darkness is our natural state. during the 200, 000 years of human existence our species has only known electric light for. 06 % of that time. yes there were candles and torches, but the thought of just flipping a switch to turn on all the lights in a room was inconceivable. today we recognize the shapes of cities based on the lights they shine at our satellites. here in europe electricity is like oxygen. it is everywhere. we would never even consider paying for electricity at an airport or cafe to charge the batteries of our computers and mobile phones. but what is essential to remember is that this year, 2009, exactly 130 years after the invention of the electric light bulb, the technology still hasn ’ t spread to all corners of the globe. these students are studying under lamps at their city ’ s airport because it is the only place with stable electricity. major african cities like monrovia in liberia, are powered completely by generators. the centralization of electricity thomas edison ’ s electric light bulb was really an ingenious invention, but from a business point of view it had a problem. you couldn ’ t use it without electricity. and so, to sell his electric lamps edison realized that he would need to distribute electricity to the homes, offices, and warehouses that wanted electric light. pearl street station was edison ’ s first power generating station. to the right you can see the small neighborhood in manhattan that it was able to provide electricity to. edison came up with direct current to transmit electricity from power stations to nearby businesses and homes. the problem with direct current is that it is a very inefficient way of transmitting electricity over long distances. the direct current model would require a power station in every neighborhood. still, edison thought he came up with a master plan to provide electricity and electric light to the whole world. after all, who could challenge america ’ s greatest inventor? nikola tesla is one of europe ’ s and one of science ’ s most intriguing characters. a serbian, tesla was born in the tiny village of smiljan, which today still has a population of less than 500 and is now part of croatia. ( as danica radovanovic recently reminded me on facebook, tesla was one of many brilliant serbian scientists to leave his country for elsewhere. ) tesla questioned edison ’ s use of direct current to transmit electricity and instead proposed alternating current, which is far more efficient as it travels over long distances. what followed was the war of currents : tesla and edison went head to head. europe ’ s


) tesla questioned edison ’ s use of direct current to transmit electricity and instead proposed alternating current, which is far more efficient as it travels over long distances. what followed was the war of currents : tesla and edison went head to head. europe ’ s greatest inventor of the time versus america ’ s greatest inventor of the time. and who lost? this poor elephant named topsy. tesla ’ s system of alternating current raises the voltage to a very high level as it travels across distances. edison electrocuted topsy as a scare tactic to show the public what would happen if they touched a high voltage cable. but what sealed the deal was the niagara falls hydroelectric power project, the biggest power generator of the time. in 1883, the niagara falls power company hired nikola tesla and his business partner george westinghouse to design a system to generate alternating current and transmit it throughout new york. had alternating current not won, then projects like china ’ s three gorges dam, which will generate ten times as much electricity as niagara falls, would never exist. alternating current led to the centralization of electricity. one of edison ’ s arguments against alternating current is that a few major power generators are much more vulnerable than many spread all around the world. that remains true today, but the economics of centralized energy production and the allure of cheap energy won out in the end. the centralization of computing i wanted to briefly go over the history of electrification because its development so closely parallels what we are seeing today in the computing industry. this is not my own observation : it was first made in a book by nicholas carr called the big switch and the analogy is now commonly used by many when they explain the concept of cloud computing. phase 1 : mainframe computing this is the computer that the internal revenue service used to process tax returns in the 1960 ’ s. mainframe computers at the time typically cost between $ 500, 000 – $ 1 million. they were only available to programmers and researchers who had to wait hours if not days to use them because there was so much computing to be done and so few computers to do it. phase 2 : personal computing the second phase of computing began in 1977 with the apple ii computer, which brought computing into the home and personal office for the first time. data was stored on audio cassette tapes. the first apple ii cost $ 1, 300 with 4k of ram and $ 2, 600 with 48k of ram. today you can buy a gigabyte of ram for $ 30 and a terabyte hard drive for $ 70


tapes. the first apple ii cost $ 1, 300 with 4k of ram and $ 2, 600 with 48k of ram. today you can buy a gigabyte of ram for $ 30 and a terabyte hard drive for $ 70. it had a one megahertz processor and the above ad from a 1977 issue of scientific america touted its high resolution graphics ; by which it meant a 280 by 192 pixels display with four colors : black, white, violet, and green. this is gary. from the tags on the flickr picture i assume he works in the it department of some startup company. in many ways gary ’ s position exemplifies the era of personal computing. gary is in charge of maintaining a network of computers for just one company. he goes around to each computer and upgrades new versions of software. he creates new email accounts for new employees. he answers questions as they come up. and he backs up all the data to make sure it isn ’ t lost in case of a hard drive failure. ( increasingly gary is able to nap while online services do that work for him. ) most of us still operate in the era of personal computing. we create content on our laptop and desktop computers. we store our information on our individual hard drives. and when we share documents it is usually with email. phase 3 : cloud computing the greatest evidence that we are entering the third chapter of computing is that laptop computers are becoming less powerful, not more. this is because today you don ’ t need a powerful computer ; all you need is an internet connection. google is even creating a free and open source operating system specifically targeted for cheap netbooks like the one above. in fact, increasingly we are leaving our laptops at home because smart phones are proving sufficient for most of our daily tasks. this week the big talk of town is a rumored apple tablet, which might be announced tomorrow, though much more likely sometime during the first half of 2010. there have, in fact, been rumors of an apple tablet computer for years, but only now does it make sense to release such a powerful product with so few features. a tablet pc does little except connect to the internet. but today all you need is a keyboard, screen, camera, and microphone to connect to the cloud. word processing, image editing, spreadsheets, video editing, audio recording : all the applications are available online. so, what do we mean when we say “ the cloud ”? in many ways i think that the term is an un


cloud. word processing, image editing, spreadsheets, video editing, audio recording : all the applications are available online. so, what do we mean when we say “ the cloud ”? in many ways i think that the term is an unhelpful abstraction which masks the actual shift in infrastructure that is taking place. increasingly computing and data storage are not taking place on our own computers, but rather at massive data centers like this one : the data center in the above video has about 40, 000 computers. here is just one : machines like this process and store our emails, the photos we publish online, our blog posts, the videos we upload to youtube, and even the voicemails we listen to from our mobile phones. datacentermap. org has a map - based directory of major data centers based around the world. when we speak of “ the cloud ” what we ’ re really referring to are these massive data centers, the thousands of computers they contain, and the countless software applications they make available to us through our browsers. and this visualization from new scientist shows us how those applications interact with our laptops, cell phones, and tablets from the massive data centers that make up the cloud. 2009 is the 40th anniversary of the internet, the 20th anniversary of the world wide web, and the 5th anniversary of what we call web 2. 0. the change is accelerating. just look at these maps of internet users from 2002, 2004, 2006, and 2008. ( teddy points out that african internet users aren ’ t included on any of the maps. ) last year, for the first time ever, the united states was not the nation with the largest number of internet users. that now belongs to china. and, unless something drastic happens, china will continue to have the largest online presence for the rest of our lives. internet world statistics estimates that there are over 1. 5 billion internet users. last year google announced that it had indexed its trillionth web page. researchers at microsoft estimate that “ if you spent just one minute reading every website in existence, you ’ d be kept busy for 31, 000 years. without any sleep. ” ( “ that explains a lot, ” says georgia. ) some researchers estimate that global internet usage already makes up five percent of the world ’ s energy consumption. though this video has stirred up lots of debate about the statistics it cites ( check out the 130 + comments on the post ), its basic premise – that the internet has had a tremendous impact on human society


percent of the world ’ s energy consumption. though this video has stirred up lots of debate about the statistics it cites ( check out the 130 + comments on the post ), its basic premise – that the internet has had a tremendous impact on human society – cannot be denied. the centralization of intelligence we have gone over the history of electrification and computing. i ’ d like to conclude with a brief history of collective intelligence. in the 17th century thomas hobbes was a controversial figure in part because he believed that intelligence came not from an all powerful god, but from each individual ; and that if we could somehow bring each individual ’ s intelligence together to create a collective intelligence then we could shape society for the better. in 1938, hg wells published world brain, a collection of essays on the future organization of knowledge and education. two years earlier the american library association had endorsed microfilm as a way to archive and store books, newspapers, manuscripts, and periodicals. wells, inspired by advances in microfilm, imagined “ a mental clearing house for the mind, a depot where knowledge and ideas are received, sorted, summarized, digested, clarified and compared. ” even before wells published world brain, belgian author and peace activist paul otlet was already envisioning his own pre - cursor to google books : so how has collective intelligence changed in the era of cloud computing? what do we mean when we say “ cloud intelligence? ” for one thing, our relationship with software has become much more symbiotic. we depend on cloud software to make sense of the information around us ; and cloud software depends on us to help it make sense of the ever - increasing amount of information we upload to the internet. take google flu trends, for instance, which can detect flu outbreaks faster than the center for disease control by monitoring searches for symptoms. another example of cloud intelligence is recaptcha which has enlisted an army of millions of unknowing volunteers to help digitize books and the complete archive of the new york times : ( if you want to leave a comment on this post you ’ re forced to join von ahn ‘ s mission. ) another example of cloud intelligence is found in the active astrometry group on flickr. there are over 1, 000 amateur astronomers in the group that help scientists keep an eye on the galaxies around us by regularly posting the photos they take from their telescopes. when members of the group publish a photograph of the nighttime sky an automated computer application scans their photos for recognizable stars, planets,


