sleep under a net. also wear long sleeves if possible. finally, other possible health issues include diarrhea and other general travellers ' diseases like motion sickness. watch what you eat and drink and in case you get it, drink plenty of fluids ( to prevent dehydration ) and bring ors. see also travel safety crime on norfolk island is very low and many islanders leave their houses and cars unlocked. still, crime is not unheard off but usually is nothing more than petty theft. emily bay, located near kingston, is the only safe location to swim on norfolk as it is protected by a natural coral reef. all other bays are unpatrolled and have unpredictable conditions. a norfolk tradition is that of the " seventh wave ", the unpredictable rising in wave height which can sweep unwary swimmers out to sea. there are 2 internet cafes in taylors road and wireless broadband is now available across large portions of the island. see also international telephone calls help contribute to this article to share the ad revenue. we don ' t currently have any travel helpers for norfolk island except where otherwise noted, content of this article is licensed under a creative commons attri


treading heavily on the environment : china ' s growing eco - footprint highlighted in new report photo by sheila via flickr we ' ve written about the concept of eco - footprint a number of times - - what it is, how to calculate it, and how to reduce yours - - and with the olympics upon us it comes as no surprise that china ' s environmental footprint might come into the spotlight. a new report by the global footprint network, wwf, and the china council for international cooperation on environment and development does just that. while china is the obvious focus, really this report highlights how humanity as a whole is increasingly overshooting the biological capacity of the planet. it also includes recommended steps that china can take to address the issue of its increasingly heavy environmental impact. china has low individual footprint, but high national footprintwhat the report finds is that, per capita, china ranks 69th in the world, with each person requiring 1. 6 hectares of biocapacity to support them. this is lower than the global average of 2. 2 hectares per person, and quite a bit lower than the united states ' world - leading 10 hectares per person. however, because of the of the overall size of the country, china ranks 3rd in total global eco - footprint, trailing the united states and the entire european union. footprint grows along with gdpthe result is that currently china requires the equivalent of two times its biocapacity to support its current population and current level of economic activity. as china ' s gdp grows the amount of resources it requires only increase. therefore, it has to effectively import biocapacity from elsewhere. export manufacturing responsible to enable this, approximately 75 % of china ' s total biocapacity imports are consumed by this process. only slightly more than 25 % of these remain in the country for domestic consumption. we recently highlighted a report that shows that roughly a third of china ' s carbon emissions are directly tied to manufacturing of consumer goods for export. as of 2003, the nearest year for which data is available, china consumed 15 % of the total biocapacity of the planet. the report points out that if china were to follow the lead of the united states, in terms of levels of natural resource consumption, it alone would require the entire biological capacity of the planet. obviously this would be an impossibility, so something needs to change, both in china and in the rest of the world. where to go from here? the report recommends five areas that need to be addressed. this is where all


the planet. obviously this would be an impossibility, so something needs to change, both in china and in the rest of the world. where to go from here? the report recommends five areas that need to be addressed. this is where all nations should pay attention. these areas are : population - - slow and reverse population growth by offering better family planning opportunities, increasing education and economic opportunity for women. this is probably the most uncomfortable aspect of our environmental problems, but also one most in need of action. consumption - - essentially, we need to increase consumption at the bottom end of the scale to lift people out of poverty, while reducing ( radically, i ' d say ) consumption at the top end. the report points out that the average italian uses half as many resources to have a standard of living equal if not better than in some ways than the average us citizen. it is possible to do more with less when it comes to consumption and we must do that, particularly in the united states. photo by ruth lozanotechnology - - not a technological quick fix, but improvements in energy efficiency both in manufacturing and in the home, waste reduction and recycling increase, reduction of the distance which goods travel between factory and marketplace. area - - reclaim and rehabilitate lands suffering from environmental degradation to increase biological capacity. productivity - - increase the useful production per hectare of land through better land management. the report points out that while intensive agriculture can increase crop yields, this comes at the expense of biodiversity loss and increased fertilizer and energy usage, both which ultimately increase ecological footprint. as a recent un report essentially said, we need a revolution in farming that takes a more holistic, ecosystems approach to agriculture, rather than the continued industrial viewpoint. what can you do? some of these steps really require large - scale action, but that can be led to some degree at the individual level. a good first step, as we ' ve said many times, is to assess your own ecological footprint. i ' ll plug the footprint networks ' personal eco - footprint calculator as the report i ' ve been referencing comes from them, though there are plenty of other good calculators on the internet. from there you can look at ways you can reduce your own eco - footprint, keeping in mind that there is a line below which you can ' t go simply because of the structure of the society in which you live. that ' s where the heavy lifting has to come in and structural changes have to be made. there ' s more on this report


