everyone to participate. " this committee is worlds away from its namesake set up after an earthquake destroyed the center of managua in 1972. " a national emergency committee, set up under president somoza ' s control and run by the national guard, institutionalized the misappropriation of emergency relief. realizing that relief supplies were being siphoned off and sold by the national guard, oxfam ' s field director talked mrs. somoza into giving permission to bypass the official distribution system. this meant waiting in the aircraft control tower for the right plane to be spotted, then careering onto the tarmac to get the trucks loaded before the national guard arrived on the scene. " * * from d. melrose, nicaragua : “ the threat of a good example, ” oxfam public affairs unit, oxfam, oxford, uk 1985, pp. 6 - 7 this time oxfam defends the government. in response to suggestions in the us that the sandinistas cannot be trusted, james dawson, oxfam ’ s director for overseas development, said, " we have worked with the government and would have no problem delivering aid through that channel. " non - meteorological attacksnational emergencies present a challenge to any government opposition ; it is hard to oppose government efforts to save lives, and organize relief and reconstruction. often more is to be gained by pitching in and helping ; the relief work of el salvador ' s fmln rebels after the 1986 earthquake is an example. but the reagan administration, the contras and some members of the internal opposition chose to actively obstruct relief efforts. shortly after joan ' s passage, the voice of america broadcast reports suggesting the " international community " doubted that aid money would be spent wisely. similar views, all without supporting evidence, have been widely aired by la prensa and contra radio stations beaming into nicaragua. as the first news came in, of the destruction in the atlantic coast, president ortega bridled at a us state department warning to his government not to commit human rights abuses during the state of emergency. " to speak this way with authority they must stop committing abuses like those they have committed over the last eight years against the nicaraguan people. " this brought another salvo from washington. richard weldon, president of operation california, a group organizing material aid to nicaraguan victims of the hurricane, told the los angeles times that the us government was deliberately hindering private aid efforts. " the air force frequently transports, for free, assistance collected by charitable organizations


president of operation california, a group organizing material aid to nicaraguan victims of the hurricane, told the los angeles times that the us government was deliberately hindering private aid efforts. " the air force frequently transports, for free, assistance collected by charitable organizations in catastrophes, ” weldon said, but “ this time they told us the political instructions were : ‘ no aid. ’ ” white house spokesman marlin fitzwater expressed fear that ortega ’ s government would use aid funds against the contras. the contras, for their part, ambushed a red cross ambulance taking a sick child from nueva guinea to juigalpa at about 1 am on saturday, october 22, just before the hurricane hit ; the driver and two passengers were wounded. it was the second ambulance attack in three days. the day before the hurricane hit bluefields, la prensa, in an editorial titled “ the militarization of the hurricane, ” countered the widespread calls for volunteer efforts in work - places and barrios, arguing that the civil defense efforts had been taken over by the “ frigid, bureaucratic, inefficient state military hq, which always arrives late and does things badly. ” three days later, the paper did an about - face : “ this is not the hour to be political, but to help the victims. ” it called for the establishment of a national commission made up of representatives from the government, the catholic church, opposition parties and cosep, the opposition business council. cosep, which stopped participating in the national emergency committee long before the hurricane, said it would not offer help unless asked officially. president ortega then reiterated that anyone who wished to participate could join the committee, including those business people who “ are truly ready to contribute to this emergency situation. ” indeed many sectors of nicaraguan society, including those opposed to the revolution, have joined forces with the government and contributed substantially to the relief drive, most notably the red cross, but also school children and explorers, the lions ' club, catholic and protestant churches. bishops barni and schlaefer, as well as cardinal obando, issued a call for their parishioners to aid ^ in relief work and reconstruction. meanwhile, contra attacks continue. the hurricane itself has wiped out many old contra targets such as bridges, schools and health centers, but now there are relief convoys and the important coffee harvest to disrupt. on the morning of october 29, in their worst attack since the signing of the sapoa peace accords on march 23, the


targets such as bridges, schools and health centers, but now there are relief convoys and the important coffee harvest to disrupt. on the morning of october 29, in their worst attack since the signing of the sapoa peace accords on march 23, the contras killed nine civilians traveling in a passenger bus near san juan del rio coco. the same day, they ambushed a military truck delivering food to hurricane victims in la esperanza, killing a soldier and wounding two young civilians. the honduran army stepped up attacks on the nicaraguan border, even attacking border posts the night the hurricane hit. on october 28, president ortega had issued a warning, based on intercepted radio reports, of the imminent incursion of 3, 000 newly outfitted contras into nicaragua, taking advantage of the disaster caused by the hurricane. reconstructionbeyond the immediate problems of having to feed, clothe and shelter almost 200, 000 homeless lies the need to rebuild. some of this work has already begun, even though a full assessment of the damage to the country ' s economic resources has still to be completed. enough is known to realize nicaragua ' s situation, in both the short and long term, is very grave. recovery depends on getting people back into production as quickly as possible. the two immediate priorities are getting the coffee out and getting the next planting of basic grains in. coffee exports bring in half the country ' s export earnings. but much of the coffee crop is grown in the central highlands where roads and bridges have been destroyed. the first job is to repair these so the crop can be brought out. the second task is to organize coffee - picking brigades from the cities and other parts of the country. to restore basic grain production in region v, the agricultural ministry plans to put together a simple package of seeds, tools and kitchen utensils for peasants so they can start sowing for the next harvest. the united nations ' food and agriculture organization will assist with 40 tons of beans for seed. the government can also be expected to provide abundant credit for farmers in regions v and vi. this will add to the inflationary impact of the hurricane but is needed to get fanners back into production quickly. both these priorities might delay housing replacement. dionisio marenco, head of the fsln ' s information department, has said that people on the atlantic coast may have to wait for a new house simply because without road repairs there will not be much of a coffee harvest, and without a coffee harvest there will never be replacement housing. president ortega expressed


s information department, has said that people on the atlantic coast may have to wait for a new house simply because without road repairs there will not be much of a coffee harvest, and without a coffee harvest there will never be replacement housing. president ortega expressed particular concern about the impact of the hurricane on nicaragua ' s ecological balance, given the devastation wrought on tropical forests, which may be lost forever. he issued a call for ecological experts and representatives of european parties concerned with the environment, such as the west german greens, to come evaluate the situation and offer plans for recovery. the government plans to continue using army trucks and air force helicopters and planes for relief work, although an upsurge in contra attacks may severely limit the availability of equipment and men. there are other restrictions on any rebuilding program for the atlantic coast. access is especially difficult. the road to rama has been damaged, the wharf at rama has been destroyed as have been many of the river boats, and if one could get to bluefields — where the wharf has also been damaged — there. are no warehouses to store goods. the major link is bluefields ’ small airstrip, but nicaragua has few planes with which to deliver supplies. consideration is being given to establishing a sea or air bridge between bluefields and puerto lim6n in costa rica. but where does the job begin in bluefields? there is neither electricity nor enough water. electrical generators and well - drilling gear are needed as are tents, food and storage facilities. the lack of basic facilities rules out the possibility of bringing outside teams in to mount a large - scale construction effort. on a larger scale there is the thorny question of the impact the hurricane has on this year ’ s economic reform packages. it could cause a reversal in the direction of the reforms, perhaps at considerable political cost to the government. the changes were intended to increase exports and agricultural production and to reduce the government ’ s deficit. the hurricane has damaged production and puts pressure on the government to increase its spending. it is possible, if production of basic grains falls drastically and the shortfall is not made up with donations, that nicaragua will have to retreat from its trend towards free market policies and return to rationing basic food supplies. other goals of the economic reforms may also have to be reversed. this would not just be economic fine - tuning. the harsh austerity measures of 1988 had been threatening for many years but had been delayed as long as possible to give the government the chance to consolidate its position, especially to take control of the contra war.


not just be economic fine - tuning. the harsh austerity measures of 1988 had been threatening for many years but had been delayed as long as possible to give the government the chance to consolidate its position, especially to take control of the contra war. to make the economic changes carried out this year, the government has had to mortgage some of its political popularity. the urban poor have been hit especially hard. if it now had to reverse direction, having inflicted the economic pain without much of the gain, the political cost would be greater. why this is an international disasterthe success of nicaragua ’ s civil defense effort in limiting the death toll presents it own problems. crudely speaking, there aren ’ t enough deaths to turn this into a gripping international disaster story. for many aid and development agencies, hurricane joan is just another natural disaster in a busy year for disasters — and, at that, not a particularly newsworthy one. and without a surge of international public sympathy, big relief funds are hard to gather. for nicaragua, joan is obviously not " just another disaster. ” and in several very important ways, this is not just another disaster for the rest of the world. the hurricane represents an enormous challenge for the nicaraguan revolution. at best, it will be overcome with the mix of commitment, principle and pragmatism that has become a sandinista trademark. at worst, the damage done by hurricane joan, coming on top of the war and the us embargo, threatens to do long - term damage to the revolution. this is a turning point. the nicaraguan people will take up the challenge but international aid agencies and solidarity groups also have essential contributions to make. the hurricane ' s effects go far beyond nicaragua. the survival * of the nicaraguan revolution is at stake, and the nicaraguan revolution occupies a special place on the world stage. although battered and bruised it is still struggling to develop a mixed economy, maintain political pluralism and to have, if not full independence, at least a diversified dependence on the larger and richer nations. nicaragua is not the " good example " it promised to be or may still become. it has been too undermined by the enormous cost of the war for that. but it remains an important symbol of the much wider struggle of small countries to take control of their own destiny. nicaragua is particularly significant to aid agencies because its government is committed to the interests of the majority. aid agencies and solidarity groups find themselves in the all too rare situation of working with, rather than against or apart from, a