in the group that help scientists keep an eye on the galaxies around us by regularly posting the photos they take from their telescopes. when members of the group publish a photograph of the nighttime sky an automated computer application scans their photos for recognizable stars, planets, and nebulae and labels them using flickr ’ s notes function. each photographer gains more information about the photograph that he or she took and astrometry. net gets a new image of the nighttime sky to add to its ever - growing database. in an interview on the flickr developer blog, project leader christopher stumm says that astrometry. net is currently “ using images from around the web to calculate the path comet holmes took through the sky. ” chris messina from san francisco brings us another example of cloud intelligence from a recent shopping trip to officemax where he and his girlfriend were hoping to buy some dry erase boards for their home office. the shopping trip wasn ’ t a success. most of the boards were poor quality and when they did eventually find a product that suited their needs, it was damaged. rather than moving on to the next office supply store chris pulled out his iphone and took a picture with the amazon iphone application of the dry erase board they wanted to buy. the picture is then uploaded to one of amazon ’ s massive data centers where it is posted on mechanical turk, a website that lists “ human intelligence tasks ” that pay anywhere from one penny to five dollars. jeff, for example, will pay you one penny for every sermon time you find listed on a church website. amazon is also willing to pay one penny to anyone who will look at the photo chris uploaded from his iphone application and identify that same product on the amazon website. chris will never know who did the work for him, but within minutes he received a message from amazon with a link to the product he was looking for. i would imagine that just about every tourist who has been to london has taken a picture of big ben. it must be the most photographed clock tower in the world. ten years ago we put those photographs in a photo album to share with our family and friends. more recently we ’ ve become accustomed to sharing them on picasa, flickr, or twitter. but now the tourist snapshots we take are helping create a 3d model of the world : if the cloud is the world brain, then the cameras and microphones on our mobile phones and laptops are its eyes and ears. how many times have you been to a cafe or bar and heard a song that you liked but didn ’ t


: if the cloud is the world brain, then the cameras and microphones on our mobile phones and laptops are its eyes and ears. how many times have you been to a cafe or bar and heard a song that you liked but didn ’ t recognize? today if you help the cloud listen, it will provide you with the information. shazam identifies the song you are listening by sharing a small audio sample with your mobile phone. in turn shazam is able to track the most popular songs as they come out. google ’ s crowdsourced traffic application also highlights the symbiotic relationship between human intelligence and cloud intelligence. when you start the application google will show you traffic conditions on many of the streets around you. in turn, you agree to let google track your speed as you travel ; thus updating their maps with more real - time traffic data. just five years ago it would have cost at least hundreds of thousands of dollars to produce a video with actors on location based all around the world. also, until very recently there was only one man in the world who could attract millions of views when dancing the moonwalk. today we all can. all we have to do is upload a video to eternal moonwalk. the cloud is enabling a new possibilities of creative collaboration. what is the future of collective intelligence? all that we can be sure of is that all intelligence is always collective ; whether it is the collective intelligence of the nucleotides that make up our dna or the billions of neurons in our brain as they produce the thoughts in our heads right now. above is a visualization of the internet made by the opte project. it is a map of us – the internet would not exist were it not for us, and we would each be very different without the internet. just as each individual neuron in our brain is unaware that collectively it is part of a larger self, it is too easy for each of us to forget that, as internet users, we too form parts of a collective whole. and that collective whole is much greater – and different – than the sum of its parts. in many ways the cloud is leading to the centralization of power as it lures us into trusting just a few major corporations with our personal information. on the other hand it creates an architecture of participation that is enabling a larger percentage of the world population to become active citizens rather than just passive consumers. this podium i am speaking at right now was once the sole symbol of power in the room. today a cloud of conversation floats all


19. report and recommendations to the president of the united states. presidential commission on indian reservation economics, november 1984. 20. shannon, ruby w. " friends " for the indians. anadarko, ok : riverside indian school, 1971. 21. wall, c. leon, and beulah widney wall. tomahawks over chilocco. oklahoma city, ok : kin lichee press, 1979. 22. native american arts, pamphlets. 23. circle of voices. wahpeton, nd : circle of nations school, 2000. 24. pamphlet, on the colorado commission of indian affairs, 1983. 25. pepper, floy. oregon indian treaties and the law. celileo falls, or : oregon law - related education program, october 31, 1903. 26. english for american indians. a newsletter of the office of education programs, bureau of indian affairs, united states department of the interior. university of utah, fall 1970. 27. hodgkinson, harold l, and janice hamilton outtz, anita m. obarakpor. the demographics of american indians : one percent of the people ; fifty percent of the diversity. november 1990. 28. pamphlet, we, the first americans, u. s. department of commerce, bureau of the census.


i read a very interesting piece in today ’ s philadelphia inquirer about the history of violence in america : violence vanquished. here ’ s just one part of it : an even more intractable debate accompanied the rise and fall of lynching, one of the most gruesome forms of violence ever to take root in the united states. today, we tend to remember lynching as a clandestine crime – a young black man pulled from his bed in the dark of night and brutalized or hanged in the southern woods. for most of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, though, it was a community phenomenon of almost unthinkable cruelty, in which hundreds if not thousands of people gathered to watch a victim being disemboweled, castrated, tortured, or burned, and then killed. to modern sensibilities, the injustice once again seems obvious, as do the solutions : prosecute lynchers, fight for racial justice, strengthen the rule of law, and mobilize public opinion to condemn rather than excuse outbursts of brutality. and yet it took more than 100 years for lynching to begin to disappear from american life, and even longer for americans to fully acknowledge its horror. in the meantime, thousands of influential people, including many esteemed lawmakers, argued that lynching was a fact of life, a random act of violence about which nothing could be done. it was not until 2005 that the u. s. senate, spearheaded by mary landrieu, apologized for failing to pass federal antilynching legislation, leaving hundreds of innocent people to be sacrificed to official inaction. maybe there is hope. eventually.


free for educational use world wide web year of production - 2005 duration - 2min 10sec tags - internet, world wide web, design, emerging technologies, innovation, technology, technology and society, web protocols, web standards, see all tags on this page how to download the video clip about the video cliptop this interview with stephen mayne was recorded for the website from wireless to web, produced in 2005. stephen mayne is the founder and editor of independent news service crikey. com. you can view his full biography at from wireless to web the website is a selective history of broadcast media in australia. decade by decade, from radio and newsreels to tv and the internet, this history shows how the australian broadcast media developed and shaped the way australians see themselves. from wireless to web is a film australia production in association with roar film. this module can be used to achieve some of outcomes of the nsw information processes and technology stage 6 syllabus ; specifically the following outcomes : p4. 1 : describes the historical development of information systems and relates these to current and emerging technologies. h3. 1 : evaluates the effect of information systems on the individual, society and the environment. h4. 1 : proposes ways in which information systems will meet emerging needs. the advent of the world wide web radically changed the online experience. at last information could be interpreted and displayed in a standardised form across the vast ' web ’ of different computer networks. cyberspace was transformed, appearing as a seamless global information system, enabling users anywhere to search, browse and interact. now the internet and web are redefining the nature of human communication, and challenging traditional limits to human relationships and communities. world wide web “ what we are building now is the nervous system of mankind, which will link together the whole human race, for better or for worse, in a unity which no earlier age could have imagined. ” ( arthur c clarke, science fiction writer, voices from the sky, 1965 ) the internet is a communications system formed by the interconnecting networks of computers around the world. but before the advent of the world wide web in 1992, only computer scientists with programming skills could make use of the net. the world wide web – also known as ' www ’, ' web ’ or ' w3 ’ – is the virtual world of network - accessible information available to computers. the web consists of a vast number of ' pages ’, and links. web pages can include text, graphics and images, videos and sound.


web ’ or ' w3 ’ – is the virtual world of network - accessible information available to computers. the web consists of a vast number of ' pages ’, and links. web pages can include text, graphics and images, videos and sound. in november 2004 google claimed to cover 8, 058, 044, 651 web pages. ( wikipedia ' size comparisons ’ ) the web uses a special language and set of rules to create ' web pages ’ – primarily hyper text markup language ( html ) and the hyper text transfer protocol ( http ). ' browsers ’ – software for searching and viewing information on the web – interpret and display information coded in html across the vast ' web ’ of different computer networks and systems. this creates an environment that, for users, appears like a seamless global information system, where people may search, browse and interact. the world wide web was ' invented ’ in 1989 by british - born tim berners - lee when he wrote the first ' web browser ’ – software to interpret and display html ( hyper text mark - up language ) – thereby making the coded material on a multitude of different computers and operating systems uniformly readable in plain english. berners - lee was working at cern, the european particle physics laboratory based in switzerland at the time. as the international physics community used a diverse range of information systems and computer networks, berners - lee wanted to create an efficient way for the different networks to interconnect, share information and communicate with each other. two years later, in 1992, cern released the world wide web. - discuss and research the meanings of the following terms : urls, http, xml / rdf, smil, soap, web accessibility and web applications. - explain the difference between hypertext and hyperlinks. - the world wide web consortium ( w3c ) is the international organisation founded by tim berners - lee that works on developing protocols and guidelines that ensure long - term growth for the web. since 1994, w3c has produced more than ninety web standards, called w3c recommendations that contribute to web interoperability. develop a biography about tim berners - lee for a newspaper feature article. - web applications and dynamic web sites were major developments in the types of interactions that can occur on the web. one simple example is the use of ‘ cookies ’ to remember details about users so that on return to a specific site it is tailored to the needs of that user. the ability to search within websites is another example.


