), then turns the computer off. a type of windows registry entry that contains a number of other registry entries. the first page you see when you open internet explorer. you should set your home page to one of your favorite web sites. windows 7 computers use homegroups to simplify networking. a keyboard shortcut that opens an application or performs a specific task. a common connection point for devices in a network. a small picture that represents an object or program. a form of backup that makes a copy of all the information on a drive, including programs, data, and custom settings. the blinking icon that appears on your computer screen at the location where characters you type appear ; also called a cursor. a company that provides access to the internet. an identifier for a computer or device on a tcp / ip network. the device you type on ; it ’ s the primary way you communicate with the computer, with input. the microsoft online help tool that contains information regarding windows problems and errors a portable computer. libraries enable you to group related folders and files together. windows 7 has four default libraries : documents, music, pictures, and videos. when burning cds and dvds, this file system allows you to add and remove files as if the disc were another hard drive. a computer network that spans a relatively small area. most lans are confined to a single building or group of buildings. the command on the shutdown menu that suspends computer operations and presents the login screen, but without actually logging off. a state in which your pc does not respond to keyboard or mouse commands ; also called frozen. to identify yourself on a computer by entering a user name and password. to tell windows that you ’ re done using the computer without actually turning off the computer ; you must log in to use it again. to identify yourself on a computer by entering a user name and password. to tell windows that you ’ re done using the computer without actually turning off the computer ; you must log in to use it again. short for media access control address, a hardware address that uniquely identifies each node of a network. a type of application that is designed to cause problems ( such as file corruption and stealing personal information ) to computer systems. digital information " cards " you send to trusted web sites ; they contain all the credit card and other personal identity information that you supply them in the course of doing business. when burning cds and dvds, this setting allows the disc to be read by most computers and players, but it does restrict


trusted web sites ; they contain all the credit card and other personal identity information that you supply them in the course of doing business. when burning cds and dvds, this setting allows the disc to be read by most computers and players, but it does restrict you to only adding files one time. the portion of the hard drive that contains the operating system. a piece of hardware used for making your media libraries accessible to non - computers on your home network, such as xbox 360 and smartmedia televisions. a windows tool that lets you set up networks on the fly without a hub or a router by skipping among wireless cards. temporary computer information storage which is emptied when you turn off the computer ; also called ram. the term " memory " also refers to the physical chips capable of holding data. a full - featured instant messaging tool — now a part of the windows live essentials pack — that works with any version of windows as well as yahoo! messenger. a microsoft - proprietary web archive file format. the mobility center contains all the main laptop settings : adjusting brightness, changing the sound volume, saving battery power, connecting to wireless networks, and setting up external displays or projectors. modem is a contraction of modulator - demodulator. a device that converts digital data from a computer into analog data for transmission over telephone lines by modulating it into waves. at the other end, a modem converts the analog data back into digital form by demodulating it. cable modems also convert data but that information may stay in digital form. to change the location of a file, deleting the file from its original location. microsoft ' s video - editing tool, which is now a part of the windows live essentials pack. a pane in windows 7 that contains your most frequently used items. the top portion is favorite links ; the bottom part is folders. an ultralight laptop built for on - the - road internet access and word processing. a group of two or more computer systems linked together. components of a network include a networking adapter, cables, and a hub. the window from which you control most of your network settings. on the windows 7 desktop, the collection of icons down near the clock. the keypad that allows you to type numbers when the num lock key is on. the windows system uses a paging volume to expand the ram and increase performance. let you dictate what a person can and can ’ t do on the internet. a drive partition is a way that windows virtually separates


is visible in a photo when, instead of seeing a black pupil, the camera catches the blood - red retina in the back of the eye. a file that contains a backup of windows registry entries a windows tool that allows you to manually modify the windows registry. a windows tool that you can use to allow a user on another computer to have access your computer so that they can help you correct errors. software within windows that lets you access a pc from a remote location. storage media, such as a cd, dvd, or flash drive, that can be taken away from your pc. when pressing a keyboard key, this is the pause before the key repeats itself on - screen. when pressing a keyboard key, this is the speed at which the key ’ s character ( or function ) repeats. a windows 7 tool that tracks how all your system ' s components are being used, focusing primarily on the ram and processor. a snapshot of your hard drive ’ s important settings that can be used for a system restore. to copy music from a cd to your pc. this is often accomplished using windows media player. entries in the windows registry. automatically updated content that can be viewed with an rss feed reader. a way of entering windows, primarily for diagnostics and repairs, that bypasses many of the drivers that can cause windows failures. serial advanced technology attachment : a storage technology that tends to run faster and cooler with simpler connections. a tab - based interface for microsoft - based applications, such as wordpad, that contains all the primary commands. signifies the number of dots ( pixels ) on the entire screen. a program that searches documents or the internet for specified keywords and returns a list of the documents or web pages where the keywords were found. lists windows 7 ’ s four main security defenses, tells you whether they ’ re activated, and provides handy on switches to activate any that may be turned off. a 32 - character unique identifier attached to the header of packets sent over a network that acts as a password when a mobile device tries to connect the network. a type of backup file that automatically saves all previous versions of files. an icon push button, typically placed on your desktop, that allows you to quickly access a program, file, or folder. a topic - specific pop - up menu that appears when you right - click an item. the command on the shutdown menu that powers off the computer. an area along the side of your screen that displays gadgets. these gadgets tell you the time, show pictures


pop - up menu that appears when you right - click an item. the command on the shutdown menu that powers off the computer. an area along the side of your screen that displays gadgets. these gadgets tell you the time, show pictures, convert money, and feed you the news, among other things. a visual interface applied to windows media player. the command on the shutdown menu that places the computer into a special, power - saving mode. windows ' built - in tool for creating screen shots. a tool within windows defender that can be used to control which applications run during the windows start up process. any unsolicited e - mail. any software that covertly gathers user information through the user ’ s internet connection without his or her knowledge, usually for advertising purposes. the typical user account that is managed by an administrator. the button in the lower - left corner of the windows desktop. by clicking the start button, you access the start menu to start programs, adjust windows settings, find help, and shut down your computer, among other things. allows you to start programs, adjust windows ' settings, find help, and shut down your computer, among other things. a windows 7 accessory that enables you to leave the electronic equivalent of good old - fashioned post - it notes all over your windows 7 desktop superfetch keeps track of which applications are being used the most on your computer and tries to pre - load those applications so they ’ re available before you need them. in networks, a device that filters and forwards packets between network segments. the command on the shutdown menu that allows another user on the same computer to access his or her account without logging off from your own account. a full - featured folder synchronizer that is included in the windows live essentials pack. to coordinate a single set of data between two or more devices, automatically copying changes back and forth. a backup file created using backup and recovery that can be used to restore the system to exactly the same as it was at the time the image was create — including programs, updates, drivers, and data. a disc you create that contains all the information your pc needs to boot to the system recovery screen, enabling you to access repair tools. uses restore points to return your pc to a point where it works properly. part of a file ' s metadata in which you can give a file a reference name that can be used by windows 7 and other programs to sort and retrieve files. windows tool for keeping track of the programs and processes that are


where it works properly. part of a file ' s metadata in which you can give a file a reference name that can be used by windows 7 and other programs to sort and retrieve files. windows tool for keeping track of the programs and processes that are currently running. a windows 7 theme controls all aspects of the visual workspace — wallpaper ( desktop background ), colors, icons, screen saver, mouse pointers, even custom sounds. another name for a flash drive, because many flash drives are about the size of a human thumb. the thick blue bar that runs across the top of a window. how movie clips are joined together. a power strip combined with a battery to keep your computer running when the power goes out. a computer connection that you can use to attach many different kinds of devices and peripherals to a computer. an account that every 7 user must have on a given pc. the account defines the user ’ s privileges and allows the user to customize items, such as the desktop and file settings. a windows safety option that protects you from accidentally making changes to your system that could have a negative effect on system performance or stability. the name of your user account. a file that contains a person ' s personal contact information that can be sent to others via e - mail. a software creation that acts and operates like a separate computer within the primary computer. the portion of your hard drive that windows uses to expand the available ram. vpns are sophisticated encrypted networks that are far more secure than your average wireless connection. a program or piece of code that is loaded onto your computer without your knowledge and runs against your wishes. microsoft ' s assessment tool that analyses the hardware on your pc and determines how efficiently your system will be able to handle windows 7. windows ' limited outbound firewall interface. microsoft ' s software package that can be installed on a home computer or hard drive and that manages your home network for you. a group of applications that microsoft created to go with windows 7, including mail, messenger, photo gallery, and movie maker — along with seven new applications. microsoft ' s full - featured free e - mail service — now a part of the windows live essentials pack. software that lets you collect, play, and share your music. software that lets you import your video and photos, edit them into a movie, and save your creation to your pc, a dvd, or a cd. software that lets you easily sort through your photos by clicking different words, dates, and ratings listed on the


