spotting skin cancer think you ' re not at risk? you may be ignoring the signs. may 29, 2000 - - when 31 - year - old j. t. fields saw an odd - looking " freckle " growing on the bridge of his nose, he did what comes naturally to men : he ignored it. j. t. was shocked when the " freckle " turned out to be skin cancer. thankfully, it was squamous cell cancer, one of two types of non - melanoma skin cancers ( the other is basal cell cancer ) that have a better than 95 % cure rate if detected early. like j. t., " most men ignore changes or symptoms in their skin when they first occur, " says christopher arpey, md, university of iowa assistant professor of dermatology. " men are much more likely [ than women ] to think a skin abnormality will go away on its own, even if it ' s itching, bleeding, or hurting. " this certainly rang true for j. t. " i thought it was a zit, " he said. " even when it bled, i thought, ' hmm - - how did i get that bruise? ' " in fact, it was almost by accident that he even asked a doctor about it. j. t. went to see a dermatologist for another problem. " while i was there, " he said, " i pointed to it and asked him what he thought it was. " his doctor took a careful look and calmly told him it was probably skin cancer. however calmly stated, it ' s a serious diagnosis. men are much more likely than women to die from skin cancer or suffer deformities from surgery to remove it. though men are at only a slightly higher risk of developing skin cancer than women, the real challenge is getting a diagnosis and then getting treatment earlier. the big picture more than 1. 3 million americans will get skin cancer this year. it ' s the most common type of cancer among men. nearly all cases will be basal or squamous cell cancers, which affect the middle and outer layers of the skin. fewer than 4 % ( about 45, 000 cases ) will be the more deadly melanoma, a cancer of melanocytes, the cells that produce the skin pigment called melanin. while there are other factors, such as aging and genetic vulnerability, exposure to ultraviolet rays is a major factor in all three types. the good news is that skin cancer is


melanocytes, the cells that produce the skin pigment called melanin. while there are other factors, such as aging and genetic vulnerability, exposure to ultraviolet rays is a major factor in all three types. the good news is that skin cancer is very likely to be cured if it ' s caught in time. but for men, that ' s a big if. " it ' s easier for me to convince women to check their skin regularly than men, " says arpey. " whether it ' s a pap smear or a breast exam, women grow up with the idea that they have to check themselves out. men don ' t. " certain types of people are at greater risk of developing skin cancer. construction workers, farmers, lifeguards, and athletes are especially susceptible. there ' s a range of six skin types grouped according to level of risk, from high to low. people in the type i group, " always burns easily, never tans " ( such as very pale redheads ), are most at risk. there ' s less risk for those in the type vi group, " never burns, deeply pigmented " ( such as many africans ). j. t. is type ii, " always burns easily, tans minimally. " he ' s pale with very sun - sensitive skin. if you are like j. t. and spend time outdoors, you ought to be very concerned if you ' re not taking precautions. a history of one or more severe childhood sunburns is a signal flare for greater skin cancer risk. ask j. t. in high school, he fell asleep on the beach and burned his nose so badly that the skin came off in sheets. " my nose looked like grilled cheese for two weeks, " he says. simple ways to lower your risk according to steven pearlman, md, a clinical associate professor of dermatology at columbia university college of physicians and surgeons, taking precautions is easy. " get out of the sun, " he says, " or protect yourself with clothing and sunblock. " ninety percent of skin cancer is caused by getting too much sun exposure. if you have to be outdoors, experts recommend avoiding sun exposure between 10 a. m. and 3 p. m. when the sun is strongest and, if possible, wearing tightly woven clothing so that the sun ' s rays can ' t sneak through. of course, the best way to prevent skin cancer is to stay indoors, but you can enjoy a few rays by putting the lot


is strongest and, if possible, wearing tightly woven clothing so that the sun ' s rays can ' t sneak through. of course, the best way to prevent skin cancer is to stay indoors, but you can enjoy a few rays by putting the lotion in motion. always wear sunblock with a minimum spf ( sun protection factor ) of 15 on exposed skin if you ' re going to be outside for more than 15 or 20 minutes, whether it ' s sunny or not. the ultraviolet rays that damage your skin can easily pass through clouds when it ' s overcast. a suntan may make you look good, but enough unprotected exposure to change your skin color can add to your risk of cancer. even tanning beds should be avoided. prevention and early detection go hand in hand. remember to check your skin on a regular basis for any new or suspicious changes. look for waxy spots that crust or bleed, or for a mound of tissue or wounded skin that just won ' t heal. and don ' t wait for your doctor to notice, like j. t. did. if you see something new or strange, get it checked out. grilled cheese belongs on your plate, not on your nose. michael alvear is an atlanta - based writer. besides webmd and other publications, his work has appeared in the los angeles times and the internet magazine salon. ©1996 - 2005 webmd inc. all rights reserved. last editorial review : 1 / 30 / 2005 10 : 49 : 06 pm get the latest health and medical information delivered direct to your inbox free!


whipple disease ( intestinal lipodystrophy ) is the result of a rare bacterial infection that damages the lining of the small intestine and may involve other organs of the body. whipple disease affects mainly white men aged 30 to 60. it is caused by an infection with the organism tropheryma whippelii. the infection usually involves the small intestine but can affect other organs, such as the heart, lungs, brain, joints, and eyes. symptoms of whipple disease include diarrhea, inflamed and painful joints, fever, and weight loss. other common symptoms are abdominal pain, loss of appetite, fatigue and weakness caused by anemia, cough, and pain when breathing caused by inflammation of the membrane layers covering the lungs ( pleura ). fluid may collect in the space between the pleural layers ( a condition called pleural effusion — see pleural and mediastinal disorders : pleural effusion ). the lymph nodes may become enlarged. in some people, the skin becomes darker. people with whipple disease may develop heart murmurs. confusion, memory loss, or uncontrolled eye movements indicate that the infection has spread to the brain. if left untreated, the disease is progressive and fatal. diagnosis and treatment a doctor can make the diagnosis of whipple disease by identifying bacteria in the small intestine or an enlarged lymph node. to identify the bacteria, doctors remove tissue ( biopsy ) from the small intestine using an endoscope ( a flexible viewing tube equipped with a light source and a camera through which a small clipper can be inserted ) or remove tissue from an enlarged lymph node. the tissue is then examined under a microscope. whipple disease can be cured with antibiotics. usually people are given ceftriaxone or penicillin initially by vein, followed by trimethoprim / sulfamethoxazole taken by mouth for at least 12 months. symptoms subside rapidly. despite an initial response to antibiotics, however, the disease can recur. last full review / revision january 2013 by atenodoro r. ruiz, jr., md


components of food if you are trying to make heart - healthy changes to your lifestyle and diet, it is helpful to know some basics about nutrition, starting with the components of food. facts about calories : you need enough calories to maintain your energy level, but no more than you can burn off. this is called an energy balance. if you take in more calories than you burn, you gain weight. if you take in fewer calories than you burn, you lose weight. if you balance the two, you maintain your weight. even when you are dieting, however, calories should not be cut back so much that your energy needs are not met. the number of calories you need depends primarily on age, gender, and activity level. facts about dietary cholesterol : remember : " cholesterol - free " does not mean " fat - free. " dietary cholesterol is a fat - like substance found in all foods of animal origin : egg yolks, meat, poultry, fish, milk, and milk products. because our bodies make cholesterol, it is not required in our diets. however, because most people eat foods that contain cholesterol, it is important to avoid excessive amounts. the amount of cholesterol you consume can affect your blood cholesterol levels. types of fats fatty acids are the basic chemical units in fat. they may be saturated, polyunsaturated, monounsaturated, or trans fats. these fatty acids differ in their chemical compositions and structures, and in the way in which they affect your blood cholesterol levels, according to the following : is used by the liver to manufacture cholesterol. has been shown to raise blood cholesterol levels, particularly the ldl or " bad " cholesterol level which can increase your risk of heart attack and stroke. should comprise no more than 10 percent of your daily calorie intake. saturated fat can be found in : meats, butter, cocoa butter, coconut, and palm oils. do not appear to raise blood cholesterol levels. examples include : safflower, sunflower, corn, and vegetable oils, and soybean oils. do not seem to increase bad cholesterol levels and may help boost hdl or " good " cholesterol in the blood. increased hdl levels have been linked to a lower risk of heart disease. examples include olive and canola oils. trans fats : by - products of hydrogenation, a


help boost hdl or " good " cholesterol in the blood. increased hdl levels have been linked to a lower risk of heart disease. examples include olive and canola oils. trans fats : by - products of hydrogenation, a chemical process used to change liquid unsaturated fat to a more solid fat. structurally similar to saturated fat, trans fatty acids may have a great impact on raising total and ldl cholesterol levels. trans fats should be avoided as much as possible. total fat intake should be no more than 30 percent of your daily calorie intake. facts about fats : all fats contain about the same number of calories teaspoon for teaspoon. there is no low - fat fat. fat is the most concentrated source of calories, supplying more than twice as many calories per gram as either carbohydrates or proteins. most people tend to get far too much fat in their diet, which contributes to health problems, such as obesity, high blood cholesterol, and heart disease. while coconut and palm oils contain no cholesterol, they are high in saturated fat and should be avoided. facts about fiber : facts about sodium : although salt is the major contributor of sodium in our diets, sodium and salt are not the same, contrary to popular belief. a teaspoon of table salt contains 2, 300 milligrams of sodium. sodium is a mineral needed to maintain body fluids and proper nerve function. it occurs naturally in some foods, but most of the sodium in our diets comes from seasonings and ingredients we add to foods. although sodium is essential, most of us consume more than we need. in some people, too much sodium in the diet can cause the blood pressure to rise, putting them at risk for heart disease and stroke.