| oracle® database concepts 11g release 2 ( 11. 2 ) | pdf · mobi · epub | this chapter contains the following sections : a process is a mechanism in an operating system that can run a series of steps. the mechanism depends on the operating system. for example, on linux an oracle background process is a linux process. on windows, an oracle background process is a thread of execution within a process. code modules are run by processes. all connected oracle database users must run the following modules to access a database instance : application or oracle database utility a database user runs a database application, such as a precompiler program or a database tool such as sql * plus, that issues sql statements to a database. oracle database code each user has oracle database code executing on his or her behalf that interprets and processes the application ' s sql statements. a process normally runs in its own private memory area. most processes can periodically write to an associated trace file ( see " trace files " ). multiple - process oracle ( also called multiuser oracle ) uses several processes to run different parts of the oracle database code and additional processes for the users — either one process for each connected user or one or more processes shared by multiple users. most databases are multiuser because a primary advantages of a database is managing data needed by multiple users simultaneously. each process in a database instance performs a specific job. by dividing the work of the database and applications into several processes, multiple users and applications can connect to an instance simultaneously while the system gives good performance. a database instance contains or interacts with the following types of processes : client processes run the application or oracle tool code. oracle processes run the oracle database code. oracle processes including the following subtypes : background processes start with the database instance and perform maintenance tasks such as performing instance recovery, cleaning up processes, writing redo buffers to disk, and so on. server processes perform work based on a client request. note : server processes, and the process memory allocated in these processes, run in the instance. the instance continues to function when server processes terminate. slave processes perform additional tasks for a background or server process. the process structure varies depending on the operating system and the choice of oracle database options. for example, the code for connected users can be configured for dedicated server or shared server connections. in a shared server architecture, each server process that runs database code can serve multiple client processes. figure 15 - 1 shows a system global area ( sga ) and background processes using dedicated server connections


can be configured for dedicated server or shared server connections. in a shared server architecture, each server process that runs database code can serve multiple client processes. figure 15 - 1 shows a system global area ( sga ) and background processes using dedicated server connections. for each user connection, the application is run by a client process that is different from the dedicated server process that runs the database code. each client process is associated with its own server process, which has its own program global area ( pga ). when a user runs an application such as a pro * c program or sql * plus, the operating system creates a client process ( sometimes called a user process ) to run the user application. the client application has oracle database libraries linked into it that provide the apis required to communicate with the database. client processes differ in important ways from the oracle processes interacting directly with the instance. the oracle processes servicing the client process can read from and write to the sga, whereas the client process cannot. a client process can run on a host other than the database host, whereas oracle processes cannot. for example, assume that a user on a client host starts sql * plus and connects over the network to database sample on a different host ( the database instance is not started ) : sql > connect sys @ inst1 as sysdba enter password : * * * * * * * * * connected to an idle instance. on the client host, a search of the processes for either sample shows only the sqlplus client process : % ps - ef | grep - e sample - e sqlplus | grep - v grep clientuser 29437 29436 0 15 : 40 pts / 1 00 : 00 : 00 sqlplus as sysdba on the database host, a search of the processes for either sample shows a server process with a nonlocal connection, but no client process : % ps - ef | grep - e sample - e sqlplus | grep - v grep serveruser 29441 1 0 15 : 40? 00 : 00 : 00 oraclesample ( local = no ) a connection is a physical communication pathway between a client process and a database instance. a communication pathway is established using available interprocess communication mechanisms or network software. typically, a connection occurs between a client process and a server process or dispatcher, but it can also occur between a client process and oracle connection manager ( cman ). a session is a logical entity in the database instance memory that represents the


. typically, a connection occurs between a client process and a server process or dispatcher, but it can also occur between a client process and oracle connection manager ( cman ). a session is a logical entity in the database instance memory that represents the state of a current user login to a database. for example, when a user is authenticated by the database with a password, a session is established for this user. a session lasts from the time the user is authenticated by the database until the time the user disconnects or exits the database application. a single connection can have 0, 1, or more sessions established on it. the sessions are independent : a commit in one session does not affect transactions in other sessions. note : if oracle net connection pooling is configured, then it is possible for a connection to drop but leave the sessions intact. multiple sessions can exist concurrently for a single database user. as shown in figure 15 - 2, user hr can have multiple connections to a database. in dedicated server connections, the database creates a server process on behalf of each connection. only the client process that causes the dedicated server to be created uses it. in a shared server connection, many client processes access a single shared server process. figure 15 - 3 illustrates a case in which user hr has a single connection to a database, but this connection has two sessions. generating an autotrace report of sql statement execution statistics re - creates the scenario in figure 15 - 3. example 15 - 2 connects sql * plus to the database as user system and enables tracing, thus creating a new session ( sample output included ). sql > select sid, serial #, paddr from v $ session where username = user ; sid serial # paddr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 90 91 3be2e41c sql > set autotrace on statistics ; sql > select sid, serial #, paddr from v $ session where username = user ; sid serial # paddr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 88 93 3be2e41c 90 91 3be2e41c... sql > disconnect disconnect command in example 15 - 1 actually ends the sessions, not the connection. opening a new terminal and connecting to the instance as a different user, the query in example 15 - 2 shows that the connection from example 15 - 1 is still active. sql > connect dba1 @


1 actually ends the sessions, not the connection. opening a new terminal and connecting to the instance as a different user, the query in example 15 - 2 shows that the connection from example 15 - 1 is still active. sql > connect dba1 @ inst1 password : * * * * * * * * connected. sql > select program from v $ process where addr = hextoraw ( ' 3be2e41c ' ) ; program - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - oracle @ stbcs09 - 1 ( tns v1 - v3 ) see also : " shared server architecture " server processes created on behalf of a database application can perform one or more of the following tasks : execute pl / sql code read data blocks from data files into the database buffer cache ( the dbwn background process has the task of writing modified blocks back to disk ) return results in such a way that the application can process the information in dedicated server connections, the client connection is associated with one and only one server process ( see " dedicated server architecture " ). on linux, 20 client processes connected to a database instance are serviced by 20 server processes. each client process communicates directly with its server process. this server process is dedicated to its client process for the duration of the session. the server process stores process - specific information and the uga in its pga ( see " pga usage in dedicated and shared server modes " ). in shared server connections, client applications connect over a network to a dispatcher process, not a server process ( see " shared server architecture " ). for example, 20 client processes can connect to a single dispatcher process. the dispatcher process receives requests from connected clients and puts them into a request queue in the large pool ( see " large pool " ). the first available shared server process takes the request from the queue and processes it. afterward, the shared server place the result into the dispatcher response queue. the dispatcher process monitors this queue and transmits the result to the client. like a dedicated server process, a shared server process has its own pga. however, the uga for a session is in the sga so that any shared server can access session data. a multiprocess oracle database uses some additional processes called background processes. the background processes perform maintenance tasks required


has its own pga. however, the uga for a session is in the sga so that any shared server can access session data. a multiprocess oracle database uses some additional processes called background processes. the background processes perform maintenance tasks required to operate the database and to maximize performance for multiple users. each background process has a separate task, but works with the other processes. for example, the lgwr process writes data from the redo log buffer to the online redo log. when a filled log file is ready to be archived, lgwr signals another process to archive the file. oracle database creates background processes automatically when a database instance starts. an instance can have many background processes, not all of which always exist in every database configuration. the following query lists the background processes running on your database : select pname from v $ process where pname is not null order by pname ; this section includes the following topics : see also : oracle database reference for descriptions of all the background processes the mandatory background processes are present in all typical database configurations. these processes run by default in a database instance started with a minimally configured initialization parameter file ( see example 13 - 1 ). this section describes the following mandatory background processes : oracle database reference for descriptions of other mandatory processes, including mman, diag, vktm, dbrm, and psp0 oracle real application clusters administration and deployment guide and oracle clusterware administration and deployment guide for more information about background processes specific to oracle rac and oracle clusterware the process monitor ( pmon ) monitors the other background processes and performs process recovery when a server or dispatcher process terminates abnormally. pmon is responsible for cleaning up the database buffer cache and freeing resources that the client process was using. for example, pmon resets the status of the active transaction table, releases locks that are no longer required, and removes the process id from the list of active processes. pmon also registers information about the instance and dispatcher processes with the oracle net listener ( see " the oracle net listener " ). when an instance starts, pmon polls the listener to determine whether it is running. if the listener is running, then pmon passes it relevant parameters. if it is not running, then pmon periodically attempts to contact it. the system monitor process ( smon ) is in charge of a variety of system - level cleanup duties. the duties assigned to smon include : recovering terminated transactions that were skipped during instance recovery because of file - read or tablespace