2010 is the european year of combating poverty and social inclusion. you can take part in this! almost 80 million europeans live at risk of poverty, which means they face insecurity, and go without what most people often take for granted. living in poverty may result in a variety of problems, from not having enough money to spend on food and clothes to suffering poor housing conditions and even homelessness. poverty also means having to cope with limited lifestyle choices that may lead to social exclusion. inspired by its founding principle of solidarity, the european union has joined forces with its member states to make 2010 the european year for combating poverty and social exclusion. the key objectives are to raise public awareness about these issues and renew the political commitment of the eu and its member states to combat poverty and social exclusion. the guiding principle of the 2010 year is to give voice to the concerns of people who have to live with poverty and social exclusion, and to inspire every european citizen and other stakeholders to engage with these important issues. this year also aims to challenge stereotypes and collective perceptions of poverty. by harnessing the eu´s principles of solidarity and partnership, 2010 represents a clarion call to tackle the causes of poverty head - on in a bid to ensure everyone can play a full and active role in society. civil society organisations and social partners will join participating countries and the european commission to run a series of activities throughout 2010. two european - level conferences will take place in january and december ; an art initiative will build a bridge between people experiencing poverty and social exclusion and the creative world ; while special training days will give the media and decision - makers fresh insight into these complex subjects. national and local events will take place in every eu member state, plus norway and iceland. activities will include awareness raising campaigns, workshops and information seminars in schools. films, magazines and other information material will be produced to help people understand how poverty and social exclusion affect their communities, and for those directly affected, increase awareness of their rights. along with public figures, people who have experienced poverty will act as campaign ambassadors, which will help to raise visibility and credibility for the year´s activities and invite others to get involved.


news » books / manuscript great written works from authors such as shakespeare and jane austen that you ' ll never have a chance to read by megan gambino september 20, 2011 while not directly related to the early music field, some of this information may add to historical facts helping us better understand historical incidents influencing such era in music. read of 10 authors and mishaps to some of their works. - - earlymusicnews. org editor improvisation in western music of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries edited by rudolf rasch pages : 14 + 768 format : 17 x 24 - bound from muziekhandel saul b. groen, many new titles available on their catalogues : music & literature july - september 2011 nb : in each section the music has been listed in chronological order kerll, j. c. 11 organ works from the neresheim organ book, c. 1670, wrongly attributed to j. c. kerll and 2 pieces by by j. b. moggi and l. haydt fasolo, g. b. " annuale ", 1645 : 56 organ works : hymns, masses, magnificats, ricercars, canzonas, fugues ; complete edition ; set of 5 volumes lubeck, v. complete organ works ; ed. harald vogel … ( us ) opera today : " goehring : three modes of perception in mozart — the philosophical, pastoral, and comic in cosi fan tutte " ( book review by dr. brad eden, university of nevada, las vegas ) “ balbi and his time ” by alberto da ros and stefano lorenzetti with a foreword by giulio cattin edition : lucca, lim, 2011 ( biblioteca musicale lim - saggi ) pages : 19 + 87 format : 14 x 21 - paperback paolo da col ai confini della serenissima ludovico balbi ‘ magister musicae ’ nel veneto del secondo cinquecento l ’ eredita musicale di costanzo porta nelle composizioni di ludovico balbi il manoscritto di feltre ( de ) " bach and the “ snake - fire - sprayers ” - fire - fighting regulations and equipment during bach ’ s time in leipzig " “ one might rightfully ask how this topic will enhance our understanding of bach ’ s life and music. for this i do not have a reasonable answer. perhaps this topic was selected


fire - fighting regulations and equipment during bach ’ s time in leipzig " “ one might rightfully ask how this topic will enhance our understanding of bach ’ s life and music. for this i do not have a reasonable answer. perhaps this topic was selected out of frustration that other digitized scholarly sources like the 1733 revision of the schulordnung for the leipzig thomasschule are not available online. ( it ) recently published at lim editrice srl, " pianoforte, organo e attivita musicale in italia nel xix e xx secolo " ( piano, organ and musical activities in italy in the nineteenth and twentieth century ) edition : lucca, lim, 2011 ( music library lim - wise ) pages : 20 + 440 format : 17 x 24 - paperback brought to our attention on the “ society for the study of early modern women ( ssemw ) ” mailing list, the following books have been published on the subject of women ’ s work in the arts : labors lost : women ' s work and the early modern english stage ( university of pennsylvania press ), examines women ' s unacknowledged contributions to theatrical production in shakespeare ' s time. working subjects in early modern english drama ( ashgate press ), is an essay collection co - edited with michelle m. dowd, and includes a number of essays that focus on gender and women ' s work. ashgate press offers a 20 % discount to ssemw members. not yet published - available from february 2012 edited by : kate flint, rutgers university, new jersey series : the new cambridge history of english literature “ this collaborative history aims to become the standard work on victorian literature for the twenty - first century. well - known scholars introduce readers to their particular fields, discuss influential critical debates and offer illuminating contextual detail to situate authors and works in their wider cultural and historical contexts. annual periodical of the “ socita italian di musicolgia ” marco gozzi, director edition : lucca, lim, 2011 ( rivista italiana di musicologia, 46 ) pages : 340 + ( edited by michael kassler, michael kassler and associates, australia ) published : august 2011 “ in contrast to today ' s music industry, whose principal products are recorded songs sold to customers round the world, the music trade in georgian england was based upon london firms that published and sold printed music and manufactured and sold instruments on which this music could be played. the destruction of business records and other primary sources has hampered investigation of this trade


customers round the world, the music trade in georgian england was based upon london firms that published and sold printed music and manufactured and sold instruments on which this music could be played. the destruction of business records and other primary sources has hampered investigation of this trade, but recent research into legal proceedings, apprenticeship registers, surviving correspondence and other archived documentation has enabled aspects of its workings to be reconstructed. ( us ) new from oxford university press : " dividing the spoils the war for alexander the great ’ s empire " ( author : robin waterfield ) a gripping account of one of the great forgotten wars of history hardback, may 2011, 304 pp. list price : $ 27. 95 “ alexander the great conquered an enormous empire — stretching from greece to the indian subcontinent — and his death triggered forty bloody years of world - changing warfare. these were years filled with high adventure, intrigue, passion, assassinations, dynastic marriages, treachery, shifting alliances, and mass slaughter on battlefield after battlefield. and while the men fought on the field, the women, such as alexander ’ s mother olympias, schemed from their palaces and pavilions. … ( us ) oxford bibliographies online " new publishing opportunity for doctoral students at the dissertation level " catalan organ music from the xviith century from the trito catalogue. ( au ) " giovanni antonio terzi and the lute intabulations of late sixteenth - century italy " ( doctoral thesis author : suzanne e. court, 2010 ) new additions to the symetrie catalogue : “ french society of musicology : scores of esther and athalie ” penultimate tragedy of racine, esther was written for the “ demoiselles ” of the royal house of saint - cyr, founded at the initiative of madame de maintenon, wife of louis xiv. it opened in this institution a short - lived tradition of theater with musical interludes. the music involves a three - part instrumental ensemble ( prelude, overture, interlude ), a choir of girls from esther ’ s retinue, solos and vocal ensembles. this edition displays for the first time the declaimed text, preserved in old spelling, and the entire music drawn up from sources contemporary with the creation of the work. full score ( foreword in french and english, 12 fac - siimiles ) from the recently published a - r editions spring “ embellishments ” newsletter, a list of recent and forthcoming publications. ( fr ) new publication of the french society of musicology : " catalogue


english, 12 fac - siimiles ) from the recently published a - r editions spring “ embellishments ” newsletter, a list of recent and forthcoming publications. ( fr ) new publication of the french society of musicology : " catalogue du motet imprime en france ( 1647 - 1789 ) " ( de ) recently published : " the schwerin lute book ", " johann sebastian bach : sonata in c and partita in d " ( tree edition ) new items published by tree edition july 2011 the schwerin lute book ( schwerin ms mus 641 ) this manuscript contains 86 pieces for baroque lute and is the main source for the music of the paris master germain pinel of whom we find many unica in this handwritten lute book. other composers include dufaut, denis & ennemond gaultier, strobel, dubut, gumprecht and mercure. the edition comes in two volumes and contains a complete reprodution of the manuscript as well as a large essay ( in german ) on this source and full index and concordances by francois - pierre goy. 2 volumes / french tablature / baroque tuning - graham pont reminiscences of « rinaldo » : the keyboard transcriptions of « vo ’ far guerra » - fabrizio ammetto analisis tecnico - instrumental y de la praxis ejecutiva en los conciertos para dos violines de vivaldi - renato ricco la produzione violinistica di giuseppe paolo ghebart may be of interest to some. ( ed. ) “ in october 1998 a rather battered manuscript was put up for auction at christie ’ s in new york. it appeared to be a byzantine prayer - book from the thirteenth century but those taking part in the bidding knew that it contained an important secret.


