- theological ' and not merely climatic. this is the land which faces the entrance of the spiritual world, that sphere of existence that lies beyond the physical world known to us through our senses. this is the key to the land ' s unique status with regard to prophecy and prayer, and also with regard to the commandments " " four holy cities " in israel, jerusalem, hebron, tzfat and tiberias are regarded as judaism ' s holiest cities. jerusalem, as the site of the temple, is considered especially significant. according to jewish tradition, jerusalem is mount moriah, the location of the binding of isaac. jerusalem is mentioned 669 times in the hebrew bible, in part because many mitzvot can only be performed within its environs. zion, which usually refers to jerusalem, but sometimes the land of israel, appears in the hebrew bible 154 times. for christians, the land of israel is considered holy because of its association with the birth, ministry, crucifixion and resurrection of jesus of nazareth, whom christians regard as the savior or messiah, as well as the bible ' s mention of it being the land of his people, the jews ( according to the bible ). outside of the places traditionally associated with christian personalities, the territory or the land of the holy land bears no mention in christianity. in the qur ' an, the term الارض المقدسة ( al - ard al - muqaddasah, english : " holy land " ) is mentioned at least seven times, once when moses proclaims to the children of israel : " o my people! enter the holy land which allah hath assigned unto you, and turn not back ignominiously, for then will ye be overthrown, to your own ruin. " ( surah 5 : 21 ) jerusalem ( referred to as al - quds, meaning the " holy " ) has particular significance in islam. the qur ' an refers to muhammad ' s experiencing the isra and mi ' raj as " a journey by night from the sacred ( mecca ) mosque to the farthest ( al - aqsa ) mosque, whose precincts we did bless " ( 17 : 1 ). ahadith associate the " farthest mosque " as al - quds ; for example, as narrated by abu huraira : " on the night journey of allah ' s apostle, two cups, one containing wine and the other containing milk, were presented to him at al -


pacific dc intertie the pacific dc intertie ( also called path 65 ) is an electric power transmission line that transmits electricity from the pacific northwest to the los angeles area using high voltage direct current ( hvdc ). the line capacity is 3, 100 megawatts, which is enough to serve two to three million los angeles households and is 48. 7 % of the los angeles department of water and power ( ladwp ) electrical system ' s peak capacity. the intertie originates near the columbia river at the celilo converter station on bonneville power administration ' s grid outside the dalles, oregon and is connected exclusively to the sylmar converter station north of los angeles, which is owned by five utility companies and managed by ladwp. the intertie can transmit power in either direction, but power flows mostly from north to south. the idea of shipping hydroelectric power to southern california had been proposed as early as the 1930s, but was opposed and scrapped. by 1961, us president john f. kennedy authorized a large public works project, using new high voltage direct current technology from sweden. the project was undertaken as a close collaboration between general electric of the us and asea of sweden. private california power companies opposed the project but their technical objections were rebutted by uno lamm of asea at the ieee meeting in new york in 1963. when completed in 1970 the combined ac and dc transmission system was estimated to save consumers in los angeles approximately us $ 600, 000 per day by use of electric power from projects on the columbia river. the pacific intertie takes advantage of differing power demand patterns between the northwestern and southwestern us. during winter, the northern region operates electrical heating devices while the southern portion uses relatively little electricity. in summer, the north uses little electricity while the south reaches peak demand due to air conditioning usage. any time the intertie demand lessens, the excess is distributed elsewhere on the western power grid ( states west of the great plains, including colorado and new mexico ). the pacific intertie consists of : - the celilo converter station which converts three phase 60 hz ac at 235 to 525 kv to ±500 kv dc at coordinates :. - the grounding system at celilo consists of 1, 067 cast iron anodes buried in a two foot trench of petroleum coke, which behaves as an electrode, arranged in a ring of 3, 255 m ( 2. 02 mi ) circumference at rice flats ( near rice, oregon ), which is 10.


buried in a two foot trench of petroleum coke, which behaves as an electrode, arranged in a ring of 3, 255 m ( 2. 02 mi ) circumference at rice flats ( near rice, oregon ), which is 10. 6 km ( 6. 6 mi ) sse of celilo. it is connected to the converter station by two aerial 644 mm2 steel - reinforced aluminum ( acsr ) cables, which end at a strainer situated at. - a 1, 362 - kilometre ( 846 mi ) overhead transmission line consisting of two uninsulated conductors each 1, 171 mm2 in cross sectional area, containing a steel wire core for strength. - the sylmar converter station ( ) which converts dc to ac ( a process also called inverting ) and phase - synchronized with the l. a. power grid. - the sylmar grounding system is a line of 24 silicon - iron alloy electrodes submerged in the pacific ocean at will rogers state beach suspended in concrete enclosures about one meter above the ocean floor. the grounding array, which is 48 km ( 30 mi ) from the converter station and is connected by a pair of 644 mm2 aluminum conductors, which are in the sections north of kenter canyon terminal tower at installed instead of the ground conductors on the pylons. it runs from kenter canyon terminal tower, via dwp receiving station u, southern california edison northridge substation and rinaldi electrical substation to sylmar converter station. on the section between northridge substation and rinaldi street substation one of the two ground conductors of 2 parallel running 220 kv powerlines is used as electrode line conductor. - the combined wires have a capacity of 3. 1 gigawatts in bipolar mode. the first phase of the scheme, completed in may 1970, used only mercury - arc valves in the converters. the valves were series connected in three six - pulse valve bridges for each pole. the blocking voltage of the valves was 133 kv with a maximum current of 1, 800 amperes, for a transmission rating of 1, 440 mw with a symmetrical voltage of 400 kv with respect to earth. the line is the dc part of a system of four 500 kv lines that connect the pacific northwest with the southwest ; the ac part is path 15. this is one of two hvdc lines serving los angeles, the other is the path 27. - in 1972, after the sylmar earthquake,


500 kv lines that connect the pacific northwest with the southwest ; the ac part is path 15. this is one of two hvdc lines serving los angeles, the other is the path 27. - in 1972, after the sylmar earthquake, the sylmar converter station had to be reconstructed due to extensive damage. - in 1982, the power rating of the mercury arc valve rectifiers was raised by various improvements to 1, 600 mw. - in 1984, the transmission voltage was pushed to 500 kv and the transmission power was increased to 2, 000 mw by adding one six - pulse thyristor valve group rated at 100 kv to each pole. - in 1989, a further increase of the transmission power to 3, 100 mw took place by installing a 1, 100 mw parallel connected thyristor converter in celilo and sylmar, the so - called pacific intertie expansion - in 1993, one pole of the pacific intertie expansion converter station at sylmar was completely destroyed by fire. the converter was replaced in 1994 / 5 by siemens. - 2004, sylmar east station situated at abb. in parallel with this project, the six - pulse mercury arc valves at the celilo converter station were replaced with siemens light - triggered thyristors ( marp replacement ). was upgraded from 1, 100 mw to 3, 100 mw ( rededicated as the sylmar converter station in 2005 ). the controls and older converters, including the mercury arc valves, were completely replaced by a single pair of 3, 100 mw 12 - pulse converters built by the pacific dc intertie along a service road paralleling highway 395. many of the towers of the intertie are of this simple, slender design the slender tower is supported laterally by four guy - wires see also - sharon bernstein and amanda covarrubias, times staff writers ( september 10, 2006 ). " heat wave caught dwp unprepared ". l. a. times online. retrieved 2006 - 09 - 11. [ dead link ] - prabha kundur, powertech labs inc. ( october 3, 2003 ). " power system security in the new industry environment : challenges and solutions " ( powerpoint ). ieee. p. 17. retrieved 2006 - 09 - 11. - " the pacific intertie scheme ". bonneville power administration. 2000 - 11 - 03. archived from the original on 2005 - 04 - 26. retrieved 2009 - 08


partition function ( statistical mechanics ) in physics, a partition function describes the statistical properties of a system in thermodynamic equilibrium. they are functions of temperature and other parameters, such as the volume enclosing a gas. most of the aggregate thermodynamic variables of the system, such as the total energy, free energy, entropy, and pressure, can be expressed in terms of the partition function or its derivatives. there are actually several different types of partition functions, each corresponding to different types of statistical ensemble ( or, equivalently, different types of free energy. ) the canonical partition function applies to a canonical ensemble, in which the system is allowed to exchange heat with the environment at fixed temperature, volume, and number of particles. the grand canonical partition function applies to a grand canonical ensemble, in which the system can exchange both heat and particles with the environment, at fixed temperature, volume, and chemical potential. other types of partition functions can be defined for different circumstances ; see partition function ( mathematics ) for generalizations. canonical partition function as a beginning assumption, assume that a thermodynamically large system is in constant thermal contact with the environment, with a temperature t, and both the volume of the system and the number of constituent particles fixed. this kind of system is called a canonical ensemble. let us label with s = 1, 2, 3,... the exact states ( microstates ) that the system can occupy, and denote the total energy of the system when it is in microstate s as es. generally, these microstates can be regarded as analogous to discrete quantum states of the system. the canonical partition function is where the " inverse temperature ", β, is conventionally defined as with kb denoting boltzmann ' s constant. the exponential factor exp ( −βes ) is known as the boltzmann factor. ( for a detailed derivation of this result, see canonical ensemble ). in systems with multiple quantum states s sharing the same es, it is said that the energy levels of the system are degenerate. in the case of degenerate energy levels, we can write the partition function in terms of the contribution from energy levels ( indexed by j ) as follows : where gj is the degeneracy factor, or number of quantum states s which have the same energy level defined by ej = es. the above treatment applies to quantum statistical mechanics, where a physical system inside a finite - sized box will typically have a discrete set of


by the classical hamiltonian, and z reduces to the classical configuration integral. meaning and significance it may not be obvious why the partition function, as we have defined it above, is an important quantity. first, let us consider what goes into it. the partition function is a function of the temperature t and the microstate energies e1, e2, e3, etc. the microstate energies are determined by other thermodynamic variables, such as the number of particles and the volume, as well as microscopic quantities like the mass of the constituent particles. this dependence on microscopic variables is the central point of statistical mechanics. with a model of the microscopic constituents of a system, one can calculate the microstate energies, and thus the partition function, which will then allow us to calculate all the other thermodynamic properties of the system. the partition function can be related to thermodynamic properties because it has a very important statistical meaning. the probability ps that the system occupies microstate s is the partition function thus plays the role of a normalizing constant ( note that it does not depend on s ), ensuring that the probabilities sum up to one : this is the reason for calling z the " partition function " : it encodes how the probabilities are partitioned among the different microstates, based on their individual energies. the letter z stands for the german word zustandssumme, " sum over states ". this notation also implies another important meaning of the partition function of a system : it counts the ( weighted ) number of states a system can occupy. hence if all states are equally probable ( equal energies ) the partition function is the total number of possible states. often this is the practical importance of z. calculating the thermodynamic total energy in order to demonstrate the usefulness of the partition function, let us calculate the thermodynamic value of the total energy. this is simply the expected value, or ensemble average for the energy, which is the sum of the microstate energies weighted by their probabilities : incidentally, one should note that if the microstate energies depend on a parameter λ in the manner then the expected value of a is this provides us with a method for calculating the expected values of many microscopic quantities. we add the quantity artificially to the microstate energies ( or, in the language of quantum mechanics, to the hamiltonian ), calculate the new partition function and expected value, and then set λ


