introduction to concentration one very important property of solutions that must be addressed is concentration. concentration generally refers to the amount of solute contained in a certain amount of solution. to deal with concentration you must keep in mind the distinctions between solute, solvent and solution. because varying amounts of solute can be dissolved in a solution, concentration is a variable property and we often need to have a numerical way of indicating how concentrated a solution happens to be. over the years a variety of ways have developed for calculating and expressing the concentration of solutions. that can be done with percentages using measurements of weight ( mass ) or volume or both. it can also be done using measurements that more closely relate to ways that chemicals react with one another ( moles ). in the pages that follow, several types of concentration will be presented. they include volume percent, weight percent, weight / volume percent, molarity ( the workhorse of chemical concentrations ), and normality ( presented only briefly here, more about it in another lesson ). you will get experience with more than one way of establishing the concentration of solutions. you can prepare a solution from scratch and measure each of the components that go into the solution. you can prepare a solution by diluting an existing solution. if an existing solution is colored, you can determine its concentration by measuring the intensity of color using colorimetry. there is also a connection between concentration and the equilibrium of saturated solutions that we will consider in this lesson. that involves the solubility product constants ( ksp ) for ionic compounds. distance learning questions clackamas community college


field guide to maryland ' s turtles ( order testudines ) eastern musk turtle photo of eastern musk turtle courtesy of john white 2 - 4½ inches. record - 5 inches. photo of eastern musk turtle courtesy of scott a. smith also known as “ stinkpot ”, its fetid smell aids in identification. photo of habitat for eastern musk turtle courtesy of rebecca chalmers found in most permanent bodies of water with slow current and soft bottoms, including ponds, lakes, swamps, streams and rivers. it is not found in brackish waters. often climbs slanting trees on swamp and marsh edges, where they occasionally fall onto boaters. how to find look in shallow water areas from april to september, particularly areas of still water. it is chiefly nocturnal, resting on the bottom during the day. it can sometimes be observed through binoculars basking on trees. may be ill - tempered if handled. distribution in maryland can be found throughout maryland but more common on the coastal plain. - discover maryland ' s herps - maryland herp history - maryland herp checklist - survey techniques, collecting ethics, safety and the law - problems with buying frogs and tadpoles for wild release - technical guide : a key to the reptiles and amphibians of maryland - 86. 3 mb pdf file - maryland amphibian and reptile atlas ( mara ) project - natural heritage program - wildlife & heritage home " a joint project of the natural history society of maryland, inc. and the maryland department of natural resources " to see older newsletters, please visit the mara resource page. the maryland herpetology field guide is a cooperative effort of the md natural heritage program and the md biological stream survey within the department of natural resources and their partners. we wish to thank all who contributed field records, text, and photographs, as well as support throughout its development.


loggerhead sea turtle - photographer dubose griffin sea turtles are among the largest reptiles in the world and inhabit almost every ocean. fossil evidence indicates sea turtles shared the earth with dinosaurs over 210 million years ago. sea turtles are cold - blooded, air breathing, egg laying reptiles that deposit their eggs on dry, sandy beaches. sea turtles differ from freshwater turtles because they have flippers instead of feet, cannot retract their heads and spend all of their life in salt water, except when females come ashore to lay eggs. there are seven species of sea turtles in the world. they are the loggerhead, kemp ' s ridley, green, leatherback, australian flatback, hawksbill and olive ridley. the loggerhead, kemp ' s ridley, green and leatherback sea turtles can be found in south carolina ' s near shore waters april through november or nesting on our beaches from may through october. loggerheads are the most common sea turtle found in our state ' s coastal waters and nesting on our beaches. sea turtle nests and strandings in south carolina can be followed in real time on the scdnr sea turtle program web site : http : / / www. dnr. sc. gov / seaturtle /. loggerhead hatchling - photographer barbara bergwerf all sea turtles have a similar life history. since loggerheads are the most common species found in south carolina, the following life history information is specific to this species. the reproductive season begins when males and females mate in early spring. females crawl onto the beach at night, 30 days after breeding, from may to august and deposit an average of 120 white, leathery eggs similar in appearance and size to a ping pong ball. they deposit these eggs in a nest cavity that is approximately 18 inches deep. the cavity is dug with their hind flippers in the dry sand above the high tide line. each female will nest, on average, four times per season with two week intervals between each nesting event. the eggs incubate for approximately 60 days and during this time are susceptible to predation by raccoons, feral hogs, coyotes and ghost crabs. the temperature of the nest during the second trimester of incubation will determine the sex of the hatchlings. hatchlings emerge from the nest at night and crawl towards the ocean using several cues, primarily celestial light reflecting off the ocean, to find their way. please click here for video footage of this emergence : http : / / www. dnr. sc. gov / seat


the nest at night and crawl towards the ocean using several cues, primarily celestial light reflecting off the ocean, to find their way. please click here for video footage of this emergence : http : / / www. dnr. sc. gov / seaturtle / videos / julyvideo _ logger. wmv. once they reach the ocean, they swim continuously for about 36 hours to escape predators that may prey on them in coastal waters. they swim offshore in search of large clumps of sargassum seaweed where they are camouflaged while feeding on a variety of small invertebrates. during the next 10 – 12 years they lead a pelagic existence and float actively and passively in the north atlantic ocean gyre. once they reach approximately 20 inches in shell length, they move back into coastal waters along the continental shelf and begin feeding on bottom prey such as crabs and mollusks. they spend the rest of their juvenile and adult lives in these shelf waters. sea turtles face many natural and human - caused threats during all stages of their life cycle. the primary natural predator of juvenile and adult sea turtles is the shark. a significant threat is accidental capture in commercial fisheries. long line fishing, gill nets and bottom trawling can result in the lethal capture of sea turtles. the use of turtle excluder devices ( teds ) by shrimpers has reduced the occurrence of sea turtle deaths. however, these species still face many challenges for survival. collisions with boats, including propellers, are becoming a significant problem as coastal areas continue to develop. artificial light visible from the beach is harmful because it disorients adults and hatchlings, causing them to wander away from the ocean. disoriented hatchlings are more susceptible to nocturnal predators. pollution can cause sea turtle mortality. for example, plastic bags may be mistaken as food and ingested, and sea turtles can become entangled in monofilament line. beachfront development interferes with the natural erosion and accretion along dynamic barrier islands which results in the loss of nesting habitat. climate change is a threat to sea turtles, especially when coupled with beachfront development. rising oceans move dynamic beaches landward. when this occurs on developed beaches, nesting habitat is lost when sand cannot migrate landward because of infrastructure or when beaches are armored to protect property. warming temperatures can also alter the natural ratio of male to female turtles that are produced in a nest. all four species of sea turtles found in south carolina are protected by state and federal law, principally by the us endangered


beaches are armored to protect property. warming temperatures can also alter the natural ratio of male to female turtles that are produced in a nest. all four species of sea turtles found in south carolina are protected by state and federal law, principally by the us endangered species act of 1973. additionally, all species of sea turtles are protected by the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ). they are also listed as endangered or vulnerable by the international union for the conservation of nature ( iucn ). endemic sea turtles loggerhead sea turtle - photographer tom murphy loggerheads ( caretta caretta ) are the most widespread and commonly found sea turtle that nests in the southeastern united states. they were designated as the official south carolina state reptile in 1988. loggerheads are named for their massive heads and powerful jaws that enable them to feed on hard - shelled prey, such as whelks, crustaceans and conch. loggerhead turtles have an oval - shaped carapace that is dark reddish - brown while their flippers and lower plastron are light yellow. adult loggerheads can weigh as much 300 pounds and reach up to four feet in shell length. loggerhead nesting has been well documented and has averaged 3, 378 nests per year over the last 10 years in south carolina. for more specific information on loggerhead sea turtles, please visit the following web pages : kemp ' s ridley sea turtle - photographers phil and kemp ' s ridleys ( lepidochelys kempii ) are the smallest and rarest of the seven sea turtle species, weighing approximately 100 pounds and as adults, growing to two feet in shell length. adults have a round grayish - black to olive carapace ( which lightens in color as the turtle ages ) that is as wide as it is long. they feed on fast swimming crabs, such as blue crabs ( callinectes sapidus ). kemp ' s ridleys nest primarily near rancho nuevo, mexico. they do not typically nest in south carolina but can be found in inshore and near shore waters from april through november. however, a kemp ' s ridley nest was recorded on litchfield by the sea in 1992 and south litchfield in 2008 ( less than a mile from the 1992 nest site ). for more specific information on kemp ' s ridley sea turtles, please visit the following web pages : green sea turtle - photographer barbara bergwerf green sea turtles ( chelonia mydas ) are the largest hard - shelled sea turtle species. their common


