to resolve its problems ( tainter 1988 ). the experience of the roman empire is again instructive. most actions that the roman government took in response to crises - such as debasing the currency, raising taxes, expanding the army, and conscripting labor - were practical solutions to immediate problems. it would have been unthinkable not to adopt such measures. cumulatively, however, these practical steps made the empire ever weaker, as the capital stock ( agricultural land and peasants ) was depleted through taxation and conscription. over time, devising practical solutions drove the roman empire into diminishing, then negative, returns to complexity. the implication is that to focus a problem - solving system, such as ecological economics, on practical applications will not automatically increase its value to society, nor enhance sustainability. the historical development of problem - solving systems needs to be understood and taken into consideration. most who study contemporary issues certainly would agree that solving environmental and economic problems requires both knowledge and education. a major part of our response to current problems has been to increase our level of research into environmental matters, including global change. as our knowledge increases and practical solutions emerge, governments will implement solutions and bureaucracies will enforce them. new technologies will be developed. each of these steps will appear to be a practical solution to a specific problem. yet cumulatively these practical steps are likely to bring increased complexity, higher costs, and diminishing returns to problem solving. ' richard norgaard has stated the problem well : " assuring sustainability by extending the modem agenda... will require, by several orders of magnitude, more data collection, interpretation, planning, political decision - making, and bureaucratic control " ( norgaard 1994 ). donella meadows and her colleagues have given excellent examples of the economic constraints of contemporary problem solving. to raise world food production from 1951 - 1966 by 34 %, for example, required increasing expenditures on tractors of 63 %, on nitrate fertilizers of 146 %, and on pesticides of 300 %. to remove all organic wastes from a sugar - processing plant costs 100 times more than removing 30 %. to reduce sulfur dioxide in the air of a u. s. city by 9. 6 times, or particulates by 3. 1 times, raises the cost of pollution control by 520 times ( meadows et al. 1972 ). all environmental problem solving will face constraints of this kind. bureaucratic regulation itself generates further complexity and costs. as regulations are issued and taxes established, those who are


, raises the cost of pollution control by 520 times ( meadows et al. 1972 ). all environmental problem solving will face constraints of this kind. bureaucratic regulation itself generates further complexity and costs. as regulations are issued and taxes established, those who are regulated or taxed seek loopholes and lawmakers strive to close these. a competitive spiral of loophole discovery and closure unfolds, with complexity continuously increasing ( olson 1982 ). in these days when the cost of government lacks political support, such a strategy is unsustainable. it is often suggested that environmentally benign behavior should be elicited through taxation incentives rather than through regulations. while this approach has some advantages, it does not address the problem of complexity, and may not reduce overall regulatory costs as much as is thought. those costs may only be shifted to the taxation authorities, and to the society as a whole. it is not that research, education, regulation, and new technologies cannot potentially alleviate our problems. with enough investment perhaps they can. the difficulty is that these investments will be costly, and may require an increasing share of each nation ' s gross domestic product. with diminishing returns to problem solving, addressing environmental issues in our conventional way means that more resources will have to be allocated to science, engineering, and government. in the absence of high economic growth this would require at least a temporary decline in the standard of living, as people would have comparatively less to spend on food, housing, clothing, medical care, transportation, and entertainment. to circumvent costliness in problem solving it is often suggested that we use resources more intelligently and efficiently. timothy allen and thomas hoekstra, for example, have suggested that in managing ecosystems for sustainability, managers should identify what is missing from natural regulatory process and provide only that. the ecosystem will do the rest. let the ecosystem ( i. e., solar energy ) subsidize the management effort rather than the other way around ( allen and hoekstra 1992 ). it is an intelligent suggestion. at the same time, to implement it would require much knowledge that we do not now possess. that means we need research that is complex and costly, and requires fossil - fuel subsidies. lowering the costs of complexity in one sphere causes them to rise in another. agricultural pest control illustrates this dilemma. as the spraying of pesticides exacted higher costs and yielded fewer benefits, integrated pest management was developed. this system relies on biological knowledge to reduce the need for chemicals, and employs monitoring of pest populations, use


. agricultural pest control illustrates this dilemma. as the spraying of pesticides exacted higher costs and yielded fewer benefits, integrated pest management was developed. this system relies on biological knowledge to reduce the need for chemicals, and employs monitoring of pest populations, use of biological controls, judicious application of chemicals, and careful selection of crop types and planting dates ( norgaard 1994 ). it is an approach that requires both esoteric research by scientists and careful monitoring by farmers. integrated pest management violates the principle of complexity aversion, which may partly explain why it is not more widely used. such issues help to clarify what constitutes a sustainable society. the fact that problem - solving systems seem to evolve to greater complexity, higher costs, and diminishing returns has significant implications for sustainability. in time, systems that develop in this way are either cut off from further finances, fail to solve problems, collapse, or come to require large energy subsidies. this has been the pattern historically in such cases as the roman empire, the lowland classic maya, chacoan society of the american southwest, warfare in medieval and renaissance europe, and some aspects of contemporary problem solving ( that is, in every case that i have investigated in detail ) ( tainter 1988, 1992, 1994b, 1995a ). these historical patterns suggest that one of the characteristics of a sustainable society will be that it has a sustainable system of problem solving - one with increasing or stable returns, or diminishing returns that can be financed with energy subsidies of assured supply, cost, and quality. industrialism illustrates this point. it generated its own problems of complexity and costliness. these included railways and canals to distribute coal and manufactured goods, the development of an economy increasingly based on money and wages, and the development of new technologies. while such elements of complexity are usually thought to facilitate economic growth, in fact they can do so only when subsidized by energy. some of the new technologies, such as the steam engine, showed diminishing returns to innovation quite early in their development ( wilkinson 1973 ; giarini and louberge 1978 ; giarini 1984 ). what set industrialism apart from all of the previous history of our species was its reliance on abundant, concentrated, high - quality energy ( hall et al. 1992 ). 5 with subsidies of inexpensive fossil fuels, for a long time many consequences of industrialism effectively did not matter. industrial societies could afford them. when energy costs are met easily and painlessly, benefit / cost ratio to social investments can be


1992 ). 5 with subsidies of inexpensive fossil fuels, for a long time many consequences of industrialism effectively did not matter. industrial societies could afford them. when energy costs are met easily and painlessly, benefit / cost ratio to social investments can be substantially ignored ( as it has been in contemporary industrial agriculture ). fossil fuels made industrialism, and all that flowed from it ( such as science, transportation, medicine, employment, consumerism, high - technology war, and contemporary political organization ), a system of problem solving that was sustainable for several generations. energy has always been the basis of cultural complexity and it always will be. if our efforts to understand and resolve such matters as global change involve increasing political, technological, economic, and scientific complexity, as it seems they will, then the availability of energy per capita will be a constraining factor. to increase complexity on the basis of static or declining energy supplies would require lowering the standard of living throughout the world. in the absence of a clear crisis very few people would support this. to maintain political support for our current and future investments in complexity thus requires an increase in the effective per capita supply of energy - either by increasing the physical availability of energy, or by technical, political, or economic innovations that lower the energy cost of our standard of living. of course, to discover such innovations requires energy, which underscores the constraints in the energy - complexity relation. this chapter on the past clarifies potential paths to the future. one often - discussed path is cultural and economic simplicity and lower energy costs. this could come about through the " crash " that many fear - a genuine collapse over a period of one or two generations, with much violence, starvation, and loss of population. the alternative is the " soft landing " that many people hope for - a voluntary change to solar energy and green fuels, energy - conserving technologies, and less overall consumption. this is a utopian alternative that, as suggested above, will come about only if severe, prolonged hardship in industrial nations makes it attractive, and if economic growth and consumerism can be removed from the realm of ideology. the more likely option is a future of greater investments in problem solving, increasing overall complexity, and greater use of energy. this option is driven by the material comforts it provides, by vested interests, by lack of alternatives, and by our conviction that it is good. if the trajectory of problem solving that humanity has followed for much of the last 12, 000 years should continue, it is the path that