section i : chapter activities if you enjoy learning about and discovering history and being around young people, then working with a junior historian chapter will be an experience you will cherish. if you get excited about holding in your hand an artifact that was once held by george washington or sam houston and want others to share that same passion, then being a jh sponsor is for you. if talking with someone who has experienced firsthand the anguish of war, the triumph of new found freedom or being the first to encounter something that changes all of our lives excites you, then this organization is where you belong. those experiences and the desire to share them with others is what have united both sponsors and students in the junior historian program since 1939. there are several things to consider when deciding how to get involved. how comfortable do you feel handling and organizing activities for a group of young people, how much time do you have to allocate, and how do you see a history - minded organization for young people fitting into your community? your answers to these questions can help guide you to getting started. anyone who feels very comfortable with organizing a group of young people might start by organizing some sort of social kick - off event for a few hundred students and attracting a large group of initial members, while others may feel more comfortable starting with six to ten members and building from there. regardless of the size of the group, retention will be based on the perception by the members that the activities of the chapter are fun and worthwhile. time is a finite item, and there is only so much of it that anyone has to allocate to his or her needs and desires. the amount of time you have available can impact your decision about how large or small to start and how active a chapter will be. once the chapter is actively engaged, you will always wish you had more time for it. in order to choose the best structure for your community, you might consider the following models that could be used for a junior historian chapter : school history club model - this is the most common approach with the potential to provide an easily accessible experience to a wide number of students on a completely voluntary basis. benefits : appeals to a wide variety of student interests, can fulfill a variety of roles on a campus, attracts students across grade levels, provides an opportunity to build relationships outside the classroom, and offers easy access for all students. difficulties : meetings are usually after / before school, which can cause limitations on activities and participation, and due to extracurricular nature, some costs such as transportation


provides an opportunity to build relationships outside the classroom, and offers easy access for all students. difficulties : meetings are usually after / before school, which can cause limitations on activities and participation, and due to extracurricular nature, some costs such as transportation or supplies may or may not be covered by school administration. classroom model – over the years, this model has been used by several sponsors whose students are all part of their chapter for the year. suggested activities are then incorporated as lessons and curricular tools for teaching the assigned content. this model can be quite effective when there are multiple chapters on one campus. benefits : allows more time for students to participate in the suggested activities, can be implemented to varying degrees, is well suited for focusing on local resources and issues, and builds a cohesive history experience for the student when available at multiple grade levels. difficulties : costs may or may not be covered by school administration, requires multiple teachers to participate to build multi - level program, and may conflict with rigid curriculum plans that require specific lessons and activities in specific timeframes. community youth history club model - this model is very similar to the school club model in that it is more open and accessible and is usually sponsored by a local museum, historical society or group interested in history. benefits : open to a variety of students, not limited to one campus, may have more freedom with regard to travel and activities, and access to materials for research. difficulties : access to young people for recruiting, transportation, and funding / costs. regardless of the model you choose, here are a few tips for getting started : - follow the steps below. - don ’ t be afraid to start small ; if the young people see the value of what they are doing, it will grow. - get started as early in the school year as possible. - choose your activities, trips, etc., carefully so that you start with a bang and end with one ; this will help with member retention. - be active and visible on campus to attract members. - never underestimate who will be interested in history ; often many students who struggle in the classroom due to learning disabilities will excel in junior historians. - be prepared for immense joy and a few tears as you build this extended connection with your chapter. the following steps are recommended in forming a junior historian chapter : - administrative approval. the chapters function as educational adjuncts to the regular instructional program and should have administrative approval and support. come with a plan and justification. find out what level of financial support ( transportation, admission fees and