calculating the expected values of many microscopic quantities. we add the quantity artificially to the microstate energies ( or, in the language of quantum mechanics, to the hamiltonian ), calculate the new partition function and expected value, and then set λ to zero in the final expression. this is analogous to the source field method used in the path integral formulation of quantum field theory. relation to thermodynamic variables in this section, we will state the relationships between the partition function and the various thermodynamic parameters of the system. these results can be derived using the method of the previous section and the various thermodynamic relations. as we have already seen, the thermodynamic energy is the variance in the energy ( or " energy fluctuation " ) is the heat capacity is the entropy is partition functions of subsystems suppose a system is subdivided into n sub - systems with negligible interaction energy, that is, we can assume the particles are essentially non - interacting. if the partition functions of the sub - systems are ζ1, ζ2,..., ζn, then the partition function of the entire system is the product of the individual partition functions : if the sub - systems have the same physical properties, then their partition functions are equal, ζ1 = ζ2 =... = ζ, in which case however, there is a well - known exception to this rule. if the sub - systems are actually identical particles, in the quantum mechanical sense that they are impossible to distinguish even in principle, the total partition function must be divided by a n! ( n factorial ) : this is to ensure that we do not " over - count " the number of microstates. while this may seem like a strange requirement, it is actually necessary to preserve the existence of a thermodynamic limit for such systems. this is known as the gibbs paradox. grand canonical partition function we can define a grand canonical partition function for a grand canonical ensemble, which describes the statistics of a constant - volume system that can exchange both heat and particles with a reservoir. the reservoir has a constant temperature t, and a chemical potential μ. the grand canonical partition function, denoted by, is the following sum over microstates here, each microstate is labelled by, and has total particle number and total energy. this partition function is closely related to the grand potential,, by the relation this can be contrasted to the canonical partition function above, which is related instead to the helmhol


microstate is labelled by, and has total particle number and total energy. this partition function is closely related to the grand potential,, by the relation this can be contrasted to the canonical partition function above, which is related instead to the helmholtz free energy. it is important to note that the number of microstates in the grand canonical ensemble may be much larger than in the canonical ensemble, since here we consider not only variations in energy but also in particle number. again, the utility of the grand canonical partition function is that it is related to the probability that the system is in state : an important application of the grand canonical ensemble is in deriving exactly the statistics of a non - interacting many - body quantum gas ( fermi - dirac statistics for fermions, bose - einstein statistics for bosons ), however it is much more generally applicable than that. the grand canonical ensemble may also be used to describe classical systems, or even interacting quantum gases. see also - j. r. klauder, b. - s. skagerstam, coherent states - - - applications in physics and mathematical physics, world scientific, 1985, p. 71 - 73. - huang, kerson, " statistical mechanics ", john wiley & sons, new york, 1967. - a. isihara, " statistical physics ", academic press, new york, 1971. - kelly, james j, ( lecture notes ) - l. d. landau and e. m. lifshitz, " statistical physics, 3rd edition part 1 ", butterworth - heinemann, oxford, 1996. - vu - quoc, l., configuration integral, 2008


| | this article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. ( january 2013 ) | rss tracking is a methodology for tracking rss feeds. rss feeds have been around since 1999 as a form of internet marketing, however unlike other forms of publishing information on the internet, it is difficult to track the usage of rss feeds. feed tracking methods have been growing in popularity there are currently many methods of tracking rss feeds, all with their own problems in terms of accuracy. method 1 transparent 1×1 pixel images - these images can be embedded within the content of the rss feed by linking to the image which should be held on the web server. the number of requests made can be measured by using the web server log files. this will give a rough estimate as to how many times the rss feed has been viewed. the problem with this method is that not all rss feed aggregators will display images and parse html. method 2 third - party services - there are services available on the internet that will syndicate your rss feed and then track all requests made to their syndication of your rss feed. these services come in both free and paid forms. the problem with this method is that all analytical data about the feeds are controlled by the service provider and so not easily accessible or transferable. method 3 unique url per feed - this method requires heavy web server programming to auto generate a different rss feed url for each visitor to the website. the visitor ' s rss feed activity can then be tracked accurately using standard web analytics applications. the problem with this method is that if the feed is syndicated by a search engine for instance then this will defeat the purpose of the unique urls as many people could potentially view the rss feed via a single url. method 4 estimating number of subscribers from the log files. some aggregators ( for example, bloglines and google reader ) include a number of unique users on whose behalf the feed is being downloaded in the http request. other readers - - such as web browsers - - can be counted by noting the number of unique ip addresses that retrieve the file in a given period. this provides an estimate of actual readership, although it is probably higher than the real number because people may sign up for accounts with multiple aggregators and never delete their subscriptions and because they may read the same feeds at different computers, or the same computer may have a different ip address at different times. |


| | this article has multiple issues. please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. latin inscription in the colosseum | native to | | roman republic, roman empire | | era | | developed into romance languages 6th to 9th centuries | the roman empire in ad 117 vulgar latin is any of the unstandard ( as opposed to classical ) sociolects of latin from which the romance languages developed. the word vulgar in this usage comes from the latin word for common, as vulgar latin was the spoken language, and not from the english word meaning disgusting or objectionable. works written in latin during classical times used classical latin rather than vulgar latin ( originally called sermo vulgaris ), with very few exceptions ( most notably sections of gaius petronius ' satyricon ). because of its nonstandard nature, vulgar latin had no official orthography. vulgar latin is sometimes also called colloquial latin, or common romance ( particularly in the late stage ). in renaissance latin, vulgar latin was called vulgare latinum or latinum vulgare. the broad term vulgar latin should not be confused with the more specific term proto - romance, which refers specifically to the theoretical common ancestor to the modern romance languages, as such proto - romance may have been only one of the vulgar latin languages and only a very late stage of that language branch. | | this section may contain original research. ( october 2012 ) | vulgar latin is often confused with proto - romance. proto - romance is a proto - language, i. e. the latest stage common to all of the romance languages. because some of the less familiar romance languages branched off early from the others ( sardinian in particular, followed by romanian and related eastern romance languages ), it is also common to reconstruct later stages : e. g. proto continental romance ( after sardinian branched off ) ; proto italo - western romance ( after sardinian and romanian branched off ) ; and proto western romance ( after the branching - off of sardinian, romanian, and the central and southern italian languages, including standard italian ). proto - romance and the other proto - languages are theoretical, unitary linguistic constructions. vulgar latin, on the other hand, is the actual speech of the common people during the late roman empire. as a result, it is not simply theoretical but actually attested ( if thinly ), and is not unitary, with differences over both time and space. hence, it is possible to speak of, for example, the loss of initial /


empire. as a result, it is not simply theoretical but actually attested ( if thinly ), and is not unitary, with differences over both time and space. hence, it is possible to speak of, for example, the loss of initial / j / in unstressed syllables in the vulgar latin of cantabria ( the area in northern spain that gave birth to modern spanish ), while it is inaccurate to speak of a similar change in the " proto - romance of cantabria ". origin of the term the term " vulgar speech ", which later became " vulgar latin ", was used by inhabitants of the roman empire. subsequently it became a technical term from latin and romance - language philology referring to the unwritten varieties of a latinised language spoken mainly by the uneducated and therefore illiterate italo - celtic populations governed by the roman republic and the roman empire. traces of their language appear in some inscriptions, such as graffiti or advertisements. the educated population mainly responsible for classical latin might also have spoken vulgar latin in certain contexts depending on their background. the term was first used improperly in that sense by the pioneers of romance - language philology : francois juste marie raynouard ( 1761 – 1836 ) and friedrich christian diez ( 1794 – 1876 ). in the course of his studies on the lyrics of songs written by the troubadours of provence, which had already been studied by dante alighieri and published in de vulgari eloquentia, raynouard noticed that the romance languages derived in part from lexical, morphological, and syntactic features that were latin but were not preferred in classical latin. he hypothesized an intermediate phase and identified it with the romana lingua, a term that in countries speaking romance languages meant " nothing more or less than the vulgar speech as opposed to literary or grammatical latin. " diez, the principal founder of romance - language philology, impressed by the comparative methods of jakob grimm in deutsche grammatik, which came out in 1819 and was the first to use such methods in philology, decided to apply them to the romance languages and discovered raynouard ' s work, grammaire comparee des langues de l ' europe latine dans leurs rapports avec la langue des troubadours, published in 1821. describing himself as a pupil of raynouard, he went on to expand the concept to all romance languages, not just the speech of the troubadours, on a