comforts it provides, by vested interests, by lack of alternatives, and by our conviction that it is good. if the trajectory of problem solving that humanity has followed for much of the last 12, 000 years should continue, it is the path that we are likely to take in the near future. regardless of when our efforts to understand and resolve contemporary problems reach diminishing returns, one point should be clear. it is essential to know where we are in history ( tainter 1995a ). if macroeconomic patterns develop over periods of generations or centuries, it is not possible to comprehend our current conditions unless we understand where we are in this process. we have the the opportunity to become the first people in history to understand how a society ' s problem - solving abilities change. to know that this is possible yet not to act upon it would be a great failure of the practical application of ecological economics. this - chapter is revised from a plenary address to the third international meeting of the international society for ecological economics, san jose, costa rica, 28 october 1994. 1 am grateful to cutler j. cleveland, robert costanza, and olman segura for the invitation to present the address, to maureen garita matamoros for assistance during the conference, to denver burns, john faux, charles a. s. hall, thomas hoekstra, joe kerkvliet, and daniel underwood for comments on the plenary address, and to richard periman and carol raish for reviewing this version. allen, t. f. h. and t. w. hoekstra. 1992. toward a unified ecology. new york : columbia university press. asch, n. b., r. i. ford, and d. l. asch. 1972. paleoethnobotany of the koster site : the archaic horizons. illinois state museum reports of investigations 24. illinois valley archeological program, research papers 6. boserup, e. 1965. the conditions of agricultural growth : the economics of agrarian change under population pressure. chicago : aldine. carneiro, r. l. 1978. political expansion as an expression of the principle of competitive exclusion. in origins of the state : the anthropology of political evolution, eds. ronald cohen and elman r. service. philadelphia : institute for the study of human issues. clark, c and m. haswell. 1966. the economics of subsistence agriculture. london : macmillan. cohen, m. n. 1977. the food crisis in prehistory


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new south wales the sydney opera house and sydney cbd at dusk from jeffrey street, kirribilli | population | | 4, 627, 345 ( 2011 ) ( 1st ) | | • density | | 2, 058 / km² ( 5, 330. 2 / sq mi ) ( 2006 ) | | established | | 26 january 1788 | | area | | 12, 144. 6 km² ( 4, 689. 1 sq mi ) | | time zone | | aest ( utc + 10 ) | | • summer ( dst ) | | aedt ( utc + 11 ) | | state / territory electorate ( s ) | | various ( 49 ) | | federal division ( s ) | | various ( 24 ) | sydney ( pron. : / / ) is the state capital of new south wales and the most populous city in australia. it is on australia ' s south - east coast, on the tasman sea. in june 2010 the greater metropolitan area had an approximate population of 4. 6 million people. inhabitants of sydney are called sydneysiders, comprising a cosmopolitan and international population. the site of the first british colony in australia, sydney was established in 1788 at sydney cove by arthur phillip, commodore of the first fleet, as a penal colony. the city is built on hills surrounding port jackson which is commonly known as sydney harbour, where the iconic sydney opera house and the harbour bridge feature prominently. the hinterland of the metropolitan area is surrounded by national parks, and the coastal regions feature many bays, rivers, inlets and beaches including the famous bondi beach and manly beach. within the city are many notable parks, including hyde park and the royal botanic gardens. sydney is a high ranking world city and has hosted multiple major international sporting events, including the 1938 british empire games ( now known as the commonwealth games ) and the 2000 summer olympics. the main airport serving sydney is sydney airport and its main port is port botany. the traditional indigenous inhabitants of sydney cove are the cadigal people, whose land once stretched from south of port jackson to petersham. while estimates of the population numbers before the arrival of the first fleet in 1788 remain contentious, approximately 4, 000 – 8, 000 aboriginal people lived in the sydney region before contact with british settlers. the british called the indigenous people the " eora ", because being asked where they came from, these people would answer : " eora ", meaning " here ", or " from this place " in their language. there were three language groups in


british called the indigenous people the " eora ", because being asked where they came from, these people would answer : " eora ", meaning " here ", or " from this place " in their language. there were three language groups in the sydney region, which were divided into dialects spoken by smaller clans. the principal languages were darug ( the cadigal, inhabitants of the city of sydney, spoke a coastal dialect of darug ), dharawal and guringai. each clan had a territory, the location of each territory determined the resources available. although urbanisation has destroyed much evidence of these settlements such as shell middens, a number of sydney rock engravings, carvings and rock art remain visible in the hawkesbury sandstone of the sydney basin. in 1770, british sea captain lieutenant james cook landed at botany bay on the kurnell peninsula. it is here that cook made first contact with an aboriginal community known as the gweagal. under instruction from the british government, a convict settlement was founded by arthur phillip, who arrived at botany bay with a fleet of 11 ships on 18 january 1788. this site was soon determined to be unsuitable for habitation, owing to poor soil and a lack of reliable fresh water. phillip subsequently founded the colony one inlet further north along the coast, at sydney cove on port jackson on 26 january 1788. the official proclamation of the founding and naming of sydney took place nearly two weeks later on 7 february 1788. the original name was intended to be albion, but phillip named the settlement after the british home secretary, thomas townshend, lord sydney, in recognition of sydney ' s role in issuing the charter authorising phillip to establish the colony. in april 1789, a catastrophic epidemic disease now thought to be chickenpox spread through the eora people and surrounding groups, with the result that local aborigines died in their thousands, and bodies could often be seen bobbing in the water in sydney harbour. the cause of the epidemic has always been a matter of speculation and controversy, but if it was chickenpox, an outbreak of shingles among the convicts being among the most likely explanations. in any event, the results were catastrophic for the eora people and their kin and by the early 1800s the aboriginal population of the sydney basin " had been reduced to only 10 percent of the 1788 estimate ", or an estimated 500 to 1000 aboriginal people between broken bay and botany bay. there was some violent resistance to british settlement, notably by the warrior pemulwuy in the


basin " had been reduced to only 10 percent of the 1788 estimate ", or an estimated 500 to 1000 aboriginal people between broken bay and botany bay. there was some violent resistance to british settlement, notably by the warrior pemulwuy in the area around botany bay, and conflicts were common in the area surrounding the hawkesbury river. by 1820 there were only a few hundred aborigines and governor macquarie had begun initiatives to ' civilise, christianise and educate ' the aborigines by removing them from their clans. macquarie ' s tenure as governor of new south wales was a period when sydney was improved from its basic beginnings. roads, bridges, wharves and public buildings were constructed by british and irish convicts, and by 1822 the town had banks, markets, well - established thoroughfares and an organised constabulary. the 1830s and 1840s were periods of urban development including the development of the first suburbs, as the town grew rapidly when ships began arriving from britain and ireland with immigrants looking to start a new life in a new country. on 20 july 1842 the municipal council of sydney was incorporated and the town was declared the first city in australia, with john hosking the first elected mayor. the first of several australian gold rushes started in 1851, and the port of sydney has since seen many waves of people arriving from around the world. rapid suburban development began in the last quarter of the 19th century with the advent of steam - powered tramways and railways. with industrialisation sydney expanded rapidly and, by the early 20th century, it had a population of more than a million. in 1929, the novelist arthur henry adams called it the " siren city of the south " and the " athens of australia ". the great depression hit sydney badly in comparison to other australian cities. one of the highlights of the depression era, however, was the completion of the sydney harbour bridge in 1932. there has traditionally been a rivalry between sydney and melbourne since the gold rushes of the 1850s made the capital of victoria australia ' s largest and richest city. sydney overtook melbourne in population in the early years of the 20th century, and continues to be the largest city in australia. during the 1970s and 1980s, sydney ' s central business district ( cbd ), with a great number of financial institutions including the headquarters of the reserve bank, surpassed melbourne as the nation ' s financial capital. throughout the 20th century, especially in the decades immediately following world war ii, sydney continued to expand as large numbers of european and later asian immigrants took up residence in the metropolitan