control of their own destiny. nicaragua is particularly significant to aid agencies because its government is committed to the interests of the majority. aid agencies and solidarity groups find themselves in the all too rare situation of working with, rather than against or apart from, a government. a survey of the experience of western development agencies in nicaragua makes the point : " for many development agencies, the important difference in nicaragua today is that there is a considerable degree of coherence between their own development policy and that of the nicaraguan government. for both, the task of development includes meeting the basic needs of the poor majority of the population — in health, education, housing, and food production. " * aid agencies have been able to work with nicaragua ' s committed, not corrupted civil service in a relationship with the government quite different from the paternalistic relationships of the past. * aid that counts — the western contribution to development and survival in nicaragua, by solon barraclough, ariane van buren, alicia gariazzo, anjali sundaram and peter utting ; transnational institute ( holland ) and coordinadora regional de investigaciones economicas y sociales, pp. 98 - 101. hurricane joan puts at risk the ability of the nicaraguan revolution to carry out the dream of a better life for its people. a government with humane and equitable development policies has been threatened by seven years of war, trade and credit embargoes, and the flight of its professionals brought on by economic decline. without an outpouring of aid not only for relief but for development, the hurricane may be the burden that tips the balance. it destroys people ’ s lives and productive capacity, reverses the few economic advances made this year, puts an unbearable strain on family and government finances and threatens to rob people of hope. and if the nicaraguan people are robbed of hope, then we are all robbed of hope. that is why this big disaster in such small country will have an impact reaching far beyond its borders. juana, la huracana we have to pick up the pieces of everything that was destroyed. because this people was born to overcome hardship not to be overcome by it. — refrain of luis enrique mejia godoy ’ s hurricane song, written hours after the storm.


studies suggest that only 31 % of europe is thought to have a water supply that is either plentiful or sufficient to meet demands until 2015, and water stress indexes show a number of countries with traditionally wet climates such as belgium and bulgaria, under significant water stress. therefore, there is both a desire and a need to reduce the consumption of water over much of europe. for industry, often economics determine the viability of water recycling, which does not necessarily fall under the standards currently being set for the major water reuse schemes. while the additional annual recycling capacity in western europe is set to increase by 10 %, much of the global market is focussed on major reuse facilities based on the municipal sector. within the industrial sector there are opportunities to achieve major changes in the water cycle which can have a significant impact on total water consumption. the impact on regional water consumption by industries efforts can be massive, as industry accounts for 50 % of the water consumption in western europe. when benchmarked data across industry sectors is analysed, we find that industries ranging from paper mills, dairy, beverage, ceramic and electronics have opportunities to reduce their water consumption by around 50 %. but what are the mechanisms that drive actions in the industry water cycle, and how great can the impact be? this paper explores industrial water costs across europe, and the drivers leading to reduced water consumption. as operators of water and wastewater facilities for many industrial customers across europe, ondeo industrial solutions examine the raw water costs and the viability of recycle schemes. economics is not the only driver towards the reduction in water consumption on industrial sites. there are political and legislative drivers that can often override the economics such as the european ppc ( pollution prevention and control ) directive that can often lead to a programme of water consumption reductions. water science and technology : water supply is published as an adjunct to water science and technology, in 6 issues per year, covering new developments in water supply. papers are selected by a rigorous peer review procedure and the journal publi » read more


a diverse fauna is also found in this relatively high rainfall region. however, the region around perth is heavily developed and much of this region has already been cleared. while there are several large protected areas in the region, continued development, habitat fragmentation, dieback disease, and inappropriate fire regimes are serious threats. location and general description south of perth down to cape naturaliste, the swan coastal plain forms a low - lying belt 25 kilometers ( km ) to 30 km wide, bordered to the east by the darling scarp and the precambrian yilgarn block. the swan coastal plain is covered by shoreline and associated dune deposits from the pleistocene and holocene that overlie paleozoic and neogene deposits of the perth basin. the plain also includes large microtidal estuarine systems, such as the swan - canning estuary and a number of lakes cut off from the sea by barrier dunes. the swan coastal plain is transected by rivers flowing west from the darling plateau, and interspersed by wetlands. progressing inland from the coast, coastal dunes with scrub - heath communities give way to woodlands. kwongan ( an aboriginal term for heath - like vegetation ), eucalypt, and banksia low woodlands occur on the soils of the coastal dunes. generally, kwongan scrub heath grows on sandy plains and swales and on lateritic upland soils while mallee eucalyptus woodland grows on duplex soils of upper valley slopes. open heath favors drier areas, while a better water table allows the development of eucalypt shrubs. scrub - heath species include banksia attenuata and b. menziesii with casuarina spp. and e. todtiana. christmas trees ( nuytsia floribunda ) become locally dominant in drier areas. shrubs are present, largely in wetter areas, with acacia, adenanthos, banksia, casuarina, dryandra, grevillea, and hakea species found here. eucalypt woodlands can be found on the sandy loams, loams, and heavy loams on lower slopes and valley floors. tall tuart ( eucalyptus gomphocephala ) forests grow at the southern end of the swan coastal plain. tuart usually occurs in monospecific stands, but can also be found with e. decipiens and / or e. cornuta. in the south, pure stands grow with peppermint ( agonis flexuosa ), while in the north, peppermint is


garden island. in western australia the tammar wallaby lives among bushes of gastrolobium bilobum, a fire - dependent, nitrogen - fixing legume that allows the growth of grasses, which are rare in the southwestern forested regions. tammar wallabies feed on these grasses. rottnest island lies 18 kilometers ( km ) offshore of perth and harbors a stable population of quokkas ( setonix brachyurus vu ), probably because there are no foxes. heathland and wildflower habitats contain a rich avifauna, especially among the honey - eaters. other birds found in this ecoregion include the western thornbill ( acanthiza inornata ), and the short - billed black - cockatoo ( calyptorhynchus latirostris en ) which inhabits sandplain woodlands and mallee, and the long - billed black - cockatoo ( calyptorhynchus baudinii ) which is found in open eucalypt woodland and farmland. seasonal wetlands ( dry in the summer and wet in winter ) are the most diverse habitat on the swan coastal plain, and 16 out of 30 major floristic communities occur in wetlands. coastal and near - coastal areas the next richest, containing 7 major communities. the junction between the swan coastal plain and the darling scarp is biologically diverse with relatively fertile soils, granite outcrops, and unusual clay - based ephemeral swamps. these swamps provide habitat for the critically endangered western swamp tortoise ( pseudemydura umbrina ) which is found only in this ecoregion and may be australia ' s rarest reptile. it appears to be restricted to shallow, ephemeral swamps over the clay soils of the swan river valley. the region around perth is known for a diverse herpetofauna, including 16 frogs, two freshwater turtles, 51 lizards, and 24 snakes. nearly 80 percent of the swan coastal plain has been cleared. sandplain heathlands near perth have almost entirely been converted as the urban center expands. urban expansion reaches as far east as the darling scarp and has spread in a north - south direction as well. a number of swan coastal plain woodland communities are listed as endangered under the commonwealth environment protection and biodiversity conservation act : marri ( eucalyptus calophylla ) – kingia ( kingia australis ) woodlands on heavy soils, marri ( eucalyptus calophylla ) – grass tree ( xant


endangered under the commonwealth environment protection and biodiversity conservation act : marri ( eucalyptus calophylla ) – kingia ( kingia australis ) woodlands on heavy soils, marri ( eucalyptus calophylla ) – grass tree ( xanthorrhoea preissii ) woodlands, and shrublands, shrublands, and woodlands of the eastern swan coastal plain, shrublands and woodlands on muchea limestone of the swan coastal plain, and shrublands and woodlands on perth to gingin ironstone. protected areas in this ecoregion include the hills forest conservation area which comprises five national parks ( john forrest, gooseberry hill, greenmount, kalamunda, and lesmurdie falls ) and the mount dale conservation park. this ecoregion has a lower percentage of land in protected areas than the jarrah - karri forest and shrublands and southwest australia woodlands ecoregions. types and severity of threats continuing urban expansion and human use are severe threats. proteaceae are susceptible to dieback disease caused by phytophthora spp, and its spread through the wildflower heathlands is a serious concern. too frequent fires may significantly alter plant species distributions. fires poses a different threat on the coastal plain than they do in forests ; on the coastal plain they are commonly the agent for woodland invasion by weeds. justification of ecoregion delineation this ecoregion occupies the swan coastal plain, bounded by the ocean to the west and by the yilgarn block to the east. it has the same boundary as the ' swan coastal plain ' interim biogeographic region of australia ( ibra ). additional information on this ecoregion - for a shorter summary of this entry, see the wwf wildworld profile of this ecoregion. - to see the species that live in this ecoregion, including images and threat levels, see the wwf wildfinder description of this ecoregion. - world wildlife fund homepage - beadle, n. c. w. 1981. the vegetation of australia. cambridge university press, cambridge, united kingdom. isbn : 0521241952 - beard, j. s. 1995. south - west botanical province. pages 484 – 489 in s. d. davis, v. h. heywood and a. c. hamilton. editors. centres of plant diversity. volume 2. asia, australasia, and the pacific. wwf / iucn, iucn publications unit, cambridge, uk. isbn : 2831701988 - cogger, h., e. cameron, r.