more specific information on kemp ' s ridley sea turtles, please visit the following web pages : green sea turtle - photographer barbara bergwerf green sea turtles ( chelonia mydas ) are the largest hard - shelled sea turtle species. their common name is derived from the green fat, or calipee, in their body due to their herbivorous diet. they have a serrated jaw for tearing grass, weigh approximately 300 - 350 pounds as adults and average five feet in shell length. in september 1996, the first documented green turtle nest was laid on south island in south carolina. since 1996, green nesting has become more frequent. although green turtles do not typically nest in south carolina, juvenile turtles consistently utilize south carolina ’ s inshore and near shore waters as foraging grounds from april through november. for more specific information on green sea turtles, please visit the following web pages : leatherback sea turtle - photographer matthew godfrey leatherbacks ( dermochelys coriacea ) are the largest and widest ranging sea turtles. these sea turtles are unique because they do not have a hard shell, but a leathery shell with distinct longitudinal ridges. although cold blooded, they can maintain a body temperature warmer than ambient. they range from 800 - 1, 300 pounds and reach six feet in shell length. leatherbacks feed on jellyfish in south carolina near shore waters in the spring and fall while migrating between nova scotia feeding grounds to tropical nesting beaches. in 1996, the first south carolina record for a leatherback nest was documented on st. phillip ’ s island. since 1996, leatherback nesting has become more frequent. for more specific information on leatherback sea turtles, please visit the following web pages : - sea turtles are revered in many cultures. around the world there are numerous indigenous tales and legends that depict turtles as guardians or creators of life on earth. in hawaii, the turtle is a symbol of good luck and a hindu symbol depicts the world as resting on the back of a turtle. - leatherbacks dive deeper than any other turtle species with recorded dive depths of up to 4, 000 feet. given the pressure and temperature at this depth, this is a remarkable dive for any air breathing vertebrate. - loggerhead hatchlings born on the beaches of south carolina, north carolina, florida and georgia live the first years of their lives in the pelagic environment off the west coast of africa. - it takes loggerheads 25 – 30 years to mature and reproduce. you cannot age a turtle and no one knows exactly how long they


and georgia live the first years of their lives in the pelagic environment off the west coast of africa. - it takes loggerheads 25 – 30 years to mature and reproduce. you cannot age a turtle and no one knows exactly how long they live. - about 100 species of animals and plants have been recorded living on one single loggerhead, making them an entire mobile, living, breathing ecosystem. - the smallest sea turtle is the kemp ’ s ridley. the largest recorded leatherback was found stranded on the coast of wales in 1988 and weighed roughly 2, 020 pounds. biologists urge the public to assist with sea turtle conservation by reporting all dead or injured sea turtles to 1 - 800 - 922 - 5431. additionally, the following tips are useful : - never disturb a sea turtle crawling to or from the ocean. - once a sea turtle has begun nesting, observe her only from a distance. - do not shine lights on a sea turtle or take flash photography. - turn out all lights visible from the beach, dusk to dawn, from may through october. - turn off all outdoor and deck lighting to reduce disorientation for nesting adults and hatchlings. - close blinds and drapes on windows that face the beach or ocean. - fill in holes on the beach at the end of each day as adults and hatchlings can become trapped. - do not leave beach chairs, tents etc. on the beach overnight. - never attempt to ride a sea turtle. this publication was made possible in part with funds from scdnr endangered species appropriations, scdnr check - off for wildlife funds, scdnr endangered species license plate sales, us fish and wildlife service and noaa fisheries endangered species act section 6 funding. - carr, archie. so excellent a fishe. the natural history press, garden city, new york. 1967. - carr, archie. the windward road. university of florida press, tallahassee florida. republished 1979. - national research council. decline of the sea turtles : causes and prevention. national academy press, washington, dc. 1990. - safina, carl. voyage of the turtle : in pursuit of the earth ’ s last dinosaur. henry holt and co., llc, new york, new york. 2006. for more information about sea turtles in south carolina, visit the web sites below : - scdnr sea turtle conservation program web site : http : / / www. dnr. sc. gov / seaturtle / - sea turtle outreach and educational


one of the things that makes groovy different than most compiled languages is that you can create functions that are first class objects. that is you can define a chunk of code and then pass it around as if it were a string or an integer. check out the following code : the curly braces around the expression " it * it " tells the groovy compiler to treat this expression as code. in the software world, this is called a " closure ". in this case, the designator " it " refers to whatever value is given to the function. then this compiled function is assigned to the variable " square " much like those above. so now we can do something like this : and get the value 81. this is not very interesting until we find that we can pass this function " square " around as a value. there are some built in functions that take a function like this as an argument. one example is the " collect " method on arrays. try this : this expression says, create an array with the values 1, 2, 3 and 4, then call the " collect " method, passing in the closure we defined above. the collect method runs through each item in the array, calls the closure on the item, then puts the result in a new array, resulting in : for more methods you can call with closures as arguments, see the groovy gdk documentation. by default closures take 1 parameter called " it ", you can also create closures with named parameters. for example the method map. each ( ) can take a closure with two variables, to which it binds the key and associated value : more closure examples here are a few more closure examples. this first one shows a couple of things. first, the closure is interacting with a variable outside itself. that is, the closure ' s purpose is to put together the parts of a stock order held in the array orderparts, by adding ( appending ) it to the variable fullstring. the variable fullstring is not in the closure. the second thing that is different about this example is that the closure is " anonymous ", meaning that it is not given a name, and is defined in the place where the each method is called. you can probably guess what this prints out. the next example is another anonymous closure, this time, summing up the values stored in a map. dealing with files reading data from files is relatively simple. first create a text file, and call it myfile. txt.


out. the next example is another anonymous closure, this time, summing up the values stored in a map. dealing with files reading data from files is relatively simple. first create a text file, and call it myfile. txt. it doesn ' t matter what ' s in it, just type some random text into it and save it on your c : drive in the \ temp directory. then type the following code in the groovyconsole : this should print out every line in the file prefixed with " file line : ". the first two lines of the code simply declare variables to specify where the file is located. the variable names don ' t have any special significance, and as you can see, all we do is combine them when we use them. note that because the backslash character has special meaning in groovy, you have to use two of them to tell it that you ' ' ' really ' ' ' mean a backslash. the next line that starts " myfile = " creates a new file object. an object is simply a collection of related methods and data. for example, a file object might have data describing its location, in this case " c : \ temp \ myfile. txt ", and maybe a method to delete the file if it exists. in this case the only method we are going to use is the eachline method, which we call in the last line of code. the line before that is a simple closure definition, that you have seen several times by this point. dealing with strings strings in groovy have all the same functionality of java strings. that is, a groovy string is just a java string with a few extra things added to it. because of that, we can refer to the java documentation for the string class to find out some of the interesting things we can do with it. for example, look in the section entitled ' ' ' method summary ' ' ' at the description for the ' ' ' split ' ' ' method. this method does something very useful, which is to split a string based on a regular expression. we will talk more about regular expressions later, but for now the only thing you have to know is that the simplest regular expression is a single character. so let ' s say that we want to split up the components of the date " 2005 - 07 - 04 ", so that we can add one to the year to get the date of next fourth of july. we might


a risk factor is something that increases your likelihood of getting a disease or condition. it is possible to get an infection in pregnancy even if you do not have risk factors. risk factors for infection in pregnancy vary depending on the type of infection. general risk factors for infection during pregnancy include : viruses and bacteria that cause infections are passed through person - to - person contact. you are at higher risk of spreading and getting infections caused by bacteria and viruses if you : - do not wash your hands. - touch your nose, mouth, and eyes with contaminated fingers. sexually transmitted diseases ( stds ) such as chlamydia, gonorrhea, herpes simplex virus, and hiv are passed from person to person during sexual contact. your risk for stds is higher if you have had : - many sex partners - sex with someone who has had many partners - sex without using condoms germs that cause infections such as listeriosis and toxoplasmosis have been found in : - uncooked meats - undercooked meat ( such as rare beef ) from infected animals - uncooked vegetables - unpasteurized milk - foods made from unpasteurized milk ( eg, certain cheeses ) - processed foods your risk for these infections is higher if you eat these foods. lifestyle risk factors include : - having close contact with someone who has an infection - using household items that were used by an infected person and not properly cleaned - handling cat litter or soil where there is cat feces having a job that involves contact with bodily fluids, such as a : - childcare worker - first aid or emergency worker - funeral director - healthcare worker - dental assistant - police personnel - reviewer : andrea chisholm - review date : 09 / 2012 - - update date : 00 / 93 / 2012 -


- dottech - http : / / dottech. org - the 411 on process virtual machines posted by samuel on november 8, 2011 @ 12 : 20 pm in computer programming | 6 comments most everyone uses ones of these every day and don ’ t know it. some that do know either don ’ t understand it or, even worse, misunderstand it. yet if anyone ever ran a java program or a. net based program they ’ ve used one. at its most basic, a process virtual machine ( pvm ) is somewhat like the virtual machines ( think virtualbox ) that run whole operating systems. the main difference between the two being pvms only virtualize processes, not whole operating systems. the main idea of a pvm is to simplify the creation of programs as well as making programs easy to use for the end user. java and. net both have their own systems, but the basic idea remains the same : a coder can make a code once and the pvm deals with making it run on different computers. in java ’ s case, this means that a programmer can make one code that will run on windows, mac, unix, linux, and even mobile phones. in the case of. net, a programmer can target any windows based device and have the code work with little or no changes. this helps developers target very large groups of people with minimal expense in terms of time and money. furthermore, pvms makes programming easier since a lot of things that a programmer normally has to worry about, things they would usually have to code manually, can be easily called instead of created. continuing on that trend, pvm based programs are also safer since the program is running in a virtual machine, making it harder to mess up the system ( though not impossible, trust me, i know = d ). on the flip side not everything is rosy in pvm park. for starters you need to have the pvm installed on your computer, though in the case of. net if you keep your computer up to date odds are you will have. net ( or, depending on what windows you have, you may not even need to download it from anywhere because various versions of. net come with windows vista and win7 ). if you don ’ t have the pvm or even the correct version ( in general having a new version is ok ) the program won ’ t run. and the pvm is not always that small – the installer for. net 3. 5 sp1 is 250 mb. pvms are also


even the correct version ( in general having a new version is ok ) the program won ’ t run. and the pvm is not always that small – the installer for. net 3. 5 sp1 is 250 mb. pvms are also controversial. pvms are considered to be cheating by some since the programmer has the pvm doing a lot of the work for him or her. however, that also hurts the programmer since if something is not in the pvm they have to access native ( or non pvm ) code to do it, which can be very hard sometimes. finally, though this is more true with. net than java, a pvm program will only run if the pvm is supported on the os in question. i personally am a pvm programmer. my “ native ” programming language is visual basic (. net pvm ), but i know visual c # (. net pvm ), and am in the process of learning java ( java pvm ). i also plan to learn to code natively in the future. though i admit that using pvms has some problems, i believe that just because a program uses them doesn ’ t make them any worse than a program that ’ s written natively. however, in the end i suppose that ’ s your call. article printed from dottech : http : / / dottech. org url to article : http : / / dottech. org / 11118 / the - 411 - on - process - virtual - machines / urls in this post : samuel : http : / / dottech. org / author / samuel ashraf : http : / / dottech. org / author / ashraf © 2008 - 2012 dottech. org | all content is the property of its rightful owner.