in a few milliseconds my brain made the connection and i had one of those " so that is where it came from! " moments. i had no idea what they were. my friendly tour guide, fred ware, told me that i was looking at " core memory. " it was an early form of memory technology that used small holes, or cores, through which wires were inserted. this setup allowed the machine to control the polarity of the magnetic field created and thereby store data inside of them. when i first started programming on a unix machine in college, i would occasionally do something stupid like try to peek at the contents at memory address zero which would do bad things, cause a crash, and give me a " core dump. " i had always assumed that the " core " referred to in the error message was an adjective for " main, " but when i saw real " core memory, " i realized that i had misunderstood the term for years. our industry is full of terms that seem awkward unless you know their history. even basic things like the " print " method in almost all languages doesn ' t make much sense unless you see that it goes back to the days when you connected to a computer via a teletype ( tty ) machine that printed its result on rolled paper. this isn ' t unique to computing. human languages have quite a bit of history in their words. for example, the word " salary " comes from the bygone days when you were paid for your labor in salt. the difference with computing history is that most of it happened recently and most of the people that created it are still alive. great stories are just below the surface of things you use each day. while i knew that linux is a unix - like operating system that was started by linus torvalds when he was a student the university of helsinki, i didn ' t realize until last week the interesting story of " unix " itself. the name probably came about as a result of a silly pun. it was a " castrated " version of multics. the multics operating system was developed in the mid 1960 ' s to be a better time - sharing operating system for the expensive computer time of the day. perhaps frustrated with the complexity of mutlics, ken thompson wrote a rough " simplified " version of it in a month. thus, the story goes, it was " uniplexed " and simpler where multics was " multiplexed " and complicated. unix ' s history gives color to the people that


wrote a rough " simplified " version of it in a month. thus, the story goes, it was " uniplexed " and simpler where multics was " multiplexed " and complicated. unix ' s history gives color to the people that created it. i ' m certainly no ken, but i can relate to the feeling that some code seems overly complex and feel the itch to rewrite it to something simpler. it ' s neat to see that his diversion worked out so well. it ' s also a testament to the people behind multics that most of the central ideas in our " modern " operating systems trace their origin to it. programming languages tend to have a story as well. usually the most interesting is the philosophy that drove their creation. a good representative sample is the philosophical gap between simula and c + +. " from the very outset simula was regarded as a system description language " this naturally led to the bold design objective # 6 : " it should be problem - oriented and not computer - oriented, even if this implies an appreciable increase in the amount of work which has to be done by the computer. " it was so bold, that they had to tone it down a bit. they still had 1960 ' s hardware after all : " another reason for the [ de - emphasizing the above goal ] was that we realized that the success of simula would, regardless of our insistence on the importance of problem orientation, to a large to a large extent depend upon its compile and run time efficiency as a programming language. " regardless, it ' s telling of its philosophy. as david west writes : " both parnas and the simula team point to an important principle. decomposition into subunits is necessary before we can understand, model, and build software components. if that decomposition is based on a ' natural ' partitioning of the domain, the resultant models and software components will be significantly simpler to implement and will, almost as a side effect, promote other objectives such as operational efficiency and communication elegance. if instead, decomposition is based on ' artificial, ' or computer - derived, abstractions such as memory structures, operations, or functions ( as a package of operations ), the opposite results will accrue. " as david continues, the philosophy of simula was : "... to make it easier to describe natural systems and simulate them in software, even if that meant the computer had to do more work. " bjarne stroustrup took a different approach with c +


of simula was : "... to make it easier to describe natural systems and simulate them in software, even if that meant the computer had to do more work. " bjarne stroustrup took a different approach with c + + : " simula ' s class - based type system was a huge plus, but its run - time performance was hopeless : the poor runtime characteristics were a function of the language and its implementation. the overhead problems were fundamental to simula and could not be remedied. the cost arose from several language features and their interactions : run - time type checking, guaranteed initialization of variables, concurrency support, and garbage collection... " ( emphasis added ) " c with classes [ precursor to c + + ] was explicitly designed to allow better organization of programs ; ' computation ' was considered a problem solved by c. i was very concerned that improved program structure was not achieved at the expense of run - time overhead compared to c. " ( emphasis added ) this simple historical account alone can probably guide you to answers to things that seem odd or annoying about c + +. it also reveals a larger truth. usually if someone way smarter than me, like bjarne, creates or does something that i think is weird, there ' s probably an interesting historical reason behind it. in c + +, the driving force was almost always performance. i find it amusing that a lot of the " new " ideas in languages and runtimes are just bringing back things from simula that c + + took out. practicalities like performance often hinder the adoption of otherwise superior technology. betamax lost because it only held an hour of video compared to vhs ' s three. not being able to store a full length movie is a real problem. the qwerty keyboard layout was designed in the 1860 ' s when it was important to separate common letter pairs like " th " in order to prevent typebar jamming. when computer keyboards were designed, the designers simply copied the already popular qwerty layout to ease adoption even though other, potentially more efficient, layouts were available. sometimes a " good enough " solution wins because the better approach isn ' t worth the transition cost. popular history often misleads people into thinking that things came easily to the innovators. the real stories offer hope because they demonstrate that you too can make history if you ' re willing to persevere. google ' s founders larry page and sergey brin were turned down when they tried to sell their core


to the innovators. the real stories offer hope because they demonstrate that you too can make history if you ' re willing to persevere. google ' s founders larry page and sergey brin were turned down when they tried to sell their core pagerank algorithm to altavista and yahoo. one of my favorite stories is that almost no one believed bob kahn, the inventor of tcp, when he advocated that congestion control would be important on a large network. it wasn ' t until the first 12 packets were sent out and congestion actually occurred did people finally agree that it could be a problem. " it ' s disputed whether newton ever observed an apple fall. he certainly was never struck by one, unless there ' s secret evidence of fraternity food fights while he was studying in cambridge. even if the apple incident took place, the telling of the story discounts newton ' s 20 years of work to explain gravity, the feat that earned him the attention of the world " ( emphasis added ) " journalists have always asked me what the crucial idea was or what the singular event was that allowed the web to exist one day when it hadn ' t before. they are frustrated when i tell them there was no eureka moment. it was not like the legendary apple falling on newton ' s head to demonstrate the concept of gravity... it was a process of accretion ( growth by gradual addition ). " what ' s the history lesson? don ' t worry if you never have an apple falling on your head moment. newton didn ' t have one either. things take a lot of hard work and perseverance. true stories of innovator ' s persistence go on and on. while you ' re slogging away, don ' t worry about mistakes too much : " anyone who was never made a mistake has never tried anything new. " - einstein simply learn from them and move on. although doing something insanely great might take a long time, it demonstrates how important people are in our industry. people are the most important part of any industry because it is through them and their stories that history is created. people are especially important in computing. unfortunately, some of their most interesting stories are practically unknown by most : - alan turing wrote the paper that effectively started computing as we know it. - william shockley practically put the " silicon " in " silicon valley, " - our modern internet exists in large part because of the fascinating story of j. c. r. licklider who used arpa funding to work on his dream


. - william shockley practically put the " silicon " in " silicon valley, " - our modern internet exists in large part because of the fascinating story of j. c. r. licklider who used arpa funding to work on his dream that everyone should have a personal computer connected to an " intergalactic computer network. " - bob taylor, the man that led the wildly successful xerox palo alto research center ( parc ) inspired creativity in the great people that worked with him by creating environment that encouraged exploration and laughter. - dave cutler was in large part the reason why we have the much more reliable nt kernel running on our computers and aren ' t stuck with " toy " windows 9x one. their stories are full of little gems. you sometimes get to see what drove their curiosity. bob barton, arguably one of the greatest hardware designers ever, made the comment " i often thank ibm because they gave me so much motivation to do better. " i ' m sure that google ' s founders could say the same thing about altavista of the 1990 ' s. i think that one of the reasons for the plummeting enrollment in computer science majors is that there is a lack of understand of people and their stories in our field. this leads to the perception that a career in computing will result in a " social death. " i might be biased, but i think we have great stories. if you haven ' t visited it yet, check out the videos on the computer history museum section on youtube. they ' re quite interesting. i ' ll close with one lesson from computing history : don ' t be afraid to dream big. when vint cerf had to put an upper limit in 1977 on the number of addresses for what would become the internet, he probably thought that 4 billion addresses would never be used, but that ' s the " address exhaustion " problem that we ' re facing now. be careful when creating something, it just might exceed your wildest dreams. why do we as an industry largely ignore our history and rarely mine its rich stories? do we think we ' re moving too fast for it to be relevant? i think that it ' s important to understand our history exactly because we ' re moving so fast. it seems that learning principles that are timeless or much longer lived is more valuable than keeping up with the deep intricacies of the latest technology of the day that won ' t matter in a year or two. what ' s your favorite piece of computing history? who are the people that you remember