of plant diversity. volume 2. asia, australasia, and the pacific. wwf / iucn, iucn publications unit, cambridge, uk. isbn : 2831701988 - cogger, h., e. cameron, r. sadlier, and p. eggler. 1993. the action plan for australian reptiles. australian nature conservation agency. sydney, australia. - environment australia. 2001. land management : firewood, woodlands. department of the environment and water resources. viewed on october 10, 2001. - hilton - taylor, c. 2000. the iucn 2000 red list of threatened species. iucn, gland, switzerland and cambridge, united kingdom. isbn : 2831705657 - hopper, s. d., m. s. harvey, j. a. chappill, a. r. main, and b. y. main. 1996. the western australian biota as gondwanan heritage – a review. pages 1 - 46 in s. d. hopper, j. a. chappill, m. s. harvey, and a. s. george, editors. gondwanan heritage : past, present, and future of the western australian biota. surrey beatty & sons, chipping norton, australia. isbn : 0949324663 - johnson, b. and c. thomson. 1996. mammals of the south - west. department of conservation and land management, como, western australia, australia. - thackway, r. and i. d. cresswell. editors. 1995. an interim biogeographic regionalisation for australia : a framework for setting priorities in the national reserves system cooperative program. australian nature conservation agency, canberra. - wardell - johnson, g. and p. horwitz. 1996. conserving biodiversity and the recognition of heterogeneity in ancient landscapes : a case study from south - western australia. forest ecology and management 85 : 219 – 238. - wisheu, i. c., m. l. rosenzweig, l. olsvig - whittaker, and a. shmida. 2000. what makes nutrient - poor mediterranean heathlands so rich in plant diversity? evolutionary ecology research 2 : 935 – 955. - white, m. e. 1994. after the greening : the browning of australia. kangaroo press, kenthurst, new south wales, australia. isbn : 086417585x - yates, c. j.,


an earthquake is a sudden vibration or trembling in the earth. more than 150, 000 tremors strong enough to be felt by humans occur each year worldwide ( see chance of an earthquake ). earthquake motion is caused by the quick release of stored potential energy into the kinetic energy of motion. most earthquakes are produced along faults, tectonic plate boundary zones, or along the mid - oceanic ridges ( figures 1 and 2 ). figure 1 : distribution of earthquake epicenters from 1975 to 1995. depth of the earthquake focus is indicated by color. deep earthquakes occur in areas where oceanic crust is being actively subducted. about 90 % of all earthquakes occur at a depth between 0 and 100 kilometers. ( source : u. s. geologic survey, national earthquake information center ) figure 2 : distribution of earthquakes with a magnitude less than 5. 0 relative to the various tectonic plates found on the earth ' s surface. each tectonic plate has been given a unique color. this illustration indicates that the majority of small earthquakes occur along plate boundaries. ( source : physicalgeography. net ) at these areas, large masses of rock that are moving past each other can become locked due to friction. friction is overcome when the accumulating stress has enough force to cause a sudden slippage of the rock masses. the magnitude of the shock wave released into the surrounding rocks is controlled by the quantity of stress built up because of friction, the distance the rock moved when the slippage occurred, and ability of the rock to transmit the energy contained in the seismic waves. the san francisco earthquake of 1906 involved a six meter horizontal displacement of bedrock. sometime after the main shock wave, aftershocks can occur because of the continued release of frictional stress. most aftershocks are smaller than the main earthquake, but they can still cause considerable damage to already weakened natural and human - constructed features. earthquakes that occur under or near bodies of water can give rise to tsunamis, which in cases like the december 26, 2004 sumatra - andaman island earthquake reult in far greater distruction and loss of life that the initial earthquake. earthquakes are a form of wave energy that is transferred through bedrock. motion is transmitted from the point of sudden energy release, the earthquake focus ( hypocenter ), as spherical seismic waves that travel in all directions outward ( figure 3 ). the point on the earth ' s surface directly above the focus is termed the epicenter. two different types of seismic waves have been described by geologists : body waves and surface waves


spherical seismic waves that travel in all directions outward ( figure 3 ). the point on the earth ' s surface directly above the focus is termed the epicenter. two different types of seismic waves have been described by geologists : body waves and surface waves. body waves are seismic waves that travel through the lithosphere. two kinds of body waves exist : p - waves and s - waves. both of these waves produce a sharp jolt or shaking. p - waves or primary waves are formed by the alternate expansion and contraction of bedrock and cause the volume of the material they travel through to change. they travel at a speed of about 5 to 7 kilometers per second through the lithosphere and about 8 kilometers per second in the asthenosphere. the speed of sound is about 0. 30 kilometers per second. p - waves also have the ability to travel through solid, liquid, and gaseous materials. when some p - waves move from the ground to the lower atmosphere, the sound wave that is produced can sometimes be heard by humans and animals. figure 3 : movement of body waves away from the focus of the earthquake. the epicenter is the location on the surface directly above the earthquake ' s focus. ( source : physicalgeography. net ) s - waves or secondary waves are a second type of body wave. these waves are slower than p - waves and can only move through solid materials. s - waves are produced by shear stresses and move the materials they pass through in a perpendicular ( up and down or side to side ) direction. surface waves travel at or near the earth ' s surface. these waves produce a rolling or swaying motion causing the earth ' s surface to behave like waves on the ocean. the velocity of these waves is slower than body waves. despite their slow speed, these waves are particularly destructive to human construction because they cause considerable ground movement. earthquake magnitude and energy | table 1 : relationship between richter scale magnitude and energy released. | | 2. 0 | | 1. 3 x 108 | | smallest earthquake detectable by people. | | 5. 0 | | 2. 8 x 1012 | | energy released by the hiroshima atomic bomb. | | 6. 0 - 6. 9 | | 7. 6 x 1013 to 1. 5 x 1015 | | about 120 shallow earthquakes of this magnitude occur each year on the earth. | 6. 7 | | 7. 7 x 1014 | | northridge, california earthquake january 17, 1994. | | 7. 0 | | 2


1015 | | about 120 shallow earthquakes of this magnitude occur each year on the earth. | 6. 7 | | 7. 7 x 1014 | | northridge, california earthquake january 17, 1994. | | 7. 0 | | 2. 1 x 1015 | | major earthquake threshold. haiti earthquake of january 12, 2010 resulted in an estmated 222, 570 deaths | | 7. 4 | | 7. 9 x 1015 | | turkey earthquake august 17, 1999. more than 12, 000 people killed. | | 7. 6 | | 1. 5 x 1016 | | deadliest earthquake in the last 100 years. tangshan, china, july 28, 1976. approximately 255, 000 people perished. | | 8. 3 | | 1. 6 x 1017 | | san francisco earthquake of april 18, 1906. | | 9. 0 | | japan earthquake march 11, 2011 | | 9. 1 | | 4. 3 x 1018 | | december 26, 2004 sumatra earthquake which triggered a tsunami and resulted in 227, 898 deaths spread across fourteen countries | | 9. 5 | | 8. 3 x 1018 | | most powerful earthquake recorded in the last 100 years. southern chile on may 22, 1960. claimed 3, 000 lives. | the strength of an earthquake can be measured by a device called a seismograph. when an earthquake occurs this device converts the wave energy into a standard unit of measurement like the richter scale. in the richter scale, units of measurement are referred to as magnitudes. the richter scale is logarithmic. thus, each unit increase in magnitude represents 10 times more energy released. table 1 describes the relationship between richter scale magnitude and energy released. the following equation can be used to approximate the amount of energy released from an earthquake in joules when richter magnitude ( m ) is known : energy in joules = 1. 74 x 10 ( 5 + 1. 44 * m ) figures 4 and 5 describe the spatial distribution of small and large earthquakes respectively. these maps indicate that large earthquakes have distributions that are quite different from small events. many large earthquakes occur some distance away from a plate boundary. some geologists believe that these powerful earthquakes may be occurring along ancient faults that are buried deep in the continental crust. recent seismic studies in the central united states have discovered one such fault located thousands of meters below the lower mississippi valley. some large earthquakes occur at particular locations along the plate boundaries. scientists believe that these areas represent zones along adjacent plates that have


continental crust. recent seismic studies in the central united states have discovered one such fault located thousands of meters below the lower mississippi valley. some large earthquakes occur at particular locations along the plate boundaries. scientists believe that these areas represent zones along adjacent plates that have greater frictional resistance and stress. figure 4 : distribution of earthquakes with a magnitude less than 5 on the richter scale. ( image source : physicalgeography. net ) figure 5 : distribution of earthquakes with a magnitude greater than 7 on the richter scale. ( image source : physicalgeography. net ) the richter scale magnitude, while the most known, is one of several measures of the magnitude of an earthquake. the most commonly used are : - local magnitude ( ml ), commonly referred to as " richter magnitude ; " - surface - wave magnitude ( ms ) ; - body - wave magnitude ( mb ) ; and - moment magnitude ( mw ). scales 1 to 3 have limited range and applicability and do not satisfactorily measure the size of the largest earthquakes. the moment magnitude ( mw ) scale, based on the concept of seismic moment, is uniformly applicable to all sizes of earthquakes but is more difficult to compute than the other types. all magnitude scales should yield approximately the same value for any given earthquake. the severity of an earthquake can be expressed in terms of both intensity and magnitude. however, the two terms are quite different, and they are often confused. intensity is based on the observed effects of ground shaking on people, buildings, and natural features. it varies from place to place within the disturbed region depending on the location of the observer with respect to the earthquake epicenter while magnitude is related to the amount of seismic energy released at the hypocenter of the earthquake. although numerous intensity scales have been developed over the last several hundred years to evaluate the effects of earthquakes, the one currently used in the united states is the modified mercalli ( mm ) intensity scale. the lower numbers of the intensity scale generally deal with the manner in which the earthquake is felt by people. the higher numbers of the scale are based on observed structural damage. structural engineers usually contribute information for assigning intensity values of vlll or above. the following is an abbreviated description of the 12 levels of modified mercalli intensity. i. not felt except by a very few under especially favorable conditions. ii. felt only by a few persons at rest, especially on upper floors of buildings. delicately suspended objects may swing. iii. felt quite noticeably by persons indoors, especially on upper floors of