headquarters of the reserve bank, surpassed melbourne as the nation ' s financial capital. throughout the 20th century, especially in the decades immediately following world war ii, sydney continued to expand as large numbers of european and later asian immigrants took up residence in the metropolitan area. sydney ' s urban area is in a coastal basin, which is bordered by the pacific ocean to the east, the blue mountains to the west, the hawkesbury river to the north and the royal national park to the south. it lies on a submergent coastline, where the ocean level has risen to flood deep river valleys ( ria ) carved in the hawkesbury sandstone. port jackson, better known as sydney harbour, is one such ria. the sydney area is not affected by significant earthquakes. the urban area has around 70 harbour and ocean beaches, including the famous bondi beach. sydney ' s urban area covers 1, 687 km2 ( 651 sq mi ) as of 2001. the sydney statistical division, used for census data, is the unofficial metropolitan area and covers 12, 145 km2 ( 4, 689 sq mi ). this area includes the central coast, the blue mountains, and national parks and other unurbanised land. geographically, sydney lies over two regions : the cumberland plain, a relatively flat region lying to the south and west of the harbour, and the hornsby plateau, a sandstone plateau lying mainly to the north of the harbour and dissected by steep valleys. the parts of the city with the oldest european development are located in the flat areas south of the harbour. the north shore was slower to develop because of its hilly topography and lack of access across the harbour. the sydney harbour bridge was opened in 1932 and linked the north shore to the rest of the city. sydney is mostly triassic rock, with a some recent igneous dykes and the volcanic neck. the hawkesbury sandstone is some 200 metres ( 660 ft ) thick, with shale lenses and fossil riverbeds dotted throughout it. almost all of the rocks exposed around sydney will be sandstone. the sand that was to become this sandstone was washed from broken hill and laid down in the triassic period, about two hundred million years ago, a time when plants were ferns, reptiles were becoming dinosaurs, and mammals did not yet exist. the sydney basin sits on the east coast of australia, which is made up of a basin filled with near horizontal sandstones and shales of permian to triassic age that overlie older basement rocks of the lachlan fold belt. the sedimentary rocks


the sydney basin sits on the east coast of australia, which is made up of a basin filled with near horizontal sandstones and shales of permian to triassic age that overlie older basement rocks of the lachlan fold belt. the sedimentary rocks have been subject to uplift with gentle folding and minor faulting during the formation of the great dividing range. erosion by coastal streams have created a landscape of deep - cliffed gorges and remains of plateaus across. the sydney basin bioregion includes coastal landscapes of cliffs, beaches and estuaries. sydney has a temperate climate with warm summers and mild winters. rainfall is spread throughout the year. the weather is moderated by proximity to the ocean, and more extreme temperatures are recorded in the inland western suburbs. the warmest month is january, with an average air temperature range at observatory hill of 18. 6 – 25. 8 °c ( 65 – 78 °f ). an average of 14. 6 days a year have temperatures of more than 30 °c ( 86. 0 °f ). in winter, temperatures rarely drop below 5 °c ( 41 °f ) in coastal areas. the coldest month is july, with an average range of 8. 0 – 16. 2 °c ( 46 – 61 °f ). rainfall is fairly evenly spread through the year, but is slightly higher during the first half of the year, when easterly winds dominate. the average annual rainfall, with moderate to low variability, is 1, 217 mm ( 48 in ), with rain falling on an average of 138 days a year. snowfall was last reported in the sydney city area in 1836. however, a july 2008 fall of graupel, or soft hail, mistaken by many for snow, has raised the possibility that the 1836 event was not snow, either. extreme temperatures have ranged from 45. 8 °c ( 114. 4 °f ) on 18 january 2013 to 2. 1 °c ( 35. 8 °f ), the lowest recorded minimum at observatory hill. the city is not affected by cyclones. the el nino – southern oscillation plays an important role in determining sydney ' s weather patterns : drought and bushfire on the one hand, and storms and flooding on the other, associated with the opposite phases of the oscillation. many areas of the city bordering bushland have experienced bushfires, these tend to occur during the spring and summer. the city is also prone to severe hail storms and wind storms. one such storm was the 1999 hailstorm, which severely damaged sydney ' s eastern and city suburbs. the storm produced


experienced bushfires, these tend to occur during the spring and summer. the city is also prone to severe hail storms and wind storms. one such storm was the 1999 hailstorm, which severely damaged sydney ' s eastern and city suburbs. the storm produced massive hailstones of at least 9 cm ( 3. 5 in ) in diameter and resulting in insurance losses of around a $ 1. 7 billion in less than five hours. the next notable event was in the first weeks of february 2010 when sydney received some of the highest rainfalls in 25 years, which caused flash flooding and traffic chaos. the bureau of meteorology has reported that 2002 through 2005 were the warmest summers in sydney since records began in 1859. the summer of 2007 – 2008, however, proved to be one of the coolest summers on record. warmer and drier conditions came back in 2009 and 2010, when above - average temperatures were recorded. in 2009, the dry conditions brought a severe dust storm towards eastern australia. in 2011, above - average rainfall was recorded. on 18 january 2013, sydney experienced record - breaking temperatures with 45. 8 °c ( 114 °f ) recorded at observatory hill and 46. 4 °c ( 116 °f ) at sydney airport. the average annual temperature of the sea is above 21 °c ( 70 °f ), and the monthly average ranges from 19 °c ( 66 °f ) in july to 24 °c ( 75 °f ) in january. | climate data for sydney | | record high °c ( °f ) | | 45. 8 | average high °c ( °f ) | | 25. 9 | average low °c ( °f ) | | 18. 7 | record low °c ( °f ) | | 10. 6 | rainfall mm ( inches ) | | 101. 5 | avg. rainy days | | 12. 2 | | 12. 4 | | 13. 5 | | 12. 8 | | 13. 2 | | 12. 5 | | 11. 2 | | 10. 4 | | 10. 6 | | 11. 7 | | 11. 7 | | 11. 5 | | 143. 7 | | mean daily sunshine hours | | 7. 1 | | 6. 7 | | 6. 4 | | 6. 4 | | 5. 9 | | 5. 5 | | 6. 4 | | 7. 1 | | 7. 2 | | 7. 2 | | 7. 8 | | 7. 6 | | 6. 8 | | source # 1 : bureau of meteorology | | source # 2 : | urban structure sydney


