. • the right to appeal from the decisions of magistrates and to appeal the lower court decisions. • a roman citizen could not be tortured or whipped, nor could he receive the death penalty, unless he was found guilty of treason. • if accused of treason, a roman citizen had the right to be tried in rome, and even if sentenced to death, no roman citizen could be sentenced to die on the cross. tejontech, you write, "... typical liberal emotional defense of a position contrary to nature... " according to theologists, that is. scientists do not find homosexual activity to be " contrary to nature. " at one time anything other than missionary position was labeled contrary to nature ( even though no animal, other than humans, practice it ). gurudori, you wrote, " not only did apostle paul use his roman citizenship to have a fair trail when the jews wanted him excuted for converting to christianity and blaspheme again ot... " is this @ # $ % actually in the christian bible? zen... again boring... typical liberal emotional defense of a position contrary to nature... and not true. yeah well i think you ' ve proven you know neither " love " nor " peace ", tejontech. what i read is the vitroil of an isolated and fearful man. it ' s sad really, because you drive far more people away than you ' ll ever attract. what is prophesized in the bible can ' t be stopped, even the new world order. don ' t you think that maybe god has a backup plan for those who accepted christ as lord and savior ( not believing in the pope, tt ) called...... the hope of the return of christ! haven ' t you ever read 1 thessalonians? it ' s all about how christ returns for the born again believers, then armageddon & book of revelations happens, then christ returns with the saints to reclaim earth from satan, the god of this world, and re - establishes eden when he got from adam disobeying gods commandment not to eat the fruit of knowledge. bet you didn ' t know that! yeah, that ' s another one of those books in the nt most don ' t know of. romans 5 : 9 - much more then, being now justified by his blood, we shall be saved from the wrath through him. this gives me much comfort when knowing how that state of the world is in modern times


most don ' t know of. romans 5 : 9 - much more then, being now justified by his blood, we shall be saved from the wrath through him. this gives me much comfort when knowing how that state of the world is in modern times. something to think about. i also thought of another great example of why we need to have the separation of church and state : not only did apostle paul use his roman citizenship to have a fair trail when the jews wanted him excuted for converting to christianity and blaspheme again ot ( he was the father to the born again christian church whereas apostles peter and james started the catholic church on the grounds of sticking to traditional pagen holidays - easter is the holiday for the goddess ester, not the final passover as it actually should be. ) you are going to love this tt.... martin luther also used his german citizenship to save his life when the catholic church summons him to rome as a jesuit priest for heresy, but he petitioned the german king for his trail to be held in a german city so he could be protected because he knew he would be assinated if he traveled to rome. remember him? he ' s the guy with the 96 thesis against the abominations within the catholic church? he left the catholic church and started the reformation church... got married to a former nun and lived another 30 years as the main biblical scholar for the king at a university in germany. remember indulgences? remember if you don ' t accept jesus we will kill you period in european history? that is why the french and american constitutions added this clause in 1780s just so that any governing church could never pull this crap again. remember the inquisition? how they used church doctrine to kill thousands of pegans to take their land, indigenous people in south and north america and other believers like wicca and keltic and such? no, you seem to like to hold a rosey colored view of catholic church history. click here to play the game " vote for a moron! " if you agree with tejon tech last statement on " think they are voting in a new truth as if they could reverse god ' s creative decisions. " click like, but if you do not agree with tt, click dislikes. if tt gets more dislikes than likes..... then he is a moron! lmao!!! i love on this list how people clicking like and dislike think they are voting in a new truth as if


dislikes. if tt gets more dislikes than likes..... then he is a moron! lmao!!! i love on this list how people clicking like and dislike think they are voting in a new truth as if they could reverse god ' s creative decisions. that is what broadbent is attempting... he makes it up to be like he would have done if he were god, even though what he would have done is simply contrary to god ' s obvious will and purpose. you can ' t change the truth by popular vote, as colorado is now destined to see. this pastor is just one of the false prophets that will come in the last days. the californication of colorado is moving at full steam. jesus warns us against idolatry, fornication, and murder... seems like the secular agenda claims all three... unquestioned tolerance is idolatry, fornication is any sex outside marriage ( to include all gay etc. sex and this sort of adolescent sex advocated by the morning after pill ) and murder, which is what abortion is pure and simple... so guru and zen... the final judgment is going to be calling you to repentance and amendment of life big tie... as well as me for my sins. secularism isn ' t new, tt, it was how our country was originally founded with seperation of church and state, so don ' t try to re - write history. it has only been since the 1980 ' s when the evangical churches started a movement to insert christian morality into our governmental laws. so why can ' t each and every person govern themselves instead of having to follow your brand of religion? just because we don ' t want it in our governing laws doesn ' t mean we don ' t practice morality and personal spirituality in our homes. from wikepedia : seperation of church and state : thomas jefferson : in english, the exact term is an offshoot of the phrase, " wall of separation between church and state ", as written in thomas jefferson ' s letter to the danbury baptist association in 1802. in that letter, referencing the first amendment to the united states constitution, jefferson writes : " believing with you that religion is a matter which lies solely between man & his god, that he owes account to none other for his faith or his worship, that the legitimate powers of government reach actions only, & not opinions, i contemplate with sovereign reverence that


religion is a matter which lies solely between man & his god, that he owes account to none other for his faith or his worship, that the legitimate powers of government reach actions only, & not opinions, i contemplate with sovereign reverence that act of the whole american people which declared that their legislature should ' make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof, ' thus building a wall of separation between church and state. " jefferson reflected his frequent speaking theme that the government is not to interfere with religion. the bill of rights was one of the earliest examples in the world of complete religious freedom ( adopted in 1791, only preceded by the declaration of the rights of man and of the citizen in 1789 ) but it was interpreted as establishing a separation of church and state only after the letter of jefferson ( see section united states for more details ). at the time of the passage of the bill of rights, many states acted in ways that would now be held unconstitutional, some of them with official state churches. all of the early official state churches were disestablished by 1833. milligan ' s primary goal is to advance the new world order in her own image without a god to interfere with her reign of political correct totalitarianism... it is to turn colo spgs upside down, and that sort of radical transformation will not bring peace and stability, but strive and division. zen... denver seminary? that explains why you are an advocate for the new secularism and not the christianity of the apostles. your education is faulty and doesn ' t serve you well. the religion of jesus is one where god ' s love directs and rules our hearts toward peace now and eternity ultimately. your religion of permissiveness and self affirmation is a direct path to pain now and dysfunction in the future... not something a loving god would wish for his children. god, as scripture says, has a special place for wolves in sheep ' s clothing like you. if " milligan is a far left whack job " then how far off the right edge of the map are you? geez tt.. some days you make pinochet look like a centrist. another 14 jobs and more young people gone. good job blue hairs. as for pico, he ' s a egotistical hack. i used to debate that guy on the gazette, and he wouldn ' t know good science from a pile of sh * t. like most of the council, he ' s a slave


for pico, he ' s a egotistical hack. i used to debate that guy on the gazette, and he wouldn ' t know good science from a pile of sh * t. like most of the council, he ' s a slave to ideology and blind to on the ground reality. tejontech, speaking as one with a degree in religious studies, who studied theology and ministry at denver seminary, and has worked in protestant and catholic church and para - church organizations, i can confidently and authoritatively say that you my friend are no christ follower. you ' re a pharisee. and a milk fed one at that. it ' s time to take back the church from people like you... people who have overseen the largest single decline in us church attendance in history. if jesus were to return today, i have zero doubt you ' d be first to pick up a hammer and nail. you genuinely have no idea what you do. and for that, i just feel sorry for you. grow up milk fed... before it ' s too late. good luck with all that self - righteous rage. tejontech it is truly sad to see a person so tied up in knots as you. all content © copyright 2013, the colorado springs independent website powered by foundation


what is roller chains roller chain is a steel linked chain that utilizes roller bushings at each connecting link. the bushings aid the chain in riding smoothly around a sprocket and give the chain long life as well as strength. roller chain is commonly found on bicycles and farming machinery and is also a primary component in automobile transmissions and transfer cases. some high - performance types of roller chain use small rubber o - rings at each end of the bushings to aid in the retention of oil, which helps keep the chain in peak condition. there are many types of roller chain, each intended for a specific purpose. in the u. s., roller chain is sized by the american national standards institute or ansi with the most common sizes being 40, 50 and 60. the size of the chain is reflective of the pitch of the chain in eighths of an inch ( 0. 3175 centimeters ), this is denoted by the first digit, and the final digit noting the strength of the chain. while 0 represents standard chain and 1 represents lightweight chain, 5 is used to show bushed chain with no rollers. this means that a standard bicycle chain with a half - inch ( 1. 27 centimeters ) pitch would be a size 40 chain. the typical roller chain is comprised of links that are fused together by pins. the pins are driven through the ends of each link and held in place by friction. each chain is connected at the ends to form a complete circle or chain loop by a master link. the master link is a link of chain that uses a clip to hold the sides in place rather than being a friction fit. roller chain can be shortened by removing links with a chain breaking tool and lengthened by adding whole or a half links. lubrication and proper tension is critical to assure long life for any roller chain. a chain should never be run tight. there should always be a slight amount of slack in a properly adjusted chain. the school of thought is approximately 2 percent to 4 percent of the distance between the centers of the sprockets. clean, light - weight oil should be used to keep the chain properly lubricated. the various uses for roller chain include not only bicycles, but conveyors, automobile timing chains and chain saws. by attaching tiny cutting teeth to a chain, a chain saw is able to cut its way through a tree in a rapid manner. in another application, small lengths of chain are attached to a handle, allowing plumbers to grip and twist pipe sections.