methods : in 2000 an unidentified hospital staff member placed a 24 oz plastic flask of nestle coffeemate ( hazelnut flavor ) into a nursing station refrigerator on the 8th floor of local hospital. a regional neurologist has casually noted the movements of the flask of proto - dairy product at intermittent intervals over time while scavenging for diet coke. the flask has been consistently identified over time by it ' s original expiration date ( february, 2002 ) stamped on the rim. findings : the coffeemate bottle has now been in the refrigerator for over 10 years. careful observation ( okay, lifting and shaking it a little from time - to - time ) showed that its weight gradually decreased in the first several months of it ' s presence, then stabilized. while weight can vary depending on local gravity, the earth ' s gravitational force has not changed substantially during this time, nor has the hospital been relocated to a planet with lesser gravity. the contents have not been directly inspected by the author during this time. the bottle has remained on the same shelf ( center shelf, refrigerator door ) since its original placement. its specific location on the shelf has varied ( sometimes next to the ranch dressing, at other times between the ketchup and mustard, and once briefly near a bottle of banana - based ketchup that a filipino traveling nurse brought ). overall its location has been reasonably predictable within the limitations of the heisenberg uncertainty principle and schrodinger ' s cat. results : it ' s still there. discussion : there have been a number of postulates to explain this sort of object persistence. while local changes in brownian kinetics or gravity are possible, the most likely cause of the flask ' s roughly unchanged location is attributable to the nature of homo sapiens. this local species appears to be disinterested in removing objects that are not the direct property of a given individual. therefore, it ' s likely that only the specific animal which originally placed the coffeemate on the shelf will be inclined to retrieve it, regardless of its current condition. its persistence, in spite of clearly being empty for several years, is likely due to one or more of the following possibilities : 1. the original owner no longer works at the hospital, or at least not on that floor. 2. the original owner has forgotten it ' s theirs, and therefore isn ' t touching it. 3. people are lazy. it should be noted that item # 3 is actually a unifying theorem for # 1 & # 2. in


dsss : determining chemical and microbial fe ( ii ) oxidation kinetics in situ : how well do organisms compete with chemical oxidation? - who : george w. luther, ph. d., university of delaware - what : download the file ( pdf ) - where : building 66, auditorium - when : 10 : 30 am to 12 : 00 noon, february 8, 2013 - why : about the distinguished scientist seminar series my interests cover a wide range of areas including redox reactions in the environment, trace element speciation in marine waters and sediments including metal - ligand complexes, biogeochemical processes, in situ electrochemistry and microelectrode technology. our group also emphasizes research that interfaces chemistry with biology with the view that chemistry drives biology. abstract : the oxidation of aqueous fe ( ii ) to fe ( iii ) solids is of great significance to earth history including banded iron formation ( bifs ) and the rise of o2 in waters and the atmosphere. the chemical oxidation of aqueous fe ( ii ) in air saturated solutions is facile at circumneutral ph, but o2 arises mainly from photosynthetic activity. there are currently three theories on how microbes could have contributed to fe ( iii ) precipitation : ( 1 ) oxygenic photosynthesis, coupled to abiotic fe oxidation, ( 2 ) aerobic ( anerobic? ) fe oxidation by iron oxidizing bacteria ( feob ), and ( 3 ) anoxygenic photosynthesis, with fe as an electron donor ( photoferrotrophs ). using kinetic data obtained in the field as well as in the laboratory with in situ microelectrode techniques developed in our lab, it is now possible to discriminate between chemical fe ( ii ) oxidation and these microbially based processes in real time. field data will be shown from diverse sites including yellowstone national park where groundwater, rich in fe ( ii ) and mn ( ii ) but with little or no o2, enter oxygenated systems. in the case of feob, their importance in fe ( ii ) oxidation increases at low o2 concentrations. thermodynamic calculations for the first electron transfer between the metal ions, fe ( ii ) and mn ( ii ), with o2 over ph gives insight to the distribution of these metals in bifs and their biogeochemical behavior.


teachers like to think that no matter how useless their lessons appear, they are " teaching their students how to think. " under the heading of " transfer of learning, " educational psychologists have spent over a century looking for evidence that this sort of learning actually occurs. especially important to learning theory and educational practice because very often the kinds of transfer hoped for do not occur. the classic investigation of this was conducted by the renowned educational psychologist e. l. thorndike in the first decades of the 20th century. thorndike examined the proposition that studies of latin disciplined the mind, preparing people for better performance in other subject matters. comparing the performance in other academic subjects of students who had taken latin with those who had not, thorndike ( 1923 ) found no advantage of latin studies whatsoever. in other experiments, thorndike and woodworth ( 1901 ) sought, and generally failed to find, positive impact of one sort of learning on another... thorndike ' s early and troubling findings have reemerged again and again in other investigations... most educational psychologists are dismayed by what they ' ve discovered about transfer of learning. ( here ' s one eloquent example ). after reviewing the national assessment of adult literacy, though, i realized that researchers ' moping is premature. despite everything, the glass is half full. how so? well, the naal finds that american adults ' literacy and numeracy is shockingly low. many high school graduates have trouble correctly interpreting a t. v. guide or calculating the total savings from $. 05 / gallon savings on 140 gallons of oil. if knowledge reliably transferred, we would have to conclude that most american adults are simply unemployable. after all, if people readily generalize from specific knowledge to general knowledge, their lack of general knowledge strongly suggests their lack of specific knowledge. the reality is happily different. despite their low literacy and numeracy, americans perform a wide variety of jobs competently. how? step 1 : specialize. step 2 : practice, practice, practice. if they work for the post office, they learn how to correctly sort mail. if they work at mcdonald ' s, they learn how to make fries and make change. if they install automatic garage door openers, they learn lots of details about garage doors. the result : we get mail, food, and convenient access to our garages. wouldn ' t it be better if this task - specific competence naturally blossomed into across - the -


¿ hablas ingles? ban co noi tieng anh? вы говорите по - англииски? هل تتكلم الانجليزية when we think about learning a language, we generally think about language taught as an add - on – like an esl class for non - native english speakers or a class that is separate from academic content instruction. you learn german, spanish or french in your language class, and knowledge and skills are taught in the native language. for example, math and history are taught in english here in the us or in the native language in other countries. but this approach, bilingual education, has been controversial since 1960s and is all about effective strategies for teaching and learning language. speaking in tongues, a film by ken schneider and marcia jarmel explored this issue. in a time where 31 states have passed " english only " initiatives, one urban school district is exploring the provocative notion that speaking a foreign language can be a national asset. speaking in tongues follows four diverse students and their families as they encounter the challenges and delights of becoming fluent in two languages. witness how speaking more than one language changes them, their families, their communities, and maybe even the world. the film was presented on kqed ' s truly california. here ' s the trailer : in a dual - language english immersion program, all instruction is given in english and teachers adjust the english level to the proficiency level of the class. students develop language skills as they learn subject material. similarly with mandarin or spanish – students would be taught math and other subjects in mandarin or spanish. the important difference is that the immersion teacher is able to speak the non - english native language, so that the teacher can tell if problems arise from understanding the language or from content. they can then use this language to explain further. the california department of education estimates that there are 318 bilingual immersion programs in the state, up from 201 in 2006, with “ about 50, 000 students enrolled in dual - language programs … and about half of them are english learners. ninety percent of the programs offer spanish as the second language, followed by mandarin ( 4 percent ), korean ( 3 percent ) and other languages ( 3 percent ). ” - eleanor yang su, kqed ’ s mindshift ( march, 2012 ) “ we have more research now that shows students who develop two or three languages to a high level have certain cognitive advantages, ” said julie


in the lead up to the election, and since, there has been discussion about the role of consent in teenage sexual behaviour and sexual health outcomes. a recent research report was published suggesting a strong association between sexual coercion and teenage pregnancy. meanwhile the government seems committed to addressing consent issues : ' to help stop sexual violence before it occurs, we will ensure that the school curriculum includes teaching young people about sexual consent ' – conservative party election manifesto 2010 '... working with schools to teach young people about sexual consent and respect in relationships ' – theresa may at womens aid conference in 2010. i welcome any educational initiatives that reinforce mutual respect and consent as the basis of sexual relationships. however, in case anyone thinks it is an opportunity to promote conservative messages about adolescent sexuality i would sound a cautionary note. convenient as it would be to believe that sex amongst teenagers was just happening because of peer pressure, coercion and at worst violence, the fact is it isn ’ t. sex is happening because it ’ s natural, it feels good physically and emotionally, because it is fun, because it is exciting and adventurous, because young people fall in love and for a whole load of other positive reasons as well as all the scary negative stuff. it is important that we acknowledge that as our starting point. it is also vital that we consider what consent means in its broadest sense and once we have defined consent, what the implications of that are for educators and service providers. we can probably take it for granted that everyone agrees both parties should ‘ consent ’ to sex, but i bet we ’ d find a very wide range of views of what constitutes consent amongst both policy makers, lawyers and sexually active people of all ages. i think that these two things are essential pre - requisites of consent : i ) an absence of coercion : the real possibility of saying no if you want to, or saying yes to some things / activities and no to others, or yes now and no later... ii ) the capacity, education and skills to make an informed choice : to understand the risks ( physical, emotional ) that you are taking, to be able to predict a range of positive and negative outcomes and to be able to balance these and make a choice here are just some of the things that need to be in place in order to meet those pre - requisites so that consent is the norm in sexual relations amongst people of all ages : • an understanding that coercion is a spectrum of behaviour from persuasion to persistence, to incentives to