dry eyes, tired and gritty eyes dry eyes - the problem dry eyes occur when the quality or quantity of your tears are insufficient to keep the surface of your eyes moist. the tear ducts, glands and cornea all work together to supply a constant flow of tears to the eye, which is spread across the eye through blinking. the tear itself is made up of water ( giving moisture ), oils ( giving lubrication ), mucous ( for even spreading ) as well as antibodies and special proteins ( for protection from infection ). without a good flow of good quality tears and regular blinking, dry eyes can occur. between 17 - 30 % of people experience dry eyes at some point during their life according to some studies. the common symptom of dry eyes is dryness associated with a gritty feeling. but some people may feel like something is in their eye, have redness, itching or blurring of vision. it normally affects both eyes. dry eyes - common causes of dry and tired eyes it is a common problem for eyes to feel dry, tired and gritty. our hectic and demanding lifestyles can really take their toll on our eyes, as can our environment, age and health. - lifestyle - whether it is an early start to the day, a late night out, another long day in front of a computer or a long journey, the effect is the same. dry & tired eyes. did you know when you work at your computer screen your blink rate drops on average from 10 blinks per minute to 3 - 4 times per minute2. blinking is essential to keep your eyes moisturized and to clear them of any irritants. so, whether you are reading, driving, or using the computer – keep blinking! - environment - we all know that dry eyes can result from windy, dry, air conditioned, and heated climates. did you know that high altitudes can also dry our eyes? - travel – most wearers of contact lenses find air travel the worst for drying out eyes and lenses. but it isn ’ t just lens wearers that struggle. did you know the air quality in a plane has a very low relative humidity – effectively drying our eyes out whilst we fly. - activities - whether it is close work such as computer use or reading or even watching tv, if we don ’ t blink enough our eyes will feel tired. did you know having your eyes glued to the screen for 90 minutes also slows down the rate at which you blink to as little as 3 per times per minute


or even watching tv, if we don ’ t blink enough our eyes will feel tired. did you know having your eyes glued to the screen for 90 minutes also slows down the rate at which you blink to as little as 3 per times per minute. 3 - age and health – eyes tend to become drier as we get older ( especially over 60 ) as we produce fewer tears. hormone levels can also affect the dryness of eyes, with the menopause having a great impact. the side effects of certain medicines such as antihistamines, antidepressants, beta - blockers and diurectics can dry out eyes. blepharitis ( inflammation of the rims of the eyelids ) can also cause dry eyes. - laser surgery – patients often have dry eyes for the immediate weeks after surgery dry eyes can also be the sign of more serious eye problems, so recurring dryness should not be ignored. if your eyes are very sensitive to light, become very red or painful or your vision starts to deteriorate, you should visit your gp. dry eyes - treatment and advice - eye drops and ointments – ensure you choose a drop that moisturises and lubricates such as murine® dry & tired eyes. keep them to hand at work and at home. use regularly. if you wear contact lenses, ensure to choose a product suitable for lenses such as murine® contacts refresh & clean eye drops. - think ‘ blink ’ – when undertaking an activity with long periods of concentration ( reading, computer use, tv watching ). make a big effort to blink regularly. - close your eyes – periodically close them for short periods through the day to help refresh them. - protect your eyes – wear sunglasses when possible in environments that are likely to dry your eyes, such as sunny, windy, dusty or polluted ones. - remove contact lenses – especially when travelling by air or anytime you are in a very drying environment or doing an activity that can dry your eyes. keep drops to hand for all other times. - drink water! 1nhs direct patient information leaflets 2m. j. doughty, 2002, optom vis science : july 2002 volume70 issue 7 pp 439 - 447 3dr john stern, why do we blink?, special to msnbc, feb 1999 warnings : if eye symptoms persist, consult your doctor. disclaimer – prestige brands ( uk ) limited, the owner of the murine® brand of eye drops, is not providing any


the scholars of cairo this short article is taken from the full article which is available here as a pdf file the first egyptian of international renown and possibly one of the greatest scholars of islam that ever lived, although he is hardly known, is ahmad ibn yusuf ibn ibrahim ibn al - daya al misri, ( the latter word means the egyptian ). he flourished in egypt in the second half of the 9th century and died about 912. he set up some of the earliest foundations of modern mathematics and in medieval europe, he was known as ametus filius joseph. a mathematician and secretary to the tulunids, who ruled in egypt from 868 to 905, he wrote a book on similar arcs ( de similibus arcubus ), a commentary on ptolemy ' s centiloquium, and a book on proportions kitab al - nisba wal tanasub ( " de proportione et proportionalitate " ). the latter book is significant due to its influence on medieval thought through leonardo da pisa and jordanus nemorarius ( theorem of menelaos about the triangle cut by a transversal ; al - qatta, sector ; hence figura cata, regula catta ). the liber hameti de proportione et proportionalitate and the liber de arcubus similibus were translated by the famed twelfth century latin translator, gerard of cremona. the translation of the commentary on the centiloquium was possibly made by another translator, plato tiburtinus who wrongly attributed it to the other egyptian scholar ' ali ibn ridwan. this work was first printed in venice, 1493 ( " incipit liber centum verborum ptholemei cum commento haly. " ) ahmad, or else his father yusuf ibn ibrahim ibn al - daya, may be the author of the history of the astronomers, ascribed to one ibn al - daya. abu kamil al - hasib al - misri ( 850 - 930 ) ( i. e the egyptian calculator ) originated from egypt and flourished after al - khwarizmi, who died c. 930, and before al - ' imrani, who died in 955, and so can be placed about the beginning of the tenth century. he was a mathematician who perfected al - khwarizmi ' s work on algebra and whose mathematics included a number of subjects such as determination and construction of both roots of quadratic equations ; multiplication and division of algebraic quantities ; addition


tenth century. he was a mathematician who perfected al - khwarizmi ' s work on algebra and whose mathematics included a number of subjects such as determination and construction of both roots of quadratic equations ; multiplication and division of algebraic quantities ; addition and subtraction of radicals ; study of the pentagon and decagon ( algebraic treatment ). his kitab al - jabr ( book on algebra ) is available in many manuscripts, such as in istanbul and berlin, and also in diverse languages and translations such as hebrew, german, and english. abu kamil wrote taraif al - hisab ( rarities of arithmetic ) which is available, but incomplete at leiden ( 199 / 6 ), but there are more complete latin translations of this treatise in paris ( 7377 a / 6 ), and hebrew translations from spanish. his treatise on the measurement of the pentagon and decagon, in arabic misahat al - mukhamas wa ' l muashar, is available in istanbul ( kara mustafa 379 / 2 ) and in latin translation in paris ( 7377 a / 5 ) and in translation into hebrew, german, italian, and partial translation into russian. abu kamil also wrote on inheritance by means of roots, inheritance by means of algebra, a book on indefinite problems, a treatise on the measurement of the land, another on measurement and geometry, one on reunion and separation and another entitled kitab al - kafi ( sufficient book ). abu kamil ' s mathematics were largely used by his successors whether muslims or western christians, such as al - karkhi and leonardo da pisa. there have been a number of modern studies of abu kamil including those by weinbergand levey. ibn yunus ( d. fustat in 1009 ) was an astronomer and a mathematician whose father was a distinguished historian. ibn yunus came to fame in 1804 when a leiden manuscript of his was first studied ; ibn yunus ' main work was al - zij al - hakimi ( zij meaning an astronomical handbook ) which begins with a list of observations made by himself and others. ibn yunus made observations for nearly thirty years ( 977 - 1003 ) using amongst others, a large astrolabe of nearly 1. 4 m in diameter, observations that resulted in the well known ` hakemite ' tables which contained more than 10, 000 entries of the sun ' s position throughout the years. centuries later ibn yunus ' s al - zij al - hakimi relied upon


, observations that resulted in the well known ` hakemite ' tables which contained more than 10, 000 entries of the sun ' s position throughout the years. centuries later ibn yunus ' s al - zij al - hakimi relied upon by the french mathematician laplace who used the tables prepared by ibn yunus in his determination of the ` obliquity of the ecliptic ' and the ` inequalities of jupiter and saturn ' s ' and also by the american newcomb who used his observations of the eclipse in his investigations on the motions of the moon. ibn al - haytham was born in basra ( in modern day iraq ) in 965 and died in cairo in 1039 ce. he is known under the latin name of al - hazen. although he made important contributions to mathematics, astronomy, medicine and chemistry, his main achievements were in optics. due to his high reputation as a mathematician and engineer, he caught the attention of the fatimid caliph al - hakem ( ruled 996 - 1021 ) who asked for his services. the caliph received him personally and with great honours. however, although a patron of sciences, al - hakem was a cruel leader who murdered his enemies and had other dark sides to his personality such as ordering the sacking of the city of al - fustat ; on one occasion he went as far as ordering the killing of all dogs since their barking annoyed him. al - hakem ' s support for science may have been partly because of his interest in astrology. he had invited ibn al - haytham to cairo after hearing that he had a plan for regulating the annual inundation of the nile. however, once having taken measures on the ground, ibn al - haytham realised the plan was not feasible. ibn al - haytham knew that al - hakem was a dangerous man whom he could not trust. it appears that ibn al - haytham pretended to be mad, others say that he left egypt altogether for syria where he sought protection under the rule of one of its emirs until after al - hakem ' s death in 1021. during this time he undertook scientific work and after al - hakem ' s death he was able to show that he had only pretended to be mad. according to the muslim biographer, al - qifti, ibn al - haytham lived for the rest of his life near the al - azhar mosque, teaching, writing mathematics texts and earning money by copying