what a waste! picture from space reveals how new u. s. oil field is burning off enough gas to power chicago and washington - because it ' s cheaper than selling it this incredible picture from space shows how the u. s. oil industry has boomed to such an extent that a gas field now burns as brightly as a major city. the rapid increase in shale oil production means it is now often more economical to ' flare off ' unwanted gas than to sell it. as a result, one field in north dakota, the state leading the energy revolution, is now burning off enough gas to power all the homes in chicago and washington d. c. combined. scroll down for video wasting energy : this nasa satellite image shows how the gas being burned off at the bakken oil field in north dakota is almost as bright as the light emitted from major u. s. cities such as minneapolis - st paul and chicago in a recently released satellite image from nasa, the light being given off at the bakken formation, almost twice the size of wales, easily competes in intensity with that being emitted from those cities. the volume of gas going up in flames at the plant rose by around 50 per cent last year alone in a practice that is causing growing concern about the waste of resources and the impact on the environment, according to the financial times. the trend, which is being replicated in other shale regions such as texas, has made the u. s. one of the world ' s worst offenders for gas flaring after the amount it burns off has tripled in the last five years, according to world bank estimates. the boom has come after advances in a process known as fracking, where a mixture of sand, water and chemicals is pumped into rocks to open cracks in a reservoir. illuminated : the trend, which is being replicated in other shale regions such as texas, has made the u. s. one of the world ' s worst offenders for gas flaring burning : this map shows how north dakota is now speckled with gas flares after a boom in shale oil production in recent years in north dakota, 150 oil companies have flooded the region drilling up to eight new wells a day and are producing roughly 660, 000 barrels of oil. it has reduced the country ' s need for oil imports and created thousands of jobs, but the abundant supplies of gas it has unlocked have outpaced development of infrastructure needed to store and pump it to populations. more than 1, 000 wells were connected to the bakken system in 2012, for example, but


created thousands of jobs, but the abundant supplies of gas it has unlocked have outpaced development of infrastructure needed to store and pump it to populations. more than 1, 000 wells were connected to the bakken system in 2012, for example, but that has not been enough to cut the proportion of the state ’ s gas being flared, currently at about 30 per cent. but with gas prices having dropped from their 2008 peak of more than $ 13 per million british thermal units to just $ 3. 40 because of increased production of the resource it is now uneconomic to build pipelines and storage tanks. up in flames : a ground flare burns gas at a well near ray, north dakota, where about 30 per cent of the natural gas produced is burned as waste how fracking has fuelled america ' s insatiable appetite for oil and gas with its voracious appetite for energy and a desire to be less reliant on imports, the u. s. became the first country to exploit the potential of fracking. the process - shorthand for hydraulic fracturing - involves creating little explosions underground, then injecting water and chemicals to release gas and oil trapped in cavities in shale rocks. in 1996, the u. s. produced just 0. 3trillion cubic feet of shale gas. by 2011, however, that figure had leapt to 7. 8trillion, allowing america to transform itself from an importer to a net exporter of gas. but the abundant supplies of gas have outpaced development of infrastructure around oil plants. and with gas prices having dropped from their 2008 peak of more than $ 13 per million british thermal units to just $ 3. 40 it is now uneconomic to build pipelines and storage tanks. as a result, much of the gas is burned off instead. shale gas reserves are plentiful and widespread across much of the world, but until developments in fracking it has been largely inaccessible. in china, explorable shale reserves are estimated at 86trillion cubic feet, enough to supply the nation ' s needs for two centuries liquid gold : graphic showing how u. s. oil production outrip that of saudi arabia adam brandt, a stanford academic who studies greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuels, told the ft : ' the situation in the shale oilfields is similar to the early days of the us oil industry. ' companies are in a race with their competitors to develop the resource, which means there is little incentive to delay production to reduce flaring


definitions for wageweɪdʒ random house webster ' s college dictionary wageweɪdʒ ( n. ; v. ) waged, wag • ing. ( n. ) often, wages. money that is paid or received for work or services. ref : compare living wage, minimum wage. 1 wages, recompense or return : the wages of sin is death. obs. a pledge or security. ( v. t. ) to carry on ( a battle, argument, etc. ) : to wage war. obs. to stake or wager. to pledge. ( v. i. ) obs. to contend ; struggle. origin of wage : 1275 – 1325 ; me : pledge, security < af ; of guagegage1 < vl * wadium < gmc ( see wed ) wage, pay, earnings, remuneration, salary ( verb ) something that remunerates " wages were paid by check " ; " he wasted his pay on drink " ; " they saved a quarter of all their earnings " carry on ( wars, battles, or campaigns ) " napoleon and hitler waged war against all of europe " an amount of money paid to a worker for a specified quantity of work, usually expressed on an hourly basis. to wager, bet. to employ for wages ; to hire. to conduct or carry out ( a war or other contest ). to wage war origin : from wage, a northern variant of gauge, gage, from * waddi, wadja ( cognate with wedd ), from wadjo, from wadh -. akin to veþja " to pledge ", wadi. more at wed. to pledge ; to hazard on the event of a contest ; to stake ; to bet, to lay ; to wager ; as, to wage a dollar to expose one ' s self to, as a risk ; to incur, as a danger ; to venture ; to hazard to engage in, as a contest, as if by previous gage or pledge ; to carry on, as a war to adventure, or lay out, for hire or reward ; to hire out to put upon wages ; to hire ; to employ ; to pay wages to to give security for the performance of to bind one ' s self ; to engage that which is staked or ventured ; that for which one incurs risk or danger ; prize ; gage that for which one labors ; meed ; reward ; stipulated payment for service


for the performance of to bind one ' s self ; to engage that which is staked or ventured ; that for which one incurs risk or danger ; prize ; gage that for which one labors ; meed ; reward ; stipulated payment for service performed ; hire ; pay ; compensation ; - - at present generally used in the plural. see wages translations for wage kernerman english multilingual dictionary ( alsoˈwages noun plural ) a regular, usually weekly rather than monthly, payment for the work that one does he spends all his wages on books ; what is his weekly wage? - salarioportuguese ( br ) - der lohngerman - μισθος, ( οικονομικες ) απολαβεςgreek - salario, sueldospanish - mjesecna placacroatian - laun, kaupicelandic - 임금, 급료, - darba algalatvian - gaji, upahmalay - lønn, gasjenorwegian - lon, avloningswedish - ; - ， chinese ( trad. ) - заробітна платаukrainian - luong tuanvietnamese - ， chinese ( simp. ) get even more translations for wage »


harris, paul l. trusting what you ' re told how children learn from others aims and scope if children were little scientists who learn best through firsthand observations and mini - experiments, as conventional wisdom holds, how would a child discover that the earth is round — never mind conceive of heaven as a place someone might go after death? overturning both cognitive and commonplace theories about how children learn, trusting what you ’ re told begins by reminding us of a basic truth : most of what we know we learned from others. children recognize early on that other people are an excellent source of information. and so they ask questions. but youngsters are also remarkably discriminating as they weigh the responses they elicit. and how much they trust what they are told has a lot to do with their assessment of its source. trusting what you ’ re told opens a window into the moral reasoning of elementary school vegetarians, the preschooler ’ s ability to distinguish historical narrative from fiction, and the six - year - old ’ s nuanced stance toward magic : skeptical, while still open to miracles. paul harris shares striking cross - cultural findings, too, such as that children in religious communities in rural central america resemble bostonian children in being more confident about the existence of germs and oxygen than they are about souls and god. we are biologically designed to learn from one another, harris demonstrates, and this greediness for explanation marks a key difference between human beings and our primate cousins. even kanzi, a genius among bonobos, never uses his keyboard to ask for information : he only asks for treats. - 272 pages - 3 halftones, 3 line illustrations, 19 graphs - harvard university press


early in his career, james mcneill whistler submitted symphony in white, no. 1 : the white girl to two esteemed annual european exhibitions — the royal academy in london, england, and the paris salon in france. the painting was rejected at both. it was shown in a less notable exhibition in 1863 and received tentative reviews. while the painting ’ s white tones and the lily held by the woman imply purity, her morning dress and disheveled hair suggest impropriety. this ambiguity baffled the european critics and public : “ folk nudged each other and went almost into hysterics ; there was always a grinning group in front of [ the white girl ]. ” — emile zola, novelist, 1886 ; “ it is one of the most incomplete paintings we have ever met with. a woman, in a quaint morning dress of white, with her hair about her shoulders, stands alone, in the background of nothing in particular. ” — f. g. stevens, critic, june, 1862. critics tried to create a story behind the painting ’ s subject, interpretations. they called the model a “ sleepwalker, " " a newly deflowered bride, " and an " apparition. ” whistler left no clues as to how the painting should be read. he said, “ my painting simply represents a girl dressed in white standing in front of a white curtain. ” the real “ story ” was whistler ’ s manifestation of art for art ’ s sake — his focus on color, line and composition — not the subject matter of the painting. when the painting was shown in the united states 10 years later, the public generally reacted differently. the model was described as “ attractive and even fascinating ” with a “ singular and an indescribable face, full of the strangest and subtlest expression. ” american artists soon imitated the work, creating their own paintings in the manner of whistler ’ s white girl.