not felt except by a very few under especially favorable conditions. ii. felt only by a few persons at rest, especially on upper floors of buildings. delicately suspended objects may swing. iii. felt quite noticeably by persons indoors, especially on upper floors of buildings. many people do not recognize it as an earthquake. standing motor cars may rock slightly. vibration similar to the passing of a truck. duration estimated. iv. felt indoors by many, outdoors by few during the day. at night, some awakened. dishes, windows, doors disturbed ; walls make cracking sound. sensation like heavy truck striking building. standing motor cars rocked noticeably. v. felt by nearly everyone ; many awakened. some dishes, windows broken. unstable objects overturned. pendulum clocks may stop. vl. felt by all, many frightened. some heavy furniture moved ; a few instances of fallen plaster. damage slight. vll. damage negligible in buildings of good design and construction ; slight to moderate in well - built ordinary structures ; considerable damage in poorly built or badly designed structures ; some chimneys broken. vlll. damage slight in specially designed structures ; considerable damage in ordinary substantial buildings with partial collapse. damage great in poorly built structures. fall of chimneys, factory stacks, columns, monuments, walls. heavy furniture overturned. ix. damage considerable in specially designed structures ; well - designed frame structures thrown out of plumb. damage great in substantial buildings, with partial collapse. buildings shifted off foundations. x. some well - built wooden structures destroyed ; most masonry and frame structures destroyed with foundations. rails bent. xl. few, if any ( masonry ) structures remain standing. bridges destroyed. rails bent greatly. xll. damage total. lines of sight and level are distorted. objects thrown into the air. earthquake damage and destruction earthquakes are a considerable hazard to humans. earthquakes can cause destruction by structurally damaging buildings and dwellings, fires, tsunamis, and mass wasting ( see figures 6 to 10 ). earthquakes can also take human lives. the amount of damage and loss of life depends on a number of factors. some of the more important factors are : - time of day. higher losses of life tend to occur on weekdays between the hours of 9 : 00 am to 4 : 00 pm. during this time interval many people are in large buildings because of work or school. large structures are often less safe than smaller homes in an earthquake. - magnitude of the earthquake and duration of the event. - distance form the earthquake ' s focus. the strength of the shock waves diminish


large buildings because of work or school. large structures are often less safe than smaller homes in an earthquake. - magnitude of the earthquake and duration of the event. - distance form the earthquake ' s focus. the strength of the shock waves diminish with distance from the focus. - geology of the area affected and soil type. some rock types transmit seismic wave energy more readily. buildings on solid bedrock tend to receive less damage. unconsolidated rock and sediments have a tendency to increase the amplitude and duration of the seismic waves increasing the potential for damage. some soil types when saturated become liquefied ( figure 6 ). - type of building construction. some building materials and designs are more susceptible to earthquake damage ( figure 7 ). - population density. more people often means greater chance of injury and death. the greatest loss of life because of an earthquake this century occurred in tangshan, china in 1976 when an estimated 250, 000 people died. in 1556, a large earthquake in the shanxi province of china was estimated to have caused the death of about 1, 000, 000 people. a common problem associated with earthquakes in urban areas is fire ( figure 8 ). shaking and ground displacement often causes the severing of electrical and gas lines leading to the development of many localized fires. response to this problem is usually not effective because shock waves also rupture pipes carrying water. in the san francisco earthquake of 1906, almost 90 % of the damage to buildings was caused by fire. in mountainous regions, earthquake - provoked landslides can cause many deaths and severe damage to built structures ( figure 9 ). the town of yungay, peru was buried by a debris flow that was triggered by an earthquake that occurred on may 31, 1970. this disaster engulfed the town in seconds with mud, rock, ice, and water and took the lives of about 20, 000 people. another consequence of earthquakes is the generation of tsunamis ( figure 10 ). tsunamis, or tidal waves, form when an earthquake triggers a sudden movement of the seafloor. this movement creates a wave in the water body which radiates outward in concentric shells. on the open ocean, these waves are usually no higher than one to three meters in height and travel at speed of about 750 kilometers per hour. tsunamis become dangerous when they approach land. frictional interaction of the waves with the ocean floor, as they near shore, causes the waves to slow down and collide into each other. this amalgamation of waves then produces a super wave


per hour. tsunamis become dangerous when they approach land. frictional interaction of the waves with the ocean floor, as they near shore, causes the waves to slow down and collide into each other. this amalgamation of waves then produces a super wave that can be as tall as 65 meters in height. the us geological survey estimate that at least 1, 783 deaths worldwide resulted from earthquake activity in 2009. in 2010, the number rose to 226, 729 as the result of 222, 570 people killed by the jauary 12, 2010 earthquake in haiti. the deadliest earthquake of 2009 was a magnitude 7. 5 event that killed approximately 1, 117 people in southern sumatra, indonesia on sept. 30, according to the u. s. geological survey ( usgs ) and confirmed by the united nations office for coordination of humanitarian affairs ( ocha ). however, the number of earthquake - related fatalities in 2009 was far less than the 2008 count of over 88, 000. the high number of fatalities in 2008 was primarily due to the devastating magnitude 7. 9 earthquake that occurred in sichuan, china on may 12. although unrelated, the sept. 30 indonesian earthquake occurred a day after the year ’ s strongest earthquake, a magnitude 8. 1 on sept. 29 in the samoa islands region. tsunamis generated by that earthquake killed 192 people in american samoa, samoa and tonga. a magnitude 6. 3 earthquake hit the medieval city of l ’ aquila in central italy on april 6, killing 295 people. overall, earthquakes took the lives of people in 15 countries on four continents during 2009, including afghanistan, bhutan, china, costa rica, greece, indonesia, italy, kazakhstan, honduras, japan, malawi, samoa, south africa and tonga, as well as the u. s. territory of american samoa. earthquakes injured people in 11 additional countries, including the mainland united states, where a magnitude 4. 4 earthquake on may 2 injured one person in the los angeles area. the biggest 2009 earthquake in the 50 united states was in the aleutian islands of alaska. the magnitude 6. 5 earthquake occurred in the fox islands on oct. 13. it was felt at the towns of akutan and unalaska, but caused no casualties or damage. the greatest earthquake for the year in the contiguous united states was a magnitude 5. 2 event on october 2 in the owens valley southeast of lone pine, california. because of the sparse population in the epicentral area, this quake caused no damage although it was felt as far away as


the contiguous united states was a magnitude 5. 2 event on october 2 in the owens valley southeast of lone pine, california. because of the sparse population in the epicentral area, this quake caused no damage although it was felt as far away as merced and los angeles, california and las vegas, nevada. a magnitude 9. 1 sumatra - andaman island earthquake and subsequent tsunami on december 26, 2004 killed 227, 898 people, which is the fourth largest casualty toll for earthquakes and the largest toll for a tsunami in recorded history. as a consequence of that earthquake, the usgs has significantly improved its earthquake notification and response capabilities. improvements include the addition of nine real - time seismic stations across the caribbean basin, a seismic and tsunami prone region near the u. s. southern border, implementation of a 24x7 earthquake operations center at the usgs national earthquake information center ( neic ), and development of innovative tools for rapid evaluation of population exposure and damage to potentially damaging earthquakes. the usgs estimates that several million earthquakes occur throughout the world each year, although most go undetected because they hit remote areas or have very small magnitudes. the usgs neic publishes the locations for about 40 earthquakes per day, or about 14, 500 annually, using a publication threshold of magnitude 4. 5 or greater worldwide or 2. 5 or greater within the united states. on average, only 18 of these earthquakes occur at a magnitude of 7. 0 or higher each year. in the 2009 year, 17 earthquakes reached a magnitude of 7. 0 or higher, with a single one topping a magnitude of 8. 0. these statistics for large magnitude earthquakes are higher than those of 2008, which experienced only 12 earthquakes over magnitude 7. 0 and none over 8. 0. factors such as the size of an earthquake, the location and depth of the earthquake relative to population centers, and fragility of buildings, utilities and roads all influence how earthquakes will affect nearby communities. table 2. notable earthquakes and their estimated magnitude | january 23, 1556 | | | august 17, 1668 | | | november 1, 1755 | | | december 16, 1857 | | | october 27, 1891 | | | june 15, 1896 | | | april 18, 1906 | | 3, 000 | | 7. 8 | | august 17, 1906 | | | december 28, 1908 | | | december 16, 1920 | | | september 1, 1923 | | | may 22, 1927 | | | january 13, 1934 | | | december 26