forming a junior historian chapter : - administrative approval. the chapters function as educational adjuncts to the regular instructional program and should have administrative approval and support. come with a plan and justification. find out what level of financial support ( transportation, admission fees and, supplies ) you can expect. discuss meeting times, time out of classes for research or meetings, and opportunities for students to contribute to the campus environment. the vast learning potential of the chapter experience is the program ' s greatest selling point. - select a sponsor. the chapter sponsor is generally a teacher or instructor. social studies, texas history, and american history teachers comprise the majority of chapter sponsors ; however, librarians, english teachers, special education, science teachers, social studies supervisors, and lay persons with the school administration ' s approval have developed some outstanding organizations. in fact, anyone who is willing to accept the responsibility may sponsor a chapter. - select a cosponsor. the cosponsor may be either a teacher ( some chapters have several cosponsors, all teachers ) or a lay person interested in community history. the cosponsor is a key person in the chapter organization as he or she performs many support services - - planning meetings, planning student projects, arranging field trips, contacting speakers and resource people, etc. - membership. there is no minimum number of students required to organize a junior historian chapter. numbers and selection varies. in some schools chapter membership is a composite of both junior and senior high school students ; in others it is limited to a single grade, a single class, or a combination of grades and / or classes. the organization and administration of the chapter is left to the discretion of the individual sponsor and should be structured to serve best each local situation. - organization. organization creates the machinery for chapter activity, defines objectives, states how they will be achieved, identifies who will share the responsibilities, and cites terminal dates when the objectives will be completed. the first chapter meeting should initiate the organizational process and should be well planned in advance with a printed agenda duplicated for distribution to everyone present. announcements on the school bulletin board, on the public address system, and in the school newspaper will help assure good attendance. the sponsor should preside at the first meeting, or until a temporary student chairman is selected. the election of permanent officers should be postponed until all members are thoroughly familiar with the purposes of the organization. this also allows time for the members to become better acquainted, as the informed nomination and election of officers is one key to chapter success.


selected. the election of permanent officers should be postponed until all members are thoroughly familiar with the purposes of the organization. this also allows time for the members to become better acquainted, as the informed nomination and election of officers is one key to chapter success. the number and type of student officers is left to the discretion of each chapter ; however, only functional positions should be designated. non - functional officers, existing in name only, tend to destroy chapter purpose. - constitution. many chapters adopt a constitution which defines specific objectives and outlines general operational procedures of the organization. a sample constitution follows ; however, this should be adapted to meet the needs and requirements of each local organization. at the first or second chapter meeting a constitutional committee ( see committees below ) may be appointed to draft a document for chapter consideration and approval. - chapter meetings. well planned and regularly scheduled meetings are essential for chapter success. nothing destroys student morale quicker than a pointless meeting, called for no particular purpose, where time is consumed with undirected chatter, and ends with nothing accomplished. time and location of all regular chapter meetings should be announced early in the school year and should be included on the first meeting agenda. a copy of the chapter ' s annual calendar in the hands of each chapter member helps minimize meeting absenteeism. meeting time, frequency, location, and the types of programs planned, vary from chapter to chapter. some chapters hold weekly, semimonthly, and monthly meetings, and meet before or after school, at activity periods, during history class, at night, or on weekends. meetings are held at schools, churches, community centers, on local college and university campuses ( with webb society co - sponsorship ), bank auditoriums, public libraries, courthouses, youth centers, or at the homes of chapter members, sponsors, and cosponsors. some chapters hold all meetings at the same location while others rotate meeting sites. - committees. committees ( assuming they are functional ) assure an equal sharing of chapter responsibilities, simplify the sponsor ' s administrative role, define specific duties, and increase the opportunities for individual leadership and responsibility among chapter members. committees fall into two categories : 1 ) standing committees ; and 2 ) special committees. standing committees might include the program committee, the field trip committee, the museum committee, the publicity committee, etc. special committees should be formed to develop chapter projects and activities ( see section i, units 2 & 3 ) as these objectives are defined by the executive committee. the executive committee, composed of chapter officers and standing committee chairman,