in a recent breakthrough, researchers at the massachusetts institute of technology ( mit ) have made great strides into what could be the future of solar power. their methods have replicated a process from the natural world that is so basic and universal as to almost beg the question why someone didn ’ t come up with it before. that process is photosynthesis. it is how all plants derive energy from sunlight. the scientists captured an essential element of the photosynthesis process, simply called ps - i, and combined it with other “ designer ” chemicals to construct a solar cell. however, it was not a “ simple ” matter of harnessing photosynthesis. the scientists also used sophisticated nanotechnology to improve the performance of their cells. by mounting the cells on an array of nanocrystals and nanowires, they increased the surface area and exposure of their cells to sunlight. to be fair, this is not the first attempt at so - called biophotovoltaics. however, with their innovative materials, geometry and design, the scientists claim to have solved problems with previous experiments that made them cumbersome and expensive. they assert their methods led to a simple device of “ unprecedented performance. ” more specifically, they calculate the output of their cells to be more than 10, 000 times greater than that of any other plant - based cell previously constructed. like most scientific breakthroughs, the promise of its usefulness far exceeds any practical use at this stage. in other words, it will be years before plant - based cells start popping up, or growing for that matter, on rooftops across american suburbia. but one of the great things about renewable power and science in general is to constantly challenge accepted notions of what and how things can be done. the scientists note that ps - i, which is the “ central molecule ” in photosynthesis, is an abundant raw material that promises “ ultra - low - cost ” solar cells. it could be a boon for the solar industry, which has always been challenged by its high upfront costs. the scientists noted that these cells could be constructed from abundant sources, such as discarded clippings from agriculture and timber operations. the results of this experiment were included in the february 2012 issue of scientific reports.


targeting accident prevention : scaffolds are a common source of accidents in electrical construction ; in south carolina, a 34 - year - old electrician fell 12 feet to his death from a mobile scaffold. the circumstances in the case illustrate the purpose for a number of occupational safety and health administration ( osha ) scaffolding requirements and demonstrate that employers must focus their safety efforts on specific hazards facing their employees. the company had been contracted to install the electrical system for a new shopping mall complex under construction. the company, which was in business for 70 years, had been on - site for four months. at the job site in question, there were 17 workers, including electricians, helpers, supervisors and the job site superintendent. each new hire received a handbook containing the safety rules of the company. weekly safety meetings were conducted on - site by the job superintendent, who is responsible for safety. at the time of the accident, the electrician ( the victim ) and a helper were installing conduit into the structure ’ s ceiling directly below the steel - beam framework. the ½ - inch conduit would encase the conductors for the lighting system of the structure. the scaffold used to access the area was a mobile, three - tiered, aluminum - tubular frame. each tier measured 4 feet wide by 8 feet long by 6 feet high. work began at 7 a. m. and about an hour later, the two men needed to move the scaffold to access the next section to be worked on. the top tiers were removed, the bottom tier was moved across the concrete floor to the new work area. the scaffold ’ s outriggers were put in place and the casters were locked once the scaffold was in position. the second tier and the bottom section of the third tier were put in place. the victim then began to move the floorboards, measuring 2 inches by 8 inches by 8 feet, from the second to the third tier. the helper went to retrieve a remaining side section for the third tier. when the helper returned, he found the victim lying facedown on the concrete floor. the electrician was bleeding from the mouth and nose. the emergency medical services ( ems ) were called by the site superintendent. five minutes after the accident occurred, the victim stopped breathing and had no detectable vital signs. coworkers began cardiopulmonary resuscitation ( cpr ). fifteen minutes after being called, ems arrived and transported


superintendent. five minutes after the accident occurred, the victim stopped breathing and had no detectable vital signs. coworkers began cardiopulmonary resuscitation ( cpr ). fifteen minutes after being called, ems arrived and transported the victim to the hospital. he was pronounced dead by the attending doctor. the cause of death was found to be head trauma. based on an analysis of the accident by the national institute of occupational safety and health ( niosh ), the employer should have : - provided required personal protective equipment to employees and ensured it was used - provided safety training to all new employees - periodically observed the working habits of new employees to ensure they were accomplishing their assigned tasks in a safe manner. in terms of the osha regulations on scaffolding, the recommendations can be translated as follows. part 1926. 451 ( g ) ( 1 ) requires employees on a “ scaffold more than 10 feet ( 3. 1 m ) above a lower level shall be protected from falling to that lower level. ” osha realizes that this is not always feasible during erection and dismantling of a scaffold. however, it is the employers ’ responsibility to determine if safe access and fall protection can be provided at each stage and, if so, comply with the requirement. it is also necessary to have a competent person, with the appropriate knowledge and experience present to make this determination. there are several osha regulations dealing with safety training for working on and around scaffolds. the main point is that scaffolds should only be erected, moved and dismantled by trained and competent individuals [ 1926. 451 ( f ) ( 7 ) and 1926. 454 ( b ) ]. competent means that they not only have the skills, but also the authority to act on hazards that are present. also included in these regulations is the statement that if an employer believes an employee doesn ’ t have the skill or understanding to use, erect or dismantle a scaffold, the employer needs to retrain this employee so that the needed skill is achieved. this concept addresses the recommendation from niosh that employers should periodically observe working habits to ensure that the employees are performing their assigned tasks in a safe manner. without these observations, one cannot determine their skills. what the regulations seem to point out, which is vaguely addressed in niosh ’ s recommendations, is that employers must provide safety training for the issues at hand. this employer seemed to address safety. there were weekly meetings and a person on - site responsible for safety


new york city ' s sewage treatment plants will now be in the business of harvesting and selling renewable energy. heating fuel will be extracted from sludge, butanol ( a gasoline alternative ) extracted from the algae that grows in wastewater and, of course, methane gas will be captured from sewage plants ' digesters. the city ' s residents create 1. 3 billion gallons of wastewater daily, which results in a daily yield of 1, 200 tons of sludge being sent to landfills. the city is looking for vendors to turn that sludge into renewable energy, fertilizer, and paving and building materials. city officials plan to have contracts by 2013. the city sewage plants already use half of the methane produced by the digesters to provide about 20 percent of the electricity used by the plants, but now they ' ll be putting the rest on the market. the newtown creek wastewater plant in brooklyn already has a contract in the works with national grid that will provide enough methane gas to heat 2, 500 homes. the city is also looking to build solar and wind installations at its wastewater treatment plants on staten island. via ny times written by asaf shalgi, february 12, 2011 written by david guion, april 26, 2011 | < prev | | next > |


cyclopædia of political science, political economy, and the political history of the united states circulation of wealth. the word circulation ( of wealth ) is one of those politico - economical terms which has been most misused. the framers of systems have often employed it to build upon the data which it expresses airy castles in which nothing was wanting to make the world supremely happy but a basis on which the structure might rest. but the circulation of wealth is none the less an important fact well worthy of being observed, and one which has not been studied, perhaps, as much as it deserves. if utopists, while mistaking its law, have too often exaggerated its importance, this is no reason for extimating it below its real significance. — the circulation of wealth, says j. b. say, " is the passage of a thing having value from one hand to another. " — the passage merchandise from one hand to another is the first elementary fact which constitutes, by its repetition, the general phenomenon of the circulation of wealth. but it is necessary to give circulation a broader sense, and j b say himself, in the sentence which immediately follows that which we have just quoted, gives it a broader one. he says : " every article of merchandise is in circulation when it is ready to pass into another hand, that is to say, when it is offered for sale. " it is evidence that here circulation means not merely the passage of merchandise from one hand to another, but the general movement of goods or values. it is even more than this ; it is the readiness of merchandise to be moved. mr. fr. skarbek, who has treated this subject at much length and with care in his theory of social wealth, understands by circulation the general movement of wealth passing from one hand to another ; but he adds that it is less the movement of things than the movement of values. — circulation, he says, is not a movement of the mass but a movement of the value of things ; just as production is not a creation of things but a creation of values. things which have value may undergo a rapid and continuous movement without circulation taking place. a sum of money, for example, sent by mail may pass through many hands without circu7lating ; for then it is only transmitted or confided to several persons consecutively in order that it may be made to reach the one who has the right to dispose of it. the effect is the same as if the person who sends the