he had only pretended to be mad. according to the muslim biographer, al - qifti, ibn al - haytham lived for the rest of his life near the al - azhar mosque, teaching, writing mathematics texts and earning money by copying texts. ibn al - haytham died in 1039, a very devout man. his theory of light and vision is neither identical with nor originated from the mainly greek theories that preceded his time and which he adequately corrected. it was ibn al - haytham who resolved the century old issues of vision and set up the foundations for the modern science of optics. ibn al - haytham rejects the axiomatic approach of his predecessors, whereby postulates were assumed to be self evident and any experiments were just meant to reinforce axioms. ibn al - haytham also had the capacity to resolve complex issues into independent yet closely interrelated simple investigations ( the whole - mark of every genius mind ), subjecting every single problem to a quantitative analysis of its variable under strictly controlled conditions. ( for more on ibn al - haytham, see entry on basra ) abul hasan ali ibn ridwan ibn ali ibn ja ' far al - misri was born in jiza near cairo, c. 998, the son of a poor baker in al - guzah. flourished in cairo and died there in 1061 or in 1067. astrologer, physician, author of many medical writings of which the most popular was his commentary on galen ' s ars parva which was translated by gherardo cremonese. in his treatise on hygiene with special reference to egypt ( fi dal ' mudar al - abdan bi - ard misr ), ibn ridwan discusses preventive measures, sanitation, the rules of hygiene and the causes of plague. ibn ridwan subscribes to a code of strict ethics, which he himself describes : ' i wear clothes that are adorned by the marks of distinguished people and by cleanliness. i use a delicate perfume, am silent, and hold my tongue where the failings of men are concerned. i endeavour to speak always decently and take care not to swear and to blame the opinions of others … i avoid eager desires and covetousness ; and if adversity befalls me, i rely on allah the most high, and meet it reasonably without faintheartedness nor weakness. ' he also holds that a man should study medicine with the intent of acquiring the art and not money, but this did not mean that he would lose the


i rely on allah the most high, and meet it reasonably without faintheartedness nor weakness. ' he also holds that a man should study medicine with the intent of acquiring the art and not money, but this did not mean that he would lose the chance of making money : ` when a doctor treats the ailments of the wealthy and they are in severe pain, he can make what financial conditions he likes, and when he knows that his patients will carry out their bargain, it is then his responsibility to produce the cure. the money that he earns should be spent on such useful ends as befits him. i mean on the assistance of relatives, charitable acts and the purchase of drugs suitable for curing disease. nor should he refrain under any circumstances from tending the poor and associating with them. ' ibn ridwan dwells on many issues including the causes of pestilence, and remarkably he states as one of the causes the following : ` psychic events create epidemic disease when a common fear of a ruler grips the people. they suffer prolonged sleeplessness and worry about deliverance or the possibility of trouble. as a result their digestion becomes bad and their natural heat is changed. sometimes people are forced into violent action in such condition. when they expect a famine in some years, they increase their hoarding. their distress intensifies because of what they anticipate may happen. ' abd al - rahman ibn nasr ibn abdallah ibn muhammad al - nabarawi al - shafi ' i ( al - adawi al - shairazi ) is an egyptian scholar who flourished probably in the time of salah. al - din ( sultan 1169 - 1193 ). he wrote a handbook for the use of police officers in charge of markets ( muhtasib ; hence, spanish almotacen ; their function was called hisba ), enabling them for instance to verify weights and measures and to test the genuineness of wares. ( see entry on malaga for greater detail on the functions of the muhtassib ). that handbook, divided into forty chapters, is entitled nihayat al - rutbat al - zarifat fi talab al - hisbat ( summus terminus auctoritatis politae de quaerendo munere honorifico praefecturae annonae ). an elaboration of it bearing the same title was edited by one ibn bassam in the thirteenth or fourteenth century ; it contains 114 chapters dealing with almost as


with, many of which were on medical subjects, only one is in print, compendium memorabilium aegypti, which is based on his studies and experiences in egypt, where he visited at the request of salah al - din ( who must have been at an old age by then ). the arabic manuscript now in the bodleian library was translated by joseph white of oxford in 1782 and published at tubingen in 1789 under the title abdolatiphi compendium … an arabic latin edition containing the arabic text was published by j. white at the clarendon press in 1800 ; a good french translation appeared in paris in 1810, and a german translation by wahl was published at halle in 1790 ; other editions of this work were by hunt in 1746, mousley 1808, and de sacy in 1803. it is important here to quote briffault on a crucial aspect of scientific progress, in which abd al - latif has a role : ` contrast that spirit of scientific minuteness and perseverance in observation ( amongst the muslims ) with the speculative methods of the ancients who scorned mere empiricism ; with aristotle who wrote on physics without performing a single experiment, and on natural history without taking the trouble to ascertain the most easily verifiable facts, who calmly states that men have more teeth than women, while galen, the greatest classical authority on anatomy, informs us that the lower jaw consists of two bones, a statement which is accepted unchallenged till ' abd al - letif takes the trouble to examine human skulls. ' ibn abi al - hawafar ( 13th century ) wrote a treatise on ophthalmology natijat al - fikar ` alaj amrad al bassar ( the thoughtful conclusions on the treatment of the diseases of visions ). the work has been written for the last ayyubid sultan of egypt al - salih najm al - din al - ayyubi ( ruled egypt 1240 - 1249 ). the work was publicised on the occasion of the congress of medicine held in cairo in december 1928, presented by n. kahil under the french title : une ophtalmologie arabe par un practicien du caire du 13em siecle ( an arabic ophthalmologic work of the 13th century by a doctor of cairo ). the work ' s therapeutical and surgical parts contain many facts unknown to the greeks. according to kahil, this treatise


du 13em siecle ( an arabic ophthalmologic work of the 13th century by a doctor of cairo ). the work ' s therapeutical and surgical parts contain many facts unknown to the greeks. according to kahil, this treatise is superior to every european treatise up to the beginning of the eighteenth century. it includes fifteen chapters, such as : diseases of the cornea ; problems of imaginary vision ; diseases of the iris ; diseases of the crystalline ; diseases of the optical nerve ; diseases of the eye muscles ; diseases of the eyelids ; poor eyesight ; hygiene of the eyes. one of the historians of mamluk egypt was muhyi al - din ibn abd al - zahir ( 1223 - 92 ) who wrote a contemporary biography of baybars ( ruled 1260 - 1277 ). he also wrote biographies of his successors, qalawun ( ruled 1279 - 90 ) and his son al - ashraf ( 1290 - 3 ). al - zahir received traditional islamic education and rose to become the chief clerk of baybar ' s chancery. an eminent arabic stylist, which was an important qualification for the post, he was responsible for the drafting of state papers. the greater part of al - zahir ' s biography of baybars ( al - rawd al - zahir fi sirat al - malik al - zahir ) was written during its subject ' s lifetime. of the manuscripts there are two extant copies, one nearly complete, the other covering approximately the first third of the work. ibn al - furat was born in cairo and lived between the years 1334 - 1405. he was a hanafite scholar of cairo, where he studied with notable scholars of the time. amongst these are his shuyukh abu ' l faraj ibn abd al - hadi, abu ' l futuh al - dallasi and abu bakr ibn sannaj, and was licensed by the two great scholars of damascus al - mazzi and al - dhahabi. ibn al - furat eventually became a teacher and a khatib ( preacher ) in the mu ' izziya school in cairo, and also issued marriage contracts and gave authentic witness testimony at the courts. he wrote his book, tarikh al - duwal wal muluk, which depicts best mamluk crusade history. this treatise survives, incomplete, in the national library of vienna, whilst a section from it, unknown, has long been preserved in the vatican library until


tarikh al - duwal wal muluk, which depicts best mamluk crusade history. this treatise survives, incomplete, in the national library of vienna, whilst a section from it, unknown, has long been preserved in the vatican library until discovered by the scholar le strange. it was he who described this part in the journal of the royal asiatic society. parts of ibn al - furat ' s work have been selected and translated by u and m. c. lyons. they gave those extracts in two volumes, the first of which being the arabic text, the second its translation. from those extracts can be gleaned some very interesting events of the later stages of the frankish presence on muslim land such as the recovery of jerusalem, tiberias, ascalon and other places from the franks. most of all, in ibn al - furat ' s work, the focus is on the rise of and campaigns of baybars. the history of the states of the kings ( tarikh al - duwal wal muluk ) has attracted the attention of other scholars such reinaud who uses extracts relevant to the sixth crusade and the occupation of damieta. more recently, elshayyal has been engaged in bringing back to light this great historian of islam. elshayyal enlightens on previous scholarly works on ibn al - furat ' s history, the manuscript of ibn al - furat ' s treatise, his sources, and the edition of his text. el shayyal ' s contribution to the knowledge of ibn al - furat was enhanced by his own edition of ibn al - furat ' s work in a doctoral thesis at the university of edinburgh. in the following, it is worth citing briefly an extract from ibn al - furat to gather both impact and scale of the crusades on muslim history. ibn al - furat writes : sultan baybars received news that the french king, louis, son of louis, together with the kings of the franks, had set sail for an unknown destination. these kings were : the king of england ( lord edward ), the king of askusina, the king of nevers ( john tristan ), the king of navarre ( theobald v ) who was the count of champagne, the king of barcelona ( james i of aragon ), the nephew ( robert ii count of artois ) of the french king, the count of flanders ( guy ) accompanied by his mother ( margaret ) who had five hundred knights with her, the count of toulouse (


