, 000. - june 30 – the british mediterranean fleet is sent to besika bay. - july 9 – the all england lawn tennis and croquet club begins its first lawn tennis tournament at wimbledon. - july 16 – great railroad strike of 1877 : riots by baltimore and ohio railroad railroad workers in baltimore, maryland lead to a sympathy strike and rioting in pittsburgh, and a full - scale worker ' s rebellion in st. louis, briefly establishing a communist government before u. s. president rutherford b. hayes calls in the armed forces. - july 19 – russo - turkish war, 1877 – 1878 : the first battle in the siege of plevna is fought. - july 30 – the second battle in the siege of plevna is fought. - august 9 – american indian wars – battle of big hole : near big hole river in montana, a small band of nez perce people who refuse government orders to move to a reservation, clash with the united states army. the united states army loses 29 soldiers and the indians lose 89 warriors in an army victory. - august 11 – asaph hall discovers deimos, the outer moon of mars. - august 18 – asaph hall discovers phobos, the inner moon of mars. - september 1 – the battle of lovcha, third battle in the siege of plevna, is fought. russian forces successfully reduce the ottoman fortress at lovcha. - september 5 – american indian wars : oglala sioux chief crazy horse is bayoneted by a united states soldier, after resisting confinement in a guardhouse at fort robinson in nebraska. - september 22 – treaty 7 is concluded between several mainly blackfoot first nations tribes and the canadian confederation at the blackfoot crossing of the bow river, settling the blackfoot on indian reserves in what will become southern alberta. - october 22 – the blantyre mining disaster in scotland kills 207 miners. - november 14 – henrik ibsen ' s first contemporary realist drama the pillars of society is premiered at the odense teater. - november 21 – thomas edison announces his invention of the phonograph, a machine that can record sound, considered edison ' s first great invention. edison demonstrates the device for the first time on november 29. - november 22 – the first college lacrosse game is played between new york university and manhattan college. - december 9 – the fourth battle of the russo - turkish war, 1877 – 1878 is fought, concluding the siege of plevna. - december 14 – serbia restates its previous


college lacrosse game is played between new york university and manhattan college. - december 9 – the fourth battle of the russo - turkish war, 1877 – 1878 is fought, concluding the siege of plevna. - december 14 – serbia restates its previous declaration of war against turkey. date unknown - a professionally led army of draftees crushes a major rebellion by feudal elements protesting the loss of their privileges in japan. - leo tolstoy ' s novel anna karenina is published complete in book form in moscow. - january 2 – slava raskaj, croatian painter ( d. 1906 ) - february 4 – eddie cochems, father of the forward pass in american football ( d. 1953 ) - february 7 – g. h. hardy, british mathematician ( d. 1947 ) - february 14 – edmund landau, german mathematician ( d. 1938 ) - february 17 – andre maginot, french politician ( d. 1932 ) - february 19 – gabriele munter, german painter ( d. 1962 ) - february 25 – erich von hornbostel, austrian musicologist ( d. 1935 ) - march 2 – consuelo vanderbilt, duchess of marlborough ( d. 1964 ) - march 4 - march 16 – reza shah pahlavi, shah of iran ( d. 1944 ) - march 18 – edgar cayce, american psychic ( d. 1945 ) - march 21 – maurice farman, french pilot and aircraft designer ( d. 1964 ) - march 25 – walter little, canadian politician ( d. 1961 ) - march 29 – alois kayser, german missionary ( d. 1944 ) - april 30 – alice b. toklas, american writer ( d. 1967 ) - may 3 – karl abraham, german psychoanalyst ( d. 1925 ) - may 23 – grace ingalls, youngest sister of author laura ingalls wilder ( d. 1941 ) - may 24 – samuel w. bryant, american admiral ( d. 1938 ) - may 27 – isadora duncan, american dancer ( d. 1927 ) - june 4 – heinrich otto wieland, german chemist, nobel prize laureate ( d. 1957 ) - june 7 – charles glover barkla, english physicist, nobel prize laureate ( d. 1944 ) - june 11 – renee vivien, british poet who wrote in french ( d. 1909 ) - june 12 – thomas c. hart, american admiral and politician ( d. 1971 ) - june 14 – jane bathori, french opera singer ( d. 1970 ) - july 2 – hermann