to contact it. the system monitor process ( smon ) is in charge of a variety of system - level cleanup duties. the duties assigned to smon include : recovering terminated transactions that were skipped during instance recovery because of file - read or tablespace offline errors. smon recovers the transactions when the tablespace or file is brought back online. cleaning up unused temporary segments. for example, oracle database allocates extents when creating an index. if the operation fails, then smon cleans up the temporary space. coalescing contiguous free extents within dictionary - managed tablespaces. smon checks regularly to see whether it is needed. other processes can call smon if they detect a need for it. the database writer process ( dbwn ) writes the contents of database buffers to data files. dbwn processes write modified buffers in the database buffer cache to disk ( see " database buffer cache " ). although one database writer process ( dbw0 ) is adequate for most systems, you can configure additional processes — dbw1 through dbw9 and dbwa through dbwj — to improve write performance if your system modifies data heavily. these additional dbwn processes are not useful on uniprocessor systems. the dbwn process writes dirty buffers to disk under the following conditions : when a server process cannot find a clean reusable buffer after scanning a threshold number of buffers, it signals dbwn to write. dbwn writes dirty buffers to disk asynchronously if possible while performing other processing. dbwn periodically writes buffers to advance the checkpoint, which is the position in the redo thread from which instance recovery begins ( see " overview of checkpoints " ). the log position of the checkpoint is determined by the oldest dirty buffer in the buffer cache. in many cases the blocks that dbwn writes are scattered throughout the disk. thus, the writes tend to be slower than the sequential writes performed by lgwr. dbwn performs multiblock writes when possible to improve efficiency. the number of blocks written in a multiblock write varies by operating system. see also : oracle database performance tuning guide for advice on configuring, monitoring, and tuning dbwn the log writer process ( lgwr ) manages the redo log buffer. lgwr writes one contiguous portion of the buffer to the online redo log. by separating the tasks of modifying database buffers, performing scattered writes of dirty buffers to disk, and performing fast sequential


to disk before a transaction commits. the redo entries become permanent only if the transaction later commits. when activity is high, lgwr can use group commits. for example, a user commits, causing lgwr to write the transaction ' s redo entries to disk. during this write other users commit. lgwr cannot write to disk to commit these transactions until its previous write completes. upon completion, lgwr can write the list of redo entries of waiting transactions ( not yet committed ) in one operation. in this way, the database minimizes disk i / o and maximizes performance. if commits requests continue at a high rate, then every write by lgwr can contain multiple commit records. lgwr writes synchronously to the active mirrored group of online redo log files. if a log file is inaccessible, then lgwr continues writing to other files in the group and writes an error to the lgwr trace file and the alert log. if all files in a group are damaged, or if the group is unavailable because it has not been archived, then lgwr cannot continue to function. oracle database performance tuning guide for information about how to monitor and tune the performance of lgwr the checkpoint process ( ckpt ) updates the control file and data file headers with checkpoint information and signals dbwn to write blocks to disk. checkpoint information includes the checkpoint position, scn, location in online redo log to begin recovery, and so on. as shown in figure 15 - 4, ckpt does not write data blocks to data files or redo blocks to online redo log files. see also : " overview of checkpoints " the manageability monitor process ( mmon ) performs many tasks related to the automatic workload repository ( awr ). for example, mmon writes when a metric violates its threshold value, taking snapshots, and capturing statistics value for recently modified sql objects. the manageability monitor lite process ( mmnl ) writes statistics from the active session history ( ash ) buffer in the sga to disk. mmnl writes to disk when the ash buffer is full. in a distributed database, the recoverer process ( reco ) automatically resolves failures in distributed transactions. the reco process of a node automatically connects to other databases involved in an in - doubt distributed transaction. when reco reestablishes a connection between the databases, it automatically resolves all in - doubt transactions, removing from each database ' s pending transaction table any


a node automatically connects to other databases involved in an in - doubt distributed transaction. when reco reestablishes a connection between the databases, it automatically resolves all in - doubt transactions, removing from each database ' s pending transaction table any rows that correspond to the resolved transactions. see also : oracle database administrator ' s guide for more information about transaction recovery in distributed systems an optional background process is any background process not defined as mandatory. most optional background processes are specific to tasks or features. for example, background processes that support oracle streams advanced queuing ( aq ) or oracle automatic storage management ( oracle asm ) are only available when these features are enabled. this section describes some common optional processes : the archiver processes ( arcn ) copy online redo log files to offline storage after a redo log switch occurs. these processes can also collect transaction redo data and transmit it to standby database destinations. arcn processes exist only when the database is in archivelog mode and automatic archiving is enabled. oracle database uses job queue processes to run user jobs, often in batch mode. a job is a user - defined task scheduled to run one or more times. for example, you can use a job queue to schedule a long - running update in the background. given a start date and a time interval, the job queue processes attempt to run the job at the next occurrence of the interval. oracle database manages job queue processes dynamically, thereby enabling job queue clients to use more job queue processes when required. the database releases resources used by the new processes when they are idle. dynamic job queue processes can run a large number of jobs concurrently at a given interval. the sequence of events is as follows : the job coordinator process ( cjq0 ) is automatically started and stopped as needed by oracle scheduler ( see " oracle scheduler " ). the coordinator process periodically selects jobs that need to be run from the system job $ table. new jobs selected are ordered by time. the coordinator process dynamically spawns job queue slave processes ( jnnn ) to run the jobs. the job queue process runs one of the jobs that was selected by the cjq0 process for execution. each job queue process runs one job at a time to completion. after the process finishes execution of a single job, it polls for more jobs. if no jobs are scheduled for execution, then it enters a sleep state, from which it wakes up at periodic intervals and polls for more jobs. if the process does not find any new


finishes execution of a single job, it polls for more jobs. if no jobs are scheduled for execution, then it enters a sleep state, from which it wakes up at periodic intervals and polls for more jobs. if the process does not find any new jobs, then it terminates after a preset interval. the initialization parameter job _ queue _ processes represents the maximum number of job queue processes that can concurrently run on an instance. however, clients should not assume that all job queue processes are available for job execution. note : the coordinator process is not started if the initialization parameter job _ queue _ processesis set to 0. the flashback data archiver process ( fbda ) archives historical rows of tracked tables into flashback data archives. when a transaction containing dml on a tracked table commits, this process stores the pre - image of the rows into the flashback data archive. it also keeps metadata on the current rows. fbda automatically manages the flashback data archive for space, organization, and retention. additionally, the process keeps track of how far the archiving of tracked transactions has occurred. the smco process coordinates the execution of various space management related tasks, such as proactive space allocation and space reclamation. smco dynamically spawns slave processes ( wnnn ) to implement the task. see also : oracle database advanced application developer ' s guide to learn about flashback data archive slave processes are background processes that perform work on behalf of other processes. this section describes some slave processes used by oracle database. see also : oracle database reference for descriptions of oracle database slave processes i / o slave processes ( innn ) simulate asynchronous i / o for systems and devices that do not support it. in asynchronous i / o, there is no timing requirement for transmission, enabling other processes to start before the transmission has finished. for example, assume that an application writes 1000 blocks to a disk on an operating system that does not support asynchronous i / o. each write occurs sequentially and waits for a confirmation that the write was successful. with asynchronous disk, the application can write the blocks in bulk and perform other work while waiting for a response from the operating system that all blocks were written. to simulate asynchronous i / o, one process oversees several slave processes. the invoker process assigns work to each of the slave processes, who wait for each write to complete and report back to the invoker when done. in true asynchronous


i / o, one process oversees several slave processes. the invoker process assigns work to each of the slave processes, who wait for each write to complete and report back to the invoker when done. in true asynchronous i / o the operating system waits for the i / o to complete and reports back to the process, while in simulated asynchronous i / o the slaves wait and report back to the invoker. the database supports different types of i / o slaves, including the following : i / o slaves for recovery manager ( rman ) when using rman to back up or restore data, you can make use of i / o slaves for both disk and tape devices. database writer slaves if it is not practical to use multiple database writer processes, such as when the computer has one cpu, then the database can distribute i / o over multiple slave processes. dbwr is the only process that scans the buffer cache lru list for blocks to be written to disk. however, i / o slaves perform the i / o for these blocks. in parallel execution or parallel processing, multiple processes work together simultaneously to run a single sql statement. by dividing the work among multiple processes, oracle database can run the statement more quickly. for example, four processes handle four different quarters in a year instead of one process handling all four quarters by itself. parallel execution reduces response time for data - intensive operations on large databases such as data warehouses. symmetric multiprocessing ( smp ) and clustered system gain the largest performance benefits from parallel execution because statement processing can be split up among multiple cpus. parallel execution can also benefit certain types of oltp and hybrid systems. in oracle rac systems, the service placement of a particular service controls parallel execution. specifically, parallel processes run on the nodes on which you have configured the service. by default, oracle database runs the parallel process only on the instance that offers the service used to connect to the database. this does not affect other parallel operations such as parallel recovery or the processing of oracle real application clusters administration and deployment guide for considerations regarding parallel execution in oracle rac environments in serial execution, a single server process performs all necessary processing for the sequential execution of a sql statement. for example, to perform a full table scan such as from employees, one server process performs all of the work, as shown in figure 15 - 5. in parallel execution, the server process acts as the parallel execution coordinator responsible for parsing the query, allocating and controlling the slave


table scan such as from employees, one server process performs all of the work, as shown in figure 15 - 5. in parallel execution, the server process acts as the parallel execution coordinator responsible for parsing the query, allocating and controlling the slave processes, and sending output to the user. given a query plan for a sql query, the coordinator breaks down each operator in a sql query into parallel pieces, runs them in the order specified in the query, and integrates the partial results produced by the slave processes executing the operators. figure 15 - 6 shows a parallel scan of the employees table. the table is divided dynamically ( dynamic partitioning ) into load units called granules. each granule is a range of data blocks of the table read by a single slave process, called a parallel execution server, which uses nnn as a name format. the database maps granules to execution servers at execution time. when an execution server finishes reading the rows corresponding to a granule, and when granules remain, it obtains another granule from the coordinator. this operation continues until the table has been read. the execution servers send results back to the coordinator, which assembles the pieces into the desired full table scan. the number of parallel execution servers assigned to a single operation is the degree of parallelism for an operation. multiple operations within the same sql statement all have the same degree of parallelism.