abstract : early diagnosis and rapid initiation of treatment remains a key strategy to control both hiv and tuberculosis ( tb ). however, hiv and tb control programs have had completely contrasting successes, especially with the development and deployment of point - of - care ( poc ) diagnostics. clinicians, researchers, and public health staff who work at the frontlines of hiv care and control have had access to an outstanding array of poc diagnostics at their disposal, including those used for screening, initial diagnosis, staging, treatment monitoring, and early infant diagnosis. the field has also advanced to consider over - the - counter, self - testing options for hiv and the use of multiplexed platforms that allow for simultaneous detection of infections associated with hiv. in sharp contrast to hiv, suboptimal and delayed diagnosis of tb has perpetuated the epidemic in many high - burden countries. although the tb diagnostics pipeline is substantially better today than it was even five years ago, absence of a simple poc test continues to be a gaping hole in the pipeline. in this review, we compare the poc diagnostics landscape and pipelines for these two important infectious diseases, and highlight gaps and unmet needs. low - cost, point - of - care ( poc ) tests have completely transformed the management of several major infectious diseases ( e. g., malaria and hiv ) ( yager et al., 2008 ), especially in resource - limited settings where healthcare infrastructure is weak, and access to quality and timely medical care is a challenge. these tests offer rapid results at the point - of - care, allowing for rapid initiation of appropriate therapy, and / or establishment of linkages to care ( peeling and mabey, 2010 ). most importantly, poc tests can be simple enough to be used at the primary care level and in remote settings with no laboratory infrastructure. poc tests are often more cost - effective for the healthcare delivery system ( peeling and mabey, 2010 ), and can potentially empower patients to self - test in the privacy of their homes and make informed decisions. the synergistic epidemics of hiv and tuberculosis ( tb ) have had a huge adverse impact on many populations, especially in high prevalence, resource - limited settings such as sub - saharan africa and asia ( lawn and churchyard, 2009 ). early diagnosis and rapid initiation of treatment remains a key strategy to control both infections. however, hiv and tb control programs have had completely contrasting successes, especially with the development and deployment of poc diagnostics ( denkinger and


churchyard, 2009 ). early diagnosis and rapid initiation of treatment remains a key strategy to control both infections. however, hiv and tb control programs have had completely contrasting successes, especially with the development and deployment of poc diagnostics ( denkinger and pai, 2011 ). indeed, there are many lessons to be learnt by comparing the poc diagnostics landscapes and pipelines for these two important infectious diseases. hiv diagnostics : current landscape and pipeline clinicians, researchers, and public health staff who work at the frontlines of hiv care and control have had access to an outstanding array of poc diagnostics at their disposal ( table 1 ), although uptake of these tests has varied across countries. poc tests for hiv include those used for screening, initial diagnosis, disease staging, treatment monitoring, and early infant diagnosis. the field has also advanced with the development of over - the - counter ( otc ) self - testing options for hiv, and multiplexed platforms that allow for simultaneous detection of infections associated with hiv, such as hepatitis b and c, and syphilis ( e. g., multiplo®, medmira inc., nova scotia, canada ). an excellent survey of the current hiv diagnostics landscape has been published recently ( murtagh, 2011 ). for initial screening and diagnosis, simple, accurate, whole - blood, finger - stick, and oral mucosal fluid - based rapid tests are widely popular and have been successfully scaled - up via voluntary counseling and testing ( vct ) programs in many countries, supported by agencies such as pepfar, unitaid, and the global fund to fight aids, tb, and malaria. dozens of inexpensive poc hiv tests are available commercially, and quality - assured kits can be procured via the world health organization ( who ) prequalification program for diagnostics ( world health organization, 2011f ). a recent evaluation of all fda - approved rapid hiv tests on finger stick specimens documented their high accuracy ( sensitivity and specificity exceed 99 % ) in controlled laboratory settings ( delaney et al., 2011 ). rapid oral mucosal fluid tests have comparable accuracy to blood tests ( pai et al., 2012 ). while the vast majority of rapid hiv tests are based on antibody detection, the most recent fourth generation immunoassays simultaneously detect hiv p24 antigen as well as antibodies to hiv - 1 and hiv - 2 in serum, plasma, and whole blood. although confirmatory testing is required for all first line screening tests, even


most recent fourth generation immunoassays simultaneously detect hiv p24 antigen as well as antibodies to hiv - 1 and hiv - 2 in serum, plasma, and whole blood. although confirmatory testing is required for all first line screening tests, even oral fluid rapid hiv tests have been found to have high accuracy in high risk populations such as sexually transmitted disease ( std ) clinic attendees, and unregistered pregnant women that present at the time of delivery ( pai et al., 2007 ; pant pai et al., 2007 ). in addition to high diagnostic accuracy, these poc tests have also been shown to have clinical impact in resource - limited settings ( pai et al., 2008 ; pai and klein, 2009 ). for example, use of a simple oral - fluid test in a labor ward was successful in reducing mother - to - child hiv transmission in a rural hospital in india ( pai et al., 2008 ; pai and klein, 2009 ). in fact, oral fluid based hiv rapid tests may be simple enough to be potentially useful for home - based hiv self - testing ( pai and klein, 2008 ), as shown in a recent study in africa ( choko et al., 2011 ). over - the - counter ( otc ) versions of oral mucosal fluid - based tests are now available ( e. g., aware oral otc, calypte biomedical corporation, portland, or, usa ). although self - testing is a promising approach to expand hiv screening programs, several issues related to self - testing are unresolved, and the ideal public health strategy that can safely and effectively offer this option is yet to be determined. with the impending fda approval of an otc oral hiv test, some of these logistical issues may get addressed, although infrastructural and logistical barriers for linking self - testers to follow - up care will require work ( pai and klein, 2008 ). for disease staging and for making decisions about anti - retroviral therapy ( art ) initiation or monitoring, there are qualitative and quantitative cd4 poc tests that are now available ( figure 1 shows the pipeline ). these are a significant advance over the traditional, expensive, laboratory - based, flow cytometry assays ( boyle et al., 2011 ; murtagh, 2011 ). efforts are also underway to develop more affordable ( and disposable ) poc tests for cd4 counts and several such technologies are expected to


cytometry assays ( boyle et al., 2011 ; murtagh, 2011 ). efforts are also underway to develop more affordable ( and disposable ) poc tests for cd4 counts and several such technologies are expected to reach the market within the next few years ( figure 2 ) ( murtagh, 2011 ). lastly, hiv diagnostics have benefited from the growing momentum towards simple, multiplexed tests that can diagnose multiple infectious diseases at the point - of - care. there are now poc options available for multiplexed detection of hiv, hepatitis b and c, and syphilis ( figure 2 ). although evidence on their test performance in real world settings is limited, they offer promise of simultaneous detection of several infections, with greater convenience for patients and providers. the convergence of fields such as nanotechnology, microfluidics, proteomics, and genomics has inspired the development of novel platforms, including poc and nucleic acid amplification tests ( naats ), which enable the detection of multiple biomarkers at the point of care. also, integration of smartphone technology with such novel platforms might lead to the development of novel testing platforms that can also use mobile telephones for delivering results quickly and efficiently. hiv diagnostics : gaps and needs a key gap has been lack of simple, affordable poc options for early infant diagnosis and for viral load determination ( murtagh, 2011 ; usdin et al., 2010 ). while conventional naats are accurate and commercially available for early infant diagnosis and viral load, they are expensive and require sophisticated laboratory infrastructure that is not available in many resource - limited settings. thus, most art programs in resource - limited settings have no access to these technologies. this leads to treatment failure, impacting quality of clinical management. viral load testing that could be conducted at the poc will reduce the need for laboratory infrastructure and lower the cost for art programs ( murtagh, 2011 ). resistance assays that are currently prohibitively expensive and run only as part of clinical studies will have tremendous potential in expediting linkages to care if offered at poc. although there are currently no poc viral load assays that are commercially available, there are several technologies in development ( figure 3 shows the pipeline ) ( murtagh, 2011 ). for epidemiological and surveillance purposes, there is a felt need for an accurate, inexpensive, and easy - to - use kit that can be used to estimate hiv incidence at the population level (


pipeline ) ( murtagh, 2011 ). for epidemiological and surveillance purposes, there is a felt need for an accurate, inexpensive, and easy - to - use kit that can be used to estimate hiv incidence at the population level ( incidence assay critical path working group, 2011 ). a recent report by the incidence assay critical path working group outlines the challenges in developing such an assay, and the work that is ongoing to overcome the challenges ( incidence assay critical path working group, 2011 ). lastly, although the hiv diagnostics portfolio is impressive, there remains a concern about inadequate uptake of good tests and insufficient scale - up in many settings. an unacceptably large proportion of hiv patients ( 50 - 70 % ) continue to be unaware of their status in developing country settings, posing a problem for timely detection of hiv infection. early detection and initiation of art hinges on knowledge of serostatus, which is the key step in bringing people to treatment and care. thus, efforts that are currently being made to link poc tests with more efficient, decentralized counseling and treatment services may have an impact. for example, research is now ongoing to combine oral fluid otc hiv tests and mobile - phone based counseling into comprehensive hiv self - testing strategies that can be used to scale - up testing in underserved areas where trained counselors may not be available, and to overcome stigma and logistical challenges associated with conventional voluntary counseling and testing approaches ( pai and klein, 2008 ). these approaches if carefully planned may leverage the growing interest in mhealth and mobile telemedicine, and further build on the phenomenal growth of mobile telephony in many developing countries and emerging economies ( estrin and sim, 2010 ). tb diagnostics : current landscape and pipeline in sharp contrast to hiv, suboptimal and delayed diagnosis of tb continues to perpetuate the epidemic in many high - burden countries, especially those with a high prevalence of hiv infection ( wallis et al., 2010 ). the need for an instrument - free, laboratory - free, poc test for tb has been articulated by many groups, including patient advocates and civil society ( batz et al., 2011 ; lemaire and casenghi, 2010 ; weyer et al., 2011 ). although the tb diagnostics pipeline is substantially better in 2011 than it was even 5 - 10 years ago, absence of a dipstick type of poc test continues to be a gaping hole in the pipeline ( figure 4 shows