- class, or family, latin ( good family ) in sermo familiaris and very rarely literature might be termed sermo nobilis. the supposed " sermo classicus " is a scholarly fiction unattested in the dictionary. all kinds of sermo were spoken only, not written. if one wanted to refer to what in post - classical times was called classical latin one resorted to the concept of latinitas ( " latinity " ) or latine ( adverb ). if one spoke in the lingua or sermo latinus one merely spoke latin, but if one spoke latine or latinius ( " more latinish " ) one spoke good latin, and formal latin had latinitas, the quality of good latin, about it. after the fall of the empire and the death of spoken latin its only representative then was written latin, which became known as classicus, " classy " latin. the original opposition was between formal or implied good latin and informal or vulgar latin. the spoken / written dichotomy is entirely philological. it cannot be supposed that the spoken language was a distinct and persistent language so that the citizens of rome would be regarded as bilingual. instead, vulgar latin is a blanket term covering the popular dialects and sociolects of the latin language throughout its range from the hypothetical prisca latinitas of unknown or poorly remembered times in early latium to the death of latin after the fall of the empire. although making it clear that sermo vulgaris existed, the ancients said very little about it. because it was not transcribed, it can only be studied indirectly. knowledge comes from these chief sources : - solecisms, especially in late latin texts. - mention of it by ancient grammarians, including prescriptive grammar texts from the late latin period condemning linguistic " errors " that represent spoken latin. - the comparative method, which reconstructs proto - romance, a hypothetical vernacular proto - language from which the romance languages descended. - some literary works written in a lower register of latin provide a glimpse into the world of vulgar latin in the classical period : the dialogues of the plays of plautus and terence, being comedies with many characters who were slaves, and the speech of freedmen in the cena trimalchionis by petronius arbiter vulgar latin developed differently in the various provinces of the roman empire, gradually giving rise to the different romance languages. jozsef herman states : it seems certain that in the sixth century, and quite likely into the early parts


petronius arbiter vulgar latin developed differently in the various provinces of the roman empire, gradually giving rise to the different romance languages. jozsef herman states : it seems certain that in the sixth century, and quite likely into the early parts of the seventh century, people in the main romanized areas could still largely understand the biblical and liturgical texts and the commentaries ( of greater or lesser simplicity ) that formed part of the rites and of religious practice, and that even later, throughout the seventh century, saints ' lives written in latin could be read aloud to the congregations with an expectation that they would be understood. we can also deduce however, that in gaul, from the central part of the eighth century onwards, many people, including several of the clerics, were not able to understand even the most straightforward religious texts. as early as 722, in a face to face meeting between pope gregory ii, born and raised in rome, and saint boniface, an anglo - saxon, boniface complained that he found pope gregory ' s latin speech difficult to understand, a clear sign of the transformation of vulgar latin in two regions of western europe. at the third council of tours in 813, priests were ordered to preach in the vernacular language – either in the rustica lingua romanica ( vulgar latin ), or in the germanic vernaculars – since the common people could no longer understand formal latin. within a generation, the oaths of strasbourg ( 842 ), a treaty between charlemagne ' s grandsons charles the bald and louis the german, was proffered and recorded in a language that was already distinct from latin. | romance ( old french ) | | approximate vulgar latin equivalent | | translation | | pro deo amur et pro christian poblo et nostro commun saluament, d ' ist di in auant, in quant deus sauir et podir me dunat, si saluarai eo cist meon fradre karlo, et in adiudha et in cadhuna cosa si cum om per dreit son fradra saluar dist, in o quid il mi altresi fazet. et ab ludher nul plaid nunquam prindrai qui meon uol cist meon fradre karle in damno sit. | | " pro deu ( m ) amore ( m ) et pro christianu ( m ) populu ( m ) et nostro commune ( m ) salvament


uol cist meon fradre karle in damno sit. | | " pro deu ( m ) amore ( m ) et pro christianu ( m ) populu ( m ) et nostro commune ( m ) salvamentu ( m ), de istu ( m ) die ( m ) in ab ante, in quantu ( m ) deus sapere et potere mihi dat, sic salvare ( h ) a ( b ) eo ecc ' istu ( m ) meum fratre ( m ) carolu ( m ), et in aiuta et in cata - una causa, sic quomo ( do ) ( h ) omo per directu ( m ) suum fratre ( m ) saluare debet, in ( h ) oc quo illoe mi ( hi ) alteru ( m ) sic faciat, et apu ( d ) lothar ( m ) nullu ( m ) placitu ( m ) nunquam prendere ( h ) a ( b ) eo quod meum volu ( m ) ecc ' istu ( m ) meu ( m ) fratre ( m ) carolu ( m ) in damno sit. " | | " for the love of god and for christendom and our common salvation, from this day onwards, as god will give me the wisdom and power, i shall protect this brother of mine charles, with aid or anything else, as one ought to protect one ' s brother, so that he may do the same for me, and i shall never knowingly make any covenant with lothair that would harm this brother of mine charles. " | from approximately this point on, the latin vernaculars began to be viewed as separate languages, developing local norms and, for some, orthographies of their own, so that vulgar latin must be regarded not as extinct – since all modern romance varieties are its continuation – but as replaced conceptually and terminologically by multiple labels recognizing regional differences in linguistic features. vulgar latin featured a large vocabulary of words that were productive in romance. there was no single pronunciation of vulgar latin, and the pronunciation of vulgar latin in the various latin - speaking areas is indistinguishable from the earlier history of the phonology of the romance languages. see the article on romance languages for more information. evidence of changes | latin wikisource has original text related to this article


- speaking areas is indistinguishable from the earlier history of the phonology of the romance languages. see the article on romance languages for more information. evidence of changes | latin wikisource has original text related to this article : | evidence of phonological changes can be seen in the late 3rd - century appendix probi, a collection of glosses prescribing correct classical latin forms for certain vulgar forms. these glosses describe : - a process of syncope, the loss of unstressed vowels ( " masculus non masclus " ) ; - the merger between pre - vocalic / e / and short / i / ( " vinea non vinia " ) ; - the levelling of the distinction between / o / and / u / ( " coluber non colober " ) and / e / and / i / ( " dimidius non demedius " ) ; - regularization of irregular forms ( " glis non glirus " ) ; - regularization and emphasis of gendered forms ( " pauper mulier non paupera mulier " ) ; - levelling of the distinction between / b / and / w / between vowels ( " bravium non brabium " ) ; - the substitution of diminutives for unmarked words ( " auris non oricla, neptis non nepticla " ) - the loss of syllable - final nasals ( " mensa non mesa " ) or their inappropriate insertion as a form of hypercorrection ( " formosus non formunsus " ). - the loss of / h /, both initially ( " hostiae non ostiae " ) and within the word ( " adhuc non aduc " ). many of the forms castigated in the appendix probi proved to be the productive forms in romance ; e. g., oricla ( classical latin auricula ) is the source of french oreille, catalan orella, spanish oreja, italian orecchia, romanian ureche, portuguese orelha, " ear ", not the classical latin form. consonant development loss of final consonants the loss of final consonants was already underway by the 1st century ad in some areas. a graffito at pompeii reads quisque ama valia, which in classical latin would read quisquis amat valeat ( " may whoever loves be strong / do well " ). ( the change from valeat


. a graffito at pompeii reads quisque ama valia, which in classical latin would read quisquis amat valeat ( " may whoever loves be strong / do well " ). ( the change from valeat to valia is also an early indicator of the development of / j / ( yod ), which played such an important part in the development of palatalization. ) on the other hand, this loss of final / t / was not general. old spanish and old french preserved a reflex of final / t / up through ad 1100 or so, and modern french still maintains final / t / in some liaison environments. lenition of stops areas north and west of the la spezia – rimini line lenited intervocalic / p, t, k / to / b, d, g /. this phenomenon is occasionally attested during the imperial period, but it became frequent by the 7th century. for example, in merovingian documents, rotatico > rodatico ( " wheel tax " ). loss of final m the loss of the final m was a process which seems to have begun by the time of the earliest monuments of the latin language. the epitaph of lucius cornelius scipio barbatus, who died around 150 bc, reads taurasia cisauna samnio cepit, which in classical latin would be taurasiam, cisaunam, samnium cepit ( " he captured taurasia, cisauna, and samnium " ). this however can be explained in a different way, that the inscription simply fails to note the nasality of the final vowels ( like in the established custom of writing cos. for consul ). consonant cluster simplification in general, many clusters were simplified in vulgar latin. for example, / ns / was changed to / s /, reflecting the fact that / n / was no longer consonantal. e. g. some inscriptions have mensis > mesis ( " month " ), or consul > cosul ( " consul " ). descendants of mensis include : portuguese has mes, spanish and catalan mes, old french meis, and italian mese. in some areas ( e. g. much of italy ), the clusters [ mn ], [ kt ] ⟨ ct ⟩, [ ks ] ⟨ x ⟩ were assimilated to the second element : [ nn ], [ tt ], [ ss ]. thus, some inscriptions have omnibus >


, the clusters [ mn ], [ kt ] ⟨ ct ⟩, [ ks ] ⟨ x ⟩ were assimilated to the second element : [ nn ], [ tt ], [ ss ]. thus, some inscriptions have omnibus > onibus ( " all [ dative plural ] " ), indictione > inditione ( " indiction " ), vixit > bissit ( " lived " ). also, three - consonant clusters usually lost the middle element. for example : emptores > imtores ( " buyers " ) not all areas show the same development of these clusters, however. in the east, italian has [ kt ] > [ tt ], as in octo > otto ( " eight " ) or nocte > notte ( " night " ) ; while romanian has [ kt ] > [ pt ] ( opt, noapte ). by contrast, in the west, the [ k ] was turned into [ j ]. in french and portuguese, this caused the diphthongization of the previous vowel ( huit, oito ; nuit, noite ), while in spanish, this developed further to [ tʃ ] ( * oito > ocho, * noite > noche ) also, many clusters including [ j ] were simplified. several of these groups seem to have never been fully stable ( e. g. faciunt for facunt ). this dropping have resulted in the word parietem ( " wall " ) turning into : italian parete, spanish pared, or french paroi. the cluster [ kw ] ⟨ qu ⟩ was simplified to [ k ] in most instances. in 435, one can find the hypercorrective spelling quisquentis for quiescentis ( " of the person who rests here " ). modern languages have followed this trend, for example latin qui ( " who " ) has become italian chi and french qui ( both / ki / ) ; while quem ( " who " ) becomes quien ( / kjen / ) in spanish.. however, [ kw ] has survived in front of [ a ] in most areas, although not in french ; hence latin quattuor yields spanish cuatro ( / kwatro / ) and italian quattro ( / kwattro / ), but french quatre ( / katʀ / ), where the qu - spelling is purely etymological. vowel development in general


cuatro ( / kwatro / ) and italian quattro ( / kwattro / ), but french quatre ( / katʀ / ), where the qu - spelling is purely etymological. vowel development in general, the ten - vowel system of classical latin, which relied on phonemic vowel length, was newly modelled into one in which vowel length distinctions lost phonemic importance, and qualitative distinctions of height became more prominent. the system of classical latin classical latin had 10 different vowel phonemes, grouped into five pairs of short - long, ⟨ a - a, e - e, i - i, o - o, u - u ⟩. it also had four diphthongs, ⟨ ae, oe, au, eu ⟩ ( some authors also include ui ). finally, there were also long and short ⟨ y ⟩, representing / y /, / yː / in greek borrowings, which however probably came to be pronounced / i /, / iː / even before romance vowel changes started. at least since the 1st century ce, short vowels ( except a ) differed by quality as well as by length from their long counterparts, the short vowels being lower. thus the vowel inventory is usually reconstructed as / a - aː /, / ɛ - eː /, / ɪ - iː /, / ɔ - oː /, / ʊ - uː /. | spelling | | 1st c. | | 2nd c. | | 3rd c. | | 4th c. | many diphthongs had begun their monophthongization very early. it is presumed that by republican times ae had become / ɛː / in unstressed syllables, a phenomenon that would spread to stressed positions around the 1st century ad. from the 2nd century ce there are instances of spellings with ⟨ e ⟩ instead of ⟨ ae ⟩. ⟨ oe ⟩ was always a rare diphthong in classical latin ( in old latin, oinos regularly became unus ( " one " ) ), and became / e / during eary imperial times. thus, one can find penam for poenam. however, ⟨ au ⟩ lasted much more. while it was monophthongized to / o / in areas of north and central italy ( including rome ), it was retained in most vulgar latin, and it survives in modern romanian ( e. g. aur < aurum ). in italian, the contrast of oro vs. luogo shows the change