| | 7. 1 | | 7. 2 | | 7. 2 | | 7. 8 | | 7. 6 | | 6. 8 | | source # 1 : bureau of meteorology | | source # 2 : | urban structure sydney ' s central business district ( cbd ) extends southwards for about 3 kilometres ( 2 mi ) from sydney cove to the area around central station. the sydney cbd is bounded on the east side by a chain of parkland, and the west by darling harbour, a tourist and nightlife precinct. although the cbd dominated the city ' s business and cultural life in the early days, other business / cultural districts have developed in a radial pattern since world war ii. as a result, the proportion of white - collar jobs located in the cbd declined from more than 60 per cent at the end of world war ii to less than 30 per cent in 2004. together with the commercial district of north sydney, joined to the cbd by the harbour bridge, the most significant outer business districts are parramatta in the central - west, penrith in the west, bondi junction in the east, liverpool in the southwest, chatswood to the north, and hurstville to the south. the extensive area covered by urban sydney is formally divided into 649 suburbs ( for addressing and postal purposes ), and administered as 40 local government areas. there is no metropolitan - wide government, but the government of new south wales and its agencies have extensive responsibilities in providing metropolitan services. the city of sydney itself covers a fairly small area comprising the central business district and its neighbouring inner - city suburbs. in addition, regional descriptions are used informally to conveniently describe larger sections of the urban area. these include canterbury - bankstown, the eastern suburbs, the forest district, greater western sydney, the hills district, the inner west, the macarthur region, the northern beaches, the northern suburbs, the north shore, southern sydney, south - western sydney, the st george district, the sutherland shire and western sydney. parks and open spaces sydney is well - endowed with open spaces and access to waterways, and has many natural areas ( botanic gardens and parks ), even in the city centre. within the cbd are the chinese garden of friendship, sydney park, hyde park, the domain and the royal botanic gardens. the metropolitan area also contains prominent parks and gardens, such as the auburn botanical gardens, and national parks, including the royal national park, the second oldest national park in the world, ku - ring - gai


the domain and the royal botanic gardens. the metropolitan area also contains prominent parks and gardens, such as the auburn botanical gardens, and national parks, including the royal national park, the second oldest national park in the world, ku - ring - gai chase and several parks in sydney ' s far west which are part of the world heritage listed greater blue mountains area. the domain was established by governor arthur phillip, just six months after the arrival of the first fleet. originally established as being exclusive to governors, it was opened to the public in the 1830s. hyde park was dedicated on 13 october 1810 by governor macquarie for the " recreation and amusement of the inhabitants of the town and a field of exercises for the troops ". hyde park is named in honour of the original hyde park in london, england. containing over 580 trees, it is located in the eastern section of the inner city district. to celebrate the first 100 years of european settlement, centennial park — also a residential area — was dedicated by sir henry parkes in january 1888. it is the largest open space in the city, occupying 220 hectares. similarly, bicentennial park was opened on 1 january 1988 to commemorate 200 years since european settlement. 1988 ' s bicentennial celebrations also saw the opening of the chinese garden of friendship, designed by the city of sydney ' s chinese sister city guangzhou. sydney has various heritage listed buildings, including parliament house ( 1816 ), sydney town hall ( 1889 ), the queen victoria building ( 1898 ), and the australian museum. there is no particular architecture style that entirely characterises the whole of sydney. prominent styles include gothic revival, georgian, classical, romanesque, italianate, federation, edwardian, second empire, queen anne, as well as more contemporary styles. the first substantial buildings designed for sydney were by transported convict francis greenway, who designed such buildings and structures as the macquarie lighthouse, hyde park barracks, st james ' king street and government house. other prominent architects were james barnet, who designed the general post office ( 1891 ), the customs house ( 1845 ), and various court houses ; and edmund blacket, who designed the gothic revival style st. andrew ' s cathedral and st philip ' s church. more contemporary architecture includes the sydney opera house ( 1973 ), designed by danish architect jørn utzon. described as an " artistic monument ", it is one of the most recognisable landmarks in both sydney and australia and is a unesco world heritage site. the upcoming one central park ( 2013 ) urban renewal development will be


median unit price of $ 500, 000. sydney also has the highest median rent prices of any australian city at $ 450 a week. the sydney region accounts for 12 percent ( approximately $ 1 billion per annum ) of the total agricultural production, by value, of nsw. sydney provides 55 % of nsw ' s flower production and 58 % of its turf production, as well as 44 % of the state ' s nurseries. in 1994 – 1995 sydney produced 44 % of new south wales ' poultry meat and 48 % of the state ' s eggs. | the ten largest overseas born populations | | country of birth | | population ( 2006 ) | | people ' s republic of china | | 109, 142 | the 2006 census reported 4, 119, 190 residents in the sydney statistical division, of which 3, 641, 422 lived in sydney ' s urban centre. inner sydney was the most densely populated place in australia with 4, 023 inhabitants per square kilometre ( 10, 420 / sq mi ). in the 2006 census, the most common self - described ancestries identified for sydney residents were australian, english, irish, scottish, and chinese. the census also recorded that 1. 1 % of sydney ' s population identified as being of indigenous origin, and 31. 7 % were born overseas. asian australians made up 18. 8 % of the population in sydney ' s urban centre and 16. 9 % of the wider statistical division. the three major sources of immigrants are the united kingdom, china and new zealand, followed by vietnam, lebanon, india, italy, and the philippines. many residents are native speakers of english ; many have a second language, the most common being arabic ( predominantly lebanese arabic ), cantonese, mandarin, greek and vietnamese. sydney has the seventh - largest percentage of foreign - born individuals in the world. immigrants account for 75 % of sydney ' s annual population growth. the median age of sydney residents is 36 ; 15. 4 % of the population is over 65 years old. 15. 2 % of residents have educational attainment equal to at least a bachelor ' s degree, in the 2011 census, 60. 9 % of the residents identified themselves as christians, 17. 6 % had no religion, 7. 6 % left the question blank, 4. 7 % were muslims, 4. 1 % were buddhists, 2. 6 % were hindus, 0. 9 % were jewish and 1. 6 % were another religion. as a dynamic cultural hub, sydney has many fine and internationally known museums and galleries,


were muslims, 4. 1 % were buddhists, 2. 6 % were hindus, 0. 9 % were jewish and 1. 6 % were another religion. as a dynamic cultural hub, sydney has many fine and internationally known museums and galleries, such as the art gallery of new south wales, the museum of contemporary art, the white rabbit gallery, brett whiteley studio, museum of sydney and the powerhouse museum, in addition to a thriving commercial gallery scene of contemporary art, mainly in the inner - city areas of waterloo, surry hills, darlinghurst, paddington, chippendale, newtown and woollahra. sydney hosts many different festivals and some of australia ' s largest social and cultural events. these include the sydney festival, australia ' s largest arts festival which is a celebration involving both indoor and free outdoor performances throughout january ; the biennale of sydney dedicated to international and australian contemporary art ; the big day out, a travelling rock - music festival which originated in sydney ; the gay and lesbian mardi gras along oxford street ; the sydney film festival and many other smaller film festivals such as the short film tropfest and flickerfest. sculpture by the sea, australia ' s largest outdoor sculpture exhibit, began at bondi beach in 1996. vivid sydney, an annual outdoor festival featuring lit up art installations, light projections, music and ideas began in 2009. australia ' s premier prize for portraiture, the archibald prize is organised by the art gallery of new south wales. the sydney royal easter show is held every year at sydney olympic park, the final of australian idol takes place on the steps of the opera house, and australian fashion week takes place in april / may and september. sydney ' s new year ' s eve and australia day celebrations are the largest in australia. a survey based on tracking the frequency of words and phrases in the media, cited sydney as number 9 on a list of the world ' s top fashion cities in 2009. the city is the site of the world renowned rosemount australian fashion week, which occurs biannually, and is home to many of australia ' s premier fashion houses. most international designers have a major presence in sydney and australia ' s next top model is one of the most watched shows on national television. entertainment and performing arts sydney ' s cultural institutions include the sydney ' s famous opera house. it has five halls, including a large concert hall and opera and drama theatres ; it is the home of opera australia — the third - busiest opera company in the world, and the sydney symphony under the leadership of