need to be in place in order to meet those pre - requisites so that consent is the norm in sexual relations amongst people of all ages : • an understanding that coercion is a spectrum of behaviour from persuasion to persistence, to incentives to insistence, to threats, to force and even more shades of behaviour in between and that true informed consent is not possible in any of these scenarios • an opportunity to explore the association between gender, age, wealth, power and sexual coercion • an ability to recognise and decipher information presented on the internet and in the mainstream media in order to understand and critically evaluate messages, conventions and representations of sexual relationships • an opportunity to consider the role of pornography in influencing people ’ s expectations of their own and their sexual partners desire, physique and performance • a full understanding of all the possible consequences of having sex including the risks of contracting stis with all the immediate and long - term health implications • a full understanding of the risk of pregnancy, a consideration of all the decisions that can lead to and result from an unintended pregnancy and an understanding of all pregnancy options • a full understanding of the positive reasons that people have sex, including the emotional and physical pleasure it can bring • a full understanding of the range of sexualities and sexual preferences that exist and understanding that people of different sexualities have the same right to personal safety and bodily integrity • an understanding that the onus is on the coercer to listen to and hear their partner and not just on the coercee to be assertive and confident enough to keep saying no there ’ s a lot more, but this would be a start. even with this brief list it looks pretty much like a comprehensive sex and relationships curriculum! i am glad the government is looking at consent issues. i hope they ’ ve learned the lessons of the past and they know that it ’ s not enough to teach us ‘ just say no ’.


argument to moderation | | this article needs additional citations for verification. ( april 2008 ) | argument to moderation ( latin : argumentum ad temperantiam ; also known as [ argument from ] middle ground, false compromise, gray fallacy and the golden mean fallacy ) is an informal fallacy which asserts that the truth can be found as a compromise between two opposite positions. this fallacy ' s opposite is the false dilemma. as vladimir bukovsky puts it, the middle ground between the big lie of soviet propaganda and the truth is a lie, and one should not be looking for a middle ground between disinformation and information. according to him, people from the western pluralistic civilization are more prone to this fallacy because they are used to resolving problems by making compromises and accepting alternative interpretations, unlike russians who are looking for the absolute truth. an individual demonstrating this false compromise fallacy implies that the positions being considered represent extremes of a continuum of opinions, and that such extremes are always wrong, and the middle ground is always correct. this is not always the case. sometimes only x or y is acceptable, with no middle ground possible. additionally, the middle ground fallacy allows any position to be invalidated, even those that have been reached by previous applications of the same method ; all one must do is present yet another, radically opposed position, and the middle - ground compromise will be forced closer to that position. in politics, this is part of the basis behind overton window theory. it is important to note that this does not mean the middle ground position is a bad strategy, or even incorrect ; only that the fact that it is moderate cannot be used as evidence of its truthfulness. - " some would say that hydrogen cyanide is a delicious and necessary part of the human diet, but others claim it is a toxic and dangerous substance. the truth must therefore be somewhere in between. " - " bob says we should buy a computer. sue says we shouldn ' t. therefore, the best solution is to compromise and buy half a computer. " - " should array indices start at 0 or 1? my compromise of 0. 5 was rejected without, i thought, proper consideration. " — stan kelly - bootle - " the choice of 48 bytes as the atm cell payload size, as a compromise between the 64 bytes proposed by parties from the united states and the 32 bytes proposed by european parties ; the compromise was made for entirely political reasons, since it did not technically favor either of the parties. " -


atm cell payload size, as a compromise between the 64 bytes proposed by parties from the united states and the 32 bytes proposed by european parties ; the compromise was made for entirely political reasons, since it did not technically favor either of the parties. " - " the fact that one is confronted with an individual who strongly argues that slavery is wrong and another who argues equally strongly that slavery is perfectly legitimate in no way suggests that the truth must be somewhere in the middle. " see also - fallacy : middle ground, the nizkor project ( accessed 29 november 2012 ) - vladimir bukovsky, the wind returns. letters by russian traveler ( russian edition, буковскии в. к. и возвращается ветер. письма русского путешественника. ) moscow, 1990, isbn 5 - 235 - 01826, page 345. - stevenson, d. ( 1993 ). " electropolitical correctness and high - speed networking, or, why atm is like a nose ". asynchronous transfer mode networks. proceedings of tricom ' 93. new york : plenum press. isbn 0 - 306 - 44486 - 0. - susan t. gardner ( 2009 ). thinking your way to freedom : a guide to owning your own practical reasoning. temple university press.


however, the growing reputation of mazarin impeded the ambition of the plotters, and marcillac ' s 1645 liaison with duchess of longueville made him irrevocably a frondeur ( member of an uprising ). he was a conspicuous figure in the siege of paris, fought in many of the frequent military engagements, and was seriously wounded at the siege of mardyke. in the second fronde, marcillac allied himself with conde. he used the occasion of his father ' s funeral in 1650 to urge the attending provincial nobility to help him attack the royalist garrison of saumur. in the battle of the faubourg saint - antoine, in 1652, he was shot through the head. it was feared that he would lose his sight, but he recovered after a year ' s convalescence. for some years thereafter, he retired to his country estate of verteuil. although his fortune had been reduced markedly, in time he was able to restore it to some extent thanks chiefly to the fidelity of gourville, who had been in his service and who, passing into the service of mazarin and of conde, had acquired both wealth and influence. la rochefoucauld did not return to court life until just before mazarin ' s death, when louis xiv was about to assume absolute power, and the aristocratic anarchy of the fronde was over. he wrote his memoirs during this time, as did many of his prominent contemporaries. salon participation somewhat earlier, la rochefoucauld had taken his place in the salon of madeleine de souvre, marquise de sable, a member of the marquise de rambouillet coterie, and the founder of a kind of successor to it, whose special literary work was the writing of sentences and maximes. in 1662, the dutch firm, elsevier, surreptitiously published what purported to be his memoirs, which brought him both trouble and fame. many of his old friends were offended. these memoires were not a faithful copy of what he had written, and while he hastened to deny their authenticity, this was not generally believed. three years later, in 1665, he anonymously published the maximes, ( maxims ) which established his position among the men of letters of the time. at about the same date, his friendship with marie - madeleine pioche de la vergne, comtesse de la fayette began, which lasted for the rest of his life. the glimpse


his position among the men of letters of the time. at about the same date, his friendship with marie - madeleine pioche de la vergne, comtesse de la fayette began, which lasted for the rest of his life. the glimpses which we have of him henceforward are chiefly from the letters of madame de sevigne, and though they show him suffering from gout, are on the whole pleasant ones. he had a circle of devoted friends and was recognized as a top - ranking moralist and man of letters. his son, the prince de marcillac, to whom he gave his titles and honors in 1671, enjoyed a considerable position at court. but above all la rochefoucauld was recognized by his contemporaries, including the king, as an exemplar of the older noblesse, the nobility that existed under the great monarch before the brilliance of his reign faded. this reputation he has retained to the present day. la rochefoucauld ' s ethical views have given rise to attacks upon his works by pious moralists of later eras. like his contemporaries, he saw politics as a chessboard for powerful players, rather than as a struggle of ideologies or a means for achieving broad social goals. he appears to have been unusually scrupulous in his personal conduct, and his lack of success in the aristocratic struggles arose more from this than from anything else. he died of gout in paris on 17 march 1680. literary works the memoirs are of high interest and literary merit. a book purporting to be la rochefoucauld ' s memoirs was published in the dutch republic from whence, despite the author ' s protest, it continued to be reprinted for some thirty years. it has now been proved to been pieced together from the work of half a dozen men, with scarcely a third of it being la rochefoucauld ' s. some years after la rochefoucauld ' s death, a new recension appeared, still largely adulterated but with some errors corrected. this work went unchallenged for more than a century. only in 1817 did anything like a genuine, if still imperfect, edition appear. however, the pithy, elegant maximes, ( maxims ) had no such fate. the author made frequent alterations and additions to them during his life and a few were added after his death. it is usual now to publish them in their totality of 504. the majority consist of just two or three lines, and hardly any