of north and central italy ( including rome ), it was retained in most vulgar latin, and it survives in modern romanian ( e. g. aur < aurum ). in italian, the contrast of oro vs. luogo shows the change of o to uo took place before the monophthongization of au. there is evidence in french and spanish that the monophthongization of au occurred independently in these languages. loss of distinctive length and near - close mergers length confusions seem to have begun in unstressed vowels, but they were soon generalized. in the 3rd century ce, sacerdos mentions the tendency of people to shorten vowels at the end of a word, while some poets ( like commodian ) show inconsistencies between long and short vowels in versification. however, the loss of contrastive length would only have caused the merger of a and a, while the rest of pairs would have remained distinct in quality : / a /, / ɛ - e /, / ɪ - i /, / ɔ - o /, / ʊ - u /. second, the near - close vowels / ɪ / and / ʊ / became more open in most varieties, merging with / e / and / o /, respectively. as a result, latin pira ( " pear " ) ( fruit ) and vera " true ", came to rhyme in most of its daughter languages : italian, and spanish pera, vera. similarly, latin nux ( " nut " ) and vox ( " voice " ) become italian noce, voce, portuguese noz, voz. there was likely some regional variation in pronunciation, as the eastern romance languages and sardinian evolved differently. in sardinian, all corresponding short and long vowels simply merged with each other, creating a 5 - vowel system : / a, e, i, o, u /. in romanian, the front vowels e, i, e, i evolved like the western languages, but the back vowels o, u, o, u evolved as in sardinian. a few remnant dialects in southern italy behave like sardinian or romanian. lengthening of stressed open syllables after the classical latin vowel length distinctions were lost in favor of vowel quality, a new system of allophonic vowel quantity appeared sometime between the 4th and 5th centuries. around this time, stressed vowels in open syllables came to be pronounced long ( but keeping height contrasts ), whereas all the rest became short. for example, long venis / * '


christian poblo – " for the christian people " ). using the demonstratives as articles may have still been considered overly informal for a royal oath in the ninth century. considerable variation exists in all of the romance vernaculars as to their actual use : in romanian, the articles can be suffixed to the noun, as in other members of the balkan sprachbund and the north germanic languages. the numeral unus, una ( one ) supplies the indefinite article in all cases. this is anticipated in classical latin ; cicero writes cum uno gladiatore nequissimo ( " with a most immoral gladiator " ). this suggests that unus was beginning to supplant quidam in the meaning of " a certain " or " some " by the 1st century bc. [ dubious ] loss of neuter the three grammatical genders of classical latin were replaced by a two - gender system in most romance languages. the neuter gender of classical latin was in most cases absorbed by the masculine both syntactically and morphologically. the syntactical [ dubious ] confusion starts already in the pompeian graffiti, e. g. cadaver mortuus for cadaver mortuum ( " dead body " ), and hoc locum for hunc locum ( " this place " ). the morphological confusion shows primarily in the adoption of the nominative ending - us ( - ø after - r ) in the o - declension. in petronius ' work, one can find balneus for balneum ( " bath " ), fatus for fatum ( " fate " ), caelus for caelum ( " heaven " ), amphitheater for amphitheatrum ( " amphitheatre " ), vinus for vinum ( " wine " ), and conversely, thesaurum for thesaurus ( " treasure " ). most of these forms occur in the speech of one man : trimalchion, an uneducated, greek ( i. e. foreign ) freedman. in modern romance languages, the nominative s - ending has been abandoned, and all substantives of the o - declension have an ending derived from - um : - u, - o, or - ø. e. g. masculine murum ( " wall " ), and neuter caelum ( " sky " ) have evolved to : italian muro, cielo ; portuguese muro, ce


- u, - o, or - ø. e. g. masculine murum ( " wall " ), and neuter caelum ( " sky " ) have evolved to : italian muro, cielo ; portuguese muro, ceu ; spanish muro, cielo ', catalan mur, cel ; french mur, ciel. however, old french still had - s in the nominative and - ø in the accusative in both words : murs, ciels [ nominative ] - mur, ciel [ oblique ]. for some neuter nouns of the third declension, the oblique stem became the productive ; for others, the nominative / accusative form, which was identical in classical latin. evidence suggests that the neuter gender was under pressure well back into the imperial period. french ( le ) lait, catalan ( la ) llet, spanish ( la ) leche, portuguese ( o ) leite, italian language ( il ) latte, leonese ( el ) lleche and romanian lapte ( le ) ( " milk " ), all derive from the non - standard but attested latin nominative / accusative neuter lacte or accusative masculine lactem. note also that in spanish the word became feminine, while in french, portuguese and italian it became masculine ( in romanian it remained neuter, lapte / lapturi ). other neuter forms, however, were preserved in romance ; catalan and french nom, leonese, portuguese and italian nome, romanian nume ( " name " ) all preserve the latin nominative / accusative nomen, rather than the oblique stem form * nominem ( which nevertheless produced spanish nombre ). | nouns | | adjectives and determiners | most neuter nouns had plural forms ending in - a or - ia ; some of these were reanalysed as feminine singulars, such as gaudium ( " joy " ), plural gaudia ; the plural form lies at the root of the french feminine singular ( la ) joie, as well as of catalan and occitan ( la ) joia ( italian la gioia is a borrowing from french ) ; the same for lignum ( " wood stick " ), plural ligna, that originated the catalan feminine singular noun ( la ) llenya, and spanish ( la ) lena. some romance languages still have a special form derived from the ancient


the same for lignum ( " wood stick " ), plural ligna, that originated the catalan feminine singular noun ( la ) llenya, and spanish ( la ) lena. some romance languages still have a special form derived from the ancient neuter plural which is treated grammatically as feminine : e. g. bracchium : bracchia " arm ( s ) " > italian ( il ) braccio : ( le ) braccia, romanian brat ( ul ) : brate ( le ). cf. also merovingian latin ipsa animalia aliquas mortas fuerant. alternations in italian heteroclitic nouns such as l ' uovo fresco ( " the fresh egg " ) / le uova fresche ( " the fresh eggs " ) are usually analysed as masculine in the singular and feminine in the plural, with an irregular plural in - a. however, it is also consistent with their historical development to say that uovo is simply a regular neuter noun ( ovum, plural ova ) and that the characteristic ending for words agreeing with these nouns is - o in the singular and - a in the plural. thus, neuter nouns can arguably be said to persist in italian, and also romanian. these formations were especially common when they could be used to avoid irregular forms. in latin, the names of trees were usually feminine, but many were declined in the second declension paradigm, which was dominated by masculine or neuter nouns. latin pirus ( " pear tree " ), a feminine noun with a masculine - looking ending, became masculine in italian ( il ) pero and romanian par ( ul ) ; in french and spanish it was replaced by the masculine derivations ( le ) poirier, ( el ) peral ; and in portuguese and catalan by the feminine derivations ( a ) pereira, ( la ) perera. as usual, irregularities persisted longest in frequently used forms. from the fourth declension noun manus ( " hand " ), another feminine noun with the ending - us, italian and spanish derived ( la ) mano, catalan ( la ) ma, and portuguese ( a ) mao, which preserve the feminine gender along with the masculine appearance. except for the italian and romanian heteroclitic nouns, other major romance languages have no trace of neuter nouns, but still have neuter pronouns. french celui - ci / celle - ci / ceci ( " this " ),


for the italian and romanian heteroclitic nouns, other major romance languages have no trace of neuter nouns, but still have neuter pronouns. french celui - ci / celle - ci / ceci ( " this " ), spanish este / esta / esto ( " this " ), italian : gli / le / ci ( " to him " / " to her " / " to it " ), catalan : ho, aco, aixo, allo ( " it " / this / this - that / that over there ) ; portuguese : todo / toda / tudo ( " all of him " / " all of her " / " all of it " ). in spanish, a three - way contrast is also made with the definite articles el, la, and lo. the last is used with nouns denoting abstract categories : lo bueno, literally " that which is good ", from bueno : good. loss of cases the sound shifts in vulgar latin caused the merging of several case endings in the nominal and adjectival inflections. some of the causes include : the loss of final m, the merging of a with a, and the merging of u with o ( see tables ). thus, by the 5th century, the number of case distinctions had been drastically reduced. ( ca. 1st century ) ( ca. 5th century ) ( ca. 1st century ) ( ca. 5th century ) ( ca. 11th century ) there also seems to be a marked tendency to confuse different forms even when they have not become homophonous ( like in the generally more distinct plurals ), which indicates the nominal deflexion was not only caused by phonetic mergers, but also by structural factors. as a result of the untenability of the noun case system after these phonetic changes, vulgar latin moved from being a markedly synthetic language to a more analytic language. the genitive case died out around the 3rd century ce, according to meyer - lubke. exceptions of remaining genitive forms are some pronouns, many fossilized combinations like sayings, some proper names, and certain terms related to the church. for example, french lundi < lunae dies ( " monday " ) ; spanish es menester < est ministeri ( " it is necessary " ) ; terms like angelorum, paganorum ; and italian names like paoli, pieri. the dative case lasted longer than the genitive, even though plautus, in the 2nd century


est ministeri ( " it is necessary " ) ; terms like angelorum, paganorum ; and italian names like paoli, pieri. the dative case lasted longer than the genitive, even though plautus, in the 2nd century bc, already shows some instances of substitution by the construction ad plus accusative. for example, ad carnuficem dabo. the accusative case developed as a prepositional case, displacing many instances of the ablative. towards the end of the imperial period, the accusative came to be used more and more as a general oblique case. however, despite the growing number case mergers, nominative and accusative forms seem to have remained distinct for much longer, since they are rarely confused in inscriptions. even though gaulish texts from the 7th centuries rarely confuse both forms, it is believed that both cases began to merge in africa by the end of the empire, and a bit later in parts of italy and iberia. nowadays, romanian still has a three case system, while old french and old occitan had a nominative / oblique system. wider use of prepositions loss of a productive noun case system meant that the syntactic purposes it formerly served now had to be performed by prepositions and other paraphrases. these particles increased in number, and many new ones were formed by compounding old ones. the descendant romance languages are full of grammatical particles such as spanish donde, " where ", from latin de + unde, or french des, " since ", from de + ex, while the equivalent spanish and portuguese desde is de + ex + de. spanish despues and portuguese depois, " after ", represent de + ex + post. some of these new compounds appear in literary texts during the late empire ; french dehors, spanish de fuera and portuguese de fora ( " outside " ) all represent de + foris ( romanian afara – ad + foris ), and we find jerome writing stulti, nonne qui fecit, quod de foris est, etiam id, quod de intus est fecit? ( luke 11. 40 : " ye fools, did not he, that made which is without, make that which is within also? " ). in some cases, compounds were created by combining a large number of particles, such as the romanian adineauri ( " just recently " ) from ad + de