british poet who wrote in french ( d. 1909 ) - june 12 – thomas c. hart, american admiral and politician ( d. 1971 ) - june 14 – jane bathori, french opera singer ( d. 1970 ) - july 2 – hermann hesse, german - born writer, nobel prize laureate ( d. 1962 ) - july 3 – shafiqah shasha ( شفيقة شعشع ), lebanese - australian matriarch ( d. 1953 ) - july 6 – arnaud massy, french golfer ( d. 1950 ) - july 13 – erik scavenius, prime minister of denmark ( d. 1962 ) - july 17 – ernst von dohnanyi, hungarian conductor ( d. 1960 ) - july 19 – arthur fielder, english cricketer ( d. 1949 ) - august 1 – charlotte hughes ( nee milburn ), the longest - lived person ever documented in the united kingdom ( d. 1993 ) - august 6 – wallace h. white, jr., u. s. senator from maine ( d. 1952 ) - august 7 – ulrich salchow, swedish figure skater ( d. 1949 ) - august 15 – stanley vestal, american writer, poet, historian ( d. 1957 ) - august 16 – roque ruano, spanish priest - civil engineer ( d. 1935 ) - august 22 – ananda coomaraswamy, philosopher ( d. 1947 ) - august 27 - august 29 – dudley pound, british admiral ( d. 1943 ) - september 1 – francis william aston, english chemist, nobel prize laureate ( d. 1945 ) - september 2 – frederick soddy, english chemist, nobel prize laureate ( d. 1956 ) - september 6 – buddy bolden, american jazz musician ( d. 1930 ) - september 26 – alfred cortot, swiss pianist ( d. 1962 ) - october 4 – razor smith, english cricketer ( d. 1946 ) - october 15 – helen ware, american stage & film actress ( d. 1939 ) - october 27 – george thompson, english cricketer ( d. 1943 ) - october 29 – narcisa de leon, filipino film mogul ( d. 1966 ) - november 2 – claire mcdowell, american silent film actress ( d. 1966 ) - november 9 – allama iqbal, indian philosopher, one of the profound founding fathers of the muslims of india ( d. 1938 ) - november 15 – william hope hodgson, english author ( d. 1918 ) - november 17 – frank lahm, brigadier general usaf, airship pilot


iqbal, indian philosopher, one of the profound founding fathers of the muslims of india ( d. 1938 ) - november 15 – william hope hodgson, english author ( d. 1918 ) - november 17 – frank lahm, brigadier general usaf, airship pilot, early military aviator trained by the wright brothers ( d. 1963 ) - november 22 - november 24 - december 3 – richard pearse, new zealand airplane pioneer ( d. 1953 ) - december 24 – sigrid schauman, finnish painter ( d. 1979 ) - january 2 – alexander bain, scottish inventor ( b. 1811 ) - january 4 – cornelius vanderbilt, american entrepreneur ( b. 1794 ) - january 20 – dato maharajalela lela, malay nationalist. - february 20 – louis m. goldsborough, united states navy admiral ( b. 1805 ) - march 1 – antoni patek, polish watchmaker ( b. 1811 ) - march 24 – walter bagehot, british businessman, essayist and journalist ( b. 1826 ) - may 26 – kido takayoshi, japanese statesman ( b. 1833 ) - june 3 - june 22 – john r. goldsborough, united states navy commodore ( b. 1809 ) - july 16 & ndash samuel mclean, american congressman ( b. 1826 - july 27 – john frost, british chartist leader ( b. 1784 ) - august 8 – william lovett, british chartist leader ( b. 1800 ) - august 29 – brigham young, american mormon leader ( b. 1801 ) - august 30 – raphael semmes, american and confederate naval officer ( b. 1809 ) - september 2 – constantine kanaris, greek politician ( b. 1795 ) - september 3 – adolphe thiers, french historian and politician ( b. 1797 ) - september 5 – crazy horse, oglala sioux chief ( b. 1849 ) - september 17 – william fox talbot, english photographer ( b. 1800 ) - september 24 – saigo takamori, samurai ( b. 1827 ) - october 3 – james roosevelt bayley, first bishop of newark, new jersey, and the eighth archbishop of baltimore ( b. 1814 ) - october 16 – theodore barriere, french dramatist ( b. 1823 ) - october 29 – nathan bedford forrest, american confederate civil war general - november 2 – friedrich graf von wrangel, prussian field marshal ( b. 1784 ) - december 12 – jose de alencar, brazilian novelist ( b. 1829 ) - december 31 – gustave courbet,