should its stoppage really take place for a moment, production, one of the essential conditions of which it has become, itself would stop, and society would find its very existence in peril. it is true that an absolute stoppage of circulation is almost impossible, for this reason alone, that it would be fatal ; since if any cause should tend to produce it, there would be immediately, on the part of threatened society, such a general and powerful reaction against this cause that the obstacle would recede or at least behalf removed. but if it is not to be feared that circulation will ever be stopped entirely, it may sometimes be disturbed or retarded in its course. this happens in practice almost always in consequence of civil troubles, political revolutions, foreign invasions, and all serious disorders, whatever their nature may be. at such times there is generally a twofold obstacle to the easy circulation of products, one physical, the other moral. the first arises from material disorders which prevent products from journeying peaceably toward their respective destinations ; the second, more serious and difficult to overcome, arises from the mistrust of producers toward others and the lack of credit which affects every one. in all these cases, if society does not perish it endures at least cruel suffering. production is retarded for want of nutrition ; consumption is narrowed, savings previously accumulated are consumed : in addition to the present evils endure men see the accumulated fruits of several years of labor lost in a few days. — commercial crises which so often afflict modern nations, and particularly those in which industry exhibits its greatest power, are nothing else, considered in themselves, than checks if not absolute stoppages of circulation. there may be a difference of opinion as to the causes, perhaps yet ill defined, of these calamitous accidents, but whatever their origin they have always the same character at bottom, that of retardation, more or less great, in the exchange and circulation of products. from this, and from this alone, come all the evils which these crises give birth to : so true is it that circulation is the life of modern nations. — without speaking of the accidental troubles to which circulation is sometimes subject, and which will be particularly treated under the words commercial crises, looking at it only under its ordinary conditions, in that which forms in each country its normal condition, it still gives occasion to a large number of observations full of interest. its conditions are not the same in every country ; it is more or less general, more or less


under its ordinary conditions, in that which forms in each country its normal condition, it still gives occasion to a large number of observations full of interest. its conditions are not the same in every country ; it is more or less general, more or less active according as local circumstances are more or less favorable to it ; and we should hasten to add that it is the relative activity of circulation which constitutes, more than any other circumstance, the industrial superiority of this or that country. — under the word capital we spoke of the importance of the increase of capital to the industrial activity of nations ; but at the same time we took care to distinguish active from dormant capital by adding, that the industrial superiority of one nation over another depends much less on the sum total of the capital which it possesses than the relative sum of its active capital. this is the place to insist on this distinction, which most economists have neglected, and which appears to us fundamental. — if capital is useful, it is only in so far as it passes into the hands of those who can put it to work. while it lies idle, or, what comes to the same thing, while it remains in the hands of those who can not make use of it, it is of no real utility ; it aids in no way the increase of production. m. ganith, going a little further in this direction, says that idle capital is not capital at all, since it is useful to no man, not even to him who possesses it. he was wrong, no doubt. idle capital is always capital, for it is at least a reserve, which can be of use later ; often it needs but an insignificant circumstance to rouse it from its torpor. but it is true that a value at rest renders no actual service, and if there is much of such capital in a country no matter how great the sum of this real capital which the country possesses, labor will show little activity there. — to say nothing of actual stoppages, if it happens that in a given country capital, or values intended for reproduction, occupy twice as much time in passing from one hand to another as would be necessary in a well ordered state of things, it is easy to understand that production would be less by one - half than it might be. it is important, therefore, that circulation be at once general in the sense of embracing all products, and of being active in the sense of causing products to pass rapidly from the hands which possess them to the hands of those who can give them useful employment


it is important, therefore, that circulation be at once general in the sense of embracing all products, and of being active in the sense of causing products to pass rapidly from the hands which possess them to the hands of those who can give them useful employment. — this truth, we say, has not always been adequately understood by economists. it must not be thought, however that they have entirely misunderstood it. their only fault is in not having brought out its importance, nor given it all the attention which it merits. this, for example, is how j. b. say expresses himself on the subject : " values employed in the course of production, can not be realized in money and be employed in a new production until they have arrived at the state of a complete product and are sold to the consumer. the sooner a product is finished and sold, the sooner also can it, as capital, be applied to a fresh productive use. capital used for a shorter time pays less interest ; there is economy in the cost of production. next it is of advantage that the transaction which takes place during the production should take place quickly. let us follow the effects of this activity of circulation, in the case of a piece of printed calico. a merchant of lisbon imports cotton from brazil. it is of moment to him that his agents in america should make his purchases and shipments quickly ; it is also important for him to send his cotton to a french merchant promptly, in order to be reimbursed for his outlay as soon as possible, that he may begin a new and equally profitable operation. portugal, up to this point, has reaped the benefit of this activity of circulation. now it will be france ; and if the french merchant does not keep this brazilian cotton in his storehouse long, but sends it promptly to the spinner ; if the spinner, after having made it into thread, sends it promptly to the weaver, and if the latter sends the cloth without delay to the calico printer, and if he sends it to the retail merchant quickly, and the retailer to the consumer, this active circulation will have occupied for a less time that portion of the capital employed by the producers. consequently there will be less interest lost, less expense, and the capital can be employed in new production. " — the utility of an active circulation is certainly indicated in the preceding lines, but we do not believe that it is felt strongly enough ; and we are the more authorized to believe so, since the passage just quoted is the only one which j


. " — the utility of an active circulation is certainly indicated in the preceding lines, but we do not believe that it is felt strongly enough ; and we are the more authorized to believe so, since the passage just quoted is the only one which j. b. say has devoted to this important subject, at least in his treatise. there is certainly more to say on such a subject. it is true, that the relative activity of circulation is that which constitutes, more than any other circumstance, the industrial superiority of a people? this should have been examined first of all. then it should have been inquired what the principal causes are which influence the rapidity or the retardation of circulation. — mr. fr. skarbek, who has treated this subject more at length and with care, is more explicit on all these questions. instead of a few lines he devotes several chapters to the subject. he concludes the first chapter thus, " what we have stated up to the present concerning social wealth, authorize us to lay down the principle, that the mass of values and bases or sources of wealth possessed by a nation, do not in themselves constitute its wealth, because they are inert by nature and do not turn into a cause of well - being and improvement of a people, except in so far as circulation imposes on them a productive movement capable of bringing out all the advantages which society extracts from the values, before they become objects of consumption. " — the lines we have underscored in the preceding are also underscored in the original text, and it can be seen that the author there justly makes the circulation of products the sine qua non of their utility. nothing is truer with regard to industry at the present time when exchanges and division of labor have become universal. it is not enough, however, that products should circulate ; it is necessary, also, that circulation be as rapid as the work of production will permit, in order that there may be no interruption in the service they render. this, mr. fr. skarbek brings out with much force in the following passage : " the advantage which society gets from circulation consists, as we have seen above, in this, that by each transfer of value, from one hand to another, a profit is gained by him who disposes of it, and a power of working is attained by him who acquires it. this advantage is all the more considerable in proportion as circulation becomes more extensive and rapid. from the moment that all exchangeable values


profit is gained by him who disposes of it, and a power of working is attained by him who acquires it. this advantage is all the more considerable in proportion as circulation becomes more extensive and rapid. from the moment that all exchangeable values are put in circulation, and circulate with the greatest rapidly possible, the inhabitants of a country make as much profit as they can possibly make from them. they are able to give continual employment to all the productive forces which they are able to put to work ; and whatever be the mass of value produced by a nation, it is evident that in this case it returns all the advantages and all the services which can be expected of it. this is why national wealth consists not only in the great mass of values which can be produced in a country, but in the general productive movement, continuous and rapid, of these values. " — in the lines which precede, the activity of circulation is presented in all its importance, but it is perhaps still better done in the passage which follows, where the author supports his assertions by an example. we only regret that he has taken as his example the circulation of a piece of money ; and we believe it our duty to remark in advance, that the same reasoning would apply to every productive value of whatever nature it might be. " let us suppose that a one franc piece is given in the morning of the first day, by an inhabitant of the capital, to a milkwoman, in exchange for milk which she is taking to market ; that she uses it immediately in buying an ell of cloth ; that the cloth dealer lays in with this same piece of money his stock of meat at the butcher ' s shop ; that the butcher spends it at a wine store ; that the wine merchant employs it in buying bottles ; that the bottle dealer spends it for bread ; the baker for wood ; and the timber merchant lays it up for future expenses and leaves it without employment during the next day. the difference of the services rendered by this piece of money in the course of two days is very considerable and may be expressed by figures ; for it is as 7 to 1. during the first day the one franc piece performed the function of 7 francs because it served to make seven consecutive purchases, whereas on the second day, it represented only a unit in the hands of the timber merchant. if the latter made no use of it in the course of the second day, it might be said with truth that, for society in general, the differences of services rendered by


day, it represented only a unit in the hands of the timber merchant. if the latter made no use of it in the course of the second day, it might be said with truth that, for society in general, the differences of services rendered by the piece of money in the two days is as 7 to 0, because, having remained inactive in the hands of the timber merchant, it did not fill its office as an instrument of exchange, and the effect is the same as if it had not existed at all. its value the first day is equal in services rendered to that of 7 francs, and it is easy to become convinced of this by collecting all the products which were brought by its means ; for by estimating the value of the milk, the cloth, the meat, the wine, the bottles, the bread and the wood bought consecutively with the same one franc piece, we can easily see that it would be necessary to spend 7 francs in order to buy all these things at once. " — this reasoning, certainly exact in reference to a piece of money, is just as exact, as we have said, with reference to any other kind of value. let us suppose, indeed, that any kind of raw material, iron, for example, which must pass, we will suppose, through the hands of 20 or 30 different producers, in order to receive as many different modifications before arriving at its final form, accomplishes this series of migrations in one month instead of 12 ; it is evident that in the 30 days it will have rendered all the services that it could have rendered in a year. it is not less evident, that if all the capital of a nation could be employed in this manner and with this relative activity, that the nation would have an immense advantage over all others. with an equal capital it would create 12 times as much wealth ; or even with a much smaller capital, it would still succeed in surpassing them in the labor of production. — but are such great differences in the relative value of circulation possible? why not? in theory there is nothing simpler. as a general rule, for each producer, the work of production, which, properly speaking, consists almost always in a single modification to be given the material submitted to him, does not take long to accomplish. generally he requires more time to sell his products than to finish them. the spinner who makes his thread in a few days, keeps it sometimes for several months in his storehouse before selling it to the weaver, who is to make it into