the sydney ' s famous opera house. it has five halls, including a large concert hall and opera and drama theatres ; it is the home of opera australia — the third - busiest opera company in the world, and the sydney symphony under the leadership of vladimir ashkenazy. other venues include the sydney town hall, city recital hall, the state theatre, the theatre royal, sydney, the sydney theatre and the wharf theatre, the capitol theatre and the lyric and star theatres at the star. the sydney conservatorium of music is located adjacent to the royal botanic gardens and serves the australian music community through music education and biannual australian music examinations board exams. the sydney dance company was under the leadership of graeme murphy during the late 20th century. the sydney theatre company has a regular roster of local plays, such as noted playwright david williamson, classics and international playwrights. in 2007, the new theatre celebrated 75 years of continuous production in sydney. other important theatre companies in sydney include company b and griffin theatre company. from the 1940s through to the 1970s the sydney push, a group of authors and political activists whose members included germaine greer, influenced the city ' s cultural life. the national institute of dramatic art, based in kensington, boasts internationally famous alumni such as mel gibson, judy davis, baz luhrmann and cate blanchett. sydney ' s role in the film industry has increased since the opening of fox studios australia in 1998. there have been many prominent films that have used sydney as a filming location or setting. the great gatsby, the most recent hollywood production shot in sydney, is expected to earn the new south wales economy $ 120 million, with the shoot estimated to last seventeen weeks and another thirty weeks to be spent on post - production. additionally, many bollywood movies have also been filmed in sydney including singh is kinng, bachna ae haseeno, chak de! india, heyy babyy. as of 2006, over 229 films have been set in, or featured sydney. sydney ' s most popular nightspots include kings cross, oxford street, darling harbour, circular quay and the rocks, which all contain various bars, nightclubs and restaurants. the star is sydney ' s only casino and is situated around darling harbour. there are many traditional pubs, cafes and restaurants in inner - city areas such as newtown, balmain, leichhardt and surry hills. sydney ' s main live music hubs include areas such as newtown and annandale, which nurtured acts such


traditional pubs, cafes and restaurants in inner - city areas such as newtown, balmain, leichhardt and surry hills. sydney ' s main live music hubs include areas such as newtown and annandale, which nurtured acts such as ac / dc, bliss n eso, sparkadia, midnight oil and inxs. other popular nightspots tend to be spread throughout the city in areas such as bondi, manly, cronulla and parramatta. in the year ending 2012, sydney received a total of 10. 5 million international and domestic visitors, which injected $ 11. 7 billion into the state of new south wales ' economy. the most well - known attractions include the sydney opera house and the sydney harbour bridge. other attractions include royal botanical gardens, luna park, darling harbour, some 40 beaches and sydney tower. the new south wales government operates two programs relevant to sydney as part of the nsw tourism strategy, they are : brand sydney ( to revitalise and strengthen the image and appeal of sydney ) and visit sydney ( to increase promotion of sydney as a tourist destination through a strengthened dedicated business unit within destination nsw ). sydney also has several popular museums, such as the australian museum ( natural history and anthropology ), the powerhouse museum ( science, technology and design ), the art gallery of new south wales, the museum of contemporary art and the australian national maritime museum. sport and outdoor activities sport is an important part of sydney ' s culture. sydney is the only city other than melbourne and brisbane to have an elite presence in the 4 major football codes of australia – rugby league, australian rules football, rugby union and soccer. prominent sporting venues in sydney include the sydney cricket ground or scg, anz stadium, the sydney football stadium, sydney motorsport park, royal randwick and rosehill gardens racecourse. large sporting events such as the nrl grand final and bledisloe cup games are regularly held at the anz stadium, the main stadium for the 2000 summer olympics. the most popular sport in sydney is rugby league. the nswrfl ( today known as the nrl ) began in sydney in the 1908 season and is the largest and most prestigious domestic rugby league competition in the southern hemisphere. the city is home to nine of the sixteen teams in the national rugby league competition : the canterbury - bankstown bulldogs, cronulla - sutherland sharks, manly sea eagles, penrith panthers, parramatta eels, south sydney rabbitohs, st george illawarra dragons, sydney roosters and wests tigers. the new


competition : the canterbury - bankstown bulldogs, cronulla - sutherland sharks, manly sea eagles, penrith panthers, parramatta eels, south sydney rabbitohs, st george illawarra dragons, sydney roosters and wests tigers. the new south wales rugby league team contests the annual state of origin series against the queensland maroons, with at least one game each series played in sydney. rugby union is represented by the nsw waratahs in the elite southern hemisphere super rugby competition. the suburban rugby competition is the shute shield which provides many super 15 players. high profile wallabies games are held in sydney such as the bledisloe cup, tri nations matches, british and irish lions games, and most notably the final of the 2003 rugby world cup against england. cricket is the most popular summer sport in sydney. the ashes series between australia and england is widely popular among the people. as the state capital, sydney is also the home of the nsw blues cricket team in the sheffield shield cricket competition. sydney cricket ground and anz stadium host cricket matches. the city has also hosted games in the 1992 cricket world cup and will also host games in the 2015 cricket world cup. the sydney cricket ground is at present the only test venue in the city. plans are going on to accommodate anz stadium as an international cricket venue for australia. soccer is represented by sydney fc and western sydney wanderers fc of the a - league. the second tier competitions nswpl and nsw super league provide many players to the a - league. sydney also hosts major soccer events of the national team, the socceroos, most notably the world cup qualifier against uruguay in 2005. australian rules football is considerably less popular in sydney than in many other regions of australia. the sport ' s premier competition, the australian football league, includes two teams based in sydney — the sydney swans and the greater western sydney giants. the city also has a number of teams in the state ' s second tier competition, the north east australian football league. the city plays host to the australian drag racing nationals each year at sydney dragway. other events in sydney include the start of the sydney to hobart yacht race, the golden slipper horse race, and the city2urf race. sydney has two main daily newspapers. the sydney morning herald is the oldest extant newspaper in australia, having been published regularly since 1831. the herald ' s competitor, the daily telegraph, is a news corporation - owned tabloid. both papers have tabloid counterparts published on sunday, the sun - herald and the sunday telegraph,


the oldest extant newspaper in australia, having been published regularly since 1831. the herald ' s competitor, the daily telegraph, is a news corporation - owned tabloid. both papers have tabloid counterparts published on sunday, the sun - herald and the sunday telegraph, respectively. the three commercial television networks ( seven, nine, ten ), as well as the government national broadcast services ( abc and sbs ) are headquartered in sydney. also a community television station, tvs, broadcasts in the sydney area. historically, the networks have been based in the northern suburbs, but the last decade has seen several move to the inner city. nine has kept its headquarters north of the harbour, in willoughby. ten has its studios in a redeveloped section of the inner - city suburb of pyrmont, and seven also has headquarters in pyrmont, production studios at epping as well as a purpose - built news studio in martin place in the cbd. the abc has a large headquarters and production facility in the inner - city suburb of ultimo and sbs has its studios at artarmon. foxtel and optus both supply pay - tv over their cable services to most parts of the urban area, and both have their national headquarters in the northern suburb of north ryde. the five free - to - air networks have provided digital television transmissions in sydney since january 2000. there are also nine additional freeview digital services. these include abc2, abc3, abc news 24, sbs two, 7two, 7mate, go!, gem hd, one hd, eleven and tvs. many am and fm government, commercial and community radio services broadcast in the sydney area. the local abc radio station is 702 abc sydney ( formerly 2bl ). the talkback radio genre is dominated by the perennial rivals 2gb and 2ue. popular music radio stations include triple m, 2day fm and nova 96. 9, which generally target people under 40. in the older end of the music radio market, mix 106. 5 target the 25 – 54 age group, smooth 95. 3 targets the 35 - 54 age group and ws - fm targets the 40 – 54 age group with their classic hits format mostly focusing on the 70s and 80s. triple j ( abc ), 2ser and fbi radio provide a more independent, local and alternative sound. there are also a number of community stations broadcasting to a particular language group or local area. apart from the limited role of the cumberland county council from 1945 – 1964, there has never been an overall governing body