| 7. 8 | | august 17, 1906 | | | december 28, 1908 | | | december 16, 1920 | | | september 1, 1923 | | | may 22, 1927 | | | january 13, 1934 | | | december 26, 1939 | | | february 29, 1960 | | | may 22, 1960 | | | march 28, 1964 | | prince william sound, ak | may 31, 1970 | | | july 27, 1976 | | | september 19, 1985 | | | december 7, 1988 | | | august 17, 1999 | | | january 26, 2001 | | | december 26, 2003 | | | december 26, 2004 | | off west coast northern sumatra | october 8, 2005 | | | may 26, 2006 | | | may 12, 2008 | | eastern sichuan, china | january 12, 2010 | | near port - au - prince, haiti | march 11, 2011 | | pacific ocean, east of oshika peninsula, japan * fatalities in the 1976 tangshan, china earthquake were estimated as high as 655, 000. source : preferred magnitudes of selected significant earthquakes, usgs, 2010 ( with additions on two most recent major earthquakes in haiti and japan. the following links provide some more information about earthquakes. - american geophysical union ( agu ) - animation of p, s & surface waves - animations of seismology fundamentals - association of american state geologists ( aasg ) - association of bay area governments ( abag ) - california geological survey ( cgs ) - california office of emergency services ( oes ) - california seismic safety commission - center for earthquake research & information ( ceri ) - central united states earthquake consortium ( cusec ) - consortium of universities for research in earthquake engineering ( curee ) - cosmos virtual data center - crew - cascadia region earthquake workgroup - earthquake engineering research institute ( eeri ) - earthquake information for 2009, usgs - earthquake information for 2010, usgs - earthquake monitoring - earthquakes - online university - earthquakes by bruce a. bolt online companion - earthquakes cause over 1700 deaths in 2009, usgs - earth science education activities - european - mediterranean seismological centre - fema - federal emergency management agency - finite - source rupture model database - global earthquake explorer - gsa - geological society of america - incorporated research institutes for seismology ( iris ) - international association of seismology and physics of the earth ' s interior ( iaspei ) - international seismological centre ( is


global earthquake explorer - gsa - geological society of america - incorporated research institutes for seismology ( iris ) - international association of seismology and physics of the earth ' s interior ( iaspei ) - international seismological centre ( isc ) - john lahr ' s earthquake website - mcconnell, d., d. steer, c. knight, k. owens, and l. park. 2010. the good earth. 2nd edition. mcgraw - hill, dubuque, iowa. - mid - america earthquake center - multi - disciplinary center for earthquake engineering research ( mceer ) - national geophysical data center ( ngdc ) - noaa - national information centre of earthquake engineering ( nicee ) - national science foundation ( nsf ) - natural hazards center - northern california earthquake data center - observatories and research facilities for european seismology ( orfeus ) - plummer, c., d. carlson, and l. hammersle. 2010. physical geology. 13th edition. mcgraw - hill, dubuque, iowa. - project ida - quake - catcher network - saint louis university earthquake center - seattle fault earthquake scenario - seismographs : keeping track of earthquakes - seismological society of america ( ssa ) - seismo - surfing the internet for earthquake data - smithsonian global volcanism program - sopac ( scripps orbit and permanent array center ) - southern california earthquake center ( scec ) - tarbuck, e. j., f. k. lutgens, and d. tasa. 2009. earth science. 12th edition. prentice hall, upper saddle river, new jersey. - tectonics observatory - tracing earthquakes : seismology in the classroom - upseis seismology questions answered - usgs earthquake hazards program, u. s. geological survey - western states seismic policy council ( wsspc ) - world data center system - world organization of volcano observatories - world seismic safety initiative ( wssi )


westchester, ill. – a childhood sleep - related breathing disorder ( srbd ) is known to have negative consequences on cognitive development, behavior, quality of life and utilization of health care resources. however, a research abstract that will be presented monday at sleep 2007, the 21st annual meeting of the associated professional sleep societies ( apss ), finds that breastfeeding may provide long - term protection against the incidence or severity of a childhood srbd. the study, conducted by hawley e. montgomery - downs, phd, of west virginia university, focused on the parents of those children who underwent overnight polysomnography, who filled out a brief survey about whether the child had been breast, formula or both breast and formula fed as an infant. there were 197 surveys completed. the average age of the children at the time of polysomnography was 6. 7 years. fifty - two percent of them were formula fed, 10 percent breast fed and 38 percent both breast and formula fed as infants. it was discovered that children who were breast fed for at least two months as infants had lower rates and less severe measures of an srbd, and that breast feeding beyond two months provided additional benefits for reduced disorder severity. " prevention of a childhood sleep - related breathing disorder is critically important because the approximately three percent of children who are unable to breathe well while sleeping suffer from frequent sleep interruption and intermittent hypoxia that negatively impacts their cardiovascular function, cognitive development, behavior, quality of life, and utilization of healthcare resources, " said dr montgomery - downs. " the benefits of breast feeding in our study may be due to the protection against early viral infection that breast feeding provides, or they may be due to the healthful jaw formation that is a result of breast feeding. investigation of these mechanisms will be the topics of future work. the current findings support another benefit of infant breast feeding. " an srbd may be a problem in more than 10 percent of children. it occurs when the airway is partially blocked during sleep. the most common example is snoring. the most severe form of an srbd is obstructive sleep apnea. it occurs in about one percent to two percent of children. parents who suspect that their child might be suffering from an srbd, or another sleep disorder, are encouraged to consult with their child ' s pediatrician, who will refer them to a sleep specialist. the annual sleep meeting brings together an international body of 5, 000 leading researchers and clinicians in the field of sleep


jamaican sprinter usain bolt ' s record - setting performances have unleashed a wave of interest in the ultimate limits to human running speed. a new study published in the journal of applied physiology offers intriguing insights into the biology and perhaps even the future of human running speed. the newly published evidence identifies the critical variable imposing the biological limit to running speed, and offers an enticing view of how the biological limits might be pushed back beyond the nearly 28 miles per hour speeds achieved by bolt to speeds of perhaps 35 or even 40 miles per hour. the new paper, " the biological limits to running speed are imposed from the ground up, " was authored by peter weyand of southern methodist university ; rosalind sandell and danille prime, both formerly of rice university ; and matthew bundle of the university of wyoming. " the prevailing view that speed is limited by the force with which the limbs can strike the running surface is an eminently reasonable one, " said weyand, associate professor of applied physiology and biomechanics at smu in dallas. " if one considers that elite sprinters can apply peak forces of 800 to 1, 000 pounds with a single limb during each sprinting step, it ' s easy to believe that runners are probably operating at or near the force limits of their muscles and limbs, " he said. " however, our new data clearly show that this is not the case. despite how large the running forces can be, we found that the limbs are capable of applying much greater ground forces than those present during top - speed forward running. " in contrast to a force limit, what the researchers found was that the critical biological limit is imposed by time - – specifically, the very brief periods of time available to apply force to the ground while sprinting. in elite sprinters, foot - ground contact times are less than one - tenth of one second, and peak ground forces occur within less than one - twentieth of one second of the first instant of foot - ground contact. the researchers took advantage of several experimental tools to arrive at the new conclusions. they used a high - speed treadmill capable of attaining speeds greater than 40 miles per hour and of acquiring precise measurements of the forces applied to the surface with each footfall. they also had subjects ' perform at high speeds in different gaits. in addition to completing traditional top - speed forward running tests, subjects hopped on one leg and ran backward to their fastest possible speeds on the treadmill. the unconventional tests were strategically selected to test the prevailing beliefs about mechanical factors that limit human


gaits. in addition to completing traditional top - speed forward running tests, subjects hopped on one leg and ran backward to their fastest possible speeds on the treadmill. the unconventional tests were strategically selected to test the prevailing beliefs about mechanical factors that limit human running speeds – - specifically, the idea that the speed limit is imposed by how forcefully a runner ' s limbs can strike the ground. however, the researchers found that the ground forces applied while hopping on one leg at top speed exceeded those applied during top - speed forward running by 30 percent or more, and that the forces generated by the active muscles within the limb were roughly 1. 5 to 2 times greater in the one - legged hopping gait. the time limit conclusion was supported by the agreement of the minimum foot - ground contact times observed during top - speed backward and forward running. although top backward vs. forward speeds were substantially slower, as expected, the minimum periods of foot - ground contact at top backward and forward speeds were essentially identical. according to matthew bundle, an assistant professor of biomechanics at the university of wyoming, " the very close agreement in the briefest periods of foot - ground contact at top speed in these two very different gaits points to a biological limit on how quickly the active muscle fibers can generate the forces necessary to get the runner back up off the ground during each step. " the researchers said the new work shows that running speed limits are set by the contractile speed limits of the muscle fibers themselves, with fiber contractile speeds setting the limit on how quickly the runner ' s limb can apply force to the running surface. " our simple projections indicate that muscle contractile speeds that would allow for maximal or near - maximal forces would permit running speeds of 35 to 40 miles per hour and conceivably faster, " bundle said. peter weyand is an associate professor of applied physiology and biomechanics in smu ' s annette caldwell simmons school of education & human development. matthew bundle is an assistant professor of biomechanics in the college of health sciences at the university of wyoming. aaas and eurekalert! are not responsible for the accuracy of news releases posted to eurekalert! by contributing institutions or for the use of any information through the eurekalert! system.