al., 2011 ). although the tb diagnostics pipeline is substantially better in 2011 than it was even 5 - 10 years ago, absence of a dipstick type of poc test continues to be a gaping hole in the pipeline ( figure 4 shows the current pipeline ) ( world health organization, 2011b ). table 2 summarizes the diagnostic options for tb that can potentially be used at the point - of - care. sputum smear microscopy, in principle, can be done at the point - of - care in a primary care setting, provided a basic microscopy facility and a trained technician are available ( steingart et al., 2007 ). unfortunately, smear microscopy is an insensitive technique and misses nearly half of all tb cases. to compensate for this, at least two sputum smears need to be stained and read, and this makes the test difficult to implement as a genuine poc test. on the positive side, smear microscopy is inexpensive, and a trained microscopist can identify several disease conditions ( e. g., malaria, filariasis, urinary tract infections ). conventional, direct ziehl - neelsen microscopy can be optimized using led fluorescence microscopy, and by using two spot sputum smears to ensure same - day diagnosis. indeed, these approaches are now endorsed by the world health organization ( who ) ( world health organization, 2011a ; world health organization, 2011e ). the recent who endorsement of xpert mtb / rif ( cepheid inc., sunnyvale, ca, usa ), an automated, cartridge - based nucleic acid amplification test ( naat ), has greatly stimulated resurgent interest in using molecular tests for rapid diagnosis of active tb and drug - resistance ( world health organization, 2011c ). while the xpert mtb / rif assay is accurate and can potentially be used outside of a laboratory setting by a minimally trained health worker, it falls short of meeting the ideal poc requirements on two important grounds : at current prices, it is expensive and unaffordable in many settings, and it requires sophisticated equipment that cannot be deployed at the community level ( pai, 2011b ). also, the pricing of xpert mtb / rif assay in the private sector in developing countries is substantially higher than the pricing for the public sector, imposing additional barriers for scale - up. for decades, researchers and the industry had pinned their hopes on ser


pricing of xpert mtb / rif assay in the private sector in developing countries is substantially higher than the pricing for the public sector, imposing additional barriers for scale - up. for decades, researchers and the industry had pinned their hopes on serological antibody - detection methods for poc test development. indeed, dozens of serological rapid ( lateral flow assays ) and elisa tests got commercialized, even though no international guideline recommended their use. today, these tests are on the market in at least 17 of the 22 highest tuberculosis burden countries, and millions of patients in the private sector undergo serological testing ( grenier et al., 2012 ). unfortunately, tb serological tests are neither accurate nor cost - effective ( dowdy et al., 2011 ; steingart et al., 2011 ), prompting the who to issue a strong negative recommendation against their use ( world health organization, 2011d ). the who policy, announced on july 20, 2011, states that, since the “ the harms / risks [ of commercial serodiagnostic tests ] far outweigh any potential benefits ( strong recommendation ) … these tests should not be used in individuals suspected of active pulmonary or extra - pulmonary tb, irrespective of their hiv status ” ( world health organization, 2011d ). it is important to clarify three points regarding this who recommendation. firstly, the who policy encourages research to develop new serological tests for tb based on antigen / antibody biomarkers. the negative recommendation only applies to existing commercial tests. secondly, the who policy does not include commercially available blood - based tests ( interferon - gamma release assays ) for latent tb infection. it only applies to antibody - based ( serological ) tests for active tb. thirdly, the who policy does not call for a ban on the technology platforms used for antibody or antigen detection ( elisa or rapid immunochromatography ). they are excellent for many diseases, just not currently for tb. the failure of antibody - based approaches spurred interest in antigen - detection methods ( flores et al., 2011 ). while many candidate antigens have been evaluated, urine lipoarabinomannan ( lam ) detection assay was the first and, to date, the only antigen detection test to be commercialized, based on promising results from early studies ( boehme et al., 2005 ). unfortunately, subsequent research showed that the urine lam elisa assay had suboptimal accuracy for routine clinical use in unselect


test to be commercialized, based on promising results from early studies ( boehme et al., 2005 ). unfortunately, subsequent research showed that the urine lam elisa assay had suboptimal accuracy for routine clinical use in unselected patients ( minion et al., 2011 ; peter et al., 2010 ). two recent studies have evaluated the determine® tb - lam ( alere inc., waltham, ma, usa ), a low - cost, poc version of the urine lam test ( figure 5 ), in hiv - infected persons in south africa ( lawn et al., 2011 ; peter et al., 2011 ). consistent with previous studies, the overall sensitivity of determine® tb - lam was low in patients with culture - confirmed tb. however, these studies showed that a combination of poc lam test and sputum smears may offer value in screening for tb among severely immune - compromised hiv - infected patients ( e. g., cd4 counts < 50 ), a subgroup of high - risk patients for whom diagnostic delays can be fatal ( lawn et al., 2011 ; peter et al., 2011 ). further research is necessary to assess the clinical impact of using this poc lam test and its role in improving case management ( denkinger and pai, 2011 ). because the determine® tb - lam test may have value only in those with low cd4 counts, the test must be evaluated as part of an algorithm which includes, ideally, hiv and cd4 testing at the point - of - care. tb diagnostics : gaps and needs tests such as xpert mtb / rif and determine® tb - lam are not the ideal poc tests that are desperately needed for tb control. but they have shown us a glimpse of what the future holds, and give us hope that an ideal poc tb test may be within reach. clearly, if we want to replicate the successes achieved in hiv diagnostics, renewed efforts must be made to develop laboratory - free, poc tests for all forms of active tb, regardless of hiv status or cd4 counts. mathematical models suggest that such poc tests can have a huge impact on tb case detection rates as well as tb incidence ( abu - raddad et al., 2009 ; dowdy et al., 2008 ; keeler et al., 2006 ). the target product profile for such an ideal tb poc test has been recently published ( table 3 ) ( batz et al., 2011


al., 2009 ; dowdy et al., 2008 ; keeler et al., 2006 ). the target product profile for such an ideal tb poc test has been recently published ( table 3 ) ( batz et al., 2011 ). however, because of insufficient progress in biomarker research and because of lack of strong industry interest in tb, progress has been much slower than anticipated. in fact, efforts are being made to develop incentive prize models for successful poc tests for tb ( wilson and palriwala, 2011 ). incentive prizes are large cash rewards for achievement of specified objectives, and can be an approach to spur development of novel health technologies ( e. g., diagnostics ) for diseases of poverty and neglected diseases ( wilson and palriwala, 2011 ). while two prizes have been proposed for poc tb tests, neither has been successfully launched ( wilson and palriwala, 2011 ). while a simple, dipstick type of poc test for tb might not be ready in the near future, the landscape is looking more promising for a more decentralized, field - friendly, affordable molecular test, which can be used at the point - of - care to reduce diagnostic delays ( figure 6 ) ( niemz et al., 2011 ). these include hand - held or portable platforms, based on dna chips and / or disposable cartridges ( figure 7 ). many of the technologies under development are capable of detecting many different infectious diseases, and that makes them very attractive for scale - up. for example, a platform that can detect tb, drug - resistant tb, as well as hiv viral loads could be very helpful in a clinic setting. bridging the chasm between hiv and tb control while tb is an ancient disease, the hiv epidemic has been a problem for only 30 years. yet, a comparison of the hiv and tb diagnostics landscapes clearly suggests that research & development ( r & d ) in tb has greatly lagged behind hiv, and there may be several explanations for this big gap ( harrington, 2010 ). patients, providers, and activists have played a major role in pushing for innovations in hiv diagnosis and treatment and in lobbying for price reductions and generic products. funders, researchers, industry, and governments have responded to this pressure by supporting r & d efforts on all fronts ( drugs, diagnostics, and vaccines ). because the hiv epidemic historically began as a disease of the developed world, much of activism generated in the west helped translate the r & d into


to this pressure by supporting r & d efforts on all fronts ( drugs, diagnostics, and vaccines ). because the hiv epidemic historically began as a disease of the developed world, much of activism generated in the west helped translate the r & d into products that ultimately benefited the developing world. private pharmaceutical industry has played a big role in developing products in part because hiv is now a chronic disease that requires lifelong management and this ensures a large market. these factors partly explain the interest of pharma and biotech industries in enhancing and expanding on the ever growing hiv diagnostics and antiretroviral drugs portfolio. in contrast, advocacy for r & d in tb has been weak, and private industry and donor interest has been low ( harrington, 2010 ). the revised global plan to stop tb 2011 - 2015 estimates that at least us $ 9. 8 billion is needed in tb r & d over the next 5 years to reach the targets of 50 % reduction in tb prevalence and mortality by 2015 ( world health organization, 2010 ). but according to analyses by treatment action group ( tag ) and stop tb partnership ( stp ), tb research globally remains grossly underfunded — the total funding gap for the next five years ( 2011 - 2015 ) is estimated at us $ 6. 4 billion ( 64 % ). a 2011 funding analysis report by tag and stp showed significant funding declines in basic science research on tb, which dropped 27 % and 29 % to $ 126. 6 million and $ 78 million, respectively ( treatment action group & stop tb partnership, 2011 ). this is worrisome because progress in the area of poc test development will require major investments in biomarker and basic research. given the flat - lined funding trends and lack of strong industry interest in tb, the attention is now shifting to brazil, russia, india, china, and south africa ( brics ) and the leadership they can provide in the context of the global economic slowdown. there is a lot of excitement over the potential of brics in the development of affordable health - care technologies ( frew et al., 2008 ). this is especially true for diseases of poverty, such as tb, that may not be of great interest to rich countries or to industry, which do not see a market to justify investments ( engel et al., 2012 ). although these countries have a large tb burden, they also have the technical resources and intellectual capital to invest in solutions and are capable of addressing the funding gap by infusing more resources into r