a more independent, local and alternative sound. there are also a number of community stations broadcasting to a particular language group or local area. apart from the limited role of the cumberland county council from 1945 – 1964, there has never been an overall governing body for the sydney metropolitan area ; instead, the metropolitan area is divided into local government areas ( lgas ) which are comparable to boroughs in cities such as london. these areas have elected councils which are responsible for functions delegated to them by the new south wales state government, such as planning and garbage collection. the city of sydney includes the central business area and some adjoining inner suburbs, and has in recent years been expanded through amalgamation with adjoining local government areas, such as south sydney. it is led by the elected lord mayor of sydney and a council. the lord mayor, however, is sometimes treated as a representative of the whole city, for example during the olympics. most citywide government activities are controlled by the state government. these include public transport, main roads, traffic control, policing, education above preschool level, and planning of major infrastructure projects. because a large proportion of the new south wales population lives in sydney, state governments have traditionally been reluctant to allow the development of citywide governmental bodies, which would tend to rival the state government. for this reason, sydney has always been a focus for the politics of both state and federal parliaments. for example, the boundaries of the city of sydney lga have been significantly altered by state governments on at least four occasions since 1945, with expected advantageous effect to the governing party in the new south wales parliament at the time. the classification of which councils make up sydney varies. the local government association of new south wales considers all lgas lying entirely in cumberland county as part of its ' metro ' group, which excludes camden ( classed in its ' country ' group ). the australian bureau of statistics defines a sydney statistical division ( the population figures of which are used in this article ) that includes all of the above councils as well as wollondilly, the blue mountains, hawkesbury, gosford and wyong. sydney is home to some of australia ' s most prominent educational institutions. the university of sydney, established in 1850, is australia ' s oldest university and the largest in sydney. other public universities located in sydney include the university of technology, sydney, the university of new south wales, macquarie university, the university of western sydney and the australian catholic university ( two out of six campuses ). other universities which operate secondary campuses in sydney include


public universities located in sydney include the university of technology, sydney, the university of new south wales, macquarie university, the university of western sydney and the australian catholic university ( two out of six campuses ). other universities which operate secondary campuses in sydney include the university of notre dame australia, the university of wollongong and curtin university of technology. there are four multi - campus government - funded technical and further education ( tafe ) institutes in sydney, which provide vocational training at a tertiary level : the sydney institute of technology, northern sydney institute of tafe, western sydney institute of tafe and south western sydney institute of tafe. sydney has public, denominational and independent schools. public schools, including pre - schools, primary and secondary schools, and special schools are administered by the new south wales department of education and training. there are four state - administered education areas in sydney, that together co - ordinate 919 schools. of the 30 selective high schools in the state, 25 are in sydney. health systems health services in sydney are delivered through a mix of public and private systems, funded by government ( from tax revenue ) and private health insurance. the government of new south wales, in particular the ministry of health, operates several large public hospitals in the sydney metropolitan region. management of these hospitals and other specialist health facilities is coordinated by the eight metropolitan local health districts ( lhds ). these eight lhds cover the sydney metropolitan region, and seven more cover rural and regional nsw. in addition, two specialist networks focus on children ' s and paediatric services, and forensic mental health. a third network operates across the public health services provided in three sydney facilities operated by st vincent ' s health : these include st vincent ' s hospital and the sacred heart hospice at darlinghurst and st joseph ’ s at auburn. road transport and the motor vehicle are the main form of transports. the road system consists of an extensive network of freeways and toll roads ( known as motorways ). the most important trunk roads in the metropolitan area are the nine metroads, which include the 110 km ( 68 mi ) sydney orbital network. according to the 2006 census, 85 % of households own at least one automobile at an average of 1. 5 per household and there are a total of over 2. 1 million cars in the metropolitan area. almost a third of the metropolitan area is dedicated to driving and parking. 61. 8 % of all sydneysiders travel to work as either driver or passenger with a total of over 350,


of over 2. 1 million cars in the metropolitan area. almost a third of the metropolitan area is dedicated to driving and parking. 61. 8 % of all sydneysiders travel to work as either driver or passenger with a total of over 350, 000 cars using the road infrastructure simultaneously during rush hour, causing significant traffic congestion. public transport in sydney consists of an extensive network of road transport as well as rail transport and water transport modes. according to the 2006 census, in terms of travel to work or study sydney has the highest rate of public transport usage among the australian capital cities of 26. 3 %. according to the new south wales state plan, the state has australia ' s largest public transport system. trains in sydney are run by rail corporation new south wales, a statutory authority of the state of new south wales. trains run as suburban commuter rail services in the outer suburbs, then converge in an underground city loop service in the central business district. in the years following the 2000 olympics, cityrail ' s performance declined significantly. in 2005, cityrail introduced a revised timetable and employed more drivers. a large infrastructure project, the clearways project, is scheduled to be completed by 2010. in 2007 a report found cityrail performed poorly compared to many metro services from other world cities. figures released by railcorp show that during the period of 2011 / 2012, 95. 4 % of trains arrived on time and 99. 6 % of services ran as scheduled. however, a survey conducted in september 2011 revealed that 6 of the 13 lines had a maximum load that exceeded 135 % ( of the seated capacity ) during the peak morning commute. sydney was once served by one of the largest tram networks in the world, with routes covering 181 miles, but this was closed in february 1961. sydney has one modern light rail line, metro light rail, running from central railway station to inner western suburb of lilyfield, mostly along the route of a former goods train line. a monorail, metro monorail, runs in a loop around the main shopping district and darling harbour. it will cease operations in june 2013 and be dismantled thereafter. most parts of the metropolitan area are served by buses. in the city and inner suburbs the state - owned sydney buses has a monopoly. many of sydney buses routes follow the pre - 1961 tram routes. in the outer suburbs, service is contracted to many private bus companies. sydney has two rapid bus transitways called t - ways, built in areas of the western suburbs not previously well served by public transport. state government - owned