investigate your indoor air quality you worry about smog and outdoor air pollutants, but do you give indoor air quality a second thought? in the air we breathe outdoors, we know that smog and other pollutants are a big cause for concern. but don ' t assume that the air quality inside your home is perfectly safe. a number of chemicals found in the home can pollute the air, making indoor air quality testing essential for a healthy home. the clues : signs of indoor air quality problems how do you know if you should be concerned about your indoor air quality? look for these common warning signs that may indicate you have indoor air pollutants : - you feel sick at home and better when you ’ re away. - you ’ ve noticed problems, even just extra dirt, around heating or cooling units. - air doesn ’ t seem to be circulating properly in the house. - you spot mold in your home. - your indoor air is humid, resulting in condensation. - there ’ s been damage to a chimney or flue. - your home ’ s construction is too tight. - you ’ ve noticed changes in your health after renovating or remodeling. - the air in your home always smells old or stuffy. - there ’ s an odor in the air that you can ' t get rid of. if you suspect you have an issue with indoor air quality, you can perform tests to see if specific air pollutants are infiltrating your home and possibly affecting your health. improve the air quality in your home year - round with these seasonal tasks. the culprits : potential air pollutants before you test your indoor air quality, you need to know what you ' re looking for. here are some of the most common indoor air pollutants that could be contaminating your home : - lead and lead dust - household chemicals - dust and molds - pet hair and dander - rodents and cockroaches the sources : where indoor air pollutants originate there are many ways that air pollutants can contaminate the air inside your home. most often, chemicals or materials inside the home emit gases or particulates. poor ventilation and circulation don ' t allow contaminants to flow out of the home ; very humid homes and climates are also a breeding ground for contaminants. here are some sources of indoor air pollutants that can impair your indoor air quality, particularly when ventilation isn ’ t good : - household


out of the home ; very humid homes and climates are also a breeding ground for contaminants. here are some sources of indoor air pollutants that can impair your indoor air quality, particularly when ventilation isn ’ t good : - household chemicals, solvents, and cleaning products - malfunctioning space heaters - poorly vented furnaces or stoves - outdoor air pollution that gets in - pesticide use - wood, kerosene, oil, gas, and coal burned for heat - insulation made with asbestos - carpets, furniture, and rugs that have been treated with chemicals or have become wet - tobacco products and smoke having a hard time kicking the smoking habit? get help here. the results : indoor air quality and your health indoor air pollutants can affect your entire family ' s health, by contributing to the development of asthma and other respiratory illnesses. in addition, chronic respiratory diseases, cancer, and heart disease can result from long - term exposure to indoor air pollutants. to improve your indoor air quality, consider installing an air cleaning system to remove air pollutants from your home. there are a number of different air cleaning systems and devices that will remove solid and gaseous contaminants from the air. it ' s also important to make sure that your home is well - ventilated. a poorly ventilated home can trap air pollutants inside. good ventilation also reduces humidity levels and can help prevent the growth of mold and mildew in your home. if you think your home is making you sick, you just might be right. take steps quickly to solve the problem by identifying and then getting rid of indoor air pollutants. taking action will help you breathe easier.


samuel d. evans west central experiment station university of minnesota now emeritus professor at morris, minnesota john f. moncrief department of soil, water, and climate university of minnesota gyles w. randall southern experiment station university of minnesota william e. lueschen department of agronomy and plant genetics university of minnesota formerly head of the southwest experiment station at lamberton copyright © 2002 regents of the university of minnesota. all rights reserved. management of crop residues with reduced tillage is the most cost - effective method of controlling sediment losses and reducing farming impacts on water quality. crop residues can also help reduce wind erosion and can enhance snow entrapment. one of the primary water quality concerns for the minnesota river and its tributaries is sediment, which contributes increased phosphorus ( p ) to the system. this increased p stimulates algae growth, which is followed by an increased biological oxygen demand when the algae die and decompose. this can deplete dissolved oxygen levels, resulting in game fish stress or kill. in addition to affecting sediment loss, tillage influences many interacting physical, chemical, and biological properties of soils that can have major impacts on crop production. these properties include temperature, moisture, aeration, bulk density, structure, nutrient distribution, organic matter levels, and microbial populations. various crops respond to these changes differently. the range of these changes can be amplified by extremes in tillage reduction associated with some residue management alternatives. small grain is insensitive to temperature changes but may respond to changes in the seed furrow environment and to differing weed species present. small grain is a prominent part of the agriculture in the upper minnesota river basin. following is a discussion of residue management tillage system effects on small grain production. on soils classified highly erodible land ( hel ) the general requirement is 30 percent residue cover after planting. on non - hel soils the steepness and length of the slopes will indicate the potential for significant erosion. a second soil factor that must be considered is internal drainage. poorly drained soils warm up more slowly than well - drained soils, so may require more tillage. tile drainage may improve this situation, but in some cases this may not be enough to insure consistent success with little or no tillage. a third factor is soil fertility level. having a high level of fertility is necessary if reduced tillage systems are to perform well. low fertility conditions offer too many obstacles and generally limit yields in reduced tillage systems. it is important to effectively control sediment at high soil test p levels. research has shown


high level of fertility is necessary if reduced tillage systems are to perform well. low fertility conditions offer too many obstacles and generally limit yields in reduced tillage systems. it is important to effectively control sediment at high soil test p levels. research has shown that this can be done effectively with crop residues in conjunction with other conservation techniques. the amount of residue present in a field depends on the crop rotation and the level of production. corn generates more residue than small grains or soybeans ; thus it is easier to maintain higher residue levels with a variety of tillage systems. the durability of the residue is also crop dependent. soybean residue is classified as " fragile, " or in other words is easily destroyed. corn and small grain residues, on the other hand, are classified as " non - fragile. " spring wheat and soybeans appear to be a viable crop rotation in a no - till system for minnesota conditions. other crops that fit well in a small grain rotation are sunflowers, sugar beets, and field beans. maintaining a sufficient residue cover may be a problem following these crops. soybean yields after small grain have generally not been affected by tillage. with more intensive tillage systems, crop sequence becomes less important. in summary, both the crops in the rotation and the sequence of the crops are important in tillage management. tillage for small grain production requires the management of residue to allow for effective stand establishment. planting when surface crop residues are relatively dry and are cut more easily with coulters is advisable. experience has shown that planting in the direction of stubble orientation reduces the effectiveness of coulters and disk openers. small grain residue pushed into the seed furrow by coulters " cradles " the seed and often results in stand loss and delayed emergence. this is primarily because of slower absorption of soil water due to poor seed - to - soil contact and allelopathic inhibition. small grains are not as temperature sensitive as corn, so residue effects are mainly due to in - furrow seed - soil contact or phytotoxicity. do not surface - apply urea sources of nitrogen ( n ) without incorporation unless air temperatures are cool or rain is imminent. urea left on the surface in proximity to residue has a high potential of volatilization losses. with residue management tillage systems, less n is released from soil organic matter due to less physical disturbance. in addition, soil organic matter may increase under some reduced tillage systems, and this will act as a sink for nitrogen.


duty drill that can cut through the residue, place seed in contact with the soil without incorporating residue, and firm the soil over the seed. selecting a drill with fertilizer capability is also important. various factors including soil characteristics, crop rotation, residue management, disease problems, seeding equipment, and management ability must be considered when selecting a residue management system including small grains. in rotations with moderate amounts of residue, many systems will work on a variety of soils. with higher residue levels, the importance of proper residue management and heavy duty reduced tillage drills will ensure proper seed - to - soil contact without significant residue in contact with the seed. in the upper minnesota river basin, higher levels of residue may contribute to increased soil moisture and subsequent yield increases in dry years. crop rotation is a major factor in minimizing the disease problems in small grains. the results of studies in douglas, norman, and becker counties are shown in table 1. in these studies tillage plots were split, with winter and spring wheat planted into barley stubble. on average, spring wheat yields following barley were not affected by tillage. only in one site year ( 1986 in becker county ) did tillage significantly affect spring wheat yields. a bindweed problem at this site was the likely cause. at most sites an increase in foxtail ( pigeon weed ) was associated with chisel and no - till systems. results of some recent studies near the headwaters of the pomme de terre river in ottertail county are shown in table 2. tillage affected spring wheat yields at only one site year out of five ( in 1994 ). the yield reduction in 1994 was linked in part to stand reduction with the no - till system. the drill used had a single disk opener. at the other site years spring wheat yields following soybeans were not affected by tillage. the paraplow is a unique type of subsoiler which leaves surface residue minimally disturbed. even though soils were very dense in the fall of 1993, subsoiling that fall reduced spring wheat yields the next year. paraplowing reduced stand compared to a chisel plowing system. on average there was a 4 bu / acre yield reduction with the no - till system compared to the chisel plow - based system. in a continuous wheat study on a barnes loam near morris ( table 3 ) there were no significant effects of tillage on yield in the three years measured. sometimes protein content can be used as an indicator of reduced n availability. for this reason it is presented in table


study on a barnes loam near morris ( table 3 ) there were no significant effects of tillage on yield in the three years measured. sometimes protein content can be used as an indicator of reduced n availability. for this reason it is presented in table 2 and table 3. protein contents appeared to be more affected by environment than by tillage system. protein differences between tillage systems were very small. traditionally there has been very little winter wheat grown in minnesota. this is primarily due to the harshness of the winters. in some years lower prices ( vs. spring wheat ) and the lack of a suitable crop sequence may also be a factor. in most years, with a clean - tillage system there will be substantial winter kill. this limits varietal selection to only the most winter hardy. in some instances this is at the expense of intrinsic yield potential, protein content, and disease resistance. the studies in table 1 illustrate the potential for winter wheat production when stubble is managed for snow catch in an effort to insulate the soil. north dakota research has shown that if 4 inches of snow are caught by stubble, winter wheat is protected to - 30° f. in the three - year study at three locations, winter wheat yields were slightly higher than spring wheat and there was little effect of tillage. disease management is more important with winter wheat, however. data from six trials in northwestern minnesota where barley was grown after soybeans with spring - applied urea showed no difference in yield or protein due to tillage ( table 4 ). success of reduced tillage approaches to small grain production have been higher when preceded by a low residue crop such as soybeans. spring wheat and barley following soybeans have generally not been affected with most alternative tillage approaches. a no - till system resulted in more variability in yields ( higher or lower than a moldboard plowing system ). no - tillage sometimes posed challenges in stand establishment, n management, and weed control. by catching snow with barley stubble, no - tillage systems allow winter wheat to be grown in minnesota with less " overwintering " risk. winter and spring wheat resulted in comparable yields, although performance was more variable for winter wheat. this provides an opportunity for growers to reduce their labor during peak labor demand periods ( spring and fall ). it also allows for more flexibility to accommodate variations in weather. tillage passes with different implements can be used very effectively to create various levels of residue remaining on the soil surface. four tillage systems shown below are categorized in the