justify investments ( engel et al., 2012 ). although these countries have a large tb burden, they also have the technical resources and intellectual capital to invest in solutions and are capable of addressing the funding gap by infusing more resources into r & d for diseases such as tb ( small and pai, 2010 ). countries like china and india have a strong and growing biotechnology industry, and these countries may support the next wave of innovations in drugs, vaccines, and diagnostics ( frew et al., 2008 ). there is also potential for philanthropic initiatives from high - net - worth individuals and companies in these growing economies. a recent conference in india highlighted its potential in taking the lead on tb diagnostics innovations ( engel et al., 2012 ; pai, 2011a ). the stop tb partnership and who have set 2015 as the deadline for developing a simple poc test for tb ( world health organization, 2011b ). clearly, this goal will not be met without the greater engagement of industry, funders, governments, and researchers. most importantly, the lessons from the response to the hiv epidemic must be used to step up the intensity of advocacy efforts to demand better tools for tb care and control, and to raise the level of ambition. the battle against tb cannot be won with century - old, antiquated tools. both authors are recipients of the cihr new investigator award from the canadian institutes of health research ( cihr ), and the canadian rising stars in global health award from grand challenges canada. the authors report no conflicts of interest. abu - raddad lj, sabatelli l, achterberg jt, sugimoto jd, longini im, jr, dye c, halloran me. epidemiological benefits of more - effective tuberculosis vaccines, drugs, and diagnostics. proc natl acad sci u s a 106 ( 33 ) : 13980 - 13985, 2009. batz h - g, cooke gs, reid sd. towards lab - free tuberculosis diagnosis. pp. 1 - 36. treatment action group, stop tb partnership, imperial college london, and medecins sans frontieres, new york, new york, usa, 2011. boehme c, molokova e, minja f, geis s, loscher t, maboko l, koulchin v, hoelscher m. detection of mycobacterial lipoarabinomannan with an antigen - capture elisa in unprocessed urine


24, 2012. estrin d, sim i. health care delivery. open mhealth architecture : an engine for health care innovation. science 330 ( 6005 ) : 759 - 760, 2010. flores l, steingart k, dendukuri n, schiller i, minion j, pai m, ramsay a, henry m, laal s. antigen detection tests for the diagnosis of tuberculosis : a systematic review and meta - analysis. clin vaccine immunol 18 ( 10 ) : 1616 - 1627, 2011. frew se, kettler he, singer pa. the indian and chinese health biotechnology industries : potential champions of global health? health aff ( millwood ) 27 ( 4 ) : 1029 - 1041, 2008. grenier j, pinto lm, nair d, steingart kr, dowdy dw, ramsay a, pai m. widespread use of serological tests for tuberculosis : data from 22 high - burden countries. eur resp j 39 ( 2 ) : 502 - 505, 2012. harrington m. from hiv to tuberculosis and back again : a tale of activism in 2 pandemics. clin infect dis 50 ( suppl 3 ) : s260 - s266, 2010. incidence assay critical path working group. more and better information to tackle hiv epidemics : towards improved hiv incidence assays. plos med 8 ( 6 ) : e1001045, 2011. keeler e, perkins md, small p, hanson c, reed s, cunningham j, aledort je, hillborne l, rafael me, girosi f, dye c. reducing the global burden of tuberculosis : the contribution of improved diagnostics. nature 444 ( suppl 1 ) : 49 - 57, 2006. lawn sd, churchyard g. epidemiology of hiv - associated tuberculosis. curr opin hiv aids 4 ( 4 ) : 325 - 333, 2009. lawn sd, kerkhoff ad, vogt m, wood r. screening for hiv - associated pulmonary tuberculosis prior to antiretroviral therapy : diagnostic accuracy of a low - cost, urine antigen, point - of - care assay ( determine tb - lam ag ) : a descriptive study. lancet infect dis, epub ahead of print, oct. 17, 2011. lemaire jf, casenghi m. new diagnostics for tuberculosis : fulfilling patient needs first. j int aids


) : a descriptive study. lancet infect dis, epub ahead of print, oct. 17, 2011. lemaire jf, casenghi m. new diagnostics for tuberculosis : fulfilling patient needs first. j int aids soc 13 : 40, 2010. minion j, leung e, talbot e, dheda k, pai m, menzies d. diagnosing tuberculosis with urine lipoarabinomannan : systematic review and meta - analysis. eur respir j 38 ( 6 ) : 1398 - 1405, 2011. murtagh m. unitaid technical report. hiv / aids diagnostic landscape. unitaid, geneva, switzerland, 2011. niemz a, ferguson tm, boyle ds. point - of - care nucleic acid testing for infectious diseases. trends biotechnol 29 ( 5 ) : 240 - 250, 2011. pai m. diagnosing tuberculosis : can india take the lead? in : plos medicine speaking of medicine. 2011a. http : / / blogs. plos. org / speakingofmedicine / 2011 / 09 / 28 / diagnosing - tuberculosis - can - india - take - the - lead /. ( accessed oct. 31, 2011. ) pai m. improving tb diagnosis : difference between knowing the path and walking the path. expert rev mol diagn 11 ( 3 ) : 241 - 244, 2011b. pai np, balram b, shivkumar s, martinez - cajas jl, claessens c, lambert g, peeling rw, joseph l. head - to - head comparison of accuracy of a rapid point - of - care hiv test with oral versus whole - blood specimens : a systematic review and meta - analysis. lancet infect dis, epub ahead of print, jan. 24, 2012. pai np, barick r, tulsky jp, shivkumar pv, cohan d, kalantri s, pai m, klein mb, chhabra s. impact of round - the - clock, rapid oral fluid hiv testing of women in labor in rural india. plos med 5 ( 5 ) : e92, 2008. pai np, klein mb. are we ready for home - based, self - testing for hiv? future hiv therapy 2 ( 6 ) : 515 - 520, 2008. pai np, klein mb. rapid testing at labor and delivery to prevent mother


np, klein mb. are we ready for home - based, self - testing for hiv? future hiv therapy 2 ( 6 ) : 515 - 520, 2008. pai np, klein mb. rapid testing at labor and delivery to prevent mother - to - child hiv transmission in developing settings : issues and challenges. womens health 5 ( 1 ) : 55 - 62, 2009. pai np, tulsky jp, cohan d, colford jm, jr, reingold al. rapid point - of - care hiv testing in pregnant women : a systematic review and meta - analysis. trop med int health 12 ( 2 ) : 162 - 173, 2007. pant pai n, joshi r, dogra s, taksande b, kalantri sp, pai m, narang p, tulsky jp, reingold al. evaluation of diagnostic accuracy, feasibility and client preference for rapid oral fluid - based diagnosis of hiv infection in rural india. plos one 2 ( 4 ) : e367, 2007. peeling rw, mabey d. point - of - care tests for diagnosing infections in the developing world. clin microbiol infect 16 ( 8 ) : 1062 - 1069, 2010. peter j, green c, hoelscher m, mwaba p, zumla a, dheda k. urine for the diagnosis of tuberculosis : current approaches, clinical applicability, and new developments. curr opin pulm med 16 ( 3 ) : 262 - 270, 2010. peter j, haripesad a, mottay l, kraus s, meldau r, dheda k. the clinical utility of urine lipoarabinomannan and the novel point - of - care lateral flow strip test ( determine® tb ) for the diagnosis of tuberculosis in hospitalised patients with hiv - related advanced immunosuppression. am j respir crit care med 183 : a5313, 2011. small pm, pai m. tuberculosis diagnosis – time for a game change. n engl j med 363 ( 11 ) : 1070 - 1071, 2010. steingart kr, flores ll, dendukuri n, schiller i, laal s, ramsay a, hopewell pc, pai m. commercial serological tests for the diagnosis of active pulmonary and extrapulmonary tuberculosis : an updated systematic review and meta - analysis. plos med 8 (


cardiovascular fitness and diving, diet and exercise go a long way but watch your medications, too by laurie gowen we all do when it comes to diving : it ’ s why we dive. our hearts are figuratively in our diving because we enjoy our sport. but our hearts are literally in it as well. your cardiovascular health can play a formidable part in the safety of any dive you make. so, how ’ s your own heart health? checking the numbers when dan dive researchers look at the injury and fatality cases in our database, they glean a great deal of varied information. one of the most important facts they offer is that high blood pressure and heart disease have consistently been the most frequently reported chronic health conditions contributing to dive fatalities in the 15 years dan has formally compiled fatality statistics. in the 2004 dan report on decompression illness, diving fatalities and project dive exploration, more than 14 percent of the fatalities reported had a chronic history of high blood pressure and / or heart disease. obesity, another factor reported in 55 percent of fatalities, is connected to heart disease and hypertension, with resulting links to poor health and poor exercise tolerance. in combination with other contributing factors, poor cardiovascular health can increase the risk of a severe or fatal dive incident. lowering the odds these issues can compromise your cardiovascular health : high blood pressure, coronary heart disease, congenital heart disease, cigarette smoking and a family history of heart disease. what, then, can help improve cardiovascular health? what medications for cardiovascular disease can influence someone ’ s ability to dive safely? stop smoking. cigarette smoking compromises heart and lung function, and nicotine can constrict blood vessels resulting in hypertension. exercise regularly. even a moderate increase in activity will improve physical fitness and increase exercise tolerance. this, in turn, will improve stamina and endurance while diving. eat sensibly. a diet low in saturated fats and cholesterol will naturally reduce the risk of obesity and heart disease. while a family history of heart disease cannot be changed, controlling diet and increasing exercise can reduce the risk of health - related accidents and injuries. in understanding the risks, divers can make choices that positively affect their diving. with increasing age and declining cardiovascular health, americans lead the way in using medications for help controlling high blood pressure and coronary disease, and other first - world nations see a similar trend. chronic hypertension is associated with damage to the heart, kidneys and an increased risk of stroke. antihypertensive medications, however, can help reduce the