the publicity committee, etc. special committees should be formed to develop chapter projects and activities ( see section i, units 2 & 3 ) as these objectives are defined by the executive committee. the executive committee, composed of chapter officers and standing committee chairman, functions as the chapter ' s top policy making body. of course, the number and types of committees will vary, according to chapter size and the number and variety of active projects. - chapter dues. some chapters assess either monthly or annual dues. this is a local matter as no dues are sent to the state office. - charter. once a chapter has established a constitution and elected officers, it is now ready to request its charter. if a chapter has existed previously at that school or organization, the original charter number will be re - issued. the texas state historical association prepares an official charter for each junior historian chapter. in order to keep the form and process as updated as possible, the charter request and renewal forms are available on the association ’ s website at http : / / www. tsha. utexas. edu / education / jh / app. pdf. - texas historian magazine. there is a minimum requirement of five subscriptions per chapter to the texas historian, the official publication of the junior historians. this journal contains the writings of texas ’ s outstanding student historians, a variety of contests for subscribers, and serves as a communication channel between the state office and members. subscriptions to the texas historian are also important because these small fees help to fund the entire junior historian program. many chapters have 100 percent membership subscriptions. - southwestern historical quarterly. the quarterly should be available to both teachers and students in the school or college library. this publication, representing the outstanding texas history scholarship, is usually ordered by the librarian as part of the general library budget. - annual chapter renewal. each fall the chapter sponsor will receive a reminder with the first roadrunner newsletter on how and when to renew the chapter ’ s affiliation. that year ’ s subscription to the texas historian can be taken care of then, though additional subscriptions to the texas historian can be made until november 1 or as long as supplies last. - national history club membership. as a member of the junior historians of texas, all chapters located on school campuses with members in grades 6 - 12 will automatically be registered as a member of national history club sponsored by the concord review. as a member of national history club the chapter will receive the national history club newsletter and be eligible to participate in their student recognition programs. the


in grades 6 - 12 will automatically be registered as a member of national history club sponsored by the concord review. as a member of national history club the chapter will receive the national history club newsletter and be eligible to participate in their student recognition programs. the sponsor will automatically receive additional materials directly from national history club. junior historian constitution * we, the members of the junior historians, in order to stimulate interest in the history of _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ and _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ county, add to the exhibits of the _ _ _ _ _ _ _ museum, assist in the collection of books and historical documents for the texas section of the _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ library, and to assist the _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ county historical commission to identify and preserve the historical landmarks in texas, do hereby ordain and establish this constitution for the junior historians of _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ school, _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _, texas. article i ( name ) the name of this organization shall be the _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ junior historians. article ii ( membership ) all students who are interested in the history of our county and state shall be eligible for membership. any former member may retain his or her membership until the age of twenty - one by paying current dues. the dues of the chapter shall be _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _. all members are encouraged to subscribe to the texas historian at the current subscription price. article iv ( officers and their duties ) section i. the officers of the club shall be : president, first vice - president, second vice - president, secretary, treasurer, reporter, and club historian. section ii. the duties of the president shall be : to preside over meetings, to appoint committees, and to perform any other duties proper to the office. section iii. the vice - president shall preside in the absence of the president and shall be program chairman. section iv. the second vice - president shall be membership and publicity chairman. section v. the secretary shall keep a proper record of all meetings and the names and addresses of all members and shall conduct most of the correspondence of the club. section vi.


section iv. the second vice - president shall be membership and publicity chairman. section v. the secretary shall keep a proper record of all meetings and the names and addresses of all members and shall conduct most of the correspondence of the club. section vi. the treasurer shall collect all dues from members, receive any other money due the club, and pay bills when properly authorized. section vii. the reporter shall make reports to the local newspaper and school paper. section viii. the club historian shall keep a scrapbook composed of clippings from the various newspapers, and a collection of the outstanding papers of the society and photographs of the various club activities. article v ( elections ) officers shall be elected to serve for a year. officers shall be proposed by a nominating committee with the floor open to further nomination for each office. no officer shall be allowed to hold the same office in succession. meetings shall be held on the _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ of every month, with exception of december and the summer months. there shall be at least two field trips per year. all resignations will be submitted in written form to the president. article viii ( amendments ) these bylaws may be amended by a two - thirds vote of the members at any regular meeting. article ix ( attendance ) members shall be uniform in attendance at regular meetings of the club with one unexcused absence allowed per semester. the members shall be required to notify the president, first vice - president, second vice - president, or secretary in event of absence. failure to do so shall be construed as an unexcused absence. * this constitution form is a composite drawn from several chapters. each new chapter is free to adapt this constitution to fulfill its needs and objectives. a modifiable copy of this constitution is available in the resource section. the community : a laboratory for learning. the community, whether urban or rural, holds a trove of teaching resources for the imaginative and innovative teacher. within this laboratory for learning the students can explore firsthand the basic aspects of nearly every phase of living, and as they grow to maturity they can employ the ideas and concepts gained in community studies to understand the differences and likenesses in all cultures. the more students can learn about their own community, through discovery and involvement, the greater will be their comprehension of lifestyles elsewhere. furthermore, it is pedagogically sound to begin with what is at hand, what is familiar, what