| skip navigation links | | exit print view | | man pages section 3 : networking library functions oracle solaris 11 information library | - get network entry cc [ flag... ] file... - lsocket - lnsl [ library... ] # include < netdb. h > struct netent * getnetbyname ( const char * name ) ; struct netent * getnetbyname _ r ( const char * name, struct netent * result, char * buffer, int buflen ) ; struct netent * getnetbyaddr ( long net, int type ) ; struct netent * getnetbyaddr _ r ( long net, int type, struct netent * result, char * buffer, int buflen ) ; struct netent * getnetent ( void ) ; struct netent * getnetent _ r ( struct netent * result, char * buffer, int buflen ) ; int setnetent ( int stayopen ) ; these functions are used to obtain entries for networks. an entry may come from any of the sources for networks specified in the / etc / nsswitch. conf file. see nsswitch. conf ( 4 ). getnetbyname ( ) searches for a network entry with the network name specified by the character string parameter name. getnetbyaddr ( ) searches for a network entry with the network address specified by net. the parameter type specifies the family of the address. this should be one of the address families defined in < sys / socket. h >. see the notes section below for more information. network numbers and local address parts are returned as machine format integer values, that is, in host byte order. see also inet ( 3socket ). the netent. n _ net member in the netent structure pointed to by the return value of the above functions is calculated by inet _ network ( ). the inet _ network ( ) function returns a value in host byte order that is aligned based upon the input string. for example : commonly, the alignment of the returned value is used as a crude approximate of pre - cidr ( classless inter - domain routing ) subnet mask. for example : in _ addr _ t addr, mask ; addr = inet _ network ( net _ name ) ; mask = ~ ( in


approximate of pre - cidr ( classless inter - domain routing ) subnet mask. for example : in _ addr _ t addr, mask ; addr = inet _ network ( net _ name ) ; mask = ~ ( in _ addr _ t ) 0 ; if ( ( addr & in _ classa _ net ) = = 0 ) addr < < = 8, mask < < = 8 ; if ( ( addr & in _ classa _ net ) = = 0 ) addr < < = 8, mask < < = 8 ; if ( ( addr & in _ classa _ net ) = = 0 ) addr < < = 8, mask < < = 8 ; this usage is deprecated by the cidr requirements. see fuller, v., li, t., yu, j., and varadhan, k. rfc 1519, classless inter - domain routing ( cidr ) : an address assignment and aggregation strategy. network working group. september 1993. the functions setnetent ( ), getnetent ( ), and endnetent ( ) are used to enumerate network entries from the database. setnetent ( ) sets ( or resets ) the enumeration to the beginning of the set of network entries. this function should be called before the first call to getnetent ( ). calls to getnetbyname ( ) and getnetbyaddr ( ) leave the enumeration position in an indeterminate state. if the stayopen flag is non - zero, the system may keep allocated resources such as open file descriptors until a subsequent call to endnetent ( ). successive calls to getnetent ( ) return either successive entries or null, indicating the end of the enumeration. endnetent ( ) may be called to indicate that the caller expects to do no further network entry retrieval operations ; the system may then deallocate resources it was using. it is still allowed, but possibly less efficient, for the process to call more network entry retrieval functions after calling endnetent ( ). the functions getnetbyname ( ), getnetbyaddr ( ), and getnetent ( ) use static storage that is reused in each call, making these routines unsafe for use in multi - threaded applications. the functions getnetbyname _ r ( ), getnetbyaddr _ r ( ), and getnetent _ r ( ) provide reent


is reused in each call, making these routines unsafe for use in multi - threaded applications. the functions getnetbyname _ r ( ), getnetbyaddr _ r ( ), and getnetent _ r ( ) provide reentrant interfaces for these operations. each reentrant interface performs the same operation as its non - reentrant counterpart, named by removing the ` ` _ r ' ' suffix. the reentrant interfaces, however, use buffers supplied by the caller to store returned results, and are safe for use in both single - threaded and multi - threaded applications. each reentrant interface takes the same parameters as its non - reentrant counterpart, as well as the following additional parameters. the parameter result must be a pointer to a struct netent structure allocated by the caller. on successful completion, the function returns the network entry in this structure. the parameter buffer must be a pointer to a buffer supplied by the caller. this buffer is used as storage space for the network entry data. all of the pointers within the returned struct netent result point to data stored within this buffer. see return values. the buffer must be large enough to hold all of the data associated with the network entry. the parameter buflen should give the size in bytes of the buffer indicated by buffer. for enumeration in multi - threaded applications, the position within the enumeration is a process - wide property shared by all threads. setnetent ( ) may be used in a multi - threaded application but resets the enumeration position for all threads. if multiple threads interleave calls to getnetent _ r ( ), the threads will enumerate disjointed subsets of the network database. like their non - reentrant counterparts, getnetbyname _ r ( ) and getnetbyaddr _ r ( ) leave the enumeration position in an indeterminate state. network entries are represented by the struct netent structure defined in < netdb. h >. the functions getnetbyname ( ), getnetbyname _ r, getnetbyaddr, and getnetbyaddr _ r ( ) each return a pointer to a struct netent if they successfully locate the requested entry ; otherwise they return null. the functions getnetent ( ) and getnetent _ r ( ) each return a pointer to a struct netent if they successfully enumerate an entry ;


netent if they successfully locate the requested entry ; otherwise they return null. the functions getnetent ( ) and getnetent _ r ( ) each return a pointer to a struct netent if they successfully enumerate an entry ; otherwise they return null, indicating the end of the enumeration. the functions getnetbyname ( ), getnetbyaddr ( ), and getnetent ( ) use static storage, so returned data must be copied before a subsequent call to any of these functions if the data is to be saved. when the pointer returned by the reentrant functions getnetbyname _ r ( ), getnetbyaddr _ r ( ), and getnetent _ r ( ) is non - null, it is always equal to the result pointer that was supplied by the caller. the functions setnetent ( ) and endnetent ( ) return 0 on success. the reentrant functions getnetbyname _ r ( ), getnetbyaddr _ r and getnetent _ r ( ) will return null and set errno to erange if the length of the buffer supplied by caller is not large enough to store the result. see intro ( 2 ) for the proper usage and interpretation of errno in multi - threaded applications. network name database configuration file for the name service switch see attributes ( 5 ) for descriptions of the following attributes : fuller, v., li, t., yu, j., and varadhan, k. rfc 1519, classless inter - domain routing ( cidr ) : an address assignment and aggregation strategy. network working group. september 1993. the reentrant interfaces getnetbyname _ r ( ), getnetbyaddr _ r ( ), and getnetent _ r ( ) are included in this release on an uncommitted basis only, and are subject to change or removal in future minor releases. the current implementation of these functions only return or accept network numbers for the internet address family ( type af _ inet ). the functions described in inet ( 3socket ) may be helpful in constructing and manipulating addresses and network numbers in this form. when compiling multi - threaded applications, see intro ( 3 ), notes on multithread applications, for information about the use of the _ reentrant flag. use of the enumeration interfaces getnetent ( ) and getnetent _ r ( ) is discouraged ; enumeration may not be


new in version 2. 4. the cookielib module defines classes for automatic handling of http cookies. it is useful for accessing web sites that require small pieces of data - cookies - to be set on the client machine by an http response from a web server, and then returned to the server in later http requests. both the regular netscape cookie protocol and the protocol defined by rfc 2965 are handled. rfc 2965 handling is switched off by default. rfc 2109 cookies are parsed as netscape cookies and subsequently treated either as netscape or rfc 2965 cookies according to the ' policy ' in effect. note that the great majority of cookies on the internet are netscape cookies. cookielib attempts to follow the de - facto netscape cookie protocol ( which differs substantially from that set out in the original netscape specification ), including taking note of the introduced with rfc 2965. note : the various named parameters found in set - cookie : and set - cookie2 : headers expires ) are conventionally referred to as attributes. to distinguish them from python attributes, the documentation for this module uses the term cookie - attribute the module defines the following exception : the following classes are provided : the cookiejar class stores http cookies. it extracts cookies from http requests, and returns them in http responses. cookiejar instances automatically expire contained cookies when necessary. subclasses are also responsible for storing and retrieving cookies from a file or database. | filename, delayload = none, policy = none ) | a cookiejar which can load cookies from, and perhaps save cookies to, a file on disk. cookies are not loaded from the named file until either the load ( ) or revert ( ) method is called. subclasses of this class are documented in section 18. 22. 2. | blocked _ domains = none, allowed _ domains = none, netscape = true, rfc2965 = false, rfc2109 _ as _ netscape = none, hide _ cookie2 = false, strict _ domain = false, strict _ rfc2965 _ unverifiable = true, strict _ ns _ unverifiable = false, strict _ ns _ domain = defaultcookiepolicy. domainliberal, strict _ ns _ set _ initial _ dollar = false, strict _ ns _ set _ path = false ) | constructor arguments should be passed as keyword arguments only. blocked _ domains is a sequence of domain names that we never accept cookies from, nor return cookies to