. generally he requires more time to sell his products than to finish them. the spinner who makes his thread in a few days, keeps it sometimes for several months in his storehouse before selling it to the weaver, who is to make it into cloth, and this is the case with nearly all other productions. now these periods of stopping and waiting between the finishing and the sale of products being so many accidental stagnations, so many interruptions in the service of capital, it is easy to see that they may be and are more or less frequent according to the country ; and in this way is explained in theory the enormous difference which may exist between one country and another in the productiveness of capital. as a matter of fact it is certain that these differences exist, as great at least as we have just supposed them to be. it seems to us beyond doubt, that capital acts more than 12 times as fast, for example, either in the united states, or in england, as in turkey. why? because there are fewer delays in sales, as there is also an incomparably greater rapidity in the transportation or transmission of products ; and it is this circumstance which explains, to our thinking, much more than the real abundance of capital, the extreme superiority of the first two countries over the other. — now what are the two chief causes which influence the activity or the slowness of circulation? here again we find in the work of mr. fr. skarbek more satisfaction than we have met elsewhere. among the causes which, according to this writer, contribute to render circulation active may be mentioned the following, which are the principal : the extent of production and the abundance of products ; the density of population and the concentration of population in a certain number of cities ; the number and convenience of means of communication, such as roads, railways, canals, etc. ; freedom of trade under all its forms, as well at home as abroad ; security in all transactions ; and, above all, confidence and credit, which alone render possible a rapid transfer of products for sale, and without which even all the other conditions are present in vain. — that the extent of production contributes to hasten the circulation of products, is a truism. but this signifies particularly — and it is a truth which it is well to note — that activity of circulation does not increase simply in proportion to the extent of production, but in a greater proportion still, in the sense that it is always much greater where production is abundant and large than where


is a truth which it is well to note — that activity of circulation does not increase simply in proportion to the extent of production, but in a greater proportion still, in the sense that it is always much greater where production is abundant and large than where production languishes. it is true that it is difficult, in this case, to distinguish the effect from the cause. if the abundance of production influences the activity of circulation, which is not at all doubtful, the activity of circulation in turn, and in a very energetic manner, influences the increase of production. the two circumstances are connected ; they are at once cause and effect. but all this amounts to saying what is literally true, that products circulate in a more general manner and more rapidly in wealthy countries, provided with large capital, and which work on a large scale, than in poor countries which operate with small means and for medium results. — that the density of population, and above all the concentration of population, in certain cities contribute also to quicken circulation, and consequently to increase the services which products may render, is another truth much less generally understood than the first, and consequently very proper to be mentioned. it is all the more important since it must be taken into account in the theory of population in which it is often ignored. it is beyond doubt, to our thinking, that dense populations, that is to say, those grouped in considerable masses on narrow spaces, have certain great disadvantages in comparison with scattered populations, and this especially that they obtain in less abundance, with less ease and at a higher price, certain products, and particularly raw material. but they enjoy this great advantage which compensates for many drawbacks, that the circulation of products among them is easier, more active, quicker, and that consequently every product which they obtain renders them incomparably greater service. this is rather a new view in political economy, which has not been sufficiently examined by men devoted to the science, and which merits, nevertheless, the most serious consideration. mr. fr. skarbek seems to have realized it more than the greater number of economists before him, but perhaps no writer has thrown more light on it than mr. h. carey, of philadelphia, in an important work published in 1848, ( the past, the present and the future ; by h. carey, philadelphia, 1848 ). in this work the american publicist tries to prove, and in this he has succeeded in a certain measure, that the condensation of population in certain countries, far


the present and the future ; by h. carey, philadelphia, 1848 ). in this work the american publicist tries to prove, and in this he has succeeded in a certain measure, that the condensation of population in certain countries, far from creating for the men who inhabit these countries a relative disadvantage, is for them, on the contrary, extremely advantageous, through the facility and multiplicity of relations which it engenders ; and that, taking everything into consideration, a dense population, other conditions being equal, should be richer and better supplied than one which is scattered over a vast space of land. we will not enter here into a minute examination of this question which would require a separate study, but in whatever way it be solved, the influence of the density of population on the activity of the circulation of products is none the less a demonstrated fact. as to the influence exercised by the number and convenience of the ways of communication, it is so easy to understand it that it suffices almost to mention it. let us merely say that a good system of roads, canals and railways is itself the first fruit of an industry already powerful ; that if it contributes to stimulate circulation, it is nevertheless the fruit of a pre - existing circulation, and that it supposes in the country where it is established a well understood public administration, well directed, well managed. it supposes also a great store of wealth previously acquired. — freedom of trade under all its forms is not less necessary to the activity of circulation than the other conditions. — " no matter what the primitive sources of a country ' s wealth may be, no matter what its population and its capital may be, no matter how powerful may be the influence of these bases of its wealth on circulation, the latter can be neither extensive nor rapid if there are not in the country circumstances favorable to exchange ; or if the power of exchange is limited either by prohibitive regulations or the lack of outlets. for it is this power of exchange which exercises the most potent influence on circulation, since values circulate for the most part by means of exchange. supposing then in a country a concurrence of circumstances favorable to the production of value, they will not be able to constitute the well - being of the inhabitants if there are causes which limit or hinder the exchange of products. " the causes which may limit or hinder exchange are varied. restrictive or prohibitive regulations at home and abroad, form one of the most serious. the absence of credit is another, not less


causes which limit or hinder the exchange of products. " the causes which may limit or hinder exchange are varied. restrictive or prohibitive regulations at home and abroad, form one of the most serious. the absence of credit is another, not less powerful though less easy to define. — finally, we have as the last cause of the circulation of products, confidence or credit, which renders exchange possible whenever it is useful and can be carried on without danger. let us hear again mr. fr. skarbek, whose ideas on this matter fit in perfectly with ours. — " in order that exchange should become the motor of circulation, it is necessary, other things being equal, that it be accomplished with the greatest facility, that is to say, that all goods should find an easy and instant sale, and that all the inhabitants of a country should sell their goods on the shortest time possible. the sale of goods depends on three circumstances : first, a demand corresponding to the amount of goods offered ; in the second place, on the facility and freedom of delivering the goods where they are demanded ; and last, the power possessed by the purchaser to give always the equivalent of the merchandise demanded by him. demand is more considerable in proportion as there are more purchasers, and as they are richer ; the facility of sale becomes greater in proportion as commerce enjoys greater liberty and as there are easier means of transport and communication between the countries which maintain commercial relations with one another. but all this is not yet sufficient to give circulation the extent and degree of rapidity of which it is susceptible, for it is necessary besides that every value offered for exchange should be really exchanged at the moment it is offered and demanded : for this purpose it is necessary that the purchaser should possess a value which the seller consents to receive, in exchange for this merchandise, and that he should be in a condition to give it immediately and as often as he desires to make an exchange. as exchange is generally effected by means of money, it follows that if sale is to hasten circulation, it is necessary that the power of paying should always equal the extent of the demand. now, as the value of the goods of every country surpass by far the value of the money which is found therein, it may often happen that a man who possesses a considerable fortune finds it impossible to make an immediate payment for the values which these means allow him to demand. the result of this is a species of stagnation which takes place in the circulation of values. the value


happen that a man who possesses a considerable fortune finds it impossible to make an immediate payment for the values which these means allow him to demand. the result of this is a species of stagnation which takes place in the circulation of values. the value of the merchandise demanded will remain inert until the person demanding it shall have acquired the power of paying, or he will be deprived of an enjoyment or of a means of employing his productive powers profitably. however, there is always a decrease of activity in the circulation and a loss of time and values to the national wealth. to remedy this drawback, to obviate a default in power of payment which does not come from a lack of revenue and fortune, and to facilitate exchange as much as possible, men have had recourse to a social virtue, confidence, which, applied to exchange, has given birth to credit ; and credit to - day is the most powerful motor of exchange and the circulation of social wealth. — by a sort of ultra reaction against the exaggerations of the utopists, many distinguished economists are only too much inclined to misunderstand the admirable power of credit. it is well therefore to put it before them whenever a natural occasion presents itself. — unfortunately these are the same ideas which have been misapplied to build up vain projects. foreseeing vaguely the power of credit as well as the advantages of an active circulation, but without rendering to themselves an exact account of the nature of these two phenomena, a great number of men have endeavored to inflate credit, if it be permitted to say so, and to hasten circulation by artificial means. — they did not consider, that after all, the practice of credit supposes confidence, and that circulation, no matter how active they may wish to have it, should not and can not run ahead of production. to complete the misfortune they have never imagined a better way to arrive at their end than to multiply without measure the instrument of exchange, money, or, in default of money, that which they call representative signs of its value, in other words, paper. the general examination of these different projects will find its place under the heads credit and paper money. let us hasten to say, in a few words, that they rest ordinarily on a two - fold error, in this that, on the one hand, credit, such as they pretend to establish, would crumble quickly for want of a basis, and, on the other, circulation,