pressure and coronary disease, and other first - world nations see a similar trend. chronic hypertension is associated with damage to the heart, kidneys and an increased risk of stroke. antihypertensive medications, however, can help reduce the risk of serious illness. a common question to the dan medical information line asks about the safety of diving while taking these medications. here are some of the more common medications and their possible adverse reactions for divers : commonly used to treat hypertension, beta blockers have a big drawback : they can reduce the heart ’ s capacity for exercise and therefore affect your exercise tolerance. in addition, if medication restricts the heart ’ s function during exercise, then there is an increased risk of loss of consciousness, which could prove fatal underwater. because of this effect on divers, doctors often recommend a stress test. according to dr. alfred bove ( bove and davis ’ diving medicine, 4th ed. ), divers who use beta blockers and who can achieve a strenuous level of exercise without severe fatigue may be cleared for diving. bove also mentions that although diving does not usually represent the maximum workload on the heart, divers taking beta blockers should avoid extreme exercise because their maximum capacity for exercise may be reduced. ace ( angiotension - converting enzyme ) inhibitors have less effect on exercise than beta blockers, so doctors prescribe them for people who exercise more often. although ace inhibitors seem to have fewer adverse effects on divers, they can produce a cough and airway swelling : both conditions can cause severe problems underwater. most people can usually tolerate a mild cough on land, but if a cough due to the drug persists, many physicians will change medications. in the presence of kidney disease, ace inhibitors should be avoided. calcium channel blockers calcium channel blockers don ’ t typically pose problems for divers : they relax the walls of blood vessels, reducing blood flow resistance and thus lowering blood pressure. in some cases, especially in moderate doses, a change in position from sitting or lying down to standing may cause excessively low blood pressure and a subsequent momentary dizziness. this postural blood pressure change may be a cause for concern with divers, but calcium blockers appear to have no other adverse reaction for diving. diuretics reduce the amount of excess water and salt in the body, thus lowering the blood pressure. divers seem to have very little trouble with diuretics, although in very warm environments, they may cause excessive water loss and dehydration. because dehydra


amount of excess water and salt in the body, thus lowering the blood pressure. divers seem to have very little trouble with diuretics, although in very warm environments, they may cause excessive water loss and dehydration. because dehydration seems to be a contributing factor to the risk of decompression sickness, divers may want to reduce the dosage on the day of diving. before changing dosages, however, check with your doctor. antiarrhythmics are designed to help maintain a stable heart rhythm. dr. bove warns that some of the antiarrhythmics, when combined with exercise and a loss of potassium, could increase the risk of injuring the heart. although these medicines normally do not interfere with diving, the dysrhythmia, or abnormal heart rate, for which the medication is being taken may be a contraindication to diving. through consultation, a cardiologist and a dive medicine physician should evaluate anyone who has an abnormal heart rate and requires medication. a diver who has been prescribed an anticoagulant, e. g., coumadin® or warfarin®, should be warned of the potential for bleeding : excessive bleeding can occur from even a seemingly benign ear or sinus barotrauma. there is a potential risk that, if decompression illness occurs, it may then cause significant bleeding in the brain or spinal cord get in the know cardiovascular disease can contribute to dive injuries as well as fatalities. both are preventable. with increased information about cardiovascular health and fitness, divers can make better choices and increase the opportunity that every dive will be accident - and injury - free. read all you can about your medications, consult with your doctor, and when you have questions about diving and drugs, call dan. ( c ) dan - alert diver november / december 2005


the fragile fauna of illinois caves by steven j. taylor and donald w. webb illinois has several hundred caves, many of them in nearly pristine condition. this unique and fragile environment is home to a diverse array of creatures, including organisms that are completely limited to the cave environment, species that may be found in similar habitats above ground, and the many animals that accidentally wander, fall, or are washed into caves. many cave animals are highly adapted for the unique and harsh living conditions they encounter underground. caves can be found in four distinct karst regions : in the mississippian limestone of the shawnee hills, in the salem plateau and in the lincoln hills, and in the ordovician limestone of the driftless area. these caves have been forming though the interaction of geology vegetation, and rainfall for the past 300 million years. shallow seas covered much of illinois during the mississippian period. when the seas receded, forests grew over the exposed sedimentary rocks ; and rainwater - which had become slightly acidic through interaction with carbon dioxide from both the atmosphere and the bacterial breakdown of organic material - then seeped into cracks and bedding planes. as the limestone dissolved, conduits formed. these conduits eventually developed the geologic features characteristic of karst terrain - caves, sinking streams, springs, and sinkholes. into the twilight zone caves can be divided into three ecological zones. the entrance zone is similar in light, temperature, and relative humidity to the surrounding surface habitat, and the creatures that live there resemble the animals that live in the moist shaded areas near the cave. hear we find the eastern phoebe ( sayornis phoebe ), a small gray bird whose nest is constructed on bare bedrock walls out of mosses and other debris. in the leaf litter, we find many animals of the forest floor : redbacked salamanders, harvestmen ( or daddy - longlegs ), snails, earthworms, millipedes, centipedes, beetles, ants, and springtails. cave entrances are often funnel shaped or have sheer vertical walls, and organisms and organic debris tend to concentrate at the bottom. the entrance zone also provides a highly protected environment for overwintering organisms. deeper inside the cave, in the twilight zone, there is much less light, and photosynthesizing plants are no longer able to grow. the temperature and relative humidity fluctuate here, but the environment is usually damp and cool. many animals from the entrance zone wander into the twilight zone, but most of these creatures must eventually return to the


and hydrological history of some areas may divide species into isolated populations, and these populations, over time, may evolve into distinct species. during glacial periods, caves, as serve as refugia for some aquatic, soil -, and litter - inhabiting animals. these species may become " stranded " in caves when glaciers retreat surface conditions are not suitable for recolonization. vulnerabitliy of cave environments human disturbance affects cave ecosystems just as it affects other ecosystems. as a result of changes we make on the surface, we unknowingly alter cave environments, destroying unique and valuable organisms before we even know of their existence. the public knows very little about caves and the organisms that inhabit them. small wonder then that the importance of protecting groundwater, caves, and cave life is not fully appreciated. it is not uncommon to find sinkholes filled with trash, serving as natural garbage cans for rural waste disposal. visitors sometimes permanently damage caves with graffiti, break stalactites and stalagmites, and carelessly the very adaptations that allow troglobites to survive in the harsh cave environment make these animals more vulnerable to changes made by humans. the reduced metabolic rates that allow these animals to survive in a nutrient - poor environment also make them less competitive when organic enrichment is introduced in the form of fertilizers, livestock and agricultural waste, and human sewage. in illinois, this effect is commonly seen in stream - inhibiting amphipods ( small shrimplike animals ) and isopods ( small crustaceans related to terrestrial pillbugs or sowbugs ). these groups contain troglobites that are highly adapted to cave environments ; they also contain more opportunistic troglophilic species, which have a competitive advantage in the presence of high levels or organic waste. amphipods and isopods feed on small particles of organic debris and on decomposers such as bacteria and fungi. because they ingest large quantities of this material, they are exposed to contamination from a variety of pollutants. in illinois, samples of these animals collected in 1992 were found to contain dieldrin and breakdown products of ddt. they were also found to contain moderate levels of mercury, although mercury was not detected in any water samples from the same sites. sedimentation also threatens aquatic species. topsoil run - off from rural development and agricultural fields enters caves readily when vegetative buffers around sinkholes are too small or nonexistent. this sediment fills the spaces in


the same sites. sedimentation also threatens aquatic species. topsoil run - off from rural development and agricultural fields enters caves readily when vegetative buffers around sinkholes are too small or nonexistent. this sediment fills the spaces in gravel streambeds, eliminating the microhabitats that allow many cavedwelling species to exist. as a result, cave streams with high sediment loads ten to contain few species. sometimes, humans can ' t easily see the value of these subterranean systems, especially when their own interests conflict with the health of cave communities. such a conflict is occurring now in our most biologically and hydrologically significant karst area, the salem plateau of monroe and st. clair counties. as part of the greater st. louis metropolitan area, the salem plateau is experiencing rapid population growth. scientists can estimate the level and types of threats that this growth brings to the biological integrity of the region, but it ' s much more difficult to develop protected areas, educational programs, and new regulatory mechanisms within the existing political, social, and geographic framework. illinois caves are a high priority for conservation because cave organisms face serious threats from agriculture and increasing urbanization. also, the unique and fragile cave and environment provides a home for organisms found nowhere else in the world. it is not usually possible to include the entire drainage basin of significant caves within nature preserves or other conservation easements. to manage a cave effectively, scientists must understand the hydrology of a cave ' s subterranean conduits. this knowledge is gained by doing extensive dye tracing studies and cave mapping. both of these activities are time - and labor - intensive. already, the drainage basins of some of our largest cave systems are being compromised by agriculture and rural housing projects. educating the public - particularly politicians, farmers, and children - about land use and the impact of human activities is key to the long - term health of cave communities. we must also enact appropriate regulations for rural residential development - especially wastewater treatment - and for agricultural activities in a karst landscape. for more information on cave conservation and management, contact the national speleological society, 2813 cave avenue, huntsville, al 35810 - 4431, or steven taylor or donald webb at the center for biology, illinois natural history survey, 607 east peabody drive, champaign, il 61820. steven j. taylor is an aquatic entomologist in the center for biodiversity at the illinois natural history survey in champaign. donald w. webb is an insect systematist, also at the