spring and fall ). it also allows for more flexibility to accommodate variations in weather. tillage passes with different implements can be used very effectively to create various levels of residue remaining on the soil surface. four tillage systems shown below are categorized in the following tables 5 - 8 according to the residue management / yield performance indicators also shown below : moldboard plow : fall moldboard plowing followed by one or two secondary spring tillage operations before seeding. chisel plow : fall chisel plowing plus secondary spring tillage before seeding. special attention should be paid to use of proper shaped / width shovels and implement speed in order to maintain proper residue cover. spring disk / field cultivator : one or two passes in the spring prior to seeding. no - till : all seedbed preparation is performed by the drill. inadequate residue to minimize erosion ( less than 30 percent of soil surface covered after planting ). where erosion is not a concern, fall moldboard plowing may be the best practice. recommended with good management. no yield penalty is expected if the farmer observes all relevant recommended management practices for high - residue systems. excellent management required. slight yield penalty is possible, even if all recommended management practices are observed. above average crop management will be needed to ensure good performance. reduced yield potential. the potential exists for substantially reduced yields, especially on poorly drained soils in wet years. a number of tables have been developed which estimate residue management / yield performance of various crop rotations involving corn, soybeans, and / or small grains. continuous corn and corn - soybean sequences are discussed in other publications. in those publications the minnesota river basin was divided into high annual rainfall ( > 28 inches ) and low rainfall ( < 28 inches ) areas. this north - south line is approximately halfway between highways 71 and 15. since most small grain is grown in the low rainfall segment of the minnesota river basin, indices were developed only for that section of the basin. in each crop sequence, separate indices were developed for glacial till ( deposited in place by melting glacier, poorly sorted ) and lacustrine ( deposited in glacial lakes, well - sorted ) soils. moldboard plow : this systems generally results in high yields but leaves inadequate surface residue to minimize soil erosion. for this reason it should not be used except on level soils where erosion is not a concern, to alleviate surface soil compaction, to incorporate p and k fertilizer, or to incorporate manure. chisel plow : this tillage system generally


this reason it should not be used except on level soils where erosion is not a concern, to alleviate surface soil compaction, to incorporate p and k fertilizer, or to incorporate manure. chisel plow : this tillage system generally results in high yields but care must be taken to insure adequate surface residue cover. in most cases straight chisel shanks should be used to achieve 30 percent residue cover. for small grain following soybeans this system will result in less than 30 percent cover, so it is not recommended. spring disk / field cultivator : on glacial till soils this tillage system will result in good yields and will leave adequate residue if the implement is properly set. on lacustrine soils this system will probably result in some yield loss due to delayed planing for small grain following soybean. it will also require a high level of management on other crop sequences with higher residue production. no - till : on glacial till soils this system will work well for small grain following soybeans or soybeans following small grains. for corn following small grain or small grain following small grain, some yield loss would probably result. on the lacustrine soils the no - till system will likely result in yield loss ( even with good management ) for small grain following soybean or soybean following small grain due to delayed planting. for the other crop sequences substantial yield loss would occur. to order other publications in this series, contact your minnesota county extension office, or outside of minnesota, contact the extension store at ( 612 ) 625 - 8173. titles in this series include : this set of publications was the result of a joint effort between minnesota extension service, minnesota agricultural experiment station, and minnesota pollution control agency. this information was first presented february of 1995 at the sediment control solutions conferences in mankato and montevideo, minnesota. in accordance with the americans with disabilities act, this material is available in alternative formats upon request. please contact your university of minnesota extension office or the extension store at ( 800 ) 876 - 8636.


introductionfox, carnivorous mammal of the dog family, found throughout most of the northern hemisphere. it has a pointed face, short legs, long, thick fur, and a tail about one half to two thirds as long as the head and body, depending on the species. solitary most of the year, foxes do not live in dens except in the breeding season ; they sleep concealed in grasses or thickets, their tails curled around them for warmth. during the breeding season a fox pair establishes a den, often in a ground burrow made by another animal, in which the young are raised ; the male hunts for the family. the young are on their own after about five months ; the adults probably find new mates each season. foxes feed on insects, earthworms, small birds and mammals, eggs, carrion, and vegetable matter, especially fruits. unlike other members of the dog family, which run down their prey, foxes usually hunt by stalking and pouncing. they are known for their raids on poultry but are nonetheless very beneficial to farmers as destroyers of rodents. foxes are occasionally preyed upon by larger carnivores, such as wolves and bobcats, as well as by humans and their dogs ; birds of prey may capture the young. despite extensive killing of foxes, most species continue to flourish. in europe this is due in part to the regulatory laws passed for the benefit of hunters. mounted foxhunting, with dogs, became popular in the 14th cent. and was later introduced into the americas ; special hunting dogs, called foxhounds, have been bred for this sport. great britain banned foxhunting in which the hounds kill the fox in 2005. the columbia electronic encyclopedia, 6th ed. copyright © 2012, columbia university press. all rights reserved. see more encyclopedia articles on : vertebrate zoology


zugspitze ( tsokˈshpitˈsə ) [ key ], mountain, 9, 721 ft ( 2, 963 m ) high, in the bavarian alps and on the german – austrian border ; highest peak of germany. a cog - and - pinion railroad connects the popular resort of garmisch - partenkirchen, at its foot, with the summit. zugspitze is home to a meteorlogical observatory. the columbia electronic encyclopedia, 6th ed. copyright © 2012, columbia university press. all rights reserved. more on zugspitze from fact monster : - germany - information on germany — geography, history, politics, government, economy, population statistics, culture, religion, languages, largest cities, as well as a map and the national flag. - garmisch - partenkirchen - garmisch - partenkirchen garmisch - partenkirchen, town ( 1994 pop. 27, 000 ), bavaria, s germany, in the... - bavaria : land - land a region of rich, softly rolling hills, it is drained by several rivers ( notably the main,... - germany : land and people - land and people germany as a whole can be divided into three major geographic regions : the... - encyclopedia : central european physical geography - encyclopeadia articles concerning central european physical geography.


stream quality assessment program a stream is a combination of all of its physical, chemical and biological characteristics. human activities shape and alter many of these characteristics. the health of our rivers and streams is closely linked to their surrounding watersheds. ecologists measure the extent to which human activities affect watershed health by gathering and recording information on physical conditions, water quality and living communities in streams and in the surrounding environment. the long - term stream monitoring program meets the requirements of state and federal regulations and supports the board of supervisors ' environmental improvement program by providing an ongoing evaluation of the streams. the program maintains a substantial database, which over time will be used to determine the overall rate of change or trends in the conditions of our waterways. based on biological data collected at 39 randomly selected locations ( see map of monitoring site locations ) throughout fairfax county in 2012, approximately 75. 0 percent of fairfax county ' s streams are in fair to very poor condition. this indicates that many of our streams are significantly impaired and lack biological diversity. the stream quality index ( sqi ) is based on annual data collected on resident populations of benthic macroinvertebrates ( animals without a backbone that live on the bottom of a stream, river, lake and are visible to the naked eye ). as benthic macroinvertebrates are good indicators of water quality, the sqi is used to evaluate long - term trends in the overall health of streams. each of the 39 randomly selected locations is placed in one of five rating categories ( excellent, good, fair, poor or very poor ) based on the diversity of benthic macroinvertebrates found in that stream segment. an index value ranging from one to five, with a higher number indicating better stream quality, is calculated for the year based on the percent of sampling locations that fall into each rating category. results from 2004 through 2012 can be found in the table below. the 2012 sqi shows a decrease in overall stream quality from 2011. over the past nine years of sampling, a very small increase in the overall index has emerged. as more data are reported annually, trends can be identified with greater certainty. | sampling year | | percent very poor | | percent poor | | percent fair | | percent good | | percent excellent | | stream quality index | stream and watershed health are evaluated using a variety of indicators such as water quality parameters, bacteria levels, resident invertebrate and fish communities and habitat conditions. the results of the yearly monitoring events are compiled into annual reports and are used to support other environmental initiatives. additional


1836 territorial census, 1838, 1840, 1850, 1852, 1860. - church records, 1855 - 1917. text in german. this church was also known as the german methodist church. contains records for the churches of flint creek, temmytown / tamytown, bluffs, pleasant grove, union, bethel, sperry, kline. includes marriages ; baptisms ; membership lists ; burials, 1856, 1865 - 1916 ; meeting minutes ; finances ; conference reports. - record book, 1866 - 1903 contains baptisms, burials, marriages, membership lists, and sermons. dr. mcclintock was pastor to churches at mt. pleasant, 1866 - 1870 ; burlington, 1871 - 1896 ; and sioux city, 1896 - 1903. the des moines courthouse is located in the town of burlington. - history of des moines county, iowa index, 105 bios online. - portrait and biographical album of des moines county, iowa index, 519 bios online. - biographical review of des moines county, iowa index, 8 bios online. - history of des moines county, iowa index, 8 bios online. - david rumsey map collection is a large online collection of rare, old, antique historical atlases, globes, maps, charts plus other cartographic treasures. - 1904 des moines county iowa atlas - the hawkeye - the mediapolis news - newspaperarchive. com ( $ ) has historical newspapers online including burlington newspapers dating back to the mid 1800 ' s that covered local news on des moines county residents. this database is free at some libraries. for more information about the history of newspapers in des moines county see the burlington library genealogy site. birth records kept by the district court, 1880 - 1904 ; 1906 - 1934, have been microfilmed and are available at the state historical society in des moines, polk county, iowa and 1880 - 1931 at the family history library in salt lake city. some early marriages of des moines county 1837 to 1850 have been transcribed and published. des moines county marriage records, from 1880 - 1904 ; 1906 - 1935 have been microfilmed and can be found at the state historical society in des moines, polk county iowa. index to marriage records, 1921 - 1977 ; marriage records, 1835 - 1930 at the family history library in salt lake city. deaths records are held by the district court, 1835 - 1930, have been microfilmed and are available at the state historical society in des moines, polk county iowa and 1880 - 1921 at the family history library in salt lake city. societies