by mira korber, guest blogger. the story is familiar. with a tight economy and insufficient funds, public schools have to cut back. music, physical education, and language classes are the first to go. and along with the classes go the teachers ; since 2008, over 294, 000 teaching positions have evaporated. while some believe retaining core classes — english, history, math — is more important than a substantial music program, studies show that kids who study the arts actually have greater success in academic fields including reading and writing. in fact, global music programs, such as the famous “ el sistema ” in venezuela, have shown their music students have a drop - out rate of 7 % versus the national 25 %. the economic lesson when you make a decision, you always give something up, which is otherwise known as your opportunity cost. with budget cuts already in place and more on the way, school boards have to choose what stays in school and what doesn ’ t. when a school board makes a decision, there ’ s always some kind of trade - off. for example : eliminate music teachers and keep the same number of math teachers to avoid larger classes. use older editions of textbooks to keep teachers of any subject employed. yet in terms of long - run consequences, cutting music classes may have negative effects on students ’ academic success. an economic question : do you think it is possible to balance the arts with an economically viable school budget?


new initiative to take hiv down for the count the u. s. national institutes health is set to dole out $ 70 million in a new push to find ways to eliminate hiv, the virus that causes aids, from the bodies of people living with the virus, reported science on july 11. the money will go to three projects over the next five years. it represents the largest single funding initiative aimed at scrubbing the virus from the human body. hiv is difficult to root out of all of the body ’ s tissues. the virus can lie dormant in hard - to - reach places until years later. for this reason, it had long been thought that there might never be a way to completely eradicate the virus from a person who had become infected. but the case of timothy brown, an american survivor of a bone marrow transplant to treat leukemia who seemingly was cured of the disease as a result, had caused scientists to reconsider. brown was given marrow from a donor with a natural resistance to hiv. to receive the donated tissue, brown needed to stop taking his hiv medication. to the astonishment of his doctors, no detectable viral presence appeared in his body following the procedure. this does not necessarily mean that there are not still particles of the virus lurking in brown ’ s body. but if the donor ’ s natural resistance to hiv was conferred upon brown in a lasting way, it might not matter : whatever remaining viral particles are possibly lingering in his system might never become active enough to build up a detectable viral load. such a treatment could be a boon to hiv patients who would otherwise rely on expensive medications for decades, living with the possibility of viral breakthrough ( when the virus becomes resistant to a previously effective treatment ) or long - term side effects from the medication. cash - strapped governments could also see a savings if fewer people need to be kept supplied with the current standard cocktail of medications. the medical procedures that brown underwent to destroy his own bone marrow and replace it with donated tissue are grueling and expensive. moreover, it is impractical to hope to treat thousands or millions of people by finding suitable donors with the mutation carried by brown ’ s donor. the trick is to figure out a way to achieve a similar result more reliably, cheaply, and easily. that means looking into new approaches to fighting the virus where it lives - - in the body itself. but such approaches must be non - destructive to the body ’ s systems, as well as thorough in stamping out or suppressing the virus. one group of collaborators


into new approaches to fighting the virus where it lives - - in the body itself. but such approaches must be non - destructive to the body ’ s systems, as well as thorough in stamping out or suppressing the virus. one group of collaborators set to be funded by the new grant hopes to develop new medications with such small molecular structures that they can penetrate to the body ’ s most hard - to - reach niches and wipe out any hiv residing there. the group, based at the university of north carolina, chapel hill, is slated to receive more than $ 6 million per year for five years. one of the other groups is set to investigate the possibility of engineering suitable marrow tissue for a similar transplant procedure to the one that seemingly cured brown. the advantage to this approach is that a person ’ s own stem cells could conceivably be modified to create marrow with the necessary properties, rather than hoping to find donors with naturally occurring mutations. the third project will also pursue small - molecule treatments, the article said, while also using " immune - based treatments. " " the three collaboratories are using very different but largely complementary approaches, " said one of the project ’ s leaders, steven deeks of the university of california, san francisco. " since many of us believe a cure will require combination therapy, it is my hope - - as well as the hope of others - - that three groups can merge their work whenever possible. " some of the ideas on the table have already been shown to have significant therapeutic potential. researchers in barcelona used patients ’ own cells to create a treatment that reduced the viral load in people living with hiv. though they said that the reduction in detectable levels of the virus was " significant, " researchers cautioned that at this stage the new treatment had not succeeded in dropping patients ’ viral loads to the point of not being detectable, as current hiv medication regimens do for many. " however this is a very important improvement with respect to previous initiatives where with a similar vaccine there was a modest response in 30 percent of the treated patients, " a statement from hospital clinic in barcelona, where the clinical trial took place, said last february, and involved two dozen aids patients. " no therapeutic vaccine has achieved up to now the same level of response as in this study. " cells from each patient ’ s own immune system were used to create tailor - made doses of the vaccine. the innovation of using patients ’ own cells to fight the virus comes at roughly the same time as news of another new approach, the


animal lovers get satisfaction in this occupation, but aspects of the work can be unpleasant, physically and emotionally demanding, and sometimes dangerous. entrants generally complete a 2 - year or 4 - year veterinary technology program and must pass a state examination. employment is expected to grow much faster than average. keen competition is expected for jobs in zoos. nature of the work owners of pets and other animals today expect state - of - the - art veterinary care. to provide this service, veterinarians use the skills of veterinary technologists and technicians, who perform many of the same duties for a veterinarian that a nurse would for a physician, including routine laboratory and clinical procedures. although specific job duties vary by employer, there often is little difference between the tasks carried out by technicians and by technologists, despite some differences in formal education and training. as a result, most workers in this occupation are veterinary technologists and technicians typically conduct clinical work in a private practice under the supervision of a veterinarian — often performing various medical tests along with treating and diagnosing medical conditions and diseases in animals. for example, they may perform laboratory tests such as urinalysis and blood counts, assist with dental prophylaxis, prepare tissue samples, take blood samples, or assist veterinarians in a variety of tests and analyses in which they often utilize various items of medical equipment, such as test tubes and diagnostic equipment. while most of these duties are performed in a laboratory setting, many are not. for example, some veterinary technicians obtain and record patients ’ case histories, expose and develop x rays, and provide specialized nursing care. in addition, experienced veterinary technicians may discuss a pet ’ s condition with its owners and train new clinic personnel. veterinary technologists and technicians assisting small - animal practitioners usually care for companion animals, such as cats and dogs, but can perform a variety of duties with mice, rats, sheep, pigs, cattle, monkeys, birds, fish, and frogs. very few veterinary technologists work in mixed animal practices where they care for both small companion animals and larger, nondomestic besides working in private clinics and animal hospitals, veterinary technologists and technicians may work in research facilities, where they may administer medications orally or topically, prepare samples for laboratory examinations, and record information on an animal ’ s genealogy, diet, weight, medications, food intake, and clinical signs of pain and distress. some may be required to sterilize laboratory and surgical equipment and provide routine postoperative care. at research facilities, veterinary techno


on an animal ’ s genealogy, diet, weight, medications, food intake, and clinical signs of pain and distress. some may be required to sterilize laboratory and surgical equipment and provide routine postoperative care. at research facilities, veterinary technologists typically work under the guidance of veterinarians, physicians, and other laboratory technicians. some veterinary technologists vaccinate newly admitted animals and occasionally are required to euthanize seriously ill, severely injured, or unwanted animals. while the goal of most veterinary technologists and technicians is to promote animal health, some contribute to human health as well. veterinary technologists occasionally assist veterinarians as they work with other scientists in medical - related fields such as gene therapy and cloning. some find opportunities in biomedical research, wildlife medicine, the military, livestock management, or pharmaceutical sales. people who love animals get satisfaction from working with and helping them. however, some of the work may be unpleasant, physically and emotionally demanding, and sometimes dangerous. at times, veterinary technicians must clean cages and lift, hold, or restrain animals, risking exposure to bites or scratches. these workers must take precautions when treating animals with germicides or insecticides. the work setting can be noisy. veterinary technologists and technicians who witness abused animals or who euthanize unwanted, aged, or hopelessly injured animals may experience emotional stress. those working for humane societies and animal shelters often deal with the public, some of whom might react with hostility to any implication that the owners are neglecting or abusing their pets. such workers must maintain a calm and professional demeanor while they enforce the laws regarding animal care. in some animal hospitals, research facilities, and animal shelters, a veterinary technician is on duty 24 hours a day, which means that some may work night shifts. most full - time veterinary technologists and technicians work about 40 hours a week, although some work 50 or more hours a week. training, other qualifications, and advancement there are primarily two levels of education and training for entry to this occupation : a 2 - year program for veterinary technicians and a 4 - year program for veterinary technologists. most entry - level veterinary technicians have a 2 - year degree, usually an associate ’ s degree, from an accredited community college program in veterinary technology in which courses are taught in clinical and laboratory settings using live animals. about 15 colleges offer veterinary technology programs that are longer and that culminate in a 4 - year bachelor ’ s degree in veterinary technology. these 4 - year colleges, in addition to some vocational schools,