. the more students can learn about their own community, through discovery and involvement, the greater will be their comprehension of lifestyles elsewhere. furthermore, it is pedagogically sound to begin with what is at hand, what is familiar, what is known ; and then proceed to the remote, to the unfamiliar, to the unknown. using community resources in the classroom necessitates knowing what is available. an organized resource inventory, therefore, should include the following : people : citizens who know business conditions, public officials, officers of organizations, early residents, parents, people who have traveled widely, people who have a knowledge of the cultural affairs - - past and present - - of the community, people who are artists, musicians and writers, business and professional persons, workers in various industries, retired people, and people with interesting hobbies. places : libraries, county courthouses, museums, public and private institutions, industrial plants, business firms, farms and ranches. things : antiques, cultural artifacts, wearing apparel, historic markers, historic houses and sites, and significant architectural structures. records and published materials : records of schools and governmental agencies, churches, clubs and civic organizations, municipal records, records of historical societies, records of councils of social agencies, census reports, local directories, local or county histories, county records, newspapers, diaries, business and personal correspondence, maps, local laws and statutes, photographs, chambers of commerce pamphlets, folders of travel agencies, air, railroad and bus lines, trade associations, and publishing houses. chapter activities : first steps to discovery and involvement. chapter activities, involving the collection, use, and preservation of the foregoing community materials, form the crux of the chapter experience. the following list is not definitive, as these activities represent only a few of the successful projects developed by various chapters. the key to the program ’ s wide appeal is that each chapter is autonomous and free to develop the projects and activities that are best suited to local needs and resources. this list, therefore, only suggests a beginning. improvise as you proceed. many pleasant and rewarding experiences await those who aid young people in becoming aware of their heritage. community resource file. as many chapter activities are based on the inventory and collecting process, a card or electronic index should be kept on each source of community material and information. this index will eventually become a catalogue of all community historical resources, serving all who are interested in local history, and will be the first step toward developing interesting projects and activities. a suggested form


should be kept on each source of community material and information. this index will eventually become a catalogue of all community historical resources, serving all who are interested in local history, and will be the first step toward developing interesting projects and activities. a suggested form to document and organize your resources can be found in the resource section of this handbook. activity 1. collecting historical materials. the community historical inventory - - also called " attic survey, " and " search for our past " - - is a highly intriguing project that involves the entire chapter and frequently unearths a wealth of material in the community. subsequently this material may be borrowed when needed for exhibition, as classroom teaching tools, or for an artifact fair or a temporary museum show. the general plan for the inventory is as follows : first, the sponsor explains to the chapter members the need to preserve all forms of material culture, as cultural artifacts reveal the life pattern of those persons who possessed and used them. second, advance publicity through the local media and civic organizations announces the inventory and emphasizes that the students will not remove the artifacts, but they only want to locate and identify historically significant materials ( artifacts, letters, photographs, wearing apparel, etc. ). a public announcement might request that individuals make contact with the chapter to aid in the process of discovery. it should also be announced that at some future date the teacher, the chapter, or the local museum may ask to borrow some of these materials for public exhibition. third, once the community has been informed of the forthcoming inventory, the sponsor instructs the students or an inventory committee to contact individuals, businesses, and organizations which they know through their community or family connections. the goal is to survey as many homes, businesses, and organizations as possible through the student ’ s network of contacts, while ensuring student safety. the sponsor should explain carefully to the chapter members how they are to introduce themselves and explain to the community member the significance of the survey. fourth, a community resource form, is prepared for each item / person / place identified in the survey. it is important to maintain a paper copy of these records to safeguard this important information even if an electronic index is kept for primary use. activity 2. collecting diaries, family correspondence, and business records. ( items in activity 2 may be included in the collections program outlined in activity 1. ) in their search for historical material, students should be made aware of the historical importance of diaries, personal correspondence, and business records. these often provide valuable insights into community life and reveal a facet of history that