city. deaths records are held by the district court, 1835 - 1930, have been microfilmed and are available at the state historical society in des moines, polk county iowa and 1880 - 1921 at the family history library in salt lake city. societies and libraries - state historical society of iowa address : 600 east locust des moines ia 50319 - des moines county genealogical society p. o. box 493 burlington, ia 52601 internet : des moines county genealogical society - burlington public library 210 court street burlington, ia 52601 - 1647 internet : burlington iowa public library genealogy sources for more information about societies in iowa see the iowa societies page. family history centers - des moines county, iowa biographies project - family history library catalog - genealogy trails genealogy group - genealogy helps at the burlington library - des moines county, iowa genealogy and family history ( linkpendium ) - des moines county genealogy ( iowa genealogy ) - ↑ the handybook for genealogists : united states of america, 10th ed. ( draper, ut : everton publishers, 2002 ). - ↑ st. paul ' s methodist episcopal church ( burlington, iowa ) ( main, author ), german methodist church ( burlington, iowa ) church records, 1855 - 1917 us / can film 956373 - ↑ mcclintock, john c. record book, 1866 - 1903. fhl us / can film 956371 item 4 - ↑ chicago : western hist. co., 1879. - ↑ chicago : acme publishing, 1888. - ↑ hobart pub. co., 1905. - ↑ ed. by augustine m. antrobus. 2 vols. chicago : s. j. clarke pub. co., 1915. new to the research wiki? in the familysearch research wiki, you can learn how to do genealogical research or share your knowledge with others. learn more


the demise of the middle class : early 1970 ' s an historic turning point by tony allison, december 8, 2008 as the credit crisis deepens and morphs into uncharted waters, a little perspective is necessary on what it is costing, in both dollars and human terms. you may have seen the mind - numbing comparisons with other massive government expenditures of the past. these statistics were inflation - adjusted, courtesy of jim bianco of bianco research. the credit crisis, with $ 4. 6 trillion committed ( and perhaps just getting started ) already has cost roughly one trillion dollars more than world war ii ( $ 3. 6 trillion ). the marshall plan to rebuild europe after the war cost a mere $ 115 billion. the louisiana purchase was a ridiculous bargain at $ 217 billion ( $ 15 billion originally ). it appears that the piper has finally arrived to be paid for the unlimited debt creation since 1971 and the middle - class is already tapped out. keepers of the american dream the american middle - class, the hard - working keepers of the american dream, has been in distress for 35 years, slowly losing ground and purchasing power. the current credit crisis may prove to be the greatest challenge to the middle - class way of life. adding astronomical debt to existing debt will not solve our problems. the first chart below, median household income since 1945, is the one the public sees in the media. it shows household income marching ever upward, a symbol of unbridled american prosperity. the truth is that inflation has made prosperity, especially for middle - class americans, far more elusive. desperation and necessity the struggles of the american middle - class since 1970 become very clear when looking at the next two charts. their buying power has plunged when you factor in the massive loss of buying power of the us dollar. over this 35 + year period, both spouses were forced into the workplace to keep the family afloat. it also explains the massive growth in consumer debt and lack of personal savings. the middle - class was not necessarily acting irresponsibly. it was acting out of desperation and necessity. clearly many in the middle - class ( and elsewhere ) have added debt too recklessly. but prices have inexorably grown faster, year after year, than the growth of real middle - class income. in addition fixed costs for the american family ( mortgage costs, insurance, child care, health care, etc. ) are much higher as a percentage of income than they were 35 years ago. sources : census bureau. gov the financial


- class income. in addition fixed costs for the american family ( mortgage costs, insurance, child care, health care, etc. ) are much higher as a percentage of income than they were 35 years ago. sources : census bureau. gov the financial help center. com median income devastated by inflation divided by the cpi ( which has been understated for decades ) the “ adjusted ” median household income has barely grown at all since 1973. when measured in terms of ounces of gold instead of dollars, median income has plunged. this chart shows median income peaked in 1970, when it would buy 240 ounces of gold. the devastating inflation of the 1970 ’ s sent real median income down to its low in 1980, where it could only buy 29 ounces of gold. one can see the current direction of “ real ” median income since 2001, and we haven ’ t even felt the eventual inflationary effects of the credit crisis. as we stand today, the median household income can buy approximately 65 ounces of gold, one of the lower levels since 1945. home equity on the decline one key source to fill the gap of falling wage growth was home equity. quite simply, americans have been slowly transferring ownership of their homes to the banking system over the last 50 + years. these figures would look much worse if the roughly 1 / 3 of homes owned “ free and clear ” ( mostly by seniors ) were removed from the data, but you can see the trend is toward less equity and more debt. this is not a sign of a prospering middle - class. historic turning point the availability of easy credit the last two decades was a key mechanism to keep the middle - class above water. now the easy and available credit is going away, and with it much of the quality of life of the middle - class. the early 1970 ’ s was clearly an historic turning point for millions of americans. with the 1971 severing of the gold - backed dollar by the nixon administration, the fate of the middle class was sealed. unlimited fiat money creation led to unlimited debt and a rapidly depreciating dollar. middle - class “ real ” wage growth would never again keep up with “ real ” inflation, especially in key areas such as health care and college tuition, which have greatly exceeded the stated rate of inflation. do you think the strapped middle - class family feels better when hearing that inflation is “ only ” 4 %, instead of 11. 6 %, as measured prior to 1983? not likely. understated inflation does not help remove the


of inflation. do you think the strapped middle - class family feels better when hearing that inflation is “ only ” 4 %, instead of 11. 6 %, as measured prior to 1983? not likely. understated inflation does not help remove the sting of declining purchasing power. it just adds to the confusion and desperation. the pain is still real, even as trust in government continues to decline. with the current world - wide deleveraging, inflation rates are coming down, for the short to medium term. with trillions upon trillions of government debt soon to flood the financial system, inflation will not be gone for long. inflation or deflation - middle class loses be it a hyperinflationary or deflationary scenario in the coming years, the middle - class will suffer. either from a massive loss of buying power ( hyperinflation ) or explosive debt burdens ( deflation ). eventually, foreign creditors will likely bolt the dollar for something with more enduring value ; i. e. gold. it would be a good idea, whether you are middle class or not, to prepare by accumulating some gold while it is still relatively cheap and somewhat available. the us dollar has been the global monetary standard since the bretton woods agreement in 1944. unfortunately, the dollar has not been a good store of value since nixon severed the dollar ’ s link to gold in 1971. the federal reserve has always functioned as the lender of last resort, and is now becoming the “ spender of last resort. ” unprecedented debasing of the us currency could be on our horizon. pawns in a chess game while fulfilling its classic role as the backbone of the american economy, the middle - class also is the unwitting pawn in the complex chess game of global finance and government excess. the problem with being a pawn is that one has no control of the game, or its outcome. historically, the middle - class is always the group to feel the greatest pain and reap the fewest rewards from the machinations of wall street and washington. the period dead ahead will be no exception. the extraordinary debt levels will only make matters worse. the middle - class has been under growing pressure for over 30 years, as its purchasing power has been steadily under attack. things will very likely get worse before we see any light. the middle - class must retrench even further. but it must also search for a store of value as its dollars buy less and less. it is my belief that once the severe de - lever


very likely get worse before we see any light. the middle - class must retrench even further. but it must also search for a store of value as its dollars buy less and less. it is my belief that once the severe de - leveraging is finished, the commodity sector, particularly gold, will serve as that life raft. the struggling middle - class, and everyone else for that matter, will need something to stay afloat if the uss dollar slowly sinks in the murky seas of the global currency markets. the way forward historically, one great quality of america is resilience. it is my sincere hope that out of this crisis will emerge a more rational way forward. i believe the best way forward for our country would be a system of honest money ; a new currency backed by gold that would enforce discipline on government spending and allow families to plan and save for their futures. and it might just provide our children and generations unborn their own shot at the american dream. we owe them that much. the stock markets shot higher for a second straight session monday as investors bet that president - elect barack obama ' s plans to increase infrastructure spending will help lift the economy back to health. the major market indexes jumped more than 3 percent, and the dow jones industrials ' nearly 300 point advance gave the blue chips their highest close in a month. the dow jones industrial average rose 298. 76, or 3. 46 percent, to 8, 934. 18, its highest close since it finished at 9, 139. 27 on nov. 5th. the standard & poor ' s 500 index advanced 33. 63, or 3. 84 percent, to 909. 70 ; and the nasdaq composite index jumped 62. 43, or 4. 14 percent, to 1, 571. 74. it was the ninth advance in 11 sessions for the dow and the s & p 500. oil futures surged 7 % monday, buoyed by expectations that the opec oil cartel may deliver a substantial cut in production as well as by u. s. president - elect barack obama ' s pledge of massive new infrastructure investment to revive the economy. crude oil for january delivery surged $ 2. 90, or 7. 1 %, to end at $ 43. 71 a barrel on the new york mercantile exchange. earlier, the contract hit an intraday high of $ 44. 70 a barrel. gold and other metals futures rallied monday, getting a boost from soaring oil prices, weakness in the u. s. dollar and president - elect