barcelona ( james i of aragon ), the nephew ( robert ii count of artois ) of the french king, the count of flanders ( guy ) accompanied by his mother ( margaret ) who had five hundred knights with her, the count of toulouse ( alphonse of poitou and toulouse ), and the count of albano. the sultan devoted his attention to his frontiers and his galleys, and on his return to egypt he built bridges of boats for the troops to cross from fustat to the island of al - rauda, and from al - rauda to al - jiza. he turned his thoughts to the region of ascalon and considered whether louis might make for it to build it up as he had built up caesarea in the past. for ascalon contained the remains of walls, more particularly those of its citadel. so he set off there himself. kamal al - din al - damiri was born in 1349 and died 1405. he was nominally a religious preacher at several mosques in his birth place, cairo, especially at the koubbah or the cupola of baybars. he then went on to occupy one of the chairs at the university of al - azhar. he was a very pious person who accomplished many trips to mecca. he wrote two main works on jurisprudence, a commentary on the sunah of ibn madjah and another work on minhadj of nawawi. however, he also wrote one of the greatest medieval works on zoology and animals. this work, hayat al - hayawan ( the life of animals ) has been edited repeatedly and has also been translated into english by lieutenant colonel jayakar. extracts in french have been published by silvestre de sacy. the treatise is organised in alphabetical order. the lion, whose arabic name begins with a ( assad ) comes first. the author tells of many traditions relating to the animal, giving names, epithets, or honorific surnames by which the animal is depicted. the author then dwells on issues such as whether the lion ' s flesh could be consumed or not. in this specific instance, we are informed that the flesh of animals, such as the lion, which have canine teeth that are used to grab their prey, are forbidden for use. thus the jackal, for instance, is equally forbidden because it too lives thanks to the use to its canine teeth. al - damiri also dwells on the moral character of the beasts, also adding proverbs related to each of


use. thus the jackal, for instance, is equally forbidden because it too lives thanks to the use to its canine teeth. al - damiri also dwells on the moral character of the beasts, also adding proverbs related to each of the animals and also the use of animal, or parts of it, for medical purposes. a brief extract on a scorpion variety ( djerrarah ) can be given here : ` it is a species which when moving about, drags its tail. these scorpions are small, and are of yellowish colour. we find them in askar mokram in khuzistan, generally in wells dug for making of sugar, or on molds prepared for sugar … djahiz says that these scorpions can kill, and can cause the flesh to rot very quickly. ibn djami tells that the venom is hot and dry, and that it creates within the chest a feeling of suffocation ; but the place of the bite itself is not painful. as a counter poison can be used water of barley, or cheese water, or a puree of apples mixed with cold water. ' al - maqrizi ( d. 1441 ) was a man of the law and a teacher in cairo who collected his material, a great deal of which is absolutely unique, to compile his major work kitab al - khitat. al - maqrizi also compiled kitab al - suluk li ma ' rifat duwal al muluk ( book of entrance to the knowledge of the dynasties of the kings ) which is a history of egypt from the time of salah al - din ( 1169 ) to 1440 - 1. it is thus a history of two dynasties, the ayyubids and the mamluks. the frenchman quatremere made a translation of a large portion of this work, and also an edition of the arabic version up to 1354. al - maqrizi informs us of all that happened in egypt throughout the few centuries preceding him in extensive details : places, towns, events, daily life, culture, economy and even finance. al - maqrizi also describes the crusades and crusaders especially those that involved the french ruler st louis. his focus is on mamluk egypt and cairo. it is thanks to al - maqrizi that we know so much about the history of the institutions of cairo and its structures. we find, for example, information in the descriptions about the actual buildings


is on mamluk egypt and cairo. it is thanks to al - maqrizi that we know so much about the history of the institutions of cairo and its structures. we find, for example, information in the descriptions about the actual buildings of the hospitals ; al - maqrizi provided details of the history, situation and structure of five hospitals in cairo. maqrizi has left us a vivid description of the progress of what was probably the most costly outbreak of the plague which happened during 1347 - 9. it broke out in egypt in the autumn of 1347. by april 1348 it had spread throughout the country and reached its peak in november 1348 and january 1349 before finally subsiding in february 1349. during these one and a half years it wreaked havoc throughout egypt from alexandria in the north to the outskirts of aswan in the south. in alexandria the plague carried off one hundred people each day and at its height this number rose to two hundred. the royal tiraz factory was closed down for lack of workers ; the markets and customs houses suspended operations for lack of merchants and travellers. the delta areas were similarly affected. in mahalla the plague was so intense that the prefect ( walli ) could find no one to come to complain to him ; and the qadi, when approached by people to validate their wills, because of their small number, could find no witnesses except with great exertion. in the countryside, there was almost no one left to cultivate the land or collect the harvests. because of the plague, an expanse of land in upper egypt which was previously inhabited by 6, 000 tax payers contained only 116 who could pay taxes. in cairo, the number of daily deaths rose from 300 at the beginning of october 1348 to 3000 towards the end of the month. many streets were left with empty houses. survivors helped themselves to abandoned property, houses, furniture and money. maqrizi claims that in cairo alone 900 000 people died, and that the figure would be doubled were it to include some of its suburbs and adjacent areas. the history of egypt is also handled by ibn taghribidi ( d. 1469 ) who wrote an - nujum az - zahira fi muluk misr wal - qahira ( the brilliant stars in the kings of misr and cairo. it gives excellent accounts of events from the time of the muslim arrival until 1468, that is to the eve of the author ' s death. it


misr wal - qahira ( the brilliant stars in the kings of misr and cairo. it gives excellent accounts of events from the time of the muslim arrival until 1468, that is to the eve of the author ' s death. it is divided into seven volumes of annals ; so extensive that juynboll, matthe, and popper all worked on the edition of extracts from the work. hasan ibn hussain al - tuluni who was born in cairo in 1432 / 3 belongs to a famed family of architects. in 1453, he became the chief architect mu ' allam al - mi - mariyya. he is known to have erected the mausoleum of khusqadam in cairo, for which he received a robe of honour in 1462. he also was commissioned to restore the mosque in the citadel, and to enlarge and renew parts of it. between 1481 and 1491 we find him in charge of the restoration of the main mosque on the island of rauda and the construction of mills with waterwheels, a feat of engineering which was considered at the time to be one of the sights of cairo. ibn iyas mentions that the sultan ordered the nilometer to be repaired and restored at the same time and al - tuluni too was responsible for this work. in 1487 he restored the bridge of abu - l - munajja. in 1493 he made pilgrimage to mecca and in 1502 - 3, he is mentioned as chief architect again. he died in 1517 to be succeeded by his son shihab al - din. this outline has missed many scholars of cairo but ought not miss a little known scholar, izz al - din al - wafai, whose accomplishments seem remarkable as can be shown in the following brief outline based on the large entry devoted to him by rosenfeld and ihsanoglu. al - wafai ( d. 1469 ) was primarily a mathematician, muezzin and muwaqqit at the muayyad mosque in cairo who wrote a staggering number of forty treatises as listed by rosenfeld and ihsanoglu. these treatises are concerned with mathematics including arithmetic, operations with sexagesimal ratio ( kept at oxford i 967 / 5, 1034 / 2 ), and a large number of works dealing with instruments. amongst these is al - nujum al - zahirat fi amal bi ' l rub al - muqantarat ( brilliant stars on operations with


5, 1034 / 2 ), and a large number of works dealing with instruments. amongst these is al - nujum al - zahirat fi amal bi ' l rub al - muqantarat ( brilliant stars on operations with the almucantar quadrant, in 25 chapters and an introduction - manuscript kept in cairo, miqat 197, istanbul, leiden, paris, tunis, etc … ). other treatises include nuzhat al - nazar fil amal bi ' shams wa ' l qamar ( delight of the observer on operations with the sun and the moon ), a treatise on the sine quadrant, a treatise on instrument called equatorial circle, a treatise on operations with the shadow plane, a treatise on operations with concave sundials, a treatise on the perfect astrolabe, various guides to pupils on how to make astronomical operations, a speech on almucantars on terrestrial equator and so on. from the list it appears that al - wafai ' s works can be found in libraries stretching from cairo to istanbul, turin, manchester, princeton, oxford, tunis, leiden, paris, berlin, beirut, jakarta and rome. by : fstc ltd, tue 24 may, 2005


all about email addresses email today is among the most common forms of communication. it feels as though everybody uses email these days, and use it quite frequently. while some people receive only a message or two every week, others will send and receive thousands within that same time. email got started back in 1968, at a business called bolt beranek and newman ( bbn ). this company was hired by the department of defense to create what was, at the time, called arpanet ( advanced research projects agency network ), which was later to be known as the internet. arpanet was to be used for communications among military and educational institutions. engineer ray tomlinson was assigned to a project in 1971, which had two main parts : sndmsg and readmail. sndmsg was the first form of electronic mail. it had already existed for several years and was an exceptionally primitive way for users of the same machine to send messages to one another. text files could be created and delivered to inboxes on the same machine. it could not send to different machines. the mailbox consisted only of a simple text file to which additional text could be added. data could not, however, be deleted or edited. tomlinson ' s goal for the project, however, was to broaden the capabilities of sndmsg. he had already been working on a project called cypnet, which had the purpose of transferring files among different computers within the arpanet. therefore, he modified his cypnet to allow appended files. tomlinson ' s next decision was a mark in history. he created the current email address format, with the mailbox name, the @ symbol, and the machine ' s node name. he then sent the first email message - to himself. its contents have been forgotten over time. it was simply sent between two arpanet network pdp - 10 nodes. from that point on email became exceptionally popular, where 75 % of all arpanet traffic was email within two years of time. one of the first large email programs for the public that achieved real popularity was eudora. it was written as an email client by steve dorner in 1988. today, research shows that over half of all americans use email for approximately half an hour every day. 87 million americans actively use email.