collections program outlined in activity 1. ) in their search for historical material, students should be made aware of the historical importance of diaries, personal correspondence, and business records. these often provide valuable insights into community life and reveal a facet of history that is found nowhere else. diaries, family correspondence, and records of a local business have been the basis of some excellent articles published in the texas historian. ( see the how - to section for, a student ’ s guide to historical research and writing. ) activity 3. collecting traditional family recipes. an interesting approach to cultural and ethnic history is having the chapter members collect traditional recipes and record the history of the contributing families. several chapters have printed and sold recipe collections as successful money - raising projects. ( see the how - to section for, chapter fund - raising projects. ) activity 4. collecting and documenting old photographs. photographs are interesting and valuable sources of historical information and provide an authentic record of how people looked, lived, worked, and played. an excellent chapter project, and one that will generate much interest and enthusiasm, is building a photographic collection. all possible information about the photograph should be secured from the donor and / or lender : the date, location, names of the people in the photograph, event, etc. this should be typed on a sheet of paper, and attached to the back of the photograph. additional information may be gathered at a public " photo identification party. " these events have proven highly successful. not only is much new information provided, but the publicity generated by the event usually attracts additional gifts of photographs. one method of preserving such photos is to scan them into digital images that can then be used for a variety of purposes with permission of the owner. be sure to scan images at a minimum of 300 dpi for the best quality and use. activity 5. recording contemporary history with photographs. too often teachers and students become so concerned with collecting information about the past that they overlook the need to preserve the record of the present. as an extension of the project to build a collection of old photographs related to community history, chapter members should bring their collection up - to - date by photographing their community as it is, today. a good approach is to select a single topic - - transportation, industry, recreation, commercial and residential buildings, holiday celebrations, civic and political meetings, or education - - and develop it before going on to another topic. good documentation and a comprehensive index enhances the value of any photographic collection. such projects often lead to inquiries about how things appeared in


buildings, holiday celebrations, civic and political meetings, or education - - and develop it before going on to another topic. good documentation and a comprehensive index enhances the value of any photographic collection. such projects often lead to inquiries about how things appeared in the past, thus excellent research projects. black and white photographs ( 8 " x 10 " glossy prints are best ) possess the greatest lasting quality. it is also important to preserve the negatives. for a similar activity to so serve as a starting point, see the save our history educator ’ s manual in the resource section. activity 6. recording oral history. although much state and national history has been recorded in published studies, oral recollections add a personal dimension to history not found in these sources. for example, social and economic interpretations of the great depression are readily available to the history student, yet only through personal recollections can its impact on the individual be determined. also, the importance of oral history grows with the increased use of the telephone, and most especially since few people take the time to keep diaries or write their memoirs. thus, when an individual dies, much local history is lost. opportunities exist for these oral histories to be part of larger projects like the veterans history project discussed in the other activities, contests and awards segment. be sure to investigate the precise guidelines for these outside sponsored projects. therefore, an important segment of local history can be preserved by chapter members who go into the community with tape recorders and collect the personal recollections of local citizens. to achieve maximum yield from this activity, the oral history program should follow some definite theme or topic. for example, some general topics for consideration are the local impact of the great depression, world wars i and ii, the changing highway system, disappearance of the railroad, the coming of air transportation, the reasons members of various minority groups came to texas and settled in a particular community, and the impact of rural electrification on the local lifestyle. all oral history dates should be double checked for authenticity. ( see the how - to section for interview guidelines and the resource section for fundamentals of oral history from the texas historical commission. ) for a similar activity to so serve as a starting point, see the save our history educator ' s manual in the resource section. activity 7. making gravestone rubbings and cemetery analyses. data gathered from old cemeteries can provide much valuable information about the history of a community and the origin of its inhabitants. after compiling and analyzing headstone inscriptions, students raise specific questions. for example,


7. making gravestone rubbings and cemetery analyses. data gathered from old cemeteries can provide much valuable information about the history of a community and the origin of its inhabitants. after compiling and analyzing headstone inscriptions, students raise specific questions. for example, why did so many people die in november and december 1918? in this specific instance, it probably was the result of the great 1918 influenza epidemic. the topic may be expanded further : what state, national, and especially international conditions contributed to this catastrophe? what preventative measures available now, could have lessened the impact of the epidemic? and what economic conditions removed great numbers of people from their familiar habitats? ( this is using cemetery data within an inquiry teaching concept. ) other events such as indian depredations, storms, epidemics, and local catastrophes may have caused simultaneous multiple deaths, which provide clues to local events of historical importance. also studies of life expectancy ( both male and female ), child mortality, and the ethnic makeup of the community ( based on last name spellings ) within a given time frame are other spin - off benefits of a cemetery analysis. making the actual gravestone rubbing is another benefit of this chapter activity. the reasons are twofold : 1 ) rubbing highlights data that otherwise could not be deciphered on a deteriorating gravestone ; and 2 ) gravestone rubbings, when mounted on heavy poster board, make interesting displays at a history fair or temporary museum show. the rubbing technique is as follows : a large sheet of light colored paper ( such as butcher paper ) is attached to the face of the stone by using freezer tape or electrician ' s plastic tape. the paper is then rubbed with a piece of crayon, held flat. the high contrast of the rubbing increases the legibility of the inscriptions. a more consistent quality will result if the students rub horizontally ( parallel with the lines of inscription ) with uniform pressure. various colored crayons may be used. additional resources for historic cemeteries and preservation can be found in the preservation guidelines series prepared by the texas historical commission located in the resource section. activity 8. researching the origin of local place names. an organized study of the origin of local place names - - streets, towns, communities, sites, rivers, creeks, mountains, schools, and public buildings - - frequently reveals interesting facts about a community. while the designations frequently reveal something of the history of a region, they also reflect the ideals, beliefs, people, and events that were uppermost in the minds of those who selected the