. the author made frequent alterations and additions to them during his life and a few were added after his death. it is usual now to publish them in their totality of 504. the majority consist of just two or three lines, and hardly any exceed half a page. la rochefoucauld reflects on the conduct and motives of mankind, from the point of view of a man of the world who intends not to sugar - coat his observations. in fact, in his introduction, he advises, "... the best approach for the reader to take would be to put in his mind right from the start that none of these maxims apply to himself in particular, and that he is the sole exception, even though they appear to be generalities. after that i guarantee that he will be the first to endorse them and he will believe that they do credit to the human spirit. " here are a few examples : ii. self - love is the greatest of all flatterers. viii. sincere enthusiasm is the only orator who always persuades. it is like an art the rules of which never fail ; the simplest man with enthusiasm persuades better than the most eloquent with none. xiv. men are not only subject to losing all recollection of kindnesses and injuries done them, they even hate those to whom they are obliged and cease to hate those who have harmed them. the effort of repaying the kindness and avenging the evil seem to them a servitude to which they are unwilling to submit. xxx. if we had no faults, we would not take so much pleasure in noticing those of others. cclxi. flirtatiousness is fundamental to a woman ' s nature, but not all put it into practice because some are restrained by fear or by good sense. cdxi. there hardly exist faults which are not more pardonable than the means by which one tries to hide them. cdxxxiii. the truest mark of having been born with great qualities is to have been born without envy. his letters number more than one hundred, and they are of both biographical and literary value. la rochefoucauld ' s thoughts on human nature concern, among a broad range of topics, pride and self - love, the passions and the emotions, love, sincerity, conversation, and politics. nearly all the great french critics of the 19th century wrote to some extent about la rochefoucauld. for a recent assessment of la rochefoucauld ' s thought and his


passions and the emotions, love, sincerity, conversation, and politics. nearly all the great french critics of the 19th century wrote to some extent about la rochefoucauld. for a recent assessment of la rochefoucauld ' s thought and his place in modern culture see john farrell, paranoia and modernity : cervantes to rousseau ( cornell up, 2006 ), chapter nine. philosopher, friedrich nietzsche, greatly admired la rochefoucauld and was influenced not only by his ethics, but also his style. the editions of la rochefoucauld ' s maximes ( as the full title runs, reflexions ou sentences et maximes morales ) published in his lifetime bear the dates 1665 ( editio princeps ), 1666, 1671, 1675, 1678. the most handsome separate edition of the maximes is the so - called edition des bibliophiles ( 1870 ). see the english version the moral maxims and reflections of the duke de la rochefoucauld by george h. powell ( 1903 ). | | this article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. ( may 2009 ) | - this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain : chisholm, hugh, ed. ( 1911 ). encyclopædia britannica ( 11th ed. ). cambridge university press. - montadon, alain, collectif sous la direction de. dictionnaire raisonne de la politesse et du savoir - vivre, du moyen age a nos jours. editions de seuil, paris. 1995. - bremond d ' ars, guy ( vicomte de ), le pere de madame de rambouillet, jean de vivonne : sa vie et ses ambassades pres de philippe ii et a la cour de rome, e. plon, nourrit & cie, imprimeurs - editeurs, paris, 1884, p. 387 : - " armory of old regime ( pre - 1789 ) french peerage " - prof. langfors, membre de l ' institut [ academie des inscriptions et belles lettres ] & professor at the ecole des hautes etudes at sorbonne 1919 - 20 - la rochefoucauld, de, francois. les maximes ; preface. ernest flammarion, editeur. paris. 1817. - la rochefoucauld, de, francois. les maximes. ernest fl


| | this article needs additional citations for verification. ( august 2012 ) | iconoclasm is the deliberate destruction within a culture of the culture ' s own religious icons and other symbols or monuments, usually for religious or political motives. it is a frequent component of major political or religious changes. the term does not generally encompass the specific destruction of images of a ruler after his death or overthrow ( damnatio memoriae ), for example akhenaten in ancient egypt. people who engage in or support iconoclasm are called " iconoclasts ", a term that has come to be applied figuratively to any individual who challenges established dogma or conventions. conversely, people who revere or venerate religious images are ( by iconoclasts ) called " iconolaters ". in a byzantine context, they are known as " iconodules ", or " iconophiles ". iconoclasm may be carried out by people of a different religion, but is often the result of sectarian disputes between factions of the same religion. in christianity, iconoclasm has generally been motivated by people who adopt a literal interpretation of the ten commandments, which forbid the making and worshipping of " graven images or any likeness of anything ". the degree of iconoclasm among christian sects greatly varies. major instances - most of the polytheistic religious deities and texts of pre - western americas, oceania, and africa, were destroyed by christian missionaries and their converts. - in judaism, king hezekiah purged solomon ' s temple in jerusalem and the land of israel of figures, including the nehushtan, as recorded in the second book of kings. his reforms were reversed in the reign of his son manasseh. - during the process of christianisation under constantine, groups destroyed the images and sculptures expressive of the roman empire ' s polytheist state religion. - the eastern orthodox church had a period of byzantine iconoclasm during the late medieval years, in which some groups destroyed the church ' s religious imagery. - during the protestant reformation and the european wars of religion, known as the beeldenstorm in the netherlands, protestants destroyed traditional catholic images in churches, including paintings, sculptures and other representations. in some instances, protestants destroyed the imagery of other protestants. - most of the moai of easter island were toppled during the 18th century in the iconoclasm of civil wars. - during the french revolution, people widely destroyed religious and monarchical imagery


some instances, protestants destroyed the imagery of other protestants. - most of the moai of easter island were toppled during the 18th century in the iconoclasm of civil wars. - during the french revolution, people widely destroyed religious and monarchical imagery. - during and after the russian revolution, widespread destruction of religious and secular imagery took place, as well as destruction of imagery related to the czar. - during and after the xinhai revolution in china, as well as during the later cultural revolution, there was widespread destruction of religious and secular imagery in china, including in tibet. - after the second vatican council in the late twentieth century, some roman catholic parish churches discarded much of their traditional imagery, art, and architecture. - during the 1956 hungarian revolution in budapest, and through the fall of communism in 1989, protesters often attacked and took down sculptures and images of joseph stalin, leader of the ussr. - the taliban destroyed two ancient statues of buddha at bamyan in afghanistan. - in 2003 a statue of saddam hussein was pulled down by a united states tank in baghdad ' s main square. this was broadcast live around the world. byzantine iconoclasm in the byzantine empire, government - led iconoclasm began with emperor leo iii, following what seems to have been a long period of rising opposition to the use or misuse of images. the religious conflict created political and economic divisions in byzantine society. it was generally supported by the eastern, poorer, non - greek peoples of the empire who had to deal frequently with raids from the new muslim empire. on the other hand, the wealthier greeks of constantinople, and also the peoples of the balkan and italian provinces, strongly opposed iconoclasm. within the byzantine empire, which included both christians and muslims, the government had likely been adopting christian images more frequently. one notable change came in 695, when justinian ii ' s government added a full - face image of christ on the obverse of imperial gold coins. the change caused the caliph abd al - malik to stop his earlier adoption of byzantine coin types. he started a purely islamic coinage with lettering only. a letter by the patriarch germanus written before 726 to two iconoclast bishops says that " now whole towns and multitudes of people are in considerable agitation over this matter " but there is little written evidence of the debate. the first iconoclastic period : 730 – 787 sometime between 726 and 730, the byzantine emperor leo iii the isaurian began the iconoclast campaign. he ordered


over this matter " but there is little written evidence of the debate. the first iconoclastic period : 730 – 787 sometime between 726 and 730, the byzantine emperor leo iii the isaurian began the iconoclast campaign. he ordered the removal of an image of jesus prominently placed over the chalke gate, the ceremonial entrance to the great palace of constantinople, and its replacement with a cross. some of those assigned to the task were murdered by a band of iconodules. over the years conflict developed between those who wanted to use the images, claiming that they were " icons " to be " venerated ", and the purists who claimed they were simply idols. pope gregory iii " convoked a synod in 730 and formally condemned iconoclasm as heretical and excommunicated its promoters. the papal letter never reached constantinople as the messengers were intercepted and arrested in sicily by the byzantines ". the byzantine emperor constantine v convened the council of hieria in 754. the 338 bishops assembled concluded, " the unlawful art of painting living creatures blasphemed the fundamental doctrine of our salvation - - namely, the incarnation of christ, and contradicted the six holy synods.... if anyone shall endeavour to represent the forms of the saints in lifeless pictures with material colours which are of no value ( for this notion is vain and introduced by the devil ), and does not rather represent their virtues as living images in himself, etc.... let him be anathema ". this council claimed to be the legitimate " seventh ecumenical council ". second council of nicaea 787 in 780, constantine vi ascended the throne in constantinople, but being a minor, was managed by his mother empress irene. she decided that an ecumenical council needed to be held to address the issue of iconoclasm and directed this request to pope hadrian i ( 772 – 795 ) in rome. he announced his agreement and called the convention on 1 august 786 in the presence of the emperor and empress. the initial proceedings were interrupted by the violent entry of iconoclast soldiers faithful to the memory of the prior emperor constantine v. this caused the council to be adjourned until a reliable army could be assembled to protect any proceedings. the council was reassembled at nicaea 24 september 787. during those proceedings the following was adopted :... we declare that we defend free from any innovations all the written and unwritten ecclesiastical traditions that have been entrusted to us


proceedings. the council was reassembled at nicaea 24 september 787. during those proceedings the following was adopted :... we declare that we defend free from any innovations all the written and unwritten ecclesiastical traditions that have been entrusted to us. one of these is the production of representational art ; this is quite in harmony with the history of the spread of the gospel, as it provides confirmation that the becoming man of the word of god was real and not just imaginary, and as it brings us a similar benefit. for, things that mutually illustrate one another undoubtedly possess one another ' s message.... we decree with full precision and care that, like the figure of the honoured and life - giving cross, the revered and holy images, whether painted or made of mosaic or of other suitable material, are to be exposed in the holy churches of god, on sacred instruments and vestments, on walls and panels, in houses and by public ways ; these are the images of our lord, god and saviour, jesus christ, and of our lady without blemish, the holy god - bearer, and of the revered angels and of any of the saintly holy men. the more frequently they are seen in representational art, the more are those who see them drawn to remember and long for those who serve as models, and to pay these images the tribute of salutation and respectful veneration. certainly this is not the full adoration in accordance with our faith, which is properly paid only to the divine nature, but it resembles that given to the figure of the honoured and life - giving cross, and also to the holy books of the gospels and to other sacred cult objects. ( note : see also for the original pretranslation text of this council in greek and latin ) views in byzantine iconoclasm accounts of iconoclast arguments are largely found in iconodule writings. to understand iconoclastic arguments, one must note the main points : - iconoclasm condemned the making of any lifeless image ( e. g., painting or statue ) that was intended to represent jesus or one of the saints. the " epitome of the definition of the iconoclastic conciliabulum " ( synod of hiereia ) held in 754 declared : supported by the holy scriptures and the fathers, we declare unanimously, in the name of the holy trinity, that there shall be rejected and removed and cursed one of the christian church every likeness which is made out of any material