he, that made which is without, make that which is within also? " ). in some cases, compounds were created by combining a large number of particles, such as the romanian adineauri ( " just recently " ) from ad + de + in + illa + hora. as latin was losing its case system, prepositions started to move in to fill the void. in colloquial latin, the preposition ad followed by the accusative was sometimes used as a substitute for the dative case. - marcus patri librum dat. " marcus is giving [ his ] father [ a / the ] book. " - marcus da libru a patre. " marcus is giving [ a / the ] book to [ his ] father. " just as in the disappearing dative case, colloquial latin sometimes replaced the disappearing genitive case with the preposition de followed by the ablative. - marcus mihi librum patris dat. " marcus is giving me [ his ] father ' s book. - marcus mi da libru de patre. " marcus is giving me [ the ] book of [ his ] father. " unlike in the nominal and adjectival inflections, pronouns kept great part of the case distinctions. however, many changes happened. for example, the / g / of ego was lost by the end of the empire, and eo appears in manuscripts from the 6th century. | 1st person | | 2nd person | | 3rd person | | dative | | * mi | | * nobe ( s ) | | * ti, * tebe | | * vobe ( s ) | | * si, * sebe | | * si, * sebe | classical latin had a number of different suffixes that made adverbs from adjectives : carus, " dear ", formed care, " dearly " ; acriter, " fiercely ", from acer ; crebro, " often ", from creber. all of these derivational suffixes were lost in vulgar latin, where adverbs were invariably formed by a feminine ablative form modifying mente, which was originally the ablative of mens, and so meant " with a _ _ _ _ _ mind ". so velox ( " quick " ) instead of velociter ( " quickly " ) gave veloci mente ( originally " with a quick mind ", " quick - mindedly "


a _ _ _ _ _ mind ". so velox ( " quick " ) instead of velociter ( " quickly " ) gave veloci mente ( originally " with a quick mind ", " quick - mindedly " ) this explains the widespread rule for forming adverbs in many romance languages : add the suffix - ment ( e ) to the feminine form of the adjective. this originally separate word becomes a suffix in romance. in general, the verbal system in the romance languages evolved less from classical latin than did the nominal system. in the perfect, many languages generalized the - aui ending most frequently found in the first conjugation. this led to an unusual development ; phonetically, the ending was treated as the diphthong / au / rather than containing a semivowel / awi /, and the / w / sound was in many cases dropped ; it did not participate in the sound shift from / w / to / β /. thus latin amaui, amauit ( " i loved ; he / she loved " ) in many areas became proto - romance * amai and * amaut, yielding for example portuguese amei, amou. this suggests that in the spoken language, these changes in conjugation preceded the loss of / w /. another major systemic change was to the future tense, remodelled in vulgar latin with auxiliary verbs. this may have been due to phonetic merger of intervocalic / b / and / w /, which caused future tense forms such as amabit to become identical to perfect forms such as amauit, introducing unacceptable ambiguity. a new future was originally formed with the auxiliary verb habere, * amare habeo, literally " to love i have " ( cf. english " i have to love ", which has shades of a future meaning ). this was contracted into a new future suffix in western romance forms which can be seen in the following modern examples of " i will love " : - french : j ' aimerai ( je + aimer + ai ) < aimer [ " to love " ] + ai [ " i have " ]. - portuguese and galician : amarei ( amar + [ h ] ei ) < amar [ " to love " ] + hei [ " i have " ] - spanish and catalan : amare ( amar + [ h ] e ) < amar [ " to love " ] + he [ " i have " ]. - italian : amero (


love " ] + hei [ " i have " ] - spanish and catalan : amare ( amar + [ h ] e ) < amar [ " to love " ] + he [ " i have " ]. - italian : amero ( amar + [ h ] o ) < amare [ " to love " ] + ho [ " i have " ]. an innovative conditional ( distinct from the subjunctive ) also developed in the same way ( infinitive + conjugated form of habere ). the fact that the future and conditional endings were originally independent words is still evident in literary portuguese, which in these tenses allows clitic object pronouns to be incorporated between the root of the verb and its ending : " i will love " ( eu ) amarei, but " i will love you " amar - te - ei, from amar + te [ " you " ] + ( eu ) hei = amar + te + [ h ] ei = amar - te - ei. contrary to the millennia - long continuity of much of the active verb system, which has now survived 6000 years of known evolution, the synthetic passive voice was utterly lost in romance, being replaced with periphrastic verb forms — composed of the verb " to be " plus a passive participle — or impersonal reflexive forms — composed of a verb and a passivizing pronoun. apart from the grammatical and phonetic developments there were many cases of verbs merging as complex subtleties in latin were reduced to simplified verbs in romance. a classic example of this is the verbs expressing the concept " to go ". consider three particular verbs in classical latin expressing concepts of " going " : ire, vadere, and ambulare. in spanish and portuguese ire and vadere merged into the verb ir which derives some conjugated forms from ire and some from vadere. andar was maintained as a separate verb derived from ambulare. italian instead merged vadere and ambulare into the verb andare. and at the extreme french merged all three latin verbs with, for example, the present tense deriving from vadere and ambulare and the future tense deriving from ire. similarly the romance distinction between the romance verbs for " to be ", essere and stare, was lost in french as these merged into the verb etre. the copula ( that is, the verb signifying " to be " ) of classical latin was es


between the romance verbs for " to be ", essere and stare, was lost in french as these merged into the verb etre. the copula ( that is, the verb signifying " to be " ) of classical latin was esse. this evolved to * essere in vulgar latin by attaching the common infinitive suffix - re to the classical infinitive ; this produced italian essere and french etre through proto - gallo - romance * essre and old french estre as well as spanish and portuguese ser ( romanian a fi derives from fieri which means " to become " ). however, in vulgar latin a second copula developed utilizing the verb stare, which originally meant ( and is cognate with ) " to stand " to denote a more temporary meaning. that is, * essere signified the essence, while stare signified the state. stare evolved to spanish and portuguese estar and old french ester ( both through * estare ), while italian and romanian retained the original form. the semantic shift that underlies this evolution is more or less as follows : a speaker of classical latin might have said : vir est in foro, meaning " the man is at the marketplace ". the same sentence in vulgar latin should have been * ( h ) omo stat in foro, " the man stands at the marketplace ", replacing the est ( from esse ) with stat ( from stare ), because " standing " was what was perceived as what the man was actually doing. the use of stare in this case was still actually correct assuming that it meant " to stand ", but soon the shift from esse to stare became more widespread. in the iberian peninsula esse ended up only denoting natural qualities that would not change, while stare was applied to transient qualities and location. in italian, " stare " is used only for location and the eminently transient quality implied in a verb ' s progressive form, such as sto scrivendo for " i am doing ". ( although it might be objected that in sentences like spanish la catedral esta en la ciudad, " the church is in the city " this is also unlikely to change, but all locations are expressed through estar in spanish, as this usage originally conveyed the sense of " the church stands in the city " ). - posner, rebecca ( 1996 ). the romance languages. cambridge, new york : cambridge university press. p. 98. - meyer ( 1906


spanish, as this usage originally conveyed the sense of " the church stands in the city " ). - posner, rebecca ( 1996 ). the romance languages. cambridge, new york : cambridge university press. p. 98. - meyer ( 1906 ), p. 239. - meyer ( 1906 ), pp. 244 – 5. - diez ( 1882 ), p. 1. - diez ( 1882 ), p. 63. - grandigent ( 1907 ), p. 5. - herman ( 2000 ), p. 114. - mann, horace, the lives of the popes in the early middle ages, vol. i : the popes under the lombard rule, part 2, 657 - 795 ( 1903 ), pg. 158 - harrington et al. ( 1997 ). - herman 2000, p. 47. - herman 2000, p. 48. - allen ( 2003 ) states : " there appears to have been no great difference in quality between long and short a, but in the case of the close and mid vowels ( i and u, e and o ) the long appear to have been appreciably closer than the short. " he then goes on to the historical development, quotations from various authors ( from around the ad second century ), as well as evidence from older inscriptions where " e " stands for normally short i, and " i " for long e, etc. - grandgent & moll 1991, p. 11. - palmer 1954, p. 157. - grandgent & moll 1991, p. 118. - herman 2000, p. 28 - 29. - palmer 1954, p. 156. - vincent ( 1990 ). - grandgent & moll 1991, p. 125. - in a few isolated masculine nouns, the s has been either preserved or reinstated in the modern languages, for example filius ( " son " ) > french fils, deus ( " god " ) > spanish dios and portuguese deus, and particularly in proper names : spanish carlos, marcos, in the conservative orthography of french jacques, charles, jules, etc. ( menendez pidal 1968, p. 208 ; survivances du cas sujet ) - herman 2000, p. 52. - grandgent & moll 1991, p. 82. - captivi, 1019. - herman 2000, p. 53. - romanian explanatory dictionary ( dexonline. ro ) - grandgent & moll 1991