- 1961 tram routes. in the outer suburbs, service is contracted to many private bus companies. sydney has two rapid bus transitways called t - ways, built in areas of the western suburbs not previously well served by public transport. state government - owned sydney ferries runs numerous commuter and tourist ferry services on sydney harbour and the parramatta river. a rapid transit line is currently in planning stages. sydney airport, in the suburb of mascot, is sydney ' s main airport, and is one of the oldest continually operated airports in the world. the smaller bankstown airport mainly serves private and general aviation. there is a light aviation airfield at camden. raaf base richmond lies to the north - west of the city. the question of the need for a second sydney airport has raised much controversy. a 2003 study found that sydney airport can manage as sydney ' s sole international airport for 20 years, with a significant increase in airport traffic predicted. the resulting expansion of the airport would have a substantial impact on the community, including additional aircraft noise affecting residents. land has been acquired at badgerys creek for a second airport, the site acting as a focal point of political argument. water storage and supply for sydney is managed by the sydney catchment authority, which is an agency of the nsw government that sells bulk water to sydney water and other agencies. water in the sydney catchment is chiefly stored in dams in the upper nepean scheme, the blue mountains, woronora dam, warragamba dam and the shoalhaven scheme. historically low water levels in the catchment have led to water use restrictions and the nsw government is investigating alternative water supply options, including grey water recycling and the construction of a seawater reverse osmosis desalination plant at kurnell. as of may 2009, the plant was 80 % completed, and was due to start supplying fresh water to sydney at the end of the year. in late january 2010, the nsw government announced that desalination plant was operating and people in different regions were being supplied with desalinated water. sydney water also collects the wastewater and sewage produced by the city. two distributors supply electricity to sydney : ausgrid ( previously energy australia ), and endeavour energy ( previously integral energy ). there are several retailers including truenergy, origin energy, agl energy, and others. several companies supply natural gas to sydney through retailers : agl, truenergy, origin energy and others. the natural gas supply for the city is sourced from the cooper basin in south australia. numerous telecommunications companies operate in sydney providing


, and others. several companies supply natural gas to sydney through retailers : agl, truenergy, origin energy and others. the natural gas supply for the city is sourced from the cooper basin in south australia. numerous telecommunications companies operate in sydney providing terrestrial and mobile telecommunications services. world cities rankings | | the neutrality of this article is disputed. ( june 2012 ) | sydney is classified as an alpha + world city by the globalization and world cities ( gawc ) study group, indicating its influence in the region and throughout the world, ranking among the top global cities in the world. in 2010, sydney was ranked 7th in asia and 28th globally for economic innovation in the innovation cities top 100 index by innovation agency 2thinknow. in 2013, the wealth report ranked sydney as the 7th most economically important city in the world. sydney also ranks among the top 10 most liveable cities in the world according to mercer human resource consulting, the economist and monocle and is considered among the top fashion capitals in the world. it was also ranked in the top 10 global university cities according to rmit university — which limited its selection to cities already ranked in its list of the " top 100 most liveable cities ". see also - " 3218. 0 - regional population growth, australia, 2010 - 11 ". australian bureau of statistics. 30 march 2012. retrieved 13 april 2012. - australian bureau of statistics ( 17 march 2008 ). " explore your city through the 2006 census social atlas series ". retrieved 19 may 2008. - macquarie abc dictionary. the macquarie library pty ltd. 2003. p. 1000. isbn 1 - 876429 - 37 - 2. - " designing for diversity : the multicultural city ". 1995 global cultural diversity conference proceedings, sydney. australian government department of immigration and citizenship. - > arthur phillip. " the voyage of governor phillip to botany bay ". - " geographical names register extract : sydney ( kingsford smith ) airport ". geographical names register ( gnr ) of nsw. geographical names board of new south wales. retrieved 28 september 2010. - macey, richard ( 15 september 2007 ). " settlers ' history rewritten : go back 30, 000 years ". the sydney morning herald. retrieved 15 september 2007. - city of sydney. city of sydney indigenous history of sydney cove - kohen, j. l. 2000. first and last peoples : aboriginal sydney. in j. connell ( ed. ). sydney the emergence of a global city. pp 76 – 95. oxford university press isbn 0


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as we look at the numerous graben and valleys that wind through the martian highlands, it is not always clear which geological processes created them. some valleys have very similar characteristics to those on earth carved out by the flow of surface water ; others possess a morphology where this is not so obvious. these images, acquired by the high resolution stereo camera ( hrsc ) operated by the german aerospace center ( deutsches zentrum fur luft - und raumfahrt ; dlr ) on board esa ’ s mars express spacecraft, show the upper reaches of the reull vallis region, a valley that was, at times, shaped by the flow of glacial ice. reull vallis is an outflow channel stretching over 1500 kilometres across the massifs of promethei terra, in the highlands of mars ' southern hemisphere, towards hellas planitia, an impact basin that, with a diameter of almost 2300 kilometres, is the largest impact structure on our planetary neighbour. the high resolution stereo camera ( hrsc ) on mars express has been used numerous times to acquire images of reull vallis and the surrounding mountains ( see images published on 8 december 2004 ). the images of the upper reaches of reull vallis shown here were acquired on 14 may 2012, during orbit 10, 657, from an altitude of around 320 kilometres. they show details down to a size of 16 metres. the centre of the image is at 41 degrees south and 107 degrees east. the region shown here is around 15, 000 square kilometres in size, and covers an area of 180 by 80 kilometres. using stereoscopic hrsc image data, from which digital terrain models can be derived, the topography of the surroundings of reull vallis and the profile of the graben - shaped valley can be deduced. over one 80 - kilometre stretch, the valley has a continuous width of around seven kilometres and is bound by steep, sharply contoured walls around 300 metres high. the box - shaped profile of reull vallis is conspicuous, very different from the familiar v - or u - shaped valleys here on earth. material from the surroundings transported into the valley by ice the bottom of reull vallis is covered with deposits, on the surface of which is an eye - catching pattern indicating the flow of the material and mostly running parallel to the edges of the valley, although in some places structures intertwined like braided hair are visible. this pattern was probably created by the flow of ice – a glacier on the surface of which a large volume of rubble and


material and mostly running parallel to the edges of the valley, although in some places structures intertwined like braided hair are visible. this pattern was probably created by the flow of ice – a glacier on the surface of which a large volume of rubble and boulders has been transported down into the valley. on earth, we see comparable phenomena known as rock glaciers in the alpine and polar regions. in these, the glacial ice is completely covered by boulders that have slid onto the ice from the valley walls. similar structures to those in the reull valley are also found in the material filling nearby impact craters. this can be seen particularly well in two small craters northwest of the valley ( upper right in the vertical overhead views and in one of the perspective views ). the rocks certainly prevented the underlying ice from melting and – in the chilly temperatures prevalent on mars – from sublimating ( transitioning directly from a solid to a gaseous state ) for much longer. however, at these ' temperate ' martian latitudes, there is a strong possibility that there is no longer any ice left under the sediments deposited by the glacier. terraces indicate an earlier water level in the sediments coming in from the north ( right in the overhead view ), a tributary valley flows into the main channel of reull vallis. looking at the local environment in the topographical map, it can be seen that a side arm branches off further up the valley. here, about 100 kilometres further southeast, it rejoins the main valley. to the north of reull vallis ( in the right half of the overhead views ), several of promethei terra ' s two to three thousand metre high massifs can be seen as well. their somewhat smooth morphology indicates that erosion processes have been at work here for some time. contours of extensive layers with tongue - shaped edges and occasionally smooth surfaces can be seen between the mountains ; in some places they also have a pattern that follows the topography of their surroundings, as in the craters. these might also be sediments left behind by glacial ice. however, the smooth - surfaced layers could also be volcanic deposits. fairly evidently, a large volume of material have been carried away from the flanks of the mountains and transported into lower - lying regions, where it has tended to accumulate in impact craters. also, the streaked pattern of the deposits in this crater that follows the circular crater rim is highly reminiscent of structures formed by glaciers on earth. stepped terraces on the inner walls of the craters could indicate the presence of a higher level of glacial ice covered by rubble and