olympia, wash., january 9, 2008 — the department of revenue has released tax exemptions 2008, a compendium of state and local tax exemptions. the legislatively mandated tax exemption study is updated every four years. it is available online. the 567 exemptions enacted since territorial days in 1854 represent an estimated $ 98. 5 billion in state and local tax savings during the 2007 – 2009 biennium. of this, about 54 percent, or $ 53. 5 billion, involves state taxes and the remaining $ 45 billion are local taxes. the largest single exemption is the property tax exemption for intangibles, enacted in 1931. it accounts for 36. 7 percent, or $ 36. 2 billion, of the total. intangibles include assets such as money, stocks, bonds, bank deposits, and the value of corporate trademarks. were it not for this exemption, businesses and individuals would have to pay property taxes on their financial assets as well as their real estate. the second - largest is a use tax exemption on personal property owned by nonresidents who visit washington and new residents who bring used household goods and vehicles with them. that one totals $ 24. 8 billion, or 25. 2 percent of the total. in third place is no sales tax on most services, at $ 5. 2 billion or 5. 3 percent. sales tax on services was excluded from the tax base when the current tax code was enacted in 1935, when services were a relative small component of the economy. fourth is exemption of employee income from taxation ( no personal income tax ) at $ 2. 6 billion or 2. 6 percent. fifth largest is the voter - approved sales tax exemption on food, saving $ 2. 2 billion or 2. 3 percent over a two - year period. while business incentives receive a lot of public attention, they comprise a fairly small percentage of the total value of exemptions and preferential rates, $ 3. 9 billion or 4 percent of the total. the report emphasizes that the revenue impacts reflect estimated savings to taxpayers but do not necessarily indicate the potential tax revenue that might generated in the absence of the exemptions. the report assesses whether or not a tax actually could be collected if the exemption were repealed. because many of the exemptions are mandated by federal law or the state constitution, and other taxes would not be collected due to changes in taxpayer behavior if the exemptions were repealed, the report concludes that only about $ 14. 8 billion in additional state or local government revenue could potentially be


black cap ; black throat and lower neck ( like a bib ) ; white cheek patches ; white chest and belly ; gray back, wings, and tail ; buffy patches on the flanks. 12 cm ( 4. 75 in ) in length. the carolina chickadee ' s call is chick - a - dee - dee - dee or a shortened version of the same. the song of this species is usually four whistled notes, fee - bee fee - bay. the breeding season begins in early april, peaks later that month until early may, and extends through mid - june. breeding habitat includes a variety of wooded and forested areas. this species is a cavity nester and will nest in snags, trees, rotten fenceposts, or nest boxes. it will excavate its own cavity, use an old woodpecker cavity, or find a natural cavity. the cavity is lined with moss, plant material, down, and feathers. the female lays 5 - 8 ( usually 6 ) eggs that both adults incubate for 11 - 12 days. the young are altricial and fledge 13 - 17 days after hatching. the carolina chickadee prefers forested or wooded habitats. it eats primarily insects and also spiders, fruits, and seeds. it forages by searching among tree branches, trunks, pine cones, and dead leaf clusters. it also frequents bird feeders. this species is a year - round resident, and does not migrate. the carolina chickadee is found mostly in the southeast, but its range extends as far north as delaware, central ohio, indiana, and illinois and as far west as oklahoma and central texas. in the southeast, this species is common to very common throughout except for extreme southern florida. this species is common in the southeast, and is not targeted for any special attention. the species most similar to the carolina chickadee is the black - capped chickadee. the black - capped chickadee is slightly larger and has a lower pitch to the chick - a - dee - dee - dee call. the black - capped chickadee also has a shorter song, being 2 or 3 whistled notes, fee - bee or fee - bee - bee. the song is the most reliable identifier, because their appearances are very similar. the bib of the black - capped chickadee is slightly larger and the buff color on the flanks is more extensive.


in a victory for the gray wolves of the northern rockies, a federal judge in montana on friday july 18 reinstated federal endangered species act protections for wolves, thus preventing idaho, montana and wyoming from implementing fall wolf hunts. the court ruled that conservation groups are likely to succeed on the majority of their claims that removal of wolves from the federal list of endangered species was unlawful. the decision notes that, while the u. s. fish and wildlife service had stated that genetic exchange between wolf populations in idaho, montana and wyoming was necessary for the wolf ' s survival, yellowstone ' s wolves remain genetically isolated. further, hunting and state predator - control laws that took effect upon delisting would likely " eliminate any chance for genetic exchange to occur. " the court also ruled that the conservation groups are likely to succeed in their argument that wyoming law ( which allows unregulated wolf killing in nearly 90 percent of the state and fails to commit to maintaining sufficient wolf numbers ) is inadequate. the u. s. fish and wildlife service had long maintained that these aspects of wyoming law precluded delisting. the court found that " [ t ] he agency flip - flopped without explanation " when it approved wyoming ' s wolf management scheme with " the same deficiencies " in 2007. since wolves were delisted on march 28, states have assumed management authority for wolves, leading to the killing of at least 106 wolves. all three states had plans to allow hunts this fall. those hunts would have permitted more than 500 wolves to be killed. friday ' s ruling came in response to a lawsuit brought by earthjustice on behalf of 12 conservation groups. earthjustice filed suit on behalf of defenders of wildlife, natural resources defense council, sierra club, center for biological diversity, the humane society of the united states, jackson hole conservation alliance, friends of the clearwater, alliance for the wild rockies, oregon wild, cascadia wildlands project, western watersheds project, and " the delisting of wolves was inappropriate and illegal in large part because existing state management plans are inadequate to ensure the long term conservation of wolves in the region, allowing far too many wolves to be unnecessarily killed. responsible, balanced management by the states would benefit wolves, ranchers, hunters and all northern rockies residents. while the court continues to weigh our challenge to the delisting decision, we will continue to work to improve the current state plans so that they maintain a healthy wolf population, " said suzanne asha stone, northern rockies wolf conservation specialist for defenders of


. while the court continues to weigh our challenge to the delisting decision, we will continue to work to improve the current state plans so that they maintain a healthy wolf population, " said suzanne asha stone, northern rockies wolf conservation specialist for defenders of wildlife. " recovery requires allowing wolves in different populations to reach each other in order to mate and raise their pups, " said michael robinson of the center for biological diversity. " even before they were unlawfully removed from the endangered species list, the government was gunning down so many wolves that the yellowstone population was reproductively isolated, a recipe for extinction. this injunction will give the wolves a fighting chance. " " this injunction is necessary to prevent the states from implementing management schemes that have the primary purpose of eliminating, rather than conserving, wolves, " said michael garrity, executive director of the helena - based alliance for the wild rockies. " the federal court just offered a badly needed lifeline to wolves in the northern rockies, " said louisa willcox of the natural resources defense council. " wolves have been getting killed at a rate of about one per day since the federal government stripped them of endangered species act protections. the court ' s ruling means the slaughter must stop. " " this is one step in a long process towards improving wolf management. the ruling puts an immediate stop to the wolf - killing that has taken place in the northern rockies since delisting. the states lack responsible, science - based management plans that ensure the wolf ' s recovery into the future and the judge ' s ruling reflects this. we applaud judge molloy ' s decision as we need to craft responsible management plans that will allow wolves to prosper and will benefit ranchers, hunters, the public and our local economies, " said melanie stein, a sierra club representative. " we consider this as one important step toward developing state management plans that will focus on wolf conservation, not wolf control, " said franz camenzind, executive director of the jackson hole conservation alliance. " it ' s now time for the three states to work together to frame a single management plan that will treat the wolves in idaho, montana and wyoming as a single population, not as discrete populations. with these guidelines, each state should bring together all the interests and shape individual plans that will ensure long - term sustainability of this important wildlife population. " " this is a crucial step toward protecting wolf populations in the northern rockies and sends a clear message that the administration cannot circumvent the protections of the esa through


shape individual plans that will ensure long - term sustainability of this important wildlife population. " " this is a crucial step toward protecting wolf populations in the northern rockies and sends a clear message that the administration cannot circumvent the protections of the esa through the use of unlawful delisting schemes, " said jonathan r. lovvorn, vice president of animal protection litigation for the humane society of the united states. " this ruling is not just great news for wolves in the rocky mountains, it is also great news for the future of wolves in oregon, " said dan kruse of the oregon - based cascadia wildlands project. " wolves are returning to oregon now for the first time in sixty years, and the rocky mountain wolves are our source population. the plan to kill the rocky mountain wolves is the single greatest threat to the recovery of wolves here in the pacific northwest. " " wolves are once again protected in the northern rockies. this is great news for the wolves. all three states had plans to allow hunts this fall. 500 wolves were scheduled to be killed and now those plans are halted, " said earthjustice attorney doug honnold. doug honnold, earthjustice, ( 406 ) 586 - 9699 suzanne asha stone, defenders of wildlife, ( 208 ) 424 - 0932 louisa willcox, natural resources defense council, ( 406 ) 222 - 9561 franz camenzind, jackson hole conservation alliance, ( 307 ) 733 - 9417 liz bergstrom, the humane society of the united states, ( 301 ) 258 - 1455