. - grandgent & moll 1991, p. 82. - captivi, 1019. - herman 2000, p. 53. - romanian explanatory dictionary ( dexonline. ro ) - grandgent & moll 1991, p. 238. see also - oaths of strasbourg - romance copula - romance languages - veronese riddle history of specific romance languages - catalan phonology - history of french - history of italian - history of portuguese - history of the spanish language - latin to romanian sound changes - old french - allen, w. sidney ( 2003 ). vox latina – a guide to the pronunciation of classical latin ( 2nd ed. ). cambridge : cambridge university press. isbn 0 - 521 - 37936 - 9. - boyd - bowman ( 1980 ). from latin to romance in sound charts. washington dc : georgetown university press. unknown parameter - diez, friedrich ( 1882 ). grammatik der romanischen sprachen ( in german ) ( 5 auflage ed. ). bonn : e. weber. - grandgent, c. h. ( 1907 ). an introduction to vulgar latin. boston : d. c. heath. - grandgent, charles hall ( 1882 ). introduccion al latin vulgar ( in spanish ) ( spanish translation by francisco de b. moll ed. ). consejo superior de investigaciones cientificas. - harrington, k. p. ; pucci, j. ; elliott, a. g. ( 1997 ). medieval latin ( 2nd ed. ). university of chicago press. isbn 0 - 226 - 31712 - 9. - herman, jozsef ; wright, roger ( translator ) ( 2000 ). vulgar latin. university park : pennsylvania state university press. isbn 0 - 271 - 02001 - 6. - meyer, paul ( 1906 ). " beginnings and progress of romance philology ". in rogers, howard j. congress of arts and sciences : universal exposition, st. louis, 1904. volume iii. boston and new york : houghton, mifflin and company. pp. 237 – 255 - palmer, l. r. ( 1988 ). the latin language. university of oklahoma. isbn 0 - 8061 - 2136 - x. - pulgram, ernst ( 1950 ). " spoken and written latin ". language 26 ( 4 ) : 458 – 466. doi : 10. 2307 / 410397. jstor 41039


- 2136 - x. - pulgram, ernst ( 1950 ). " spoken and written latin ". language 26 ( 4 ) : 458 – 466. doi : 10. 2307 / 410397. jstor 410397. - sihler, a. l. ( 1995 ). new comparative grammar of greek and latin. oxford : oxford university press. isbn 0 - 19 - 508345 - 8. - tucker, t. g. ( 1985 ). etymological dictionary of latin. ares publishers. isbn 0 - 89005 - 172 - 0. - vaananen, veikko ( 1981 ). introduction au latin vulgaire. troisieme edition revue et augmentee. paris : klincksieck. isbn 2 - 252 - 02360 - 0. - vincent, nigel ( 1990 ). " latin ". in harris, m. ; vincent, n. the romance languages. oxford university press. isbn 0 - 19 - 520829 - 3 - von wartburg, walther ; chambon, jean - pierre ( 1928 - ). franzosisches etymologisches worterbuch : eine darstellung des galloromanischen sprachschatzes ( in german, french ). bonn : f. klopp. transitions to romance languages to french - kibler, william w. ( 1984 ). an introduction to old french. new york : modern language association of america. unknown parameter - pope, mildred k. ( 1934 ). from latin to modern french with especial consideration of anglo - norman phonology and morphology. manchester : manchester university press. - price, glanville ( 1998 ). the french language : present and past ( revised ed. ). london : grant and cutler. to italian - maiden, martin ( 1996 ). a linguistic history of italian. new york : longman. to spanish - penny, ralph ( 2002 ). a history of the spanish language. cambridge : cambridge university press. - pharies, david a. ( 2007 ). a brief history of the spanish language. chicago : university of chicago press. - pountain, christopher j. ( 2000 ). a history of the spanish language through texts. london : routledge. to portuguese - williams, edwin b. ( 1968 ). from latin to portuguese : historical phonology and morphology of the portuguese language. philadelphia : university of pennsylvania press. to occitan - paden,


family : phyllostomidae, new world fruit bats view all from this family description usually gray - brown ( sometimes dark brown ) above ; paler below. surface of interfemoral membrane well furred. no tail. short, rounded ears ; small tragus. large eyes. thickened, m - shaped fold of skin over nostrils. outside lower incisor has 7 fan - shaped lobes ( unique among bats ) ; cheek teeth reduced. dimensions l 2 1 / 2 - 3 3 / 8 " ( 65 - 87 mm ) ; hf average 5 / 8 " ( 18 mm ) ; fa 2 - 2 1 / 4 " ( 50 - 56 mm ) ; wt 7 / 8 - 1 1 / 2 oz ( 24 - 43 g ). breeding female bears 1 young, apparently at any time of year. habitat mainly humid forest. usually roosts in caves, but also in mines and hollow trees. range central mexico south into south america. discussion discovered in mexico in the 16th century by the spanish conquistadores, who named them after the blood - sucking creatures of eastern european legend, vampire bats feed entirely upon blood and occur only in the new world. the vampires are among the few bats that use their wings for walking on the ground. sleeping by day in caves or other dark, protected places, hairy - legged vampire bats feed at night, chiefly on the blood of birds, such as chickens, turkeys, guinea fowl, ducks, and geese. the bat uses sharp upper incisors to quickly inflict a wound so shallow that the victim rarely notices. it bites chickens on the lower legs or near the cloaca ( anal opening ), where there are few feathers. curling the tongue into a tube that fits a v - shaped notch in its lower lip, the feeding bat sips the blood, which flows freely due to an anticoagulant in its saliva. unless the victim is very small, the amount of blood taken by the bat is not harmful ; more serious, after the bat has flown away, is the potential for blood loss owing to slowed clotting, the vulnerability of the open wound to infection, and the possibility of rabies transmission. these large - eyed bats have good vision, but a poorly developed system of echolocation. they usually congregate in small groups of only 1 to 3 per cave, rarely more than 12, though in one cave 35 were found. the carcass of a single hairy - legged vampire bat was found in an


| gills on hymenium | | cap is convex | | hymenium is free | | stipe has a ring and volva | | spore print is white | | ecology is mycorrhizal | | but not recommended | amanita caesarea, commonly known in english as caesar ' s mushroom, is a highly regarded edible mushroom in the genus amanita, native to southern europe and north africa. it has a distinctive orange cap, yellow gills and stem. similar orange - capped species occur in north america and india. it was known to and valued by the ancient romans, who called it boletus, a name now applied to a very different type of fungus. taxonomy and naming amanita caesarea was first described by italian mycologist giovanni antonio scopoli in 1772 as agaricus caesareus, before later being placed in amanita by persoon in 1801. the common name comes from its being a favorite of the roman emperors, who took the name caesar ( originally a family name ) as a title. the romans called it boletus, derived from the ancient greek βωλιτης for this fungus as named by galen. several modern common names recognise this heritage with the english caesar ' s mushroom and royal amanita, french imperiale, polish cesarski and german kaiserling. in italian, it is ovolo ( pl. ovoli ), due to its resemblance to an egg when very young. in albanian it is kuqelorja from its color ( < albanian kuqe ' red ' ). other common names include amanite des cesars and oronge. it has also been classified as a. umbonata. a. hemibapha is a similar species originally described from india, and this name has sometimes been applied to north american collections. the relationship of the similar north american species a. arkansana and a. jacksonii to a. caesarea is not clear. the edibility of some of these similar species is also unclear, though a. jacksonii is eaten by many and there have been no reports of illness from it. this mushroom has an orange - red cap, initially hemispherical before convex and finally flat. the surface is smooth, and margins striated, and it can reach 15 ( 6 in ) or rarely 20 cm ( 8 in ) in diameter. the free gills are pale to golden yellow, as is the cylinder - shaped stipe, which is 8 – 15 cm ( 3


margins striated, and it can reach 15 ( 6 in ) or rarely 20 cm ( 8 in ) in diameter. the free gills are pale to golden yellow, as is the cylinder - shaped stipe, which is 8 – 15 cm ( 3 – 6 in ) tall and 2 – 3 cm ( around 1 in ) wide. the ring hangs loosely and is lined above and smooth below. the base of the stipe is thicker than the top and is seated in a greyish - white cup - like volva, which is a remnant of universal veil. the spores are white. it could be confused with the poisonous fly agaric ( amanita muscaria ). though a. muscaria has a distinctive red cap dotted with fluffy white flakes, these tend to fall off as the carpophor ages and the bright red tends to fade to a yellowy orange. the latter mushroom will always have white gills and stalk with a ringed volva rather than a yellow stalk and is typically associated with spruce ( picea ), pine ( pinus ) or birch ( betula ). certain varieties ( e. g. amanita muscaria var. guessowii ) are close to yellow even at the juvenile stage. distribution and habitat this mushroom fruits in oak woodland, sometimes mixed with conifers, from early summer to mid autumn. it is found in north africa and southern europe, particularly in the hills of northern italy. it is thought to have been introduced north of the alps by the roman armies as it is most frequently found along old roman roads. the mushroom is also distributed in hungary, india, and china ( sichuan province ). although the species is not known to exist in the united states and canada, it has been collected in mexico. this mushroom is highly prized, and is a common sight in the markets of italy, southern france, and spain. however, many mycologists warn inexperienced gatherers against seeking it out as it can be easily confused with other deadly members of the amanita genus, for example amanita virosa or amanita phalloides. - ^ scopoli ja. ( 1772 ) ( in latin ). flora carniolica exhibiens plantas carnioliae indigenas et distributas in classes, genera, species, varietates ordine linnaeano. vol. 2. vienna : johann paul krauss. p. 419. - ^ persoon ch. ( 1801 )


et distributas in classes, genera, species, varietates ordine linnaeano. vol. 2. vienna : johann paul krauss. p. 419. - ^ persoon ch. ( 1801 ) ( in latin ). synopsis methodica fungorum. gottingae. p. 252. http : / / 184. 108. 40. 206 / librifungorum / image. asp? itemid = 82 & imagefilename = 0252b. jpg. - ^ carluccio a. ( 2003 ). the complete mushroom book. quadrille. pp. 23 – 24. isbn 1 - 84400 - 040 - 0. - ^ a b c breitenbach j, kranzlin f ( 1995 ). fungi of switzerland 4 : agarics, 2nd part. p. 146. isbn 3 - 85604 - 240 - 7. - ^ breitenbach j, kranzlin f ( 1995 ). fungi of switzerland 4 : agarics, 2nd part. p. 150. isbn 3 - 85604 - 240 - 7. - ^ zoltan k. ( 1986 ). " mushrooms of the vali forest central hungary " ( in hungarian ). botanikai kozlemenyek 73 ( 1 – 2 ) : 49 – 72. issn 0006 - 8144. - ^ rishikesh m. ( 2003 ). " some wild edible mushrooms of siang valley : arunachal pradesh. ". plant archives 3 ( 1 ) : 81 – 84. issn 0972 - 5210. - ^ weihong p, bingcheng g, wei t, yong g. ( 2003 ). " studies on economic mushrooms in longmen mountain areas " ( in chinese ). southwest china journal of agricultural sciences 16 ( 1 ) : 36 – 41. issn 1001 - 4829. - ^ castano - meneses g, quiroz - robledo ln. ( 2004 ). " ants ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) associated with macromycetes fungus ( fungi : basidiomycetes ) in sierra de taxco, guerrero, mexico ". folia entomologica mexicana 43 ( 1 ) : 79 – 86. issn 0430 - 8603. - ^ guzman g, ramirez - guillen f. ( 2001 ). the amanita caesarea - complex. 187. berlin :