a quality family literacy program has well - trained staff who can meet the diverse learning needs of participating family members. the staff understand the theory and research underlying family literacy, bring practical skills to program delivery, and keep up - to - date through ask yourself how these statements apply to your program. our family literacy program staff … - are well qualified for their particular positions, with appropriate educational credentials and knowledge of family literacy programming, according to our - as a team, bring expertise and years of practical experience from a variety of backgrounds including adult literacy, early childhood education, elementary and community education, social work and educational administration. - have received intensive training in the theories and research that underlie family literacy and in effective instructional practices, prior to starting this family literacy program. - receive regular, high - quality professional development opportunities to broaden their knowledge of specific areas of family literacy, and enable them to develop more practical skills. - have a good understanding of the following : - child development - emergent literacy and the reading process - adults as learners - the dynamics of working with families - differences in learning styles and abilities - involving reluctant readers - life skills support - diversity issues - power imbalances in society - community development - the socio - political context of literacy - participatory critical reflection - levels of expectation and accountability - relevant administrative issues - assessment and evaluation - are prepared to use a variety of instructional strategies and make modifi cations to meet the various literacy needs of participants of diverse backgrounds, different capabilities and different learning styles. - use age - appropriate instructional methods and materials that take into account participants ’ initial assessments and goals, follow their progress, and build on their achievements. - encourage participants ’ self - expression and critical thinking through group discussions and learner - centred program activities.


tungsten carbide cobalt is an alloy of a hard ceramic phase, the tungsten carbide ( wc ) and a ductile metallic phase, the cobalt ( co ). hard metals such as wc - co are non - natural materials not occurring in nature. they are produced by mixing carbide and metal powders, a forming step and a thermal treatment ( sintering ). from hard metals, mainly tools are produced for chipping ( turning, milling, drilling ) or non - chipping shaping ( drawing, rolling, spinning ), as well as for cutting ( stamping ) or breaking of metals, wood, paper, plastic, stone, and coal. further, surgery equipment is produced from wc - co. likewise, different technical wear - resistant parts like nozzles or reinforcements ( e. g. for mills ) are made of wc - co. well - known products include hard metal driller or hard metal coated circular saw blades for hobby craftsmen as well as the small balls in ball pens. important properties of wc - co are hardness, strength, high breaking and beating ductility as well as high electrical and thermal conductivity. by varying the metallic cobalt content and the tungsten carbide grain size, important properties of the alloy can be specifically adapted. this fact is illustrated in figure 1 with respect to hardness. by varying the cobalt content between 0 and 20 mass per cent, hard metals can cover a hardness range from tempered steel to super - hard alloys. the smaller the carbide grain the harder an object can penetrate the surface and the higher is its hardness. in 1999, the task - force ` hard metals ` of the german industrial union for powder metallurgy suggested a classification of wc - co hard metals according to grain size, which is today accepted worldwide ( table 1 ). for hard metal grain sizes below 1 µm, exceptional combinations of hardness and strength are achievable, which makes such alloys interesting for the production of hard materials and very fine tools. ground breaking for the development of hard metal industries was the work of the osram studiengesellschaft in berlin and the patent filed in 1923 by karl schroter, which was bought by the krupp company later on. as soon as 1926, krupp introduced the first alloy under the name widia to the market. widia is short for “ wie diamant ” ( german for ` diamond - like ` ) and refers to the extraordinary hardness of the material. nowadays, large production facilities are located in


below are the first 10 and last 10 pages of uncorrected machine - read text ( when available ) of this chapter, followed by the top 30 algorithmically extracted key phrases from the chapter as a whole. intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter - representative searchable text on the opening pages of each chapter. because it is uncorrected material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages. do not use for reproduction, copying, pasting, or reading ; exclusively for search engines. ocr for page 1 critical needs and gaps in understanding prevention, amelioration, and resolution of lyme and other tick - borne diseases : the short - term and long - term outcomes - workshop report overview tick - borne diseases ( tbds ) represent some of the world ’ s most rapidly expanding arthropod - borne infectious diseases, yet significant gaps remain in our understanding and knowledge about them. in the united states, many tick - borne diseases such as anaplasmosis and the borrelioses, ehrlichioses, and rickettsioses are on the rise. reasons include shifts in the prevalence and distribution of animal reservoirs and tick vectors as well as the movement of humans into areas where the animal hosts and tick populations are abundant. from a public health standpoint, the burden of disease is of growing concern, as is the incomplete understanding of the complex interactions of ticks, hosts, pathogens, and habitats that underlie changing disease patterns and the potential for climate change to exacerbate these trends. the committee on lyme disease and other tick - borne diseases : the state of the science was formed at the request of the national institute of allergy and infectious diseases to hold a 2 - day workshop on the state of the science of lyme disease and other tbds. the committee was requested to be inclusive in the breadth of scientific approaches and disciplines, but to exclude treatment guidelines from the workshop. furthermore, the workshop was to provide a forum for broad scientific and public input and to produce a workshop report that would highlight the major themes of the workshop and commissioned papers. the committee was not constituted to develop conclusions or recommendations. the committee recognized that the limitation of a 2 - day workshop meant that not all proposed topics or speakers could be accommodated ; it did its best to cover a range of topics and speakers. ocr for page 2 critical needs and gaps in understanding prevention, amelioration, and resolution of lyme and other tick


meant that not all proposed topics or speakers could be accommodated ; it did its best to cover a range of topics and speakers. ocr for page 2 critical needs and gaps in understanding prevention, amelioration, and resolution of lyme and other tick - borne diseases : the short - term and long - term outcomes - workshop report the presentations summarized in this document represent the views of the individual speakers and should not be interpreted as a consensus or an endorsement by the institute of medicine, the committee, or its sponsors. furthermore, the committee recognizes that the language and terminology used to describe various facets and manifestations of lyme disease and coinfecting conditions are not uniform throughout the report — this reflects differences in scientific perspective among speakers and authors. as highlighted by many presenters, a standard lexicon that is consistently applied and understood would improve and advance research efforts related to lyme disease and other tick - borne diseases. furthermore, addressing the major knowledge gaps identified in this report is likely to lead to standardization of terminology as the unknown becomes the known. the following sections of the overview summarize the committee ’ s highlights of presentations and discussions from the scientific portion of the agenda. the committee appreciates the time and efforts of the presenters and commissioned paper authors and the many participants who shared their stories to provide a context for these discussions. the interactions with patients and advocates were useful and constructive and served as an effective reminder of why scientific observations and gaps in knowledge need to be filled. science is lagging behind as the burden of these diseases increases. the reader is directed to chapter 3 for the rich presentation of participant views. emerging infections, tick biology, and host – vector interactions the recognized number of serious diseases transmitted by ticks has increased over the past 30 years. the emergence and increased incidence of several major tbds has been attributed to specific human activities and behaviors that disrupt ecosystems. increases in human population and demographic shifts have brought dramatic changes in the distribution and composition of natural habitats, as people modify the land for living spaces, agriculture, or recreation. these changes mean that people and animals interact at many more interfaces, creating new opportunities for the transmission of zoonotic pathogens, including those responsible for tbds. this session examined the natural history of ticks and their wildlife and domestic hosts ; outlined the contributions of animal health experts to understanding human tbd ; explored genetic diversity among pathogens, vectors, and hosts ; and showed how scientists are investigating the microbial community found within the ticks themselves. during the session, the individual speakers highlighted a number of research


animal health experts to understanding human tbd ; explored genetic diversity among pathogens, vectors, and hosts ; and showed how scientists are investigating the microbial community found within the ticks themselves. during the session, the individual speakers highlighted a number of research gaps and opportunities for studying tbds. some of these gaps and opportunities cut across individual presentations and comments from the audience. a few of the themes discussed included ocr for page 3 critical needs and gaps in understanding prevention, amelioration, and resolution of lyme and other tick - borne diseases : the short - term and long - term outcomes - workshop report regional differences in the distribution of ticks and tick - borne pathogens and their contribution to human disease. environmental systems and the “ one health ” ( i. e., the interface of human, animal, and environmental health that includes complexities of the ecosystems or the interface of biological communities and their physical or abiotic environment ) approach to understanding tick - borne diseases. the biology and dynamic characteristics of disease vectors. the risk of tbds as they relate to ecological fragmentation and reduced wildlife diversity. the tick microbiome and its role in transmission of pathogens to humans. surveillance, spectrum, and burden of tick - borne disease, and at - risk populations an understanding of the science of lyme disease and other tbds begins with the surveillance, spectrum, and burden of disease. this session focused on the current state of knowledge of the prevalence, incidence, patterns, and severity of key tbds in the united states and their impact on patients. the presenters discussed efforts to track the movement of pathogens in the environment, how infection moves from animals to people, and the burden of human infection and disease, especially among vulnerable populations. some themes discussed included the relative contributions of changes in surveillance, clinical recognition, and testing patterns to the rising incidence of all of the major tick - borne diseases. the impact of coinfection in severity of human tbds. biological understanding of persistent symptoms. pathogenesis understanding pathogenesis of an infectious disease at the cellular and molecular levels is critical for discovering, developing, and implementing methods to prevent infection, and to improve patient outcomes after treatment. scientists rely on several approaches to study the pathogenesis of tick - borne diseases. these include in vitro laboratory studies, in vivo studies of experimental and natural infections in animals, and patient studies based on clinical trials and specimens from biopsies and autopsies. while no one approach can represent the full spectrum and complexity of human disease, ocr for page 4 critical needs