held in 754 declared : supported by the holy scriptures and the fathers, we declare unanimously, in the name of the holy trinity, that there shall be rejected and removed and cursed one of the christian church every likeness which is made out of any material and colour whatever by the evil art of painters.... if anyone ventures to represent the divine image ( χαρακτηρ, charakter ) of the word after the incarnation with material colours, let him be anathema!.... if anyone shall endeavour to represent the forms of the saints in lifeless pictures with material colours which are of no value ( for this notion is vain and introduced by the devil ), and does not rather represent their virtues as living images in himself, let him be anathema! - for iconoclasts, the only real religious image must be an exact likeness of the prototype — of the same substance — which they considered impossible, seeing wood and paint as empty of spirit and life. thus for iconoclasts the only true ( and permitted ) " icon " of jesus was the eucharist, which was believed to be his body and blood. - any true image of jesus must be able to represent both his divine nature ( which is impossible because it cannot be seen nor encompassed ) as well his human nature. but by making an icon of jesus, one is separating his human and divine natures, since only the human can be depicted ( separating the natures was considered nestorianism ), or else confusing the human and divine natures, considering them one ( union of the human and divine natures was considered monophysitism ). - icon use for religious purposes was viewed as an innovation in the church, a satanic misleading of christians to return to pagan practice. satan misled men, so that they worshipped the creature instead of the creator. the law of moses and the prophets cooperated to remove this ruin.... but the previously mentioned demiurge of evil... gradually brought back idolatry under the appearance of christianity. the chief theological opponents of iconoclasm were the monks mansur ( john of damascus ), who, living in muslim territory as advisor to the caliph of damascus, was far enough away from the byzantine emperor to evade retribution, and theodore the studite, abbot of the stoudios monastery in constantinople. john declared that he did not venerate matter, " but rather the creator of matter ". however he also declared, " but i also


emperor to evade retribution, and theodore the studite, abbot of the stoudios monastery in constantinople. john declared that he did not venerate matter, " but rather the creator of matter ". however he also declared, " but i also venerate the matter through which salvation came to me, as if filled with divine energy and grace ". he includes in this latter category the ink in which the gospels were written as well as the paint of images, the wood of the cross, and the body and blood of jesus. the iconodule response to iconoclasm included : - assertion that the biblical commandment forbidding images of god had been superseded by the incarnation of jesus, who, being the second person of the trinity, is god incarnate in visible matter. therefore, they were not depicting the invisible god, but god as he appeared in the flesh. this became an attempt to shift the issue of the incarnation in their favor, whereas the iconoclasts had used the issue of the incarnation against them. - further, in their view idols depicted persons without substance or reality while icons depicted real persons. essentially the argument was " all religious images not of our faith are idols ; all images of our faith are icons to be venerated ". this was considered comparable to the old testament practice of offering burnt sacrifices only to god, and not to any other gods. - moses had been instructed by god according to exodus 25 : 18 – 22 to make golden statues of cherubim angels on the lid of the ark of the covenant, and according to exodus 26 : 31 god instructed moses to embroider the curtain which separated the holy of holies in the tabernacle with cherubim. - regarding the written tradition opposing the making and veneration of images, they asserted that icons were part of unrecorded oral tradition ( paradosis, sanctioned in orthodoxy as authoritative in doctrine by reference to 2 thessalonians 2 : 15, basil the great, etc. ). - arguments were drawn from the miraculous acheiropoieta, the supposed icon of the virgin painted with her approval by st. luke, and other miraculous occurrences around icons, that demonstrated divine approval of iconodule practices. - iconodules further argued that decisions such as whether icons ought to be venerated were properly made by the church assembled in council, not imposed on the church by an emperor. thus the argument also involved the issue of the proper relationship between church and state. related to this was the


such as whether icons ought to be venerated were properly made by the church assembled in council, not imposed on the church by an emperor. thus the argument also involved the issue of the proper relationship between church and state. related to this was the observation that it was foolish to deny to god the same honor that was freely given to the human emperor. muslim iconoclasm in general, muslim societies have avoided the depiction of living beings ( animals and humans ) within such sacred spaces as mosques and madrasahs. this opposition to figural representation is not based on the qur ' an, but rather on various traditions contained within the hadith. the prohibition of figuration has not always extended to the secular sphere, and a robust tradition of figural representation exists within muslim art. however, western authors have tended to perceive " a long, culturally determined, and unchanging tradition of violent iconoclastic acts " within islamic society. start of iconoclasm the first act of muslim iconoclasm was committed by muslims in 630, when the various statues of arabian deities housed in the kaaba in mecca were destroyed. there is a tradition that muhammad spared a fresco of mary and jesus. this act was intended to bring an end to the idolatry which, in the muslim view, characterized jahiliyya. the destruction of the idols of mecca did not, however, determine the treatment of other religious communities living under muslim rule after the expansion of the caliphate. most christians under muslim rule, for example, continued to produce icons and to decorate their churches as they wished. a major exception to this pattern of tolerance in early islamic history was the " edict of yazid ", issued by the umayyad caliph yazid ii in 722 – 723. this edict ordered the destruction of crosses and christian images within the territory of the caliphate. researchers have discovered evidence that the order was followed, particularly in present - day jordan, where archaeological evidence shows the removal of images from the mosaic floors of some, although not all, of the churches that stood at this time. but, yazid ' s iconoclastic policies were not continued by his successors, and christian communities of the levant continued to make icons without significant interruption from the sixth century to the ninth. historical acts of iconoclasm certain conquering muslim armies have used local temples or houses of worship as mosques. an example is hagia sophia in istanbul ( formerly constantinople ), which was converted into a mosque in 1453. most icons were desecrated


of iconoclasm certain conquering muslim armies have used local temples or houses of worship as mosques. an example is hagia sophia in istanbul ( formerly constantinople ), which was converted into a mosque in 1453. most icons were desecrated whilst the rest were covered with plaster. in the 1920s, hagia sophia was converted to a museum, and the restoration of the mosaics was undertaken by the american byzantine institute beginning in 1932. more dramatic cases of iconoclasm by muslims are found in parts of india where hindu and buddhist temples were razed and mosques erected in their place ( for example, the qutub complex and babri mosque ). another notable iconoclast was mughal ruler aurangzeb ( reigned 1658 – 1707 ), who destroyed the famous hindu temples at varanasi and mathura. recent events certain muslim denominations continue to pursue iconoclastic agendas. there has been much controversy within islam over the recent and apparently on - going destruction of historic sites by mecca ' s wahhabist authorities, prompted by the fear they could become the subject of " idolatry ". a recent act of iconoclasm was the 2001 destruction of the giant buddhas of bamyan by the then taliban government of afghanistan. the act generated world - wide protests and was not supported by other muslim governments and organizations. it was widely perceived in the western media as a result of the muslim prohibition against figural decoration. such an account overlooks " the coexistence between the buddhas and the muslim population that marveled at them for over a millennium " before their destruction. the buddhas had twice in the past been attacked by nadir shah and aurengzeb. according to the art historian f. b. flood, analysis of the taliban ' s statements regarding the buddhas suggest that their destruction was motivated more by political than by theological concerns. taliban spokespeople have given many different explanations of the motives for the destruction. in 2005, the muhammad cartoon controversy sparked worldwide controversy and rioting. in december 2010, a group of iconoclasts were arrested as they were about to attack the jyllands - posten newspaper ' s office. reformation iconoclasm some of the protestant reformers, in particular andreas karlstadt, huldrych zwingli and john calvin, encouraged the removal of religious images by invoking the decalogue ' s prohibition of idolatry and the manufacture of graven ( sculpted ) images of god. as a result, individuals attacked statues


what work was here! what clattering of glasses! what beating down of walls! what tearing up of monuments! what pulling down of seats! what wresting out of irons and brass from the windows! what defacing of arms! what demolishing of curious stonework! what tooting and piping upon organ pipes! and what a hideous triumph in the market - place before all the country, when all the mangled organ pipes, vestments, both copes and surplices, together with the leaden cross which had newly been sawn down from the green - yard pulpit and the service - books and singing books that could be carried to the fire in the public market - place were heaped together. ' william dowsing was commissioned and salaried by the government to tour the towns and villages of east anglia to destroy images in churches. his detailed record of his trail of destruction through suffolk and cambridgeshire survives : we broke down about a hundred superstitious pictures ; and seven fryars hugging a nunn ; and the picture of god and christ ; and divers others very superstitious ; and 200 had been broke down before i came. we took away 2 popish inscriptions with ora pro nobis and we beat down a great stoneing cross on the top of the church. protestant christianity was not uniformly hostile to the use of religious images. martin luther, initially hostile, came round to the view that christians should be free to use religious images as long as they did not worship them in place of god. lutheran scholar jeremiah ohl writes : zwingli and others for the sake of saving the word rejected all plastic art ; luther, with an equal concern for the word, but far more conservative, would have all the arts to be the servants of the gospel. “ i am not of the opinion ” said [ luther ], “ that through the gospel all the arts should be banished and driven away, as some zealots want to make us believe ; but i wish to see them all, especially music, in the service of him who gave and created them. ” again he says : “ i have myself heard those who oppose pictures, read from my german bible. … but this contains many pictures of god, of the angels, of men, and of animals, especially in the revelation of st. john, in the books of moses, and in the book of joshua. we therefore kindly beg these fanatics to permit us also to paint these pictures on the wall that they may be remembered and better