##ologica mexicana 43 ( 1 ) : 79 – 86. issn 0430 - 8603. - ^ guzman g, ramirez - guillen f. ( 2001 ). the amanita caesarea - complex. 187. berlin : j. cramer. isbn 978 - 3 - 443 - 59089 - 5. - ^ sarkina is, prydiuk mp, heluta vp. ( 2003 ). " macromycetes of crimea, listed in the red data book of ukraine ". ukrayins ' kyi botanichnyi zhurnal 60 ( 4 ) : 438 – 46. issn 0372 - 4123. - ^ al - sayegh petkovsek s, pokorny b, piltaver a. ( 2003 ). " the first list of macrofungi from the wider area of the salek valley " ( in slovenian ). zbornik gozdarstva in lesarstva ( 72 ) : 83 – 120. issn 0351 - 3114. - ^ pegler dn. ( 2002 ). " useful fungi of the world : caesar ' s mushroom and the christmas mushroom " ( pdf ). mycologist 16 ( 4 ) : 140 – 41. doi : 10. 1017 / s0269 - 915x ( 02 ) 00412 - 3. http : / / www. theliterature. org / the _ fifth _ kingdom / mycologist / vol. 16. 04. nov % 202002 / pp % 20140 - 141. pdf. retrieved 2009 - 10 - 27. [ dead link ] - ^


these sites are about the life cycle, anatomy, and habitats of the roach or cockroach, the most ancient insect. learn here how many species of roaches are in the world and what kind of pets they can be. includes photographs and in class activities. pbs : nature : critter guide : cockroach learn about the history of cockroaches, where they live, what they eat, and their social environment. fact monster : cockroach learn here about cockroaches, their life cycle, habitats, and reproduction. note : the site includes pop - up and banner ads. learn how to take care of pet roaches. includes housing, feeding, breeding, and suggested species information. cockroach index : german, oriental, asian cuban roaches explore links on this page to learn about behavior, life cycles, and identification of some species from the cockroach world. madagascar hissing cockroach view the photograph of the madagascar hissing cockroach. click on the " hear the hissing sound! " link under the photograph to listen to it. note : this site includes google and banner ads. usc roach cam this webcam is showing live the madagascar roaches living in the south carolina university. cockroaches : photo gallery on this site you will find photographs of several exotic cockroaches. critter ridder : roaches read about common types of pest roaches and scroll down the page to read the cockroach trivia. newton ' s apple teacher ' s guides this page has vocabulary and fun class activities that help children learn about cockroaches.


an appreciation of ethnic jewellery and adornment still no actual alphabetic messages have been found on a single artifact excavated from or picked up from the surface of one of the sites of the bactria - margiana archeological complex. geographically, the more or less agreed upon boundaries of this area would be southern turkmenistan, eastern iran and most of afghanistan reaching over to the indus valley in what is now pakistan. the time frame of the most significant cultural items produced by these migrating farmers and animal domesticators inhabiting the oases and river plains was 4, 500 years ago to 3, 600 years ago. they did not disappear after this time, but other cultures blended with theirs so thoroughly that the area congealed into a trade system that spread all products far and wide throughout the middle east, often including parts of europe, and always including north africa and the arabian gulf. but in the pre - literate period for the bactria - margiana culture - - 4, 500 - 3, 600 years ago - - the people used seals with meaningful symbols. in the case of stone seals, the images were engraved ; in the case of bronze, copper or occasionally silver, the images were cast. the seals were usually furnished with a device that would allow the owner to wear or carry the seal. in fact, so many of the seals were decorated with mythical images that dr. sarianidi, the excavator of much of the archeological material, calls them amulets and after long field experience with the amulets, he has interpreted the meanings of the amulets. his work is published in myths of ancient bactria - margiana on its seals and amulets. one of the more artistic of the seals is the copper image of a wolf killing a goat. the device for hanging the seal on a cord is the loop in the center of the image that shows as a distortion in that area.


what is pcp? pcp is a kind of pneumonia caused by bacteria called pneumocystis jiroveci ( say : “ new - mo - sis - tis yee - row - vet - zee - eye ” ), or p. jiroveci. it used to be called pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. most people infected with p. jiroveci don ' t get pneumonia because their immune systems are healthy and strong. people whose immune systems are weak because of hiv infection can get pcp. pcp is less common than it used to be, but it ' s still the most common serious infection in people who have advanced hiv disease in the united states. how would i know if i have pcp? if you get pcp, you probably will have fever, cough, trouble breathing ( especially with exercise ) or chest tightness. see your doctor right away if you have these symptoms. most cases are mild, but people with severe pcp may die if the infection isn ' t treated quickly. pcp is diagnosed by lab tests of fluid or tissue from your lungs. how do you get pcp? most scientists believe pcp is spread in the air, but they don ' t know if it lives in the soil or someplace else. p. jiroveci is common all over the world. since you can ' t help being exposed to p. jiroveci, you should get medical care so you won ' t get pcp. ( pcp is not spread by sex. ) how can i protect myself from pcp? if you are at risk of pcp because you have hiv, pcp can be prevented. a good medicine for preventing pcp is trimethoprim - sulfamethoxazole ( say : " try - meth - o - prim sul - fa - meth - ox - uh - sole " ), or tmp - smx, for short. tmp - smx is a combination of 2 medicines. it comes in pill and liquid forms. other medicines can also prevent pcp if you can ' t take tmp - smx. when should i start taking medicine to prevent pcp? if you have hiv, your doctor will test your blood regularly to check how strong your immune system is. your doctor will probably prescribe tmp - smx to prevent pcp if your cd4 cell count goes below 200. your doctor may also have you start taking tmp - smx if you get certain symptoms


how strong your immune system is. your doctor will probably prescribe tmp - smx to prevent pcp if your cd4 cell count goes below 200. your doctor may also have you start taking tmp - smx if you get certain symptoms, such as a temperature above 100°f that lasts for 2 weeks or longer, or a yeast infection in your mouth or throat ( also called " thrush " ). i already had a pneumonia vaccination. won ' t that protect me against pcp? no. the pneumonia vaccine protects you against a different kind of pneumonia. it doesn ' t protect you against pcp. there is no vaccine for pcp. does tmp - smx have side effects? tmp - smx might cause a rash. it might make you feel sick. if you have just a mild reaction, you should keep taking tmp - smx, because it works better than any other medicine to prevent pcp. your doctor can give you another medicine for a while to help you with the side effects of tmp - smx. can i get pcp more than once? yes. if you have already had pcp you can get it again. taking tmp - smx can prevent second infections with pcp. what if my cd4 cell count goes above 200 while i ' m taking medicines to control hiv? your doctor may let you stop taking medicine to prevent pcp if the following things are true for you : - if you never had pcp before. - if your cd4 cell count stays above 200 for 3 to 6 months. - if blood tests show you have a low viral load or an undetectable viral load. recent studies have shown that a strong immune system should protect you from pcp. it is not known whether it ' s safe to stop taking preventive medicine if you have had pcp before. if i get pcp, how is it treated? people who have severe cases of pcp are treated in a hospital with iv medicine ( medicine put into a vein through a tube ). as they get better - - or if the illness was mild to begin with - - they can take medicine in pill form. if you can ' t take tmp - smx, or if you don ' t get better quickly with tmp - smx, you can take other medicines or combinations of medicines. written by familydoctor. org editorial staff


. - 1659 - much of what is now cecil county was originally attached to kent county until baltimore county was created 12 january 1659. - 1674 - cecil county was erected by proclamation on june 6, 1674. the original boundaries of cecil county, as created in 1674, by proclamation of governor charles calvert, are described as follows : " from the mouth of the susquehanna river down the eastern side of the bay to swan point, thence to hell point, and so up chester river to the head thereof. " nothing appears to have been said about the eastern or northern bounds of the county, because they were in dispute, nevertheless the lord proprietary still claimed to the delaware and to the fortieth degree of north latitude. these bounds were slightly varied by another proclamation issued a few days afterwards, which there is reason to believe threw a small part of what is now the extreme southwestern part of kent county under the jurisdiction of the authorities of kent island. - the present county of kent was in the original bounds of cecil county for two weeks, until the inhabitants of kent demanded their territory be returned. - 1732 - in 1732 john, richard and thomas penn, who by will of their father had become joint proprietors of pennsylvania, entered into a written agreement with charles calvert, the fifth lord baltimore, for the adjustment of the boundaries of the two provinces. trans - peninsular line - 1767 - the mason - dixon linewas established to end a boundary dispute between the british colonies of maryland and pennsylvania / delaware. - 1829 - the legislature appointed commisioners to locate the boundary line between cecil and harford counties. they finished their work in 1832. their report shows that they began at the state line, at a rock called long rock, in the middle of the susquehanna river, and continued the line southwardly by various islands and rocks in the river until they reached a large rock at the lower part of watson ' s island. many early court records have disappeared. - family bible records at the historical society of cecil county - bible records contributed to usgenweb there is a cemetery survey for cecil county at the maryland state archives. the survey contains information about the cemetery at the time of the survey in the 1930s. the survey files do not contain actual cemetery records. msa s 1512 - 2777 00 / 59 / 06 / 55 transcriptions of various cemeteries in cecil county can be found at the following websites : - usgenweb ' s tombstone transcription project - cecil county cemetery records from the historical society of cecil county. on this page, you