vivo studies of experimental and natural infections in animals, and patient studies based on clinical trials and specimens from biopsies and autopsies. while no one approach can represent the full spectrum and complexity of human disease, ocr for page 4 critical needs and gaps in understanding prevention, amelioration, and resolution of lyme and other tick - borne diseases : the short - term and long - term outcomes - workshop report the ability to “ reduce ” or “ control ” the number of variables by using in vitro and in vivo models allows more rapid and less equivocal determination of key variables in disease progression — knowledge required to improve prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of tick - borne disease in patients. this session focused on the state of the science regarding the pathogenesis of tick - borne infections — specifically those caused by pathogens in the genera anaplasma, borrelia, ehrlichia, and rickettsia. themes discussed included the following : research based on animal models for the testing of hypotheses related to the clinical manifestations and severity of symptoms or disease. the role of the immune response to tick - borne infection and its effect on bacterial load and disease manifestations. new technologies in animal models that explore mechanisms of pathogen persistence following antibiotic treatment. translating research findings from the animal model to clinical application. diagnostics and diagnosis diagnostics and diagnosis, which are essential to improve outcomes of tick - borne diseases, have different connotations. diagnostics provide a cluster of objective measures directed toward identifying the cause of a disease. after scientists discover the causative agent of an emerging infectious disease, such as borrelia burgdorferi or ehrlichia chaffeensis, they develop, evaluate, and refine diagnostic tests over time. diagnosis, in contrast, rests on a patient ’ s history and symptoms and observed physical and laboratory findings in a particular epidemiologic context. ultimately, accurate diagnosis requires knowledge of the epidemiology and clinical manifestations, as well as specific and sensitive diagnostic tests. in this session, the presenters explored the limitations of existing tests for lyme borreliosis and other tick - borne diseases, and they discussed promising new approaches to diagnostics that may improve the diagnosis of these diseases, and the challenges and needs for improving initial diagnosis. some themes discussed in this session included the current status of diagnostic tests and biomarkers for tbds. the role of central system sensitivity and fatigue and other sequelae as possible biomarkers of tbds. measurement of


needs for improving initial diagnosis. some themes discussed in this session included the current status of diagnostic tests and biomarkers for tbds. the role of central system sensitivity and fatigue and other sequelae as possible biomarkers of tbds. measurement of qualitative symptoms reported by patients. biorepositories for tick - borne diseases. syndromic - based diagnostics for tbds. ocr for page 5 critical needs and gaps in understanding prevention, amelioration, and resolution of lyme and other tick - borne diseases : the short - term and long - term outcomes - workshop report prevention research efforts have been focused on ameliorating the symptoms and consequences of tick - borne diseases through treatment. however, the development, deployment, and evaluation of strategies to prevent the occurrence of tick - borne diseases were also discussed as a high priority. prevention of infection is much more preferable to treating the short - and long - term consequences of disease. in this session, the presentations addressed current and future opportunities for vaccine development, the role and effectiveness of behavior change, and vector - control strategies. a few of the themes discussed in this session included research and development of safe, effective, multipathogen human and animal vaccines for tick - transmitted diseases. land - use practices and public education as current tools to improve mitigation and prevention of tbds. social and behavioral considerations for tbd prevention interventions. educational programs for the public. assessing the impact of educational programs for patients and clinicians. summation the committee invited a panel of stakeholders to listen to the presentations and discussions during the course of the 2 - day workshop and to share their observations regarding the research gaps and priorities in the science of tick - borne diseases. the panel members were not asked to come to a consensus but rather to express their individual viewpoints. the panelists included a representative from a patient advocacy group, a clinician specializing in lyme disease, a clinician - scientist specializing in ehrlichia and anaplasma, a clinician - scientist studying pathogenesis, and a european clinician - scientist who provided a global perspective. following the discussion, the committee invited participants to share their thoughts. a few of the views presented during this session included perspectives on the following : research funding gaps for other tbds. contribution of a national integrated research plan for advancing the science on tbds. the merits of a long - term study of lyme disease and other tbd patients. the role of public - private partnerships and other collaborative efforts to enhance the research on


below are the first 10 and last 10 pages of uncorrected machine - read text ( when available ) of this chapter, followed by the top 30 algorithmically extracted key phrases from the chapter as a whole. intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter - representative searchable text on the opening pages of each chapter. because it is uncorrected material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages. do not use for reproduction, copying, pasting, or reading ; exclusively for search engines. ocr for page 75 - - > 4 a strategy for the future the previous chapters focused on the scientific directions in airborne geophysics that are possible with precise positioning and on the technological developments required to pursue them. to fulfill these research objectives, certain requirements must also be met. there needs to be improved access to airborne technology ; development of flexible operational measurement systems ; better interagency and interdisciplinary coordination ; and reevaluation of gps security systems. as a result of deliberations based on the input it received, the committee on geodesy offers the following recommendations for meeting these requirements : recommendation 1. the new capabilities in precise positioning and accurate navigation should be made more accessible to the user community. an initiative to increase access should include both the establishment of an airborne earth science facility and a coordinated effort at educating its potential users. a facility dedicated to airborne earth sciences would consist of instrumented aircraft that are made available to researchers for fixed periods of time. such a facility must provide a broad range of services to meet the needs of the basic and applied research communities. in particular, it must promote the use of discovery, process - oriented, and development platforms. these platforms would give researchers the ocr for page 76 - - > capability of conducting broad regional surveys with one or two sensors, or high - resolution surveys with a broad spectrum of sensors. technical development platforms allow new technologies to be evaluated and modified in order to develop accurate operational measurements. access to each of these systems would provide fertile ground for scientific and technological advances. management of the facility, evaluation of proposals for the use of its aircraft, and efforts to educate the potential user community about its capabilities could be coordinated through a variety of management structures, including the following : coordinating interagency working group ; university consortium funded by the government ; university / government / private - sector partnership ; and central ( nonprofit ) coordinating committee. models for each of these approaches exist throughout the government and academic community. for example, an inter


coordinating interagency working group ; university consortium funded by the government ; university / government / private - sector partnership ; and central ( nonprofit ) coordinating committee. models for each of these approaches exist throughout the government and academic community. for example, an interagency working group of nine federal agencies is pooling data, technology, and resources to create a data and information system for the u. s. global change research program. in the seismology community, incorporated research institutions for seismology ( iris ), a university consortium funded by government agencies, is responsible for distributing research funds and coordinating the installation of seismograph stations. doe ' s domestic energy initiative is an example of a university / government / private - sector partnership. finally, a nonprofit coordinating committee, the joint oceanographic community, coordinates the operations of the drilling ship the joides resolution for the national science foundation. each of these cooperative ventures was driven by the need to access technology that is too complex, expensive, or logistically difficult to be managed by an individual investigator or agency. airborne geophysical technology presents similar difficulties and will require the establishment of a central facility to ensure its broader use. existing capabilities at nasa, nsf, usgs, or the navy could form the basis for such a government - operated facility and any number of airborne geophysical companies could provide aircraft from the private sector. as with ocean surveys, no single method of cooperation is likely ocr for page 77 - - > to meet all scientific needs. consequently, some missions could be flown privately and others could be flown under contract by federal agencies. to ensure maximum use of these platforms, it is necessary to educate the potential and established user communities. educational efforts should begin with the encouragement of collaborative projects between scientists and the federal and commercial developers of airborne geophysical technology and precise positioning. in addition, conferences that attempt to merge the small airborne geophysical community with the broader science community should be convened regularly. an appropriate forum might be a three - day chapman conference, sponsored by the american geophysical union, which would provide ample time for informal interaction and initiation of collaborative research. recommendation 2. airborne geophysical measurements should be coordinated across disciplines, programs, and funding agencies to promote interdisciplinary research and to optimize use of the aircraft. programs in airborne geophysics are currently concentrated in a few agencies, corporations, and university departments. this segregation of effort limits both the effective use of expensive aircraft and the development of innovative research. for example, integration of gravity and magnetic measurements with major photogrammetric missions could produce


are currently concentrated in a few agencies, corporations, and university departments. this segregation of effort limits both the effective use of expensive aircraft and the development of innovative research. for example, integration of gravity and magnetic measurements with major photogrammetric missions could produce significantly more data at a relatively small incremental cost. such coordinated missions would be beneficial to both the funding agencies, which save money, and to the broader scientific community, which gains data and the opportunity to do interdisciplinary research. recommendation 3. to ensure uniform coverage that is sufficiently accurate to resolve both long - and short - wavelength geologic features, technological developments should aim at integrating gps with a broad spectrum of well - calibrated measurement systems. uniform, accurate measurements are needed for both long - wavelength regional studies and short - wavelength process - oriented studies. future technological developments must address both needs to ensure that airborne geophysical methods become routine tools for the scientific, resource, and environmental industries. currently, only a limited number of accurate operational systems are routinely available. these include high - resolution airborne magnetics and photogrammetry, which are commercially available, and airborne gravity, which is available through ocr for page 78 - - > government, industry, and academia. topographic mapping systems are still largely in the developmental stage and are not available for routine scientific operations. other technological advances should focus on the design and implementation of experiments that require multiple measurement systems on a single platform. these applications require well - calibrated, integrated operational systems. the design process should look beyond the proof - of - concept and developmental stages to the practical considerations of an aircraft survey. integrated operational systems will place specific restrictions on equipment size, power requirements, and survey design. recommendation 4. in light of the serious impact on airborne geophysics, particularly for emerging industrial applications, the continuous operation of the antispoofing system should be carefully evaluated. the applications and technological advances discussed in previous chapters depend on access to gps signals that make it possible to locate the aircraft ' s antenna to better than 1 m. when as is on, these applications can be accomplished only if other parts of the positioning system are improved. such improvements include replacing all but one manufacturer ' s existing gps receivers with models that use a different encoded signal for positioning ; installing additional ground tracking systems so that aircraft are never more than tens of kilometers away from a ground station ; or coupling the gps receiver to the inertial guidance system in the aircraft to account for the dynamics of the aircraft. even when as is off, very high resolution applications will require improved navigation and post