of animals, especially in the revelation of st. john, in the books of moses, and in the book of joshua. we therefore kindly beg these fanatics to permit us also to paint these pictures on the wall that they may be remembered and better understood, inasmuch as they can harm as little on the walls as in books. would to god that i could persuade those who can afford it to paint the whole bible on their houses, inside and outside, so that all might see ; this would indeed be a christian work. for i am convinced that it is god ’ s will that we should hear and learn what he has done, especially what christ suffered. but when i hear these things and meditate upon them, i find it impossible not to picture them in my heart. whether i want to or not, when i hear, of christ, a human form hanging upon a cross rises up in my heart : just as i see my natural face reflected when i look into water. now if it is not sinful for me to have christ ’ s picture in my heart, why should it be sinful to have it before my eyes? ” — ohl, pp. 88 – 89 political and revolutionary iconoclasm revolutions and changes of regime, whether through uprising of the local population, foreign invasion, or a combination of both, are often accompanied by the public destruction of statues and monuments identified with the previous regime. this may also be known as damnatio memoriae, the ancient roman practice of official obliteration of the memory of a specific individual. stricter definitions of " iconoclasm " exclude both types of action, reserving the term for religious or more widely cultural destruction. in many cases, such as revolutionary russia or ancient egypt, this distinction can be hard to make. examples of political destruction of images include : - all public references to the " heretical " pharaoh akhenaten were destroyed soon after his death in about 1334 bc ; a very laborious process with stone - carved reliefs and inscriptions. - several roman emperors and other political figures were subject to decrees of damnatio memoriae, including sejanus, publius septimius geta, and domitian. - during the american revolution, the sons of liberty pulled down and destroyed the gilt lead statue of george iii of the united kingdom on bowling green ( new york city ), melting it down for use as musket balls against the british army. similar acts have accompanied the independence of most ex -


pulled down and destroyed the gilt lead statue of george iii of the united kingdom on bowling green ( new york city ), melting it down for use as musket balls against the british army. similar acts have accompanied the independence of most ex - colonial territories. sometimes relatively intact monuments are moved to a collected display in a less prominent place, as in india and also post - communist countries. - during the french revolution, the statue of king louis xv, in the paris square which until then bore his name, was pulled down and destroyed. this was a prelude to the guillotining of his successor louis xvi in the same site, renamed " place de la revolution " ( at present place de la concorde ). - the statue of napoleon on the column at place vendome, paris was the target of iconoclasm several times : destroyed after the bourbon restoration, restored by louis - philippe, destroyed during the paris commune and restored by adolphe thiers. - the october revolution in 1917 was accompanied by destruction of monuments of past tsars, as well as russian imperial eagles, at various locations throughout russia. " in front of a moscow cathedral, crowds cheered as the enormous statue of tsar alexander iii was bound with ropes and gradually beaten to the ground. after a considerable amount of time, the statue was decapitated and its remaining parts were broken into rubble ". - the chinese cultural revolution included very widespread destruction of historic artworks in public places and private collections, whether religious or secular. objects in state museums were mostly left intact. - the fall of communism in 1989 was followed by destruction or removal of statues of vladimir lenin and other communist leaders in the former soviet union and in other soviet block countries. particularly well - known was the destruction of " iron felix ", the statue of felix dzerzhinsky outside the kgb headquarters, and another one of his on warsaw square of his name ( now plac bankowy ). iconoclasm against hindus during muslim conquest records from the campaign recorded in the chach nama record temple demolitions during the early 8th century, when the umayyad governor of damascus, hajjaj, mobilized an expedition of 6, 000 cavalry under muhammad bin - qasim in 712 ce. the historian, upendra thakur records the persecution of hindus and buddhists :... muhammad triumphantly marched into the country, conquering debal, sehwan, nerun, brahmanadabad, alor and multan one after the other in quick


in 1375 ad, the temple was once again destroyed by muzaffar shah i, the sultan of gujarat. in 1451 ad, the temple was once again destroyed by mahmud begda, the sultan of gujarat. in 1701 ad, the temple was once again destroyed by mughal emperor aurangzeb. aurangzeb built a mosque on the site of the somnath temple, using some columns from the temple, whose hindu sculptural motifs remained visible. mahmud of ghazni was an afghan sultan who invaded the indian subcontinent during the early 11th century. his campaigns across the gangetic plains are often cited for their iconoclastic plundering and destruction of temples such as those at mathura and he looked upon their destruction as an act of " jihad ". he sacked the second somnath temple in 1026, and looted it of gems and precious stones and the famous shiva lingam of the temple was destroyed. historical records compiled by muslim historian maulana hakim saiyid abdul hai attest to the iconoclasm of qutb - ud - din aybak. the first mosque built in delhi, the " quwwat al - islam " was built after the demolition of the hindu temple built previously by prithvi raj and certain parts of the temple were left outside the mosque proper. this pattern of iconoclasm was common during his reign, although an argument goes that such iconoclasm was motivated more by politics than by religion. another ruler of the sultanate, shams - ud - din iltutmish, conquered and subjugated the hindu pilgrimage site varanasi in the 11th century and he continued the destruction of hindu temples and idols that had begun during the first attack in 1194. no aspect of aurangzeb ' s reign is more cited — or more controversial — than the numerous desecrations and even the destruction of hindu temples. during his reign, tens of thousands of temples were desecrated : their facades and interiors were defaced and their murtis ( divine images ) looted. in many cases, temples were destroyed entirely ; in numerous instances mosques were built on their foundations, sometimes using the same stones. among the temples aurangzeb destroyed were two that are most sacred to hindus, in varanasi and mathura. in both cases, he had large mosques built on the sites. the kesava deo temple in mathura, marked the place that hindus believe was the birthplace of shri krishna.


most sacred to hindus, in varanasi and mathura. in both cases, he had large mosques built on the sites. the kesava deo temple in mathura, marked the place that hindus believe was the birthplace of shri krishna. in 1661 aurangzeb ordered the demolition of the temple, and constructed the katra masjid mosque. traces of the ancient hindu temple can be seen from the back of the mosque. aurangzeb also destroyed what was the most famous temple in varanasi – the vishwanath temple. the temple had changed its location over the years, and in 1585 akbar had authorized its location at gyan vapi. aurangzeb ordered its demolition in 1669 and constructed a mosque on the site, whose minarets stand 71 metres above the ganges. traces of the old temple can be seen behind the mosque. centuries later, emotional debate about these wanton acts of cultural desecration continues. aurangzeb also destroyed the somnath temple in 1706. hindu nationalists claim that mughals destroyed the ram mandir in ayodhya, located at the birthplace of rama, and built the babri masjid on the holy site, which has since been a source of tension between the hindu and muslim communities. writer fernand braudel wrote in a history of civilizations ( penguin 1988 / 1963, pp. 232 – 236 ), islamic rule in india as a " colonial experiment " was " extremely violent ", and " the muslims could not rule the country except by systematic terror. cruelty was the norm – burnings, summary executions, crucifixions or impalements, inventive tortures. hindu temples were destroyed to make way for mosques. on occasion there were forced conversions. if ever there were an uprising, it was instantly and savagely repressed : houses were burned, the countryside was laid waste, men were slaughtered and women were taken as slaves. " in a two - volume book by sita ram goel, arun shourie, harsh narain, jay dubashi and ram swarup, hindu temples – what happened to them, includes a list of 2000 mosques that it is claimed were built on hindu temples in the first volume, which it is asserted is based primarily on the books of muslim historians of the period or the inscriptions of the mosques. the second volume excerpts from medieval histories and chronicles and from inscriptions concerning the destruction of hindu, jain, and buddhist temples. the authors claim that the material presented in this book are only


books of muslim historians of the period or the inscriptions of the mosques. the second volume excerpts from medieval histories and chronicles and from inscriptions concerning the destruction of hindu, jain, and buddhist temples. the authors claim that the material presented in this book are only the tip of an iceberg. during goa inquisitions diago de boarda, a priest, and his advisor vicar general, miguel vaz, had made a 41 - point plan for torturing hindus. under this plan viceroy antano de noronha issued in 1566, an order applicable to the entire area under portuguese rule : i hereby order that in any area owned by my master, the king, nobody should construct a hindu temple and such temples already constructed should not be repaired without my permission. if this order is transgressed, such temples shall be, destroyed and the goods in them shall be used to meet expenses of holy deeds, as punishment of such transgression. in 1567 the campaign of destroying temples in bardez met with success. at the end of it 300 hindu temples were destroyed. in 1583 hindu temples at assolna and cuncolim were destroyed through army action. " the fathers of the church forbade the hindus under terrible penalties the use of their own sacred books, and prevented them from all exercise of their religion. they destroyed their temples, and so harassed and interfered with the people that they abandoned the city in large numbers, refusing to remain any longer in a place where they had no liberty, and were liable to imprisonment, torture and death if they worshipped after their own fashion the gods of their fathers ". wrote filippo sassetti, who was in india from 1578 to 1588. an order was issued in june 1684 eliminating the konkani language and making it compulsory to speak portuguese language. following that law all the symbols of non - christian sects were destroyed and the books written in local languages were burnt. contemporary iconoclasm against hindus in india in june 2010, during rioting in sangli, people threw stones inside a ganesh mandal. the 2010 deganga riots began on 6 september when mobs resorted to arson and violence over a disputed structure at deganga, kartikpur and beliaghata under the deganga police station area. the violence began late in the evening and continued throughout the night into the next morning. the violence finally calmed down on 9 september after hundreds of business establishments and residences were looted, destroyed and burnt, dozens of people were severely injured and several places of