/ 59 / 06 / 55 transcriptions of various cemeteries in cecil county can be found at the following websites : - usgenweb ' s tombstone transcription project - cecil county cemetery records from the historical society of cecil county. on this page, you will find links to pdf files containing an inventory of cecil county tombstone transcriptions. one of their most experienced family history researchers and a past president of the genealogical society of cecil county, gary burns, has worked several years compiling this detailed spreadsheet. it is still a work in progress and only goes to the letter p right now, but you will find over 29, 000 entries for cecil county tombstones thus far. - an alphabetical list of cecil county cemeteries - the political graveyard is a great resource for politicians that were born, lived and died in cecil county. - dunn, mary devine and lillian devine. st. francis xavier church, warwick, maryland, " old bohemia " : its history, the burial register : historical notes. newtown, pa. : will - britt books. 1987. - genealogical society of cecil county. cecil county, md, tombstone inscriptions, districts 7, 8 & 9, volume i. publisher [ s. l. ] : genealogical society of cecil county, c1992. includes 18 area graveyards ; districts 7, 8, & 9 - cemeteries listed in district 7 : asbury, baptist, cokesbury united methodist, harmony chapel methodist, jones memorial, patterson private, principio, sterrett private, st. mark ' s episcopal, taylor ' s private - cemeteries listed in district 8 : bethesda, conowingo baptist, mt. zoar, success farm, st. patrick ' s catholic - cemeteries listed in district 9 : brick meeting house quaker, trinity church, zion methodist, zion presbyterian - robertson, donna j.. tombstone inscriptions of cecil county. d. j. robertson. 1995. - robertson, donna j.. tombstone inscriptions of hopewell united methodist church cemetery, cecil county, maryland. d. j. robertson. 1995. - williams, mildred c. and janet r. brittingham. cecil county, maryland cemetery records : elkton presbyterian churchyard, bethel methodist churchyard, leeds church cemetery. newtown, pa. : will - britt books. 1987. - family history library catalog search results for cemeteries in cecil county for more information about cemeteries in maryland please refer to the maryland cemeteries page. - the 1693 census of the swedes on the delaware : family histories of the swedish


of courts : - the admiralty court - following the restoration of the proprietary government, no admiralty court sat in maryland until a vice admiral was commissioned in 1756. the court ' s jurisdiction included contracts, accounts, wages, treason, piracy, felonies, fugitives, mayhem, and bottomry ( cases in which a shipowner put the ship up as security for a loan ). the constitution of 1776 established an admiralty court to try capture and seizures made and brought into maryland ports. the court functioned until 1789, when the u. s. constitution assigned admiralty jurisdiction to the federal courts. - the provincial court - the exact date of the creation of the provincial court is unknown ; it is likely that it dates from leonard calvert ' s commission as lieutenant general of the colony in 1637, which gave him the authority to try all cases except those concerning life, member, or freehold. originally called the county court, the provincial court was modeled after the english county courts. the name change probably occurred sometime between 1640 and 1642, when st. mary ' s and kent counties were created, each with a county court. the provincial court had concurrent jurisdiction with the county courts in most matters, served as an appellate court to the county courts, and had original jurisdiction in criminal cases involving life or member and in civil cases with value above a given sum or poundage of tobacco, which varied throughout the court ' s history. the provincial court also heard chancery, testamentary, and guardianship cases until the chancery and prerogative courts were established and guardianship matters were transferred to the county courts. in addition, the provincial court had concurrent jurisdiction with the county courts in recording conveyances of land, which was compulsory after 1663. - the prerogative court - the probate court of maryland for the greater part of the colonial period was called the prerogative court which was responsible for overseeing the administration of all the records related to the estate of a deceased person. - the chancery court it is anticipated that this bibliography will eventually identify all known family histories published about residents of this county. use this list to : - locate publications about direct ancestors - find the most updated accounts of an ancestor ' s family - identify publications, to quote elizabeth shown mills, about an ancestor ' s " fan club " [ friends, associates, and neighbors ] - barnes, robert w., f. edward wright, vernon l. skinner and henry c. peden. colonial families of the eastern shore of maryland. 23 vols. westminster, md. : family


" [ friends, associates, and neighbors ] - barnes, robert w., f. edward wright, vernon l. skinner and henry c. peden. colonial families of the eastern shore of maryland. 23 vols. westminster, md. : family line, 1996 - 2003 ; lewes, del. : delmarva roots and colonial roots, 2007. fhl us / can book 975. 21 d2b v. 1 ff. [ cecil county families appear in vol. 6 ] - biographies contributed to usgenweb - maryland, cecil - biography section of the family history library catalog - [ anderson ] russell, george ely. " the swedish settlement in maryland, 1654, " the american genealogist, vol. 54, no. 4 ( oct. 1978 ) : 203 - 210. fhl 973 d25aga v. 54 - [ caulk ] russell, george ely. " the swedish settlement in maryland, 1654, " the american genealogist, vol. 54, no. 4 ( oct. 1978 ) : 203 - 210. fhl 973 d25aga v. 54 - [ clements ] russell, george ely. " the swedish settlement in maryland, 1654, " the american genealogist, vol. 54, no. 4 ( oct. 1978 ) : 203 - 210. fhl 973 d25aga v. 54 - [ cornelius ] russell, george ely. " the swedish settlement in maryland, 1654, " the american genealogist, vol. 54, no. 4 ( oct. 1978 ) : 203 - 210. fhl 973 d25aga v. 54 - [ creswell ] russell, george ely. " david creswell of cecil county, maryland, " the american genealogist, vol. 46, no. 2 ( apr. 1970 ) : 65 - 73. fhl 973 d25aga v. 46 - [ dunbar ] plummer, judith m. bald friar ferry in 1781 : across the susquehanna river between hartford and cecil counties in maryland. westbrook, maine : j. m. plummer, 2004. digital version - [ eliason ] russell, george ely. " the swedish settlement in maryland, 1654, " the american genealogist, vol. 54, no. 4 ( oct. 1978 ) : 203 - 210. fhl 973 d25aga v. 54 - [ frist ] frist, william h. and shirley wilson. " good people beget good people " : a genealogy of the


. 4 ( oct. 1978 ) : 203 - 210. fhl 973 d25aga v. 54 - [ frist ] frist, william h. and shirley wilson. " good people beget good people " : a genealogy of the frist family. maryland : rowman & littlefield. 2003. - [ hendrickson ] bendler, bruce a. " the hendrickson family in cecil county, maryland : the first three generations, " the maryland and delaware genealogist, vol. 31, no. 1 ( winter 1990 ) : 20 - 22. fhl us / can book 975 b2m. - [ lawson ] brayton, john a. the complete ancestry of tennessee williams. winston - salem, n. c. : j. a. brayton, 1993. fhl book 929. 273 w67bj. - [ mathews ] russell, george ely. " the swedish settlement in maryland, 1654, " the american genealogist, vol. 54, no. 4 ( oct. 1978 ) : 203 - 210. fhl 973 d25aga v. 54 - [ matthias ] russell, george ely. " the swedish settlement in maryland, 1654, " the american genealogist, vol. 54, no. 4 ( oct. 1978 ) : 203 - 210. fhl 973 d25aga v. 54 gazetteer of the state of maryland by richard swainson fisher, pages 61 - 63 are about cecil county. a gazetteer of maryland and delaware by henry gannett a new and complete gazetteer of the united states :... by thomas baldwin, j. thomas the new early settlers of maryland database is a great place to start searching for immigrants who had arrived in the colony by the 1680s. the database " comprises 34, 326 entries from gust skordas ' early settlers of maryland and carson gibb ' s supplement to the early settlers of maryland. " available online, courtesy : maryland state archives. other cecil county immigration resources include : - list of imported servants and convicts from europe who served labor terms in colonial cecil county, maryland ( work in progress ), courtesy : immigrant servants database. [ includes richard j. cox ' s abstracts of maryland gazette runaways. ] - burns, gary l., compiler. naturalization records, cecil county, maryland. charlestown, md ( box 11, charlestown 21914 ) : genealogical society of cecil county, 1997. - cecil county was created in 1674 from baltimore county and kent county


l., compiler. naturalization records, cecil county, maryland. charlestown, md ( box 11, charlestown 21914 ) : genealogical society of cecil county, 1997. - cecil county was created in 1674 from baltimore county and kent county however land patents and certificates date from 1649 in the area that now comprises cecil county. the earliest land deed for cecil county itself was recorded in 1674. - through a joint egovernment service of the maryland judiciary and the maryland state archives, free images and indexes of the complete series of cecil county deed books ( 1674 - present ) have been uploaded to their website : mdlandrec. net : a digital image retrieval system for land records in maryland. ( requires free registration. ) - maryland state archives cecil county land survey, subdivision, and condominium plats - land patents and certificates in cecil county, 1649 - 1774 - unpatented certificates and leases - lot holders in 1702 in the township of nottingham - debt books - family history library catalog results for land and property, land and property indexes, and land and property maps - chesapeake city, people, places and events remembered - lee collins has digitized an outstanding collection of photos, ephemera, and other materials of interest to those researching or studying the past in chesapeake city. - an introduction to the area history provided by cecil county tourism - the nottingham lots and the early quaker families a paper presented by robert warwick day, ph. d. spartanburg, south carolina in celebration of the 300th anniversary of the founding in 1701 of the nottingham lots by william penn and early quaker settlers of chester county, pa. - history of cecil county, maryland, and the early settlements around the head of chesapeake bay and on the delaware river, with sketches of some of the old families of cecil county by george johnston. - maryland, cecil - historyin the family history library catalog - catalog of sanborn maps in the collection of the historical society of cecil county - online maps available from the historical society of cecil county - cecil county. simon j. martenet, martenet ' s atlas of maryland, 1865, huntingfield collection, msa sc 1339 - 1 - 75 - cecil county gis - online mapping. an interactive geographic information systems ( gis ) website of cecil county. - map of the upper part of the peninsula, showing the locations of indian forts, early land grants and boundary lines drawn by geo. m. reese under the direction of george johnston, the author of history of cecil county, maryland and


cecil county. - map of the upper part of the peninsula, showing the locations of indian forts, early land grants and boundary lines drawn by geo. m. reese under the direction of george johnston, the author of history of cecil county, maryland and designed to illustrate the history of cecil county. - usgs quad topographic features in cecil county - cecil county historical markers - province of pennsylvania, 1681 - 1776 - maryland county department of transportation ( d. o. t. ) maps - these maps are downloadable and are in pdf format. the main use of these are the locations of all known cemeteries in a county and of course the various roads and church locations - county formation maps - maps made with the use animap plus county boundary historical animap 3. 0. this shows all the county boundary changes for each year overlayed with past and present maps so you can see the changes in county boundaries. - military officers in 1696. - colonial militia of cecil county in 1740. - john f. dewitt military museum at the historical society of cecil county 135 e. main street, elkton 410 - 398 - 1790 impressive display of military memorabilia from the revolutionary war through desert storm. - a census of pensioners for revolutionary or military services : with their names, ages, and places of residence, as returned by the marshalls of the several judicial districts, under the act for taking the sixth census ]. 1841. digital version at google books. 1967 reprint : fhl collection 973 x2pc 1840. [ see maryland, cecil county on page 127. ] - cecil county bicentennial committee. cecil county in the revolutionary war : being an account of some of the experiences, events and locations prominent to cecil county and it ' s [ sic ] citizens during the period of 1776 to 1783. elkton, md. : the cecil county bicentennial committee, 1976. - revolutionary patriots of cecil county, maryland by henry c. peden, jr. war of 1812 - list of pensioners on the roll, january 1, 1883 ; giving the name of each pensioner, the cause for why pensioned, the post - office address, the rate of pension per month, and the date of original allowance... washington, d. c. : government printing office, 1883. fhl collection 973 m2lp v. 5 ; digital versions at google books and internet archive. [ see vol. 5, maryland, cecil county, pp. 142 - 145. identifies war of 1812 veterans living in this county