what a busy two weeks! happy to be back to the blogging world and so ready for spring break. i wanted to share with you all some of the fun things we did last week. i bought deanna ' s st. patrick ' s day unit and my kinders had a blast. here ' s a glimpse at a few of our math workstations. these printables are made up of freebies found all over the place. : ) a leprechaun visited our classroom, played tricks on us, and left foot prints everywhere! he left silly messages and one day asked if we could " catch " his rainbow. so, we tried! this great experiment was from deanna ' s unit. we refracted light using a flashlight and vase of water. we turned off our classroom lights and students looked around the room and tried to find the rainbow. students learned that to make a rainbow, you need rain and sunlight. so, on the back of our paper, we made a key to illustrate what each object we used represented. key : the vase and water = rain and the flashlight = the sun. we learned about the colors of the rainbow and made our own roy g. biv. we made leprechaun punch one day and added rainbow sprinkles ( skittles )! students did a little " how to " writing and wrote the steps we took to make the punch. the last step, " eat it up " of course! we did a little leprechaun math and added gold together. my leprechaun has 2 pieces of gold. i gave him 2 more. now he has 4 pieces of gold. 2 + 2 = 4 here is what the outside of our classroom door looks like! i didn ' t get a chance to grab a picture after we added our huge pot of gold. but you can imagine it... right next to the door, in between the trees. we learned about the sequence of a story and read there was an old lady who swallowed a clover. students re told the story and listed the objects the old lady swallowed in order. you can grab this freebie and a few other goodies to store away for next year below. hope you had a happy st. patrick ' s day! click on the picture to download! clip art : scrappin ' doodles font : smiley monster


need help using school facts jax? our quickstart video makes it easy to learn about the rich features the dashboard has to offer. you ' ll also find answers to our most frequently asked questions. for clear explanations on some of the technical terms and abbreviations, check out the glossary. glossary of terms jump to letter : - charter school ( from florida dept. of education ) charter schools are public schools that operate under a performance contract, or a " charter " which frees them from many regulations created for traditional public schools while holding them accountable for academic and financial results. charter schools are created when an individual or group submits an application to the school district ; the school district approves the application ; the applicants form a governing board that negotiates a contract with the district school board ; and the applicants and district school board agree upon a charter or contract. the district school board then becomes the sponsor of the charter school. the negotiated contract outlines expectations of both parties regarding the school ' s academic and financial charter schools are open to all students residing within the district ; however, charter schools are allowed to target students within specific age groups or grade levels, students considered at - risk of dropping out or failing, or students who meet reasonable academic, artistic or other eligibility standards established by the charter school. for more information, see fl doe office of independent education & parental - differentiated accountability differentiated accountability ( da ) refers to the system used in florida for classifying and evaluating the progress of school improvement based on school grades performance ( see " school grades " definition for more information ). beginning in 2012, florida ' s differentiated accountability assignment categories include : schools that have increased by at least one letter grade over the previous year or have maintained a school grade of " a ". reward schools are eligible for school recognition funds as an incentive for their performance. schools receiving a school grade of " c " or " d ". focus schools are subject to some increased state oversight and monitoring than reward or non - da schools. schools receiving a school grade of " f ". priority schools are subject to more intensive intervention efforts required by the florida department of education. these schools must conduct a comprehensive needs assessment and submit a plan to demonstrate significant, immediate academic and systematic improvement in areas including : school improvement planning, leadership quality, educator quality, professional development, curriculum alignment and pacing, and monitoring plans and for more information, visit fl doe bureau of school improvement. - end - of - course exams end - of - course exams ( eocs ) are standardized tests aligned with florida


quality, professional development, curriculum alignment and pacing, and monitoring plans and for more information, visit fl doe bureau of school improvement. - end - of - course exams end - of - course exams ( eocs ) are standardized tests aligned with florida ' s next generation sunshine state standards, designed to measure content mastery in key courses that are not specifically measured by the fcat 2. 0 or any other test - such as algebra 1, biology 1, geometry, u. s. history and civics. for more information on eocs, visit the florida department of education ' s end - of - course assessments page. - graduation rate graduation rates report the percentage of students who graduate from high school within four years of their initial enrollment in ninth grade, not including students who transferred out of the district. graduation rates for the same cohort of students may appear differently depending on the formula used to calculate the current standard calculation formula for the state of florida is known as the " federal " rate. prior to 2011, graduation rates were primarily calculated and reported using the " nga " rate. the major differences between these two formulas formula : includes only standard diplomas as graduates, excludes geds and all special diplomas from counting towards - nga formula : includes both standard and special diplomas as graduates, but excludes geds from counting towards graduation rates. for more information on how graduation rates are calculated, see reports available at fl doe education information and accountability - kindergarten readiness student academic and developmental readiness levels when entering kindergarten for the first time can vary widely and significantly impact educational achievement over the first few years of school. a number of factors, including early environment and experiences, quality of pre - k education experience, and individual physical and emotional development can all effect how ready a student is to begin learning immediately when they in florida, an assessment known as the florida kindergarten readiness screener ( flkrs ) is used to assess information about a student ' s overall readiness for kindergarten using components from two different types of readiness assessments, the early childhood observation system ( echos ) and the florida assessments for instruction in reading ( fair - k ). - echos : the echos assessment is a brief observational screening instrument designed to measure a child ' s performance across seven developmental areas : language and literacy, mathematics, social and personal skills, science, social studies, physical development and fitness, and creative arts. - fair - k : the fair - k test is used to measure reading readiness skills, including a students ' understanding of letter names and letter -


mathematics, social and personal skills, science, social studies, physical development and fitness, and creative arts. - fair - k : the fair - k test is used to measure reading readiness skills, including a students ' understanding of letter names and letter - sounds ( phonemic awareness ). results from these two sections are used to calculate a student ' s probability of success in reading score. additional sections of the fair also administered to all public school kindergarten students include listening comprehension and vocabulary assessments. for more information about kindergarten readiness assessments, doe office of early learning. - magnet programs magnet programs offer a concentrated curriculum in designated areas of study, such as mathematics, science, technology, business, or performing arts. magnet programs may be offered schoolwide at dedicated magnet schools, or as special programs for magnet cohorts within traditional schools. magnet programs or schools are part of florida ' s school choice enrollment options and typically draw students from a wider geographic area than locally zoned for more information, visit fl doe magnet schools information. - postsecondary readiness postsecondary readiness rates indicate the percentage of a school ' s most recent graduating class who were qualified to enroll in college - level courses without the need for remediation in either reading or mathematics. readiness is determined by a student ' s highest scores on any of a number of recognized college placement tests, including the act, sat, cpt, or p. e. r. t. in order for a student to be considered postsecondary ready, he or she would need to meet the following minimum scores on any of these - act ( potential score range : 1 - 36 ) : - reading : 18 - english : 17 - mathematics : 19 - cpt ( potential score range : 1 - 120 ) : - writing skills : - elementary algebra : - p. e. r. t. ( potential score range : 50 - 150 ) : - reading : 104 - writing : 99 - mathematics : 113 - sat ( potential score range : 200 - 800 ) : - verbal : 440 - mathematics : 440 for more information about these tests or how postsecondary readiness is calculated, visit fl doe college and career readiness. - school grades school grades are the commonly used term to refer to a school ' s state accountability rating. all eligible public schools in florida are evaluated each year on student performance in the following - reading performance ( all students ) - reading performance gains ( all students ) - reading performance gains ( lowest 25 % students ) - math performance ( all students ) - math performance gains (


science supplies and services model for mass spectrometer how many of high school or college students have seen the insides of a working mass spectrometer? how many know how and why it works? what is it used for? is the print - out the only important feature of the instrument or should our students understand how the information was obtained? a model of a mass spectrometer can be used to encourage this understanding. the s17 science model mass spectrometer is designed to answer an number of questions, and to teach a number of very interesting concepts. the instruction sheets that accompany this kit outline, in great detail, some of the best ways of using this kit to : the instruction sheets include information and diagrams to help you set up the apparatus. a set of sample questions, comments and answers that have been elicited and used in various classrooms is also included. students in kindergarten through college have marveled at the use of this kit in demonstrations. the kit has already been purchased by high schools and universities throughout the world for demonstrating the mass spectrometer to students of all academic backgrounds. you will want one of these in your school. it is available in two different kits, eq 129 and eq 131. the instructions sheets are the same in both kits. your ip address is : 220. 127. 116. 11


wiktionary : about low german | this is a wiktionary policy, guideline or common practices page. this is a draft proposal. it is unofficial, and it is unknown whether it is widely accepted by wiktionary editors. | | policies : cfi - ele - block - redir - bots - quote - delete - npov - axx | low german / saxon is a germanic lect, a dialect continuum spoken in northern germany, the eastern netherlands, and numerous places outside central europe. it has three main forms : - ( german ) low german, spoken in northern germany - dutch low saxon, spoken in the eastern netherlands - plautdietsch ( also called mennonite low german ), spoken in canada, the united states, and elsewhere low german / saxon is related to dutch, to the frisian languages, to english, and to german. in some cases, low german expressions are intelligible to english speakers : he was en old mann is one low german sentence english - speakers can understand. on wiktionary, the variants of low german spoken in germany are represented by the code nds - de and are covered by the page wiktionary : about german low german. the variants spoken in the netherlands are represented by the code nds - nl and covered by wiktionary : about dutch low saxon. plautdietsch is represented by the code pdt and covered by wiktionary : about plautdietsch. what to call low german / saxon on wiktionary low german is the most common name of the dialect continuum, and is the name used on wiktionary. it is a calque of plattdudesch ( and its forms ) or nedderdudesch. platt means " flat " and is interpreted as " relating to the lowlands ". at the time this name spread ( in the renaissance ), however, plat had the general meaning of " intelligible ". nedder, on the other hand, actually means " nether " and relates to the lowlands in contrast to the german highlands, the alps, harz mountains, etc. dudesch is related to the english word dutch and the dutch word duits, and referred ( at the time it spread ) to any continental west germanic language. low saxon is another name often used in english. this name derives from that of the saxon tribe which spoke old saxon, the lect from which low german evolved