. the violence began late in the evening and continued throughout the night into the next morning. the violence finally calmed down on 9 september after hundreds of business establishments and residences were looted, destroyed and burnt, dozens of people were severely injured and several places of worship desecrated and vandalized. in june 2011 at asansol market area, a hindu temple, under construction led by bastim bazaar sarbojanin durga puja committee was and approved by adm on 12 april 2011, was attacked by an islamic mob. in bangladesh in bangladesh atrocities including targeted attacks against temples and open theft of hindu property have increased sharply in recent years after the jamat - e - islami joined the coalition government led by the bangladesh national party. hindu temples in bangladesh have also been vandalised. in pakistan several hindu temples have been destroyed in pakistan. a notable incident was the destruction of the ramna kali mandir in former east pakistan. the temple was bulldozed by the pakistani army on march 27, 1971. the dhakeshwari temple was severely damaged during the indo - pakistani war of 1971, and over half of the temple ' s buildings were destroyed. in a major disrespect of the religion, the main worship hall was taken over by the pakistan army and used as an ammunitions storage area. several of the temple custodians were tortured and killed by the army though most, including the head priest, fled first to their ancestral villages and then to india and therefore escaped death. in 2006 the last hindu temple in lahore was destroyed to pave the way for construction of a multi - story commercial building. the temple was demolished after officials of the evacuee property trust board concealed facts from the board chairman about the nature of the building. when reporters from pakistan - based newspaper dawn tried to cover the incident, they were accosted by the henchmen of the property developer, who denied that a hindu temple existed at the site. several political parties in pakistan have objected to this move, such as the pakistan people ' s party and the pakistani muslim league - n. the move has also evoked strong condemnation in india from minority bodies and political parties, including the bharatiya janata party ( bjp ), the congress party, as well as muslim advocacy political parties such as the all india muslim majlis - e - mushawarat. a firm of lawyers representing the hindu minority has approached the lahore high court seeking a directive to the builders to stop the construction of the commercial plaza and reconstruct the temple at the site


the all india muslim majlis - e - mushawarat. a firm of lawyers representing the hindu minority has approached the lahore high court seeking a directive to the builders to stop the construction of the commercial plaza and reconstruct the temple at the site. the petitioners maintain that the demolition violates section 295 of the pakistan penal code prohibiting the demolition of places of worship. on june 29, 2005, following the arrest of an illiterate christian janitor on allegations of allegedly burning qur ' an pages, a mob of between 300 and 500 muslims destroyed a hindu temple and houses belonging to christian and hindu families in nowshera. under the terms of a deal negotiated between islamic religious leaders and the hindu / christian communities, pakistani police later released all previously arrested perpetrators without charge. in malaysia between april to may 2006, several hindu temples were demolished by city hall authorities in the country, accompanied by violence against hindus. on april 21, 2006, the malaimel sri selva kaliamman temple in kuala lumpur was reduced to rubble after the city hall sent in bulldozers. many hindu advocacy groups have protested what they allege is a systematic plan of temple cleansing in malaysia. the official reason given by the malaysian government has been that the temples were built " illegally ". however, several of the temples are centuries old. on may 11, 2006, armed city hall officers from kuala lumpur forcefully demolished part of a 60 - year - old suburban temple that serves more than 1, 000 hindus. in saudi arabia in fiji in fiji according to official reports, attacks on hindu institutions increased by 14 % compared to 2004. this intolerance of hindus has found expression in anti - hindu speeches and destruction of temples, the two most common forms of immediate and direct violence against hindus. between 2001 and april 2005, one hundred cases of temple attacks have been registered with the police. the alarming increase of temple destruction has spread fear and intimidation among the hindu minorities and has hastened immigration to neighboring australia and new zealand. organized religious institutions, such as the methodist church of fiji, have repeatedly called for the creation of a theocratic christian state and have propagated anti - hindu sentiment. state favoritism of christianity, and systematic attacks on temples, are some of the greatest threats faced by fijian hindus. despite the creation of a human rights commission, the plight of hindus in fiji continues to be precarious. chinese iconoclasm during the northern expedition, in 1926 in guangxi, kuomintang muslim general bai chongxi led his


despite the creation of a human rights commission, the plight of hindus in fiji continues to be precarious. chinese iconoclasm during the northern expedition, in 1926 in guangxi, kuomintang muslim general bai chongxi led his troops in destroying buddhist temples and smashing idols, turning the temples into schools and kuomintang party headquarters. it was reported that almost all of buddhist monasteries in guangxi were destroyed by bai in this manner. the monks were removed. bai led a wave of anti - foreignism in guangxi, attacking american, european, and other foreigners and missionaries, and generally making the province unsafe for foreigners. westerners fled from the province, and some chinese christians were also attacked as imperialist agents. the three goals of the movement were anti - foreignism, anti - imperialism, and anti - religion. bai led the anti - religious movement against superstition. muslims do not believe in polytheism ( see shirk ( islam ) ) and his religion may have influenced bai to take action against the images in the temples and the practices denounced as superstitious in the campaign. huang shaoxiong, also a kuomintang member of the new guangxi clique, supported bai ' s campaign. huang was not a muslim, and the anti - religious campaign was agreed upon by all guangxi kuomintang members. see also - censorship by organized religion - gregory berns, author of the book iconoclast - lost artworks - natural theology references and notes - literally, " image - breaking ", from ancient greek : εικων and κλαω. iconoclasm may be also considered as a back - formation from iconoclast ( from greek εικοκλαστης ). the corresponding greek word for iconoclasm is εικονοκλασια – eikonoklasia. - " you shall not make for yourself a carved image, or any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth. 5 you shall not bow down to them or serve them.... " ( exodus 20 : 4 - 5a, esv. ) - such as during the spanish conquests of the aztec and inca empires. - chessman, stuart. " the society of st. hugh of cluny » post topic » hetzendorf and the iconoclasm in


esv. ) - such as during the spanish conquests of the aztec and inca empires. - chessman, stuart. " the society of st. hugh of cluny » post topic » hetzendorf and the iconoclasm in the second half of the 20th century ". sthughofcluny. org. retrieved 2013 - 04 - 30. - auyezov, olzhas ( january 5, 2011 ). " ukraine says blowing up stalin statue was terrorism ". reuters. retrieved 9 april 2011. - " afghan taliban leader orders destruction of ancient statues ". rawa. org. retrieved 2013 - 04 - 30. - " saddam hussein still causing trouble : iraq demands return of statue ’ s buttock ". inquisitr. com. 2013 - 04 - 09. retrieved 2013 - 04 - 30. - " byzantine iconoclasm ". retrieved 2013 - 04 - 30. - cyril mango, the oxford history of byzantium, 2002. - mango, 2002. - robin cormack, writing in gold, byzantine society and its icons, 1985, george philip, london, isbn 0 - 540 - 01085 - 5. - c mango, " historical introduction ", in bryer & herrin, eds., iconoclasm, pp. 2 - 3., 1977, centre for byzantine studies, university of birmingham, isbn 0 - 7044 - 0226 - 2. - cf. ( ed. ) f. gioia, the popes – twenty centuries of history, libreria editrice vaticana ( 2005 ), p. 40. - see theophanes, chronographia. - cf. ( ed. ) f. gioia, the popes – twenty centuries of history, libreria editrice vaticana ( 2005 ), p. 41. - " issue 54 : eastern orthodoxy | christian history magazine ". chinstitute. org. retrieved 2013 - 04 - 30. - " internet history sourcebooks project ". fordham. edu. retrieved 2013 - 04 - 30. - tanner, norman p., alberigo, g., dossetti, j. a., joannou, p. p., leonardi, c., and prodi, p., decrees of the ecumenical councils volume onenicaea i to lateran v, p. 132 – 136, sheed & ward and georgetown university press, london and washington, d. c., [ isbn 0 -


and prodi, p., decrees of the ecumenical councils volume onenicaea i to lateran v, p. 132 – 136, sheed & ward and georgetown university press, london and washington, d. c., [ isbn 0 - 87840 - 490 - 2 ] - epitome of the iconoclast council at hieria, 754 ad, internet medieval sourcebook, also available from christian classics ethereal library - flood, finbarr barry ( 2002 ). " between cult and culture : bamiyan, islamic iconoclasm, and the museum ". the art bulletin 84 : 641 – 659. doi : 10. 2307 / 3177288. - guillaume, alfred ( 1955 ). the life of muhammad. a translation of ishaq ' s " sirat rasul allah ".. oxford university press. p. 552. isbn 978 - 0 - 19 - 636033 - 1. retrieved 2011 - 12 - 08. " quraysh had put pictures in the ka ' ba including two of jesus son of mary and mary ( on both of whom be peace! ).... the apostle ordered that the pictures should be erased except those of jesus and mary. " - a. grabar, l ' iconoclasme byzantin : le dossier archeologique ( paris, 1984 ), 155 – 56. - g. r. d. king, " islam, iconoclasm, and the declaration of doctrine ", bulletin of the school of oriental and african studies 48 ( 1985 ), 276 – 7. - al - maqrizi, writing in the 15th century, attributes the damage to muhammad sa ' im al - dahr, a sufi muslim fanatic from the khanqah of sa ' id al - su ' ada, in 1378. - howden, daniel ( 2005 - 08 - 06 ). " independent newspaper on - line, london, jan 19, 2007 ". news. independent. co. uk. retrieved 2013 - 04 - 30. - islamica magazine [ dead link ] - tharoor, ishaan. " timbuktu ’ s destruction : why islamists are wrecking mali ’ s cultural heritage ". time. retrieved 10 july 2012. - " neil kamil, ' ' fortress of the soul : violence, metaphysics, and material life ' ', p. 148 ". books. google. com. retrieved 2013 - 04 - 30.