##7 east peabody drive, champaign, il 61820. steven j. taylor is an aquatic entomologist in the center for biodiversity at the illinois natural history survey in champaign. donald w. webb is an insect systematist, also at the center for biodiversity. a good neighbor policy in a few caves in monroe and st. clair counties, you can find a small shrimplike creature that exists nowhere else in the world. the illinois cave amphipod has made our corner of the world its home, but it may not be here long unless humans take steps to protect its environment. this unassuming cave creature has been proposed for listing as a federally endangered species. cave amphipods inhabit the bottoms of pools and riffles in large cave streams, where they creep among cobbles and under stones, feeding on decaying leaf litter and organic debris. food is scarce in this environment, and the amphipods have developed chemosensory structures that detect the odor of food sources, such as dead or injured animals. injured or dying amphipods are vulnerable to such predators as flatworms, cave salamanders, and even other amphipods. but the greatest threat these vulnerable creatures face is the deterioration of the environment. the illinois cave amphipod lives near the greater st. louis metropolitan area, a region that has been experiencing dramatic population growth for the past 10 years. continued urbanization without appropriate sewage treatment and disposal is especially threatening to the amphipods existence. other serious threats are siltation and the presence of agricultural chemicals in subterranean fortunately for the amphipod, the quality of life for people on the land above depends on water quality in streams below. because agricultural chemicals and bacteria associated with sewage have been found in well water, springs, and cave streams in this area, a concerted effort is being made to improve the water quality in this karst region. efforts to provide communities with safe drinking water could also provide a healthy cave environment and help ensure the further existence of our underground neighbor, the illinois


| uploaded : | | february 26, 2009 | | updated : | | july 13, 2010 | for my next tutorial i will be showing you how to draw a cartoon beaver step by step. i love animals, and the beaver just happens to be one of my favorite wildlife animals that exist. now even though the beaver is a favorite of mine, i am actually submitting this lesson because a member who requested a beaver as a tutorial. instead of doing a drawing on a real life looking beaver, i thought it would be fun to show you how to draw a cartoon version of this wood chopping animal. there is an age old question that is asked by many kids and adults. and that question was once asked by me as well. what is this mind boggling brain tease? well, did you ever wonder if beavers eat wood? i mean if you think about it, the beavers that i was used to seeing were on t. v. and these animated beavers cooked wood, ate wood, and even used wood to make these humongous dames that they are usually associated with. about two years ago i did a little research of my own to find out if any of these myths were true, and here is what i found out. first off beavers are cousins to rats, mice, porcupines, and squirrels which means that they are a part of the rodent family. they live in ponds, rivers, lakes, streams and even marshes and they spend most of there time in the water due to the fact that they have short legs and webbed feet. because of their body build, they cannot move well on solid ground making them vulnerable to land predators. do they really eat wood? the answer to that question is yes! beavers love eating bark and leaves with their favorite tree being the aspen. they have also been known to eat birch, alder, willow, and mountain maples. to answer your other question, yes they do build dams and lodges with the left over trees that they do not consume. anyways no matter how you look at it, the beaver is a wonderfully pleasant animal that is fun to draw and color. you will learn " how to draw a beaver ", step by step with easy to read instructions and simple to follow steps. i will be back in a while with more drawing fun so stay tuned and keep a look out for what comes out next. peace out!


| uploaded : | | november 30, 2007 | | updated : | | november 30, 2007 | i want to submit another lesson that is military related, but this time have it be on something from the navy. i have two lessons on two different military tanks, as well as a few tutorials that teach you to draw military weapons. for this tutorial i am going to teach you “ how to draw an aircraft carrier step by step. ” one thing i like to do is draw stuff that nobody else has just to stay original and creative. i know that you guys must know that by now anyway, but i just figured i would get that out on the table just to let you know why i choose to draw the things i do. well lets get on with this learning experience shall we? first off aircraft carries are humongous warships that stay idol on the open sea. the sole purpose for these ships is to enable aircrafts to deploy using a swift command. the planes will also come back to the aircraft carrier to land and park until it ' s next mission. i guess you could say that these warships are floating airbases much like an airport. now the reason why aircraft carriers stay so far out on the sea is because it makes striking and protecting enemy planes a whole lot easier because the reach is a lot more attainable opposed to being inland. the very first aircraft carrier was placed on march 20, 1922. the vessels name was the uss langley, and the ship was the navy ' s first flight carrier. by the time july rolled around of the same year, congress allowed all unfinished battleships to be transformed or converted, into aircraft carries. the two battleships that were converted was lexington and sarstoga. did you know that the first landing area for a plane on sea was made of wood? it ' s true, in the year of 1910, a polite named eugene ely flew his plane off a strip or platform made entirely out of wood. the wooden area was built aboard the uss birmingham over the bow of the ship. pretty cool huh? by the time the attack on pearl harbor came about, the u. s. had several aircraft carriers out at sea. when the bombing happened, three vessels were untouched due to the fact that the carriers were not in the area at the time of attack. the ships that were left standing was the uss saratoga, the uss lexington, and the popular uss enterprise. i did the best i could with this tutorial on " how to draw an aircraft carrier ". i couldn ' t find any


| news by industry | | coffee, tea, soft drink, water | | friday, july 20, 2012 | | 10 : 45 | sugary drinks ’ contribution to obesity, diabetes, heart disease warrants call to action from nation ’ s top doc, groups say washington - ( drinks media wire ) – nearly 100 national and local health, medical, and consumer organizations, several municipal public health departments, and more than 20 prominent individuals are calling on the surgeon general of the united states to issue a report on the health effects of soda and other sugary drinks. citing the importance of the 1964 landmark surgeon general ’ s report on tobacco use, the groups and individuals say a report on soda would appraise the health - damaging effects and alert health professionals, government officials, and consumers to the public - health impact of over - consuming sugary drinks. “ soda and other sugary drinks are the only food or beverage that has been directly linked to obesity, a major contributor to coronary heart disease, stroke, type 2 diabetes, and some cancers, and a cause of psychosocial problems, ” the groups wrote in a letter to secretary of health and human services kathleen sebelius. “ yet, each year, the average american drinks about 40 gallons of sugary drinks, all with little, if any, nutritional benefit. ” the groups say that soda and sugary drinks have a devastating effect on the health of young people in particular. each extra soft drink consumed per day was associated with a 60 - percent increased risk of overweight in children, according to one important study. type 2 diabetes, which used to occur primarily in middle - aged and older adults, is now becoming more common among teens. though soda consumption has declined somewhat in recent years, consumption is still dangerously high, according to the letter. even almost half of two - and three - year - olds consume sugary drinks every day, according to the group. “ previous reports and calls to action from the surgeon general, on topics as varied as tobacco, underage drinking, and obesity, have helped galvanize policymakers at all levels of government, ” said center for science in the public interest executive director michael f. jacobson. “ unlike just about any other product in the food supply, sugar - based drinks are directly connected to obesity and diet - related disease. reducing their consumption should be one of the main pillars of the government ’ s prevention strategy. ” the call for a surgeon general ’ s report on soda and sugary drinks was organized by the cspi,


eight new grants administered by nida aim to channel students ' natural fascination with their behavior and their brains into appreciation and enthusiasm for neuroscience. grantees are developing k - 12 education programs that will engage young people in learning about the brain, inspire some to pursue careers in biomedical science, and increase teacher knowledge of neuroscience. the 5 - year grants are funded by the nih blueprint for neuroscience research science education, a cooperative effort among the 16 nih institutes, centers, and offices that support neuroscience research and the science education partnership award program of the division of program coordination, planning, and strategic initiatives, office of the director, national institutes of health. dr. susanna cunningham of the university of washington, seattle, will develop two programs in the neuroscience of learning and cognition for middle school science teachers, students, parents, and community groups. teachers will have the opportunity to increase their knowledge by participating in a summer institute and online professional learning community. an online project for students will be designed to broaden their knowledge of the brain and learning processes, scientific research processes, and neuroscience careers. dr. eric chudler heads a university of washington project that will teach middle school students how chemicals in plants and herbs influence health and behavior. a supplementary educational resource kit will supply teachers with inquiry - based, hands - on science activities. students may attend a summer camp to learn more about neuroscience, mental health, neurological fitness, and careers in the biomedical sciences. dr. michael kavanaugh of the university of montana, missoula, will collaborate with the exploratorium in san francisco to create the brainzone, a neuroscience learning center. designed for k - 12 students and adults, the brainzone will feature four exhibits, a computer learning laboratory to teach neuroscience lessons, and a working laboratory with research - grade electroencephalogram ( eeg ) instrumentation and materials for the study of fruit fly neurobiology. the brainzone will open in a high - profile retail mall that tallies 7 million annual visits and will also travel to isolated, underserved, rural, and tribal schools throughout the state. dr. dina markowitz of the university of rochester in new york will develop, field test, disseminate, and evaluate hands - on activities that focus on key concepts of neuroscience for high school biology students. the activities, designed so that teachers can easily integrate them into existing curricula, will also educate students about the ways in which neuroscience research directly applies to their lives as well as about careers that require neuroscience knowledge. this project will also recruit, train


the activities, designed so that teachers can easily integrate them into existing curricula, will also educate students about the ways in which neuroscience research directly applies to their lives as well as about careers that require neuroscience knowledge. this project will also recruit, train, and support a network of teacher - presenters who will lead professional development workshops for their peers throughout new york and the united states. dr. leslie miller of william marsh rice university in houston will develop a game - based web site to help high school students understand the role of clinical trials in the research process. players will assume various professional roles in clinical trial simulations, learning about scientific discovery and the testing and adoption of new treatments based on neuroscience research. dr. nancy moreno of baylor college of medicine in houston leads a group that will develop, evaluate, and disseminate an inquiry - based science and health curriculum to enhance students ' neuroscience knowledge and understanding in grades k - 5. teachers will be able to implement the curriculum, which will include elements of reading and language arts, in school or informal learning settings. major educational web sites — including bioed online ( www. bioedonline. org ) and k8 science ( www. k8science. org — will offer the curriculum, student activities and materials, and resources for teachers. dr. steven snyder of the franklin institute in philadelphia will collaborate with the university of pennsylvania to engage k - 12 students and teachers in learning about the importance of neuroscience in their world through the development of programs at the institute, a high school course, and a digital toolkit of educational materials for k - 12. the programs will help students understand how the brain interacts with the rest of the body to shape responses to the environment. the activities will emphasize personal aspects of health and behavior. dr. louisa stark of the university of utah in salt lake city will develop inquiry - based, multimedia educational applications for touch - interface devices to teach students the neurophysiology of the five senses. the applications will demonstrate how research can lead to improved treatments for sensory impairments. local, state, regional, and national workshops will prepare middle school and high school teachers to use the applications, which will be disseminated without charge via the internet.