in clinical and laboratory settings using live animals. about 15 colleges offer veterinary technology programs that are longer and that culminate in a 4 - year bachelor ’ s degree in veterinary technology. these 4 - year colleges, in addition to some vocational schools, also offer 2 - year programs in laboratory animal science. approximately 5 schools offer distance in 2004, 116 veterinary technology programs in 43 states were accredited by the american veterinary medical association ( avma ). graduation from an avma - accredited veterinary technology program allows students to take the credentialing exam in any state in the country. each state regulates veterinary technicians and technologists differently ; however, all states require them to pass a credentialing exam following coursework. passing the state exam assures the public that the technician or technologist has sufficient knowledge to work in a veterinary clinic or hospital. candidates are tested for competency through an examination that includes oral, written, and practical portions and that is regulated by the state board of veterinary examiners or the appropriate state agency. depending on the state, candidates may become registered, licensed, or certified. most states, however, use the national veterinary technician ( nvt ) exam. prospects usually can have their passing scores transferred from one state to another, so long as both states utilize the employers recommend american association for laboratory animal science ( aalas ) certification for those seeking employment in a research facility. aalas offers certification for three levels of technician competence, with a focus on three principal areas — animal husbandry, facility management, and animal health and welfare. those who wish to become certified must satisfy a combination of education and experience requirements prior to taking an exam. work experience must be directly related to the maintenance, health, and well - being of laboratory animals and must be gained in a laboratory animal facility as defined by aalas. candidates who meet the necessary criteria can begin pursuing the desired certification on the basis of their qualifications. the lowest level of certification is assistant laboratory animal technician ( alat ), the second level is laboratory animal technician ( lat ), and the highest level of certification is laboratory animal technologist ( latg ). the examination consists of multiple - choice questions and is longer and more difficult for higher levels of certification, ranging from 2 hours for the alat to 3 hours for the latg. persons interested in careers as veterinary technologists and technicians should take as many high school science, biology, and math courses as possible. science courses taken beyond high school, in an associate ’ s or bachelor ’ s degree program


for the latg. persons interested in careers as veterinary technologists and technicians should take as many high school science, biology, and math courses as possible. science courses taken beyond high school, in an associate ’ s or bachelor ’ s degree program, should emphasize practical skills in a clinical or laboratory setting. because veterinary technologists and technicians often deal with pet owners, communication skills are very important. in addition, technologists and technicians should be able to work well with others, because teamwork with veterinarians is common. organizational ability and the ability to pay attention to detail also are important. technologists and technicians usually begin work as trainees in routine positions under the direct supervision of a veterinarian. entry - level workers whose training or educational background encompasses extensive hands - on experience with a variety of laboratory equipment, including diagnostic and medical equipment, usually require a shorter period of on - the - job training. as they gain experience, technologists and technicians take on more responsibility and carry out more assignments under only general veterinary supervision. some eventually may become supervisors. veterinary technologists and technicians held about 60, 000 jobs in 2004. most worked in veterinary services. the remainder worked in boarding kennels, animal shelters, stables, grooming salons, zoos, and local, state, and federal agencies. employment of veterinary technologists and technicians is expected to grow much faster than average for all occupations through the year 2014. job openings also will stem from the need to replace veterinary technologists and technicians who leave the occupation over the 2004 – 14 period. keen competition is expected for veterinary technologist and technician jobs in zoos, due to expected slow growth in zoo capacity, low turnover among workers, the limited number of positions, and the fact that the occupation attracts pet owners are becoming more affluent and more willing to pay for advanced care because many of them consider their pet to be part of the family. this growing affluence and view of pets will spur employment growth for veterinary technologists and technicians. the number of dogs used as companion pets, which also drives employment growth, is expected to increase more slowly during the projection period than in the previous decade. however, the rapidly growing number of cats utilized as companion pets is expected to boost the demand for feline medicine and services, offsetting any reduced demand for veterinary care for dogs. the availability of advanced veterinary services, such as preventive dental care and surgical procedures, may provide opportunities for workers specializing in those areas. biomedical facilities, diagnostic laboratories, wildlife facilities, humane societies, animal


##ting any reduced demand for veterinary care for dogs. the availability of advanced veterinary services, such as preventive dental care and surgical procedures, may provide opportunities for workers specializing in those areas. biomedical facilities, diagnostic laboratories, wildlife facilities, humane societies, animal control facilities, drug or food manufacturing companies, and food safety inspection facilities will provide additional jobs for veterinary technologists and technicians. furthermore, demand for these workers will stem from the desire to replace veterinary assistants with more highly skilled technicians and technologists in animal clinics and hospitals, shelters, kennels, and humane societies. employment of veterinary technicians and technologists is relatively stable during periods of economic recession. layoffs are less likely to occur among veterinary technologists and technicians than in some other occupations because animals will continue to require medical care. median hourly earnings of veterinary technologists and technicians were $ 11. 99 in may 2004. the middle 50 percent earned between $ 9. 88 and $ 14. 56. the bottom 10 percent earned less than $ 8. 51, and the top 10 percent earned more than $ 17. 12. others who work extensively with animals include animal care and service workers, veterinary assistants, and laboratory animal caretakers. like veterinary technologists and technicians, they must have patience and feel comfortable with animals. however, the level of training required for these occupations is less than that needed by veterinary technologists and technicians. veterinarians, who need much more formal education, also work extensively with animals, preventing, diagnosing, and treating their diseases, disorders, and injuries. sources of additional information for information on certification as a laboratory animal technician or technologist, contact : american association for laboratory animal science, 9190 crestwyn hills dr., memphis, tn 38125. internet : http : / / www. aalas. org / for information on careers in veterinary medicine and a listing of avma - accredited veterinary technology programs, contact : american veterinary medical assocation, 1931 n. meacham rd., suite 100, schaumburg, il 60173 - 4360. internet : http : / / www. avma. org / bureau of labor statistics, u. s. department of labor, occupational outlook handbook, 2006 - 07 edition


skip to main content more search options a member of our team will call you back within one business day. influenza ( “ the flu ” ) is an infection of the respiratory tract ( the mouth, nose, and lungs, and the passages between them ). the two types of flu that pregnant women should be concerned about are the seasonal ( regular ) flu and the 2009 h1n1 ( swine ) flu. either of these two types of flu can make a pregnant woman very ill. this is because pregnant women are at high risk of flu complications. these complications include sinus infections and serious lung infections such as bronchitis and pneumonia. in rare cases, miscarriage of the baby or even death of the mother can result. this sheet tells you more about the flu, what to do if you come down with the flu, and what you can do to avoid infection. note about the 2009 h1n1 flu : the 2009 h1n1 flu is called this because the virus first spread in the year 2009. it was originally called “ swine flu. ” despite the name, eating pork or pork products does not cause this flu. eating pork or pork products that have been properly handled and cooked is safe. anyone can get the flu. but you ’ re more likely to catch the flu if you : have frequent, close contact with young children. work in a healthcare setting where you may be exposed to flu germs. live or work with someone who has the flu. haven ’ t received an annual flu shot. the flu is caused by a virus ( a type of germ ). the germ spreads through the air in droplets when someone who has the flu coughs, sneezes, laughs, or talks. you can become infected when you inhale the germ directly. you can also become infected when you touch a surface on which the droplets have landed and then transfer the germ to your eyes, nose, or mouth. touching used tissues, or sharing utensils, drinking glasses, or a toothbrush with an infected person can expose you to the flu germ, too. flu symptoms tend to come on quickly and may last a few days to a few weeks. they include : fever ( usually higher than 101ºf ) and chills sore throat and headache tiredness and weakness body and muscle aches call your doctor right away. follow any instructions your doctor gives you. you may be asked to get tested to confirm that you have the flu. your doctor may prescribe medications called antivirals