and public buildings - - frequently reveals interesting facts about a community. while the designations frequently reveal something of the history of a region, they also reflect the ideals, beliefs, people, and events that were uppermost in the minds of those who selected the names. some examples follow : stillhouse creek, possum kingdom dam, blackjack community, bell school house, striker creek, waxahachie, burro mountain, dead man ' s canyon, sixshooter junction, skinout mountain, tarzana, dime box, montgomery gardens road, starr avenue, alto, marathon, raguet street, balcones drive, and castroville. learning the origin ofthese names is a meaningful chapter activity, as they convey a sense of reality to students. place name studies provide an interesting introduction to the ethnic groups that settled a community. additional resources can be found in the handbook of texas, the atlas of historic sites from the texas historical commission and in the guidelines for historical research and official markers found in the resource section. activity 9. developing a local architecture survey and inventory. a study of local architecture adds a non - verbal dimension to classroom history instruction, while sharpening young people ' s awareness of the social, cultural, political, economic, geographic, religious, and ethnic influences reflected in buildings. more specifically, this chapter activity focuses on buildings and building designs as artifacts of cultural change, in addition to their local historical significance. buildings are indeed meaningful " footnotes to history " and constitute the visual profile of every community, town, and city. chapter members should first learn the basic architectural styles and their histories so they will know what to look for in the survey and inventory. next, they should inventory important buildings in the community and prepare a record of each, noting location, style of architecture, unique features, condition, historic significance ( if any ), list of occupants, published references to the building ( newspapers, magazines, books, official records, etc. ), and the floor plan. the buildings should be thoroughly documented, inside and out, with photographs. with the growing concern for preserving historic buildings for both aesthetic and historical reasons, chapter members can make an important contribution through this activity. in addition they can present slide shows on local architecture, and write articles for local newspapers on familiar structures that have played interesting roles in the community ' s history. activity 10. researching and writing family history. researching and writing family history is both a meaningful and rewarding classroom assignment, as well as a chapter activity. the benefits are multiple :


familiar structures that have played interesting roles in the community ' s history. activity 10. researching and writing family history. researching and writing family history is both a meaningful and rewarding classroom assignment, as well as a chapter activity. the benefits are multiple : first, in many cases the chapter members " discover " for the first time the backgrounds of their parents and grandparents ; second, by learning something about their education, former occupations, former places of residence, reasons for immigrating to their present locale, citing interesting people they have known, and interesting events in which they have participated, young people see themselves as a part of a great chain of being never before realized, while recognizing their indebtedness to previous generations ; and third, the teacher / sponsor gains a better insight into the personal background of the student / chapter members, while gaining a better knowledge of their ability to gather, arrange, and interpret data. many chapter sponsors introduce this activity early in the school year for apparent reasons. in many cases the initial activity is expanded into a major research project for the writing contest ( see the how - to section for, a student ’ s guide to historical research and writing and the resource section for guidelines to historical research. ) a variety of organizations, including the texas state genealogical society, offer resources to assist with genealogical research. student - written family histories are excellent introductory projects to historical research and writing. through the use of familiar and readily available materials, students learn the basic historiographic concepts. also, in developing these introductory papers the students frequently discover family papers, correspondence, and diaries worthy of further research and writing. suggestion : emphasize the difference between genealogy and family history. while the former is largely lineage and chronology, the latter is developed within a broader historical context. see the resource section for guidelines for researching military history, if needed. activity 11. folkways collection program. disappearing pioneer skills and traditions are a significant part of regional heritage and offer a perceptive insight into the social evolution of a community. collecting traditional recipes, offers an interesting approach to cultural and ethnic history. also, audio - visual records of disappearing rural skills should be high priority chapter projects : shoeing horses, blacksmithing, hand - shearing sheep, making windmill repairs, making adobe bricks, making syrup, hand - weaving fishing nets, cultivating land with horse - drawn implements, furniture making, and hand - splitting shingles and boards. each region has its individual pioneer traditions, therefore, emphasize local and regional uniqueness. taped interviews and / or an explanatory