the streaked pattern of the deposits in this crater that follows the circular crater rim is highly reminiscent of structures formed by glaciers on earth. stepped terraces on the inner walls of the craters could indicate the presence of a higher level of glacial ice covered by rubble and boulders, and that only when the ice and melt water disappeared did the sedimentary layer sink to where it is today. image processing and the hrsc experiment on mars express the colour plan view ( 3 / 6 ) was acquired using the nadir channel, which is directed vertically down onto the surface of mars, and the colour channels of the hrsc ; the perspective oblique views ( 1 / 6 and 2 / 6 ) were computed from data acquired by the hrsc stereo channels. the anaglyph image ( 5 / 6 ), which creates a three - dimensional impression of the landscape when viewed with red / blue or red / green glasses, was derived from the nadir channel and one stereo channel. the colour - coded view ( 6 / 6 ) is based on a digital terrain model of the region, from which the topography of the landscape can be derived. the hrsc camera experiment on board the european space agency ' s mars express mission is headed by principal investigator ( pi ) professor gerhard neukum ( freie universitat berlin ), who was also responsible for the technical design of the camera. the science team consists of 45 co - investigators from 32 institutions in 10 nations. the camera was developed at dlr under the leadership of the pi and it was built in cooperation with industrial partners eads astrium, lewicki microelectronic gmbh and jena - optronik gmbh. the instrument is operated by the dlr institute of planetary research in berlin - adlershof. the systematic processing of the hrsc image data is carried out at dlr. the images shown here were created by the institute of geological sciences at freie universitat berlin in cooperation with the dlr institute of planetary research, berlin.


he story of the first hristmas shared by : danman21! the son of god became one of us the story of the first christmas _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ the story of the first christmas this powerpoint presentation, intended for primary school children, tries to inspire a childlike awe and wonder for the incarnation of jesus christ. the story is based the gospels of luke and matthew. narrators : narrator 1 : story teller narrator 2 : story teller narrator 3 : god, gabriel, roman soldier, inn keeper and angel. mary joseph slide 1 : notes click ( notes disappear ) slide 2 : cover slide - the son of god becomes one of us! click ( intro slide and background music for introducing the theme. magi appear ) slide 3 : title of the presentation click - ( music. a book appears, it opens and the first page turns over ) nar 1 : once upon a time, about two thousand years ago, there was a small town called nazareth. in this town lived a young girl, whose name was mary. slide 4 : mary and joseph click - ( birds chirping. ) nar 2 : this is nazareth, a small and simple town in galilee. galilee is part of the northern territories in israel, the kingdom of god ’ s people. the messiah was to be born from this nation. click - ( mary appears. ) nar 1 : mary might have lived together with her parents in a house just like this one. mary was engaged to a man called joseph. click - ( joseph enters ) nar 2 : mary loved joseph very much. joseph was a carpenter and worked in nazareth. he was a good man. he loved mary and took great care of her. both of them had been waiting for the messiah. god ’ s chosen nation has long waited and prayed for the coming of the messiah who would be a saviour to all. this was promised by god himself. however, this promise was made long time ago. slide 5 : god commissions archangel gabriel with a message click - ( music. heaven and the trinity ) 1.! the son of god became one of us the story of the first christmas _ _ _ _ _


this promise was made long time ago. slide 5 : god commissions archangel gabriel with a message click - ( music. heaven and the trinity ) 1.! the son of god became one of us the story of the first christmas _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ nar 1 : god, in all his wisdom, was waiting for the appropriate time to send the long awaited messiah. he would be his own only son – the only son of the living god! wow! at the right time god sends for his messenger archangel gabriel. click - ( archangel gabriel appears ) nar 2 : god said to gabriel : nar 3 : “ i need you to take a most important message to a young lady named mary who lives in israel in a small town called nazareth, nar 1 : god asked him to bring back mary ’ s reply. click - ( the archangel departs. wait until the music ends. ) slide 6 : the annunciation click - ( mary is praying ) nar 2 : mary really loved her god. she led a good life, loving everybody and praying daily. she prayed during the day … click - ( gets dark ) nar 2 :... and at night, whenever she could find time. mary did not know that on that particular night, something very special was about to happen. sometimes very special things happen during prayer. click - ( music, the archangel appears ) nar 1 : a radiant angel appeared in front if her. she is so overwhelmed with awe that she was speechless. she felt afraid, even though the angel smiled at her and said to her in a reassuring way : click - ( the archangel stretches out his hands ) nar 3 : “ hail mary, you are full of grace and the lord is with you. do not be afraid! i am angel gabriel. god is very pleased with you. you will give birth to a child and you will name him jesus. he will be great, and will be called the son of the most high, and the lord god will give to him the throne of king david. his kingdom will have no end. " nar 2 : after reassuring herself that this was not a dream, mary said to


and will be called the son of the most high, and the lord god will give to him the throne of king david. his kingdom will have no end. " nar 2 : after reassuring herself that this was not a dream, mary said to the angel : mary : “ how can this be since i am not yet married to joseph? ” click - ( light shines from above ) nar 1 : the archangel replies : nar 3 : “ the holy spirit will come upon you and the power of the most high will overshadow you. therefore the child to be born will be holy and he will be called son of god. ” click - ( mary bows down ) 2.! the son of god became one of us the story of the first christmas _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ nar 1 : and mary bows down and replies : mary : “ here am i, the servant of the lord ; let it happen to me according to your word. ” click - ( light overshadows mary ) click - ( the archangel departs. wait for music to finish ) slide 7 : the census click - ( the sound of chirping. mary and joseph ) nar 2 : joseph had a dream in which the angel told him that mary ’ s baby was to be the one spoken of by the prophets. so joseph married mary. months passed and soon the time for the baby to be born was very close. before this time, however, something unexpected happend. click - ( drum roll ; a roman soldier appears. ) nar 1 : the romans ruled the known world of the time. this included israel, the land where joseph and mary lived. a roman soldier cames to nazareth, with a message from the emperor. he said : click - ( the soldier raises his hand. ) nar 3 : “ the emperor wants to know the number of people in his whole empire. he orders everyone to register his or her name in the town of birth. “ slide 8 : leaving for bethlehem click - ( mary. start reading as joseph appears ) nar 1 : since joseph was from a town called bethlehem which was far away from nazareth, they had to set


or her name in the town of birth. “ slide 8 : leaving for bethlehem click - ( mary. start reading as joseph appears ) nar 1 : since joseph was from a town called bethlehem which was far away from nazareth, they had to set out on a long and difficult journey that would take many days. click - ( joseph enters with a donkey ) nar 2 : joseph got the donkey ready click - ( mary climbs on to the donkey ) nar 1 : and helped mary on to it. click - ( joseph and mary move on ) nar 2 : and off they went slide 9 : the journey click - ( the wind howls. the holy family enters and keeps on moving. read as the howling stops. ) nar 1 : the journey from nazareth to bethlehem was long and difficult. mary was worried because she did not want to hurt her baby or herself. joseph got very tired because he walked for the entire journey. at last they arrived in bethlehem - the same town where the famous king david was born. 3.! the son of god became one of us the story of the first christmas _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ slide 10 : arrival at bethlehem click - ( sound of a cricket. the holy family enters and stops. ) nar 2 : it was evening when they arrived and it was nearly dark. click - ( the family moves on. read while they are still walking ) nar 1 : here mary and joseph looked for a place to spend the night. slide 11 : the search for an inn click - ( an inn – the holy family enters the scene. ) nar 2 : although bethlehem was a small town, at that time there were lots of people there because of the census which the emperor had ordered. joseph and mary could not find a room because the inns are full. slide 12 : mary and joseph talk to an innkeeper click - ( sound of a cricket and joseph enters. ) nar 1 : joseph did not give up and kept looking for a place. click - ( joseph knocks and moves back – a door is opened ) nar 2 : the inner owner asks nar 3 : “ welcome my friend, you seem to