and headache tiredness and weakness body and muscle aches call your doctor right away. follow any instructions your doctor gives you. you may be asked to get tested to confirm that you have the flu. your doctor may prescribe medications called antivirals, especially if he or she suspects you have the h1n1 flu. these medications must be taken within 2 days of when your symptoms started. in some cases, your doctor may not wait for test results to come back before starting you on antivirals. these medications work by stopping the flu virus from reproducing in your body. this gives your body ’ s immune system a chance to fight the virus. after taking the medication, your symptoms may be milder and you may recover quicker than without the medication. the medication may also prevent serious complications such as pneumonia. if you feel you need medications to relieve symptoms, ask your doctor which ones are safe for you to take. drink lots of fluids such as water, juice, and warm soup to prevent dehydration. a good rule is to drink enough so that you urinate your normal amount. get plenty of rest. if you ’ re not hungry, eat smaller meals more often during the day to maintain your nutrition intake. apply warm compresses to the forehead or sinuses to relieve congestion. call your doctor if your fever rises to 101ºf or higher, or you become dizzy, lightheaded, or short of breath. get vaccinated. one of the best ways to avoid the flu is to get a flu vaccination. pregnant women can safely receive the flu shot that protects against both the regular and h1n1 flu. however, pregnant women should not receive the nasal spray vaccine ( live - virus vaccine ) for the regular flu ( it may be harmful to the baby ). wash your hands often. frequent handwashing is a proven way to prevent infection. carry an alcohol - based hand gel containing at least 60 percent alcohol. use it when you don ’ t have access to soap and water. clean items you use often with disinfectant wipes. this includes phones, computer keyboards, and toys. avoid crowds and children as much as possible while you ’ re pregnant. avoid being around anyone who has the flu. handwashing is one of the best ways to prevent many common infections. follow these steps for more effective handwashing : use warm water and plenty of soap. work up a good lather. clean the whole hand, under your nails, between your fingers


air chambers - small honeycomb spaced within the sash and frame extrusions which help to insulate andstrengthen the window. argon - a gas that is heavier than air used to fill the dead airspace of an insulated glass unit - argon is a safe, colorless, odorless, tasteless, non - toxic gas which is six times more dense than air. argon provides a significant increase in the insulating value of a glass unit as well as sound insulation. awning window - a window that is hinged at the top, and cranks from the bottom, to open out on a horizontal ( outward and upward ) 45 degree swing. balance ( spiral type, coil type ) - used to tension the sash in the desired position. a balance allows the sash to operate up and down. balance coil case - housing for coil balance of constant force type. balance cover - a cover to improve site lines by covering operating balance. balance shoe - attached to the bottom of balance as a receptacle for the tilt pin to hold the sash and frame together which allows tilting. balance tube / or sleeve - a tube attached to each jamb of a window that gives the moving sash stability when moving up and down. balance winding tool - used to adjust the tension of the spiral balance. bay window - three windows in a single frame. the center lite is always twice as wide as the sidelites, which are generally a combination of a fixed and ( 2 ) operable flankers, ( casement or double hung windows ). the window bay projects out from the wall of the house 30 or 45 degrees. beveled exterior - an extension of the vinyl frame that adds an aesthetically pleasing dimension to the exterior of the window. bow window - 3, 4, or 5 windows in a single frame. all of the windows widths are equal size, which are generally a combination of fixed centers and ( 2 ) operable flankers, ( casement or double hung windows ). the window bow projects out from the wall of the house 15 degrees. a bow is similar to a bay but the combination has a more circular arch appearance. buck frame - wood head, seat, and jambs designed to form a case to contain the window to fit in the rough opening, used on bay and bow windows. buck size - this is the exact window size not including the fin. butterfly clip - this is a " w " shaped clip with jamb adjustment screw located at the middle of both jambs of some


rough opening, used on bay and bow windows. buck size - this is the exact window size not including the fin. butterfly clip - this is a " w " shaped clip with jamb adjustment screw located at the middle of both jambs of some replacement models. the screws in a clockwise direction will cause the jamb middles to pull toward the center of window. butyl - a material used to seal glass to the spacer and acts as a sealant to form a dead air space water and air tight unit. cam lock and keeper - the mechanism which pulls sash together when placed in the locked position on single hung, double hung, and slider windows. casement window fixed - a picture window made out of casement window extrusions and does not ventilate. casement window operable - a window that is hinged on the left or right jamb. the window cranks outward on a vertical plane to a full 90 degree swing. the unit may be hinged left or right ( view the unit inside looking out ). caulking - a compound for filing joints to prevent leakage of water and air. weather - proof caulking is made of a silicone base. caulking is used where leakage and / or movement may occur. colonial arch - special shapes window unit that has a half round radius head. condensation resistance factor - a measure of the effectiveness of a window or glazing system to reduce the potential for condensation. the higher the condensation resistance factor, the more efficient the window or glazing system. condensation - the formation of water vapor from the air on any cold surface whose temperature is below thedew point. conduction - energy transfer from one material to another by direct contact. convection - heat transfer by currants that flow from a warm surface to a colder one. cottage window - a double hung or single hung window with a larger proportioned bottom sash. standard configuration is 3 / 5 of the window operates from the bottom. 2 / 5 operates on the top. dead lite - a fixed lite inoperable unit insert only ( no master frame ). desiccated maxtrix - a material used in insulating glass to absorb water vapor which causes fogging. dew point - the temperature above 32 degree f at which visible water vapor begins to deposit on the glass surface. double hung window - a window with an upper and lower moving sash utilizing a tension balance to hold sashes in the desired position. drip cap


dew point - the temperature above 32 degree f at which visible water vapor begins to deposit on the glass surface. double hung window - a window with an upper and lower moving sash utilizing a tension balance to hold sashes in the desired position. drip cap - a molding to divert water from the top casing so that water drips beyond the outside of the frame. dual durometer - two hardnesses of vinyl in one extrusion. usually combines rigid and flexible vinyl. mainly used for glazing beads and sashes. egress - the path or opening by means of which one goes out : emergency exit. all egress or rescue windows from sleeping rooms must have a net clear opening. elliptical - special shape where height is at least 1 / 3 of base. equilateral triangle - special shapes window unit having all three sides equal. eyebrow window - special shape that has straight legs coming up from the base and attaching to the radius. fixed lite - a window which is non - operable ( does not open ). flanker - a window unit placed along side of another unit. a picture window may be flanked by a double hung on each side. fusion welded - refers to frames and sash fused together with intense heat. glazing bead - a removable trim that holds the glass in place. glazing - the process of sealing the glass to the sash. grid / muntin - a brass / aluminum or vinyl strip in the dead airspace of the glass unit. available in either colonial or diamond patterns. guts - a slang term used for the internal workings of bay / bow units. ( i. e. : window dimensions, projection, overall depth, etc. head expander - a vinyl cap that fits over the top of the head of a window. used to fill in the gap. infiltration - air is able to flow through cracks and other spaces around the window and at the meeting rail. isosceles triangle - special shapes window unit having two of three sides equal. jamb - the sides of the window frame. j - channel - " j " configuration designed into window frame exterior for the primary purpose of receiving siding. keeper rail - the bottom of the top sash on which the keeper is mounted. on sliders, the keeper rail is vertical. lift rail / handle - handle ( applied or integrated ) for raising the sash in a window. lite - a unit of glass. lock rail - an extrusion used on top of the bottom sash on which


, the keeper rail is vertical. lift rail / handle - handle ( applied or integrated ) for raising the sash in a window. lite - a unit of glass. lock rail - an extrusion used on top of the bottom sash on which locks are mounted. on sliders, the lock rail is vertical. low - e ( emisivity ) glass - glass treated with a thin transparent coating of metal oxide and silver. allows natural light and short - wave heat energy to freely penetrate glass during the winter while reflecting long - wave heat energy back outside during the summer months. keeping your house cool in the summer and warm in the winter. it reduces the penetration of ultraviolet rays to minimize fading of carpet and draperies. mainframe - the head, sill, and jambs make up the mainframe. it holds the sashes. mechanical frame - refers to frames fastened with screws. meeting rail - the point at which the horizontal sections of the top and bottom sash meet. on sliders, the meeting rail is vertical. mesh - fabric, made of either fiberglass or aluminum, used in the making of screens. mull - the joining of two or more windows at the jamb, or by the mainframe. mullion - the extrusion piece used to join two or more windows at the jamb, or by the mainframe. nailing fin - used to secure the window into a rough opening. obscure / translucent glass - a frosted glass that you cannot see through. mainly used in the bathroom. octagon window - an eight sided special shape window. operating - a window with a sash that opens or operates for ventilation. oriel window - a single and / or double hung window with a larger proportioned top sash. standard configuration is 3 / 5 of the window operates from the top. 2 / 5 operates on the bottom. overall depth - in a bay or bow unit - this measurement is the width of head / seat board which is projection plus wall thickness. palladin - of or designating a renaissance architectural style usually a mulled combination of special shapes window units. pentagon - special shapes window unit having five sides usually in a doghouse style i. e. horizontal base with both sides perpendicular and top two sides with pitch. picture window - a window that has no moveable sash. pitch - roof pitch is the ratio of rise to span. special shapes trapezoid configurations especially will follow roof pitch. plated / polished brass hardware - hardware that is not solid brass but finished