about one - third that of total phosphorus intake. nevertheless, individuals with high dairy product intakes will have diets with higher phosphorus density values, since the phosphorus density of cow milk is higher than that of most other foods in a typical diet. the same is true for diets high in colas and a few other soft drinks that use phosphoric acid as the acidulant. a 12 - ounce serving of such beverages contains about 50 mg ( < 2 mmol ), which is only 5 percent of the typical intake of an adult woman. however, when consumed in a quantity of five or more servings per day, such beverages may contribute substantially to total phosphorus intake. a milk phosphorus at three different weeks of lactation ( atkinson et al., 1995 ). b phosphorus content of soy formula includes about 3 mmol / l, present as phytate phosphorus which is likely not to be bioavailable ( devizia and mansi, 1992 ). intake from supplements phosphorus supplements are not widely used in the united states. based on a national survey in 1986, about 10 percent of u. s. adults and 6 percent of children aged 2 to 6 years took supplements containing phosphorus ( moss et al., 1989 ). usage by men and women was similar, as was the dose taken by users : a median of about 120 mg ( 3. 9 mmol ) / day and a ninety - fifth percentile of 448 mg ( 14. 5 mmol ) / day. young children who took supplements had a median supplemental intake of only 48 mg ( 1. 5 mmol ) / day and a ninety - fifth percentile of intake of 200 mg ( 6. 5 mmol ) / day. effects of inadequate phosphorus intake hypophosphatemia and phosphorus depletion inadequate phosphorus intake is expressed as hypophosphatemia.


... a forum for american indian issues... thu oct 18, 2012 at 14 : 12 : 25 pm pdt | archaeology is the study of the past through material remains. one of the goals of archaeology is discovery and description. discovery and description, however, is only the first step : archaeologists also seek to develop explanations. understanding the past means that we should try to understand how people lived in the past and why changes occurred. ultimately, archaeology seeks to understand human behavior. in addition, there is also a concern, some would say an obligation, of communicating archaeological insights to the general public. one way of doing this is through displays at museums and interpretive centers. one of these interpretive centers is found in southern alberta : the head - smashed - in buffalo jump interpretive centre. | ojibwa : : the archaeology of head - smashed - in, alberta | indian people have lived in southern alberta for more than 11, 000 years. by 6, 000 years ago, they were using a sophisticated hunting technique that involved driving buffalo over a cliff at head - smashed - in. in 1965 archaeologists began their first dig at this site which led to the establishment of the interpretive centre which now explains the archaeological findings. the fifth level of the interpretive centre, uncovering the past, shows the archaeology behind the displays and explains how archaeologists uncover the past. below the impressive buffalo at the top of the cliff there is a replica of the archaeological dig. the replica is a cast of an actual dig. digging is often done with a trowel, the dirt placed into the bucket, which is then screened to find small items. shown above is the grid used to help record the context of the finds. the idea of " dig " in archaeology often means going down many meters. in general, the farther down you go, the farther back in time you go. archaeology is more than just digging up pretty or exotic objects to be displayed in museums : the context of all items is carefully recorded. the photos above shows the notebooks used to record the findings. the diorama shown above displays an archaeological dig on the right and the indian village on the left. this shows what the site was like when it was in use and then what it looks like to the archaeologist. the archaeologists ' job is to use the material remains left at the site to reconstruct what happened there. the amount of detail in this diorama is amazing. a hide scraping tool is shown above. a series of interactive displays ( some of


the archaeologists ' job is to use the material remains left at the site to reconstruct what happened there. the amount of detail in this diorama is amazing. a hide scraping tool is shown above. a series of interactive displays ( some of which are shown above ) explains some of the different artifacts found at head - smashed - in. the displays show not only different types of artifacts, but also how they are made and used. in honor of my mother, the flora sombrero lind navajo endowment fund has been set up to accept your donations. this scholarship endowment has been established at the american indian college fund to honor flora sombrero lind, as an enrolled member of the navajo nation who was born at inscription house, arizona of the many goats clan circa 1925. this scholarship endowment is funded by flora ' s family and friends who want to see navajo students pursue higher education and carry on their great navajo heritage. please leave a comment here if you donate. - please specify what your donation is for in the notes section of the paypal window. either propane for pine ridge or rosebud or hosting fees for this blog. - - navajo if you like to help aji and wings please mail a check to them at the address here : click the contact tab for address.... a forum for the discussion of political, social and economic issues affecting the indigenous peoples of the united states, including their lack of political representation, economic deprivation, health care issues, and the on - going struggle for preservation of identity and cultural history about us : navajo ( neeta lind ) senior historian & writer land of enchantment veterans affairs correspondent bill in md no way lack of brain | ndn news & links the native american rights fund ( narf ) is a non - profit 501c ( 3 ) organization that provides legal representation and technical assistance to indian tribes, organizations and individuals nationwide - a constituency that often lacks access to the justice system. narf focuses on applying existing laws and treaties to guarantee that national and state governments live up to their legal obligations. indigenous peoples and human rights news reporting from native america - daily kos - native appropriations


" the oldest and most common dig against organic agriculture is that it cannot feed the world ' s citizens ; this, however, is a supposition, not a fact. and industrial agriculture isn ' t working perfectly, either : the global food price index is at a record high, and our agricultural system is wreaking havoc with the health not only of humans but of the earth. there are around a billion undernourished people ; we can also thank the current system for the billion who are overweight or obese. " says mark bittman in his recent ny times opinion piece. " yet there is good news : increasing numbers of scientists, policy panels and experts ( not hippies! ) are suggesting that agricultural practices pretty close to organic — perhaps best called “ sustainable ” — can feed more poor people sooner, begin to repair the damage caused by industrial production and, in the long term, become the norm. " says mark bittman in his recent ny times opinion piece. industrial ( aka “ conventional ” ) agriculture depends upon a great deal of low cost resources, including large amounts of water and the fossil fuel that are required in the production of chemical fertilizer, large scale machinery to work the land, extensive irrigation, and, of course, vast levels of transportation. the end result is that the " conventional " system needs more resources than the earth can replenish, as is obvious in the use of non - renewable fossil fuels and limited resources like water. " fun / depressing fact : it takes the earth 18 months to replenish the amount of resources we use each year. looked at another way, we ’ d need 1. 5 earths to be sustainable at our current rate of consumption. " according to the ny times article " sustainable agriculture can feed the world " by mark bittman agro - ecology and related methods are going to require resources too, but they ’ re more in the form of labor, both intellectual — much research remains to be done — and physical : the world will need more farmers, and quite possibly less mechanization. many adherents rule out nothing, including in their recommendations even gmos and chemical fertilizers where justifiable. meanwhile, those working towards improving conventional agriculture are borrowing more from organic methods. ( many of these hybrid systems were discussed convincingly in andrew revkin ’ s dotearth blog last week. ) worldwatch institute ’ s state of the world 2011 shows agriculture innovation is key to reducing poverty, stabilizing climate nearly a half - century after


these hybrid systems were discussed convincingly in andrew revkin ’ s dotearth blog last week. ) worldwatch institute ’ s state of the world 2011 shows agriculture innovation is key to reducing poverty, stabilizing climate nearly a half - century after the green revolution, a large share of the human family is still chronically hungry. while investment in agricultural development by governments, international lenders, and foundations has escalated in recent years, it is still nowhere near what is needed to help the 925 million people who are undernourished. since the mid - 1980s when agricultural funding was at its height, agriculture ' s share of global development aid has fallen from over 16 percent to just 4 percent today. in 2008, $ 1. 7 billion dollars in official development assistance was provided to support agricultural projects in africa, based on statistics from the organisation for economic co - operation and development ( oecd ) — a miniscule amount considering the vital return on investment. given the current global economic conditions, investments are not likely to increase in the coming year. much of the more recently pledged funding has yet to be raised, and existing funding is not being targeted efficiently to reach the poor farmers of africa. “ the international community has been neglecting entire segments of the food system in its efforts to reduce hunger and poverty, ” said danielle nierenberg, co - director of worldwatch ’ s nourishing the planet project. “ the solutions won ’ t necessarily come from producing more food, but from changing what children eat in schools, how foods are processed and marketed, and what sorts of food businesses we are investing in. ” serving locally raised crops to school children, for example, has proven to be an effective hunger - and poverty - reducing strategy in many african nations, and has strong parallels to successful farm - to - cafeteria programs in the united states and europe. moreover, “ roughly 40 percent of the food currently produced worldwide is wasted before it is consumed, creating large opportunities for farmers and households to save both money and resources by reducing this waste, ” according to brian halweil, nourishing the planet co - director. state of the world 2011 draws from hundreds of case studies and first - person examples to offer solutions to reducing hunger and poverty. these include : in 2007, some 6, 000 women in the gambia organized into the try women ’ s oyster harvesting producer association, creating a sustainable co - management plan for the local oyster fishery to prevent overharvesting and exploitation. oysters and fish are an important, low -