open version of the diphthong rather than the existence of a diphthong in contrast to a monophthong. for example, someone pronouncing the " long e " as / eɪ / might refer to / ɛɪ / and / aɪ / as " diphthongs " but consider / eɪ / a " normal e ". the following is not a complete depiction of all sounds in all dialects but is an exemplative overview. | ⟨ a ⟩ | | / a / or / ɒ / | | / oɒ / | | / aː / or / ɒː / | | ⟨ e ⟩ | | / ɛ / | | / eɪ / or / ɛɪ / | | / ɛː / | | ⟨ o ⟩ | | / ɔ / | | / oʊ / or / ɔʊ / | | / ɔː / | | ⟨ o ⟩ ( and other spellings ) | | / œ / | | / / or / / | | / œː / | some of the sound - long vowels have had special characters in some areas or in the writing of some authors. the most widespread are " e " for / ɛː /, " æ " for / / ( and to a much lesser extent for / œː / ) and " œ " for / œː /. " a " has been used for both / ɛː / and / /. key to dialectal pronunciation in general, the most closed version ( on the left ) is spoken in the west ( e. g. lower saxony ), while the most open ( on the right ) versions are from the east, especially rural ( not urban ) parts of w : mecklenburg - vorpommern. e = / ɛɪ / = / eɪ / ~ / ɛɪ / ~ / aɪ / o = / ɔʊ / = / oʊ / ~ / ɔʊ / ~ / ɒʊ / o = / / = / / ~ / / ~ / / ; [ eɪ ] ( w : konigsberg, low prussian ) u etc. ( long ) = / yː / ; [ iː ] ( low prussian ) u etc. ( short ) = [ ] ; [ ɪ ] ( low prussian ) r = / r / = [ r ] ~ [ ɾ ] ( except in syllable coda ) a = / ʌ / = [ a ] ~ [ æ ] ~ [ ʌ ] ~ [ ɒ ] the


; [ ɪ ] ( low prussian ) r = / r / = [ r ] ~ [ ɾ ] ( except in syllable coda ) a = / ʌ / = [ a ] ~ [ æ ] ~ [ ʌ ] ~ [ ɒ ] the merger of monophthongal a and o due to the relative similarity of the sounds of lengthened a and lengthened o, both were used somewhat interchangeably in middle low german writing. later, " a " replaced the letter " o " in the quasi - standard that middle low german had developed. this was because, at some point in history, most low german dialects merged the sound - long a with the sound - long o. later many merged the long a with the sound - long a as well. which sound was kept and which was lost was random throughout the dialects. in addition, low german orthography became more varied and also more randomized in later periods, so that words might be written with either a or o in a region ( e. g. apen and open ), while not necessarily giving away the pronunciation. comparison of low german and dutch low saxon orthographies some important differences between dutch - influenced orthography of dutch low saxon and the german - influences orthography of low german pertain to the representation of the following : | ipa / s / | | s | | s, ss, ß, z | | ipa / ø /, / œ / | | eu | | o ( rarely æ for / œ / ) | | vowel length in closed syllables | | doubled vowel | | doubled consonant or h | | capitalisation of nouns | | no | | yes | - for example, compare dutch low saxon zes ( “ six ” ) and kruus ( “ cross ” ) with german low german sess ( “ six ” ) and kruuz ( “ cross ” ). - dutch speakers usually use a double vowel ( laand ) to show the length of a vowel in a closed syllable, german speakers use an h ( wahnen ). both use an e after an i. the difference can be seen in the spellings of the word which means " year ", which is pronounced either / jɒːɾ / or / jɔːɾ / or with / - ɐ / instead of / ɾ / : it is written as jaar and joar in dutch low saxon, but as jahr, johr or some variant thereof in germany. - influenced by standard high german, which capitalizes nouns


economic opportunities for women still lagging : world bank and oecd wednesday, september 24, 2008 in a recent study released by the world bank and the organization for economic cooperation and development ( oecd ), economic opportunities for women are still lagging behind opportunities for men in the developing world. improvements have been made in women health and education, according to the study. the study calls for investments totaling over us $ 13 billion a year to achieve gender equality and women empowerment. danny leipziger, world bank vice president for poverty reduction and economic management, said, " gender equality is key for poverty reduction and growth. progress on women ’ s education is essential but not enough if we don ’ t improve women ’ s access to good jobs and credit lines, to land ownership and to income - generating activities. " the study equality for women : where do we stand on millennium development goal 3? looks at the achievements made by the developing world as laid out by the millennium development goals ( md ). these goals are eight international development goals that 189 united nations member states and at least 23 international organizations have agreed to achieve by the year 2015. they include halving extreme poverty, reducing child mortality rates, fighting disease epidemics such as aids, and developing a global partnership for development. education has improved in 82 countries out of 122 and are on track to meet their md goals. however, 19 countries, 13 of which are in sub - saharan africa, are seriously off track to meet their target. the united nations will hold a conference on thursday at the annual session of the un in new york to discuss the millennium development goals. - press release : " mixed results towards gender equality, say world bank and oecd " — world bank, september 24, 2008 - " $ 13 bn a year needed to achieve gender equality : world bank " —, september 24, 2008


from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia | centuries : | | 18th century – 19th century – 20th century | | decades : | | 1840s 1850s 1860s – 1870s – 1880s 1890s 1900s | | years : | | 1874 1875 1876 – 1877 – 1878 1879 1880 | | 1877 in topic : | | archaeology – architecture – art – literature – music | | australia – canada – france – germany – mexico – philippines – south africa – us – uk | | rail transport – science – sports | | lists of leaders | | colonial governors – state leaders | | birth and death categories | | births – deaths | | establishments and disestablishments categories | | establishments – disestablishments | | ab urbe condita | | 2630 | | british regnal year | | 40 vict. 1 – 41 vict. 1 | — to — 年 十 一 月 日 | - vikram samvat | | 1933 – 1934 | | - shaka samvat | | 1799 – 1800 | | - kali yuga | | 4978 – 4979 | | - nri igbo | | 877 – 878 | | japanese calendar | | meiji 10 | juche calendar | | n / a ( before 1912 ) | | julian calendar | | gregorian minus 12 days | | minguo calendar | | 35 before roc | thai solar calendar | | 2420 | | wikimedia commons has media related to : 1877 | year 1877 ( mdccclxxvii ) was a common year starting on monday ( link will display the full calendar ) of the gregorian calendar and a common year starting on saturday of the 12 - day slower julian calendar. - january 1 – queen victoria is proclaimed empress of india by the royal titles act 1876, introduced by benjamin disraeli, the prime minister of the united kingdom. - january 8 – american indian wars – battle of wolf mountain : crazy horse and his warriors fight their last battle with the united states cavalry in montana. - january 20 – the conference of constantinople ends with ottoman turkey rejecting proposals of internal reform and balkan provisions. - january 29 – the satsuma rebellion, a revolt of disaffected samurai against the new imperial government. the rebellion lasted until september of that year. - february 12 – louis renault, founder of renault, is born in paris, france. - march – the nineteenth century magazine is founded in london. - march 2 – in the compromise of 1877, the u. s. presidential election, 1876 is resolved with


12 – louis renault, founder of renault, is born in paris, france. - march – the nineteenth century magazine is founded in london. - march 2 – in the compromise of 1877, the u. s. presidential election, 1876 is resolved with the selection of rutherford b. hayes as the winner, even though samuel j. tilden had won the popular vote on november 7, 1876. - march 4 - march 15 – 1877 australia v. england series : the first test cricket match is held between england and australia. - march 24 – for the only time in history, the boat race between the universities of cambridge and oxford is declared a " dead heat " ( i. e. a draw ). - april 12 – the united kingdom annexes the south african republic, violating the sand river convention of 1852 causing a new xhosa war. - april 24 – russo - turkish war, 1877 – 1878 : the russian empire declares war on the ottoman empire. - may 5 – american indian wars : sitting bull leads his band of lakota into canada to avoid harassment by the united states army under colonel nelson miles. - may 6 – realizing that his people are weakened by cold and hunger, chief crazy horse of the oglala sioux surrenders to united states troops in nebraska. - may 8 – 11 – at gilmore ' s gardens in new york city, the first westminster kennel club dog show is held. - may 16 – the may 16, 1877 political crisis occurs in france. - may 21 – ( may 9 o. s. ) – by a speech in the parliament of romania by mihail kogalniceanu, the country declares itself independent from the ottoman empire ( recognized in 1878 after the end of the romanian independence war ). - june 15 – henry ossian flipper becomes the first african american cadet to graduate from the united states military academy. - june 17 – american indian wars – battle of white bird canyon : the nez perce defeat the u. s. cavalry at white bird canyon in the idaho territory. - june 21 – the molly maguires are hanged at carbon county prison in mauch chunk, pennsylvania. - june 26 – the eruption of mount cotopaxi in ecuador causes severe mudflows that wipe out surrounding cities and valleys, killing 1, 000. - june 30 – the british mediterranean fleet is sent to besika bay. - july 9 – the all england lawn tennis and croquet club begins its first lawn tennis tournament at wimbledon. - july 16 – great railroad strike of