doctors urge parents to lower volume controls on holiday electronics monday dec. 21, 2009 - - if you ' re giving your teenager an ipod or other music player this holiday season, consider a bonus present to help their hearing : preset the top volume level to one - half or two - thirds of the actual maximum. that ' s the advice from specialists at vanderbilt university medical center. they warn that sound over 85 decibels - - well short of the volume limit some music players carry - - can cause hearing loss. people are also at risk when they listen to music for too long. " as parents, we can ' t hear how loud their music is when they have the earbuds in, so this is an important step, " dr. ron eavey, chair of the medical center ' s department of otolaryngology, said in a vanderbilt news release. " i can tell you that if you hear the music coming from their headphones, it is too loud, but an easier way to know for sure is to preset the device. this will still allow them to listen to and enjoy their music but will safeguard against ear - damaging volume levels. " many music players can be programmed to not allow their volume to go beyond a specified level. anne marie tharpe, professor and chair of hearing and speech sciences at vanderbilt, said in the same release that hearing loss isn ' t always obvious, especially in kids. " the symptoms can initially be subtle and include difficulty hearing when there is background noise. such losses can result in significant challenges for children in classroom settings. " learn more about hearing loss from medlineplus. posted : december 2009


april 30, 2009 dear child care provider, as the number of cases of h1n1 ( swine flu ) virus continues to increase across the country, we wanted to make sure you had important information as a child care provider about steps you might consider taking to help keep the children in your care healthy. if a child at your facility becomes ill with flu - like symptoms, please send that child home immediately and disinfect your child care environment thoroughly. the child should be tested by their local physician to determine if they have the h1n1 virus. the child should not return to the facility until they are cleared by the doctor. dismissal of students should be strongly considered in schools with a confirmed or a suspected case linked to a confirmed case by disease investigation ( epidemiology ). this determination should be made in conjunction with your regional office of pubic health medical director. if other facilities, such as schools, close because of a confirmed case of h1n1 virus you should resist taking these children into your center temporarily. accepting these children into your center only negates the reason of why the facility closed in the first place - to keep the virus from spreading to others. in addition, if parents of children at the facility travel to mexico, they should isolate themselves upon return and is up to the child care center if they will let the child return. below are additional steps provided by the centers for disease control that you should consider taking at your facility to help prevent the spread of disease, as well as share with parents. remind children and care providers to wash their hands or use alcohol - based hand cleaners, and make sure that supplies are available to prevent the spread of germs. - encourage care providers and children to use soap and water to wash hands when hands are visibly soiled, or an alcohol - based hand cleaner when soap and water are not available and hands are not visibly soiled. - encourage care providers to wash their hands to the extent possible between contacts with infants and children, such as before meals or feedings, after wiping the child ' s nose or mouth, after touching objects such as tissues or surfaces soiled with saliva or nose drainage, after diaper changes, and after assisting a child with toileting. - encourage care providers to wash the hands of infants and toddlers when the hands become soiled. - encourage children to wash hands when their hands have become soiled. teach children to wash hands for 15 - 20 seconds ( long enough for children to sing the " happy birthday " song twice


of infants and toddlers when the hands become soiled. - encourage children to wash hands when their hands have become soiled. teach children to wash hands for 15 - 20 seconds ( long enough for children to sing the " happy birthday " song twice ). - oversee the use of alcohol - based hand cleaner by children and avoid using these on the sensitive skin of infants and toddlers. - rub hands thoroughly until the alcohol has dried, when using alcohol - based hand cleaner. - keep alcohol - based hand cleaner out of the reach of children to prevent unsupervised use. - ensure that sink locations and restrooms are stocked with soap, paper towels or working hand dryers. - ensure that each child care room and diaper changing area is supplied with alcohol - based hand cleaner when sinks for washing hands are not readily accessible. alcohol - based hand cleaner is not recommended when hands are visibly soiled. keep the child care environment clean and make sure that supplies are available. - clean frequently touched surfaces, toys, and commonly shared items at least daily and when visibly soiled. - use an environmental protection agency ( epa ) - registered household disinfectant labeled for activity against bacteria and viruses, an epa - registered hospital disinfectant, or epa - registered chlorine bleach / hypochlorite solution. always follow label instructions when using any epa - registered disinfectant. if epa - registered chlorine bleach is not available and a generic ( i. e., store brand ) chlorine bleach is used, mix ¼ cup chlorine bleach with 1 gallon of cool water. - keep disinfectants out of the reach of children. remind children and care providers to cover their noses and mouths when sneezing or coughing. - advise children and care providers to cover their noses and mouths with a tissue when sneezing or coughing, and to put their used tissue in a waste basket. - make sure that tissues are available in all nurseries, child care rooms, and common areas such as reading rooms, classrooms, and rooms where meals are provided. - encourage care providers and children to wash their hands or use an alcohol - based hand rub as soon as possible, if they have sneezed or coughed on their hands. in addition, cdc recommends that if a child, parent or care provider becomes ill and experiences any of the following warning signs, emergency medical care should be sought. in children emergency warning signs that need urgent medical attention include :


the chart said the patientis problem today was a painful spider bite. it seemed a little unlikely to me, because i donit see too many of the creepy critters in mid - january, but i agreed to take a look. what i found was a big angry red bump on the patientis lower back. it was about the size of a half - dollar and very tender. right in the center was a pustule ( the medical term for a zit ). a brief discussion with the patient revealed this had happened to his spouse a couple of weeks before. was it a spider infestation? not quite. this is the one of the commonest presentations of a different kind of critter e a microscopic one e known as community - acquired mrsa. mrsa stands for methicillin resistant staph aureus. this antibiotic - resistant bug first appeared years ago in hospitals. itis still there. unfortunately, the bug has become so common that it made the jump to the community setting. mrsa has also become so common that it is now one of the leading causes of skin and soft - tissue infections. as with its cousin, staph aureus, once exposed, a person can carry this bacteria on the skin without knowing it. however, mrsa is a bit more potent and can take advantage of minor skin injury to enter the soft tissue and cause deeper infection. sometimes, mrsa starts as a pimple and may resolve without treatment. other times it may begin as, or evolve, to become a deeper infection under the skin. the resulting red, painful, hard bump is frequently mistaken for a spider bite. left unattended, the infection may abscess, forming a pocket of pus ( also known as a boil ). sometimes, pus will spontaneously drain. not uncommonly, it becomes necessary for the doctor to drain the abscess using a scalpel blade ( after injecting a local anaesthetic to numb it ). the earlier mrsa skin and tissue infections are diagnosed, the better. i have seen abscesses become quite large and deep. these are more difficult to treat and take longer to heal. even though mrsa is resistant to some antibiotics, thankfully, mrsa infections can still be treated with other types of antibiotics when needed. for small abscesses, sometimes scalpel drainage is all that is needed. people with weakened immune systems may be more susceptible to recurrent mrsa infection. this includes people on immune suppressing drugs,


there are many types of biomass — organic matter such as plants, residue from agriculture and forestry, and the organic component of municipal and industrial wastes — that can now be used to produce fuels, chemicals, and power. wood has been used to provide heat for thousands of years. this flexibility has resulted in increased use of biomass technologies. according to the energy information administration, 53 % of all renewable energy consumed in the united states was biomass - based in biomass technologies break down organic matter to release stored energy from the sun. biofuels are liquid or gaseous fuels produced from biomass. most biofuels are used for transportation, but some are used as fuels to produce electricity. the expanded use of biofuels offers an array of benefits for our energy security, economic growth, and environment. current biofuels research focuses on new forms of biofuels such as ethanol and biodiesel, and on biofuels conversion processes. ethanol — an alcohol — is made primarily from the starch in corn grain. it is most commonly used as an additive to petroleum - based fuels to reduce toxic air emissions and increase octane. today, roughly half of the gasoline sold in the united states includes 5 % - 10 % ethanol. biodiesel use is relatively small, but its benefits to air quality are biodiesel is produced through a process that combines organically - derived oils with alcohol ( ethanol or methanol ) in the presence of a catalyst to form ethyl or methyl ester. the biomass - derived ethyl or methyl esters can be blended with conventional diesel fuel or used as a neat fuel ( 100 % biodiesel ). biomass resources include any plant - derived organic matter that is available on a renewable basis. these materials are commonly referred to biomass feedstocks include dedicated energy crops, agricultural crops, forestry residues, aquatic crops, biomass processing residues, municipal waste, and animal waste. dedicated energy crops herbaceous energy crops are perennials that are harvested annually after taking 2 to 3 years to reach full productivity. these include such grasses as switchgrass, miscanthus ( also known as elephant grass or e - grass ), bamboo, sweet sorghum, tall fescue, kochia, wheatgrass, and others. short - rotation woody crops are fast - growing hardwood trees that are harvested within 5 to 8 years of planting. these include hybrid poplar, hybrid willow, silver maple, eastern cottonwood, green ash, black walnut, sweetgum, and sycamore. agricultural crops include currently available commodity products