nets, cultivating land with horse - drawn implements, furniture making, and hand - splitting shingles and boards. each region has its individual pioneer traditions, therefore, emphasize local and regional uniqueness. taped interviews and / or an explanatory narration, plus a photographic record of pioneer skills will help preserve that activity for the future. activity 12. using the southwestern historical quarterly within a critical teaching - learning concept. the quarterly, which contains outstanding scholarship on texas and southwestern history, may be used in a wide variety of teaching concepts. back issues of the quarterly can be found and searched at www. tsha. utexas. edu. critical discussion of the articles sharpens the student ' s perception of historiographic excellence, stimulates his or her interest in creative writing, while broadening his or her knowledge of history. discussion sessions ( lab sessions or chapter meetings ) may focus on some of the following points : - ask the students to give a critical overview of the assigned articles. - do you feel the author gave adequate coverage of the topic? are there noticeable omissions? - is the topic treated as local history, or has the author projected the topic in a broad national and international context? - does the author treat the topic with candor or is there an apparent interpretive bias? - what is the significance of this study? - has the author made a worthy contribution to history? - has the author " padded " his treatment of the subjects or does the material justify the length? - relating this topic to your home community, can you suggest additional research topics that should be developed? - based on the scope and interpretive content of the article, give an imaginary character sketch of the author ' s economic status, religion, political affiliation, ethnic origin, personal interests, home state, etc. - write a critical review of the articles. activity 13. using the texas historian within a critical teaching - learning concept. one innovative junior historian sponsor developed a group reading - discussion plan that enables students to gain maximum benefit from the texas historian articles. meeting in small groups, varying in size from twelve to twenty chapter members, the students come prepared to discuss the historian articles. the discussions focus on content, writing style, interest level, type of research, and the various research sources used by the student writers. before reading each issue, students are instructed to be prepared to discuss the following points : - why was the topic chosen? was it appealing? - was the title appropriate? - was the article interesting? why or why not?


by the student writers. before reading each issue, students are instructed to be prepared to discuss the following points : - why was the topic chosen? was it appealing? - was the title appropriate? - was the article interesting? why or why not? - what was the introductory sentence or thesis statement? - could the introductory paragraph be improved? how? - does paragraph development follow the logical theme or topic of the paper? - what was the concluding sentence? - could the conclusion be improved? how? - what sources were used to complete the research? - was the topic thoroughly researched? - what other sources could have been located for research? - where could a student obtain these sources of information? - how would a student locate additional sources of information? hopefully the discussions will stimulate members to enter the junior historian writing contest. activity 14. local history publications. as students collect records, research their projects, and gather information on the history of their community, they will find information of interest to others, particularly on their own region. to make the findings better known and to gain local support, the students should be encouraged to write up their research and activities in essay form. the best of these essays may then be published in magazine form. students find it exciting to have their names and works in print. a number of chapters have published their own magazine. ( see the how - to section for, chapter fund raising projects. ) activity 15. researching local economic history. whether your community is urban or rural, it has an economic history. there is no better approach to studying economics, or put more cogently, how we live, then to examine the economic decisions that shaped our own lives. - why did dexter die and gainesville prosper? they are only 12 miles apart? - the man who opened the first filling station in your town may very well be still living. why did he change, " filling station " to " service station ", and then to " car care center? " - why did the bank in your community not fail ( or fail ) during the great depression? the banker or bank employees may still be living. ask them. see the resource section for guidelines to historical research. activity 16. presenting a school assembly programs for patriotic holidays or anniversaries. researching, writing, and presenting a school assembly program for patriotic holidays or anniversaries is an excellent way to get publicity for your chapter and their activities. some of the more important holidays are : martin luther king jr. ’ s birthday 3 rd monday in january president