in library science, authority control is a process that organizes library catalog and bibliographic information by using a single, distinct name for each topic. these one - of - a - kind headings are applied consistently throughout the catalog, and work with other organizing data such as linkages and cross references. each heading is described briefly in terms of its scope and usage, and this organization helps the library staff maintain the catalog and make it user - friendly for researchers. the word authority in authority control derives from its initial use in identifying authors, and does not have the usual meaning of authority as a power relationship, although both senses of the word authority are related etymologically. cataloguers assign each subject — such as an author, book, series or corporation — a particular unique heading term which is then used consistently, uniquely, and unambiguously to describe all references to that same subject, even if there are variations such as different spellings, pen names, or aliases. the unique header can guide users to all relevant information including related or collocated subjects. authority records can be combined into a database and called an authority file, and maintaining and updating these files as well as " logical linkages " to other files within them is the work of librarians and other information cataloguers. accordingly, authority control is an example of controlled vocabulary and of bibliographic control. while in theory any piece of information is amenable to authority control such as personal and corporate names, uniform titles, series, and subjects, library cataloguers typically focus on author names and book titles. subject headings from the library of congress fulfill a function similar to authority records, although they are usually considered separately. as time passes, information changes, prompting needs for reorganization. according to one view, authority control is not about creating a perfect seamless system but rather it is an ongoing effort to keep up with these changes and try to bring " structure and order " to the task of helping users find information. - better researching. authority control helps researchers get a handle on a specific subject with less wasted effort. a well - designed digital catalog / database enables a researcher to query a few words of an entry to bring up the already established term or phrase, thus improving accuracy and saving time. - makes searching more predictable. it can be used in conjunction with keyword searching using " and " or " not " or " or " or other boolean operators on a web browser. it increases chances that a given search will return relevant items. - consistency of


more predictable. it can be used in conjunction with keyword searching using " and " or " not " or " or " or other boolean operators on a web browser. it increases chances that a given search will return relevant items. - consistency of records. - organization and structure of information. - efficiency for cataloguers. the process of authority control is not only of great help to researchers searching for a particular subject to study, but it can help cataloguers organize information as well. cataloguers can use authority records when trying to categorize new items, since they can see which records have already been catalogued and can therefore avoid unnecessary work. - maximises library resources. - easier to maintain the catalog. it enables cataloguers to detect and correct errors. in some instances, software programs support workers tasked with maintaining the catalog to do ongoing tasks such as automated clean - up. it helps creators and users of metadata. - fewer errors. it can help catch errors caused by typos or misspellings which can sometimes accumulate over time, sometimes known as quality drift. for example, machines can catch misspellings such as " elementary school techers " and " pumpkilns " which can then be corrected by library staff. differing names describe the same subject sometimes within a catalog there are different names or spellings for only one person or subject. this can bring confusion since researchers may miss some information. authority control is used by cataloguers to collocate materials that logically belong together but which present themselves differently. records are used to establish uniform titles which collocate all versions of a given work under one unique heading even when such versions are issued under different titles. with authority control, one unique preferred name represents all variations and will include different variations, spellings and misspellings, uppercase versus lowercase variants, differing dates, and so forth. for example, in wikipedia, the subject of princess diana is described by an article diana, princess of wales as well as numerous other descriptors, but both princess diana and diana, princess of wales describe the same person ; an authority record would choose one title as the preferred one for consistency. in an online library catalog, various entries might look like the following : - diana. ( 1 ) - diana, princess of wales. ( 1 ) - diana, princess of wales, 1961 – 1997 ( 13 ) - diana, princess of wales 1961 – 1997 ( 1 ) - diana, princess of wales, 1961 – 1997 ( 2 ) - diana, princess of wales, 1961 –


( 1 ) - diana, princess of wales, 1961 – 1997 ( 13 ) - diana, princess of wales 1961 – 1997 ( 1 ) - diana, princess of wales, 1961 – 1997 ( 2 ) - diana, princess of wales, 1961 – 1997. ( 1 ) - diana, princess of wales, — iconography. ( 2 ) these different terms describe the same person. accordingly, authority control reduces these entries to one unique entry or official authorized heading, sometimes termed an access point : - diana, princess of wales, 1961 – 1997 | l i b r a r y | | h e a d i n g | | national library of the netherlands | | diana, prinses van wales, 1961 - 1997 | | virtual international authority file | | viaf id : 107032638 | | wikipedia | | diana, princess of wales | | worldcat | | diana princess of wales 1961 - 1997 | | german national library | | diana wales, prinzessin 1961 - 1997 | | u. s. library of congress | | diana, princess of wales, 1961 - 1997 | | biblioteca nacional de espana | | windsor, diana, princess of wales | | getty union list of artist names | | diana, princess of wales english noble and patron, 1961 - 1997 | generally there are different authority file headings chosen by different national libraries, possibly inviting confusion, but there are different approaches internationally to try to lessen the confusion. one international effort to prevent such confusion is the virtual international authority file which is a collaborative attempt to provide a single heading for a particular subject. it is a way to standardize information from different national libraries such as the german national library and the united states library of congress. the idea is to create a single worldwide virtual authority file. for example, the german national library ' s term for princess diana is diana wales, prinzessin 1961 - 1997 while the united states library of congress prefers the term diana, princess of wales, 1961 - 1997 ; other national libraries have other choices. the virtual international authority file choice for all of these variations is viaf id : 107032638 — that is, a common number representing all of these variations. wikipedia prefers the term diana, princess of wales, but at the bottom of wikipedia ' s page about her, there are links to various international cataloguing efforts for reference purposes. same name describes two different subjects sometimes two different authors have been published under the same name. this can happen if there is a title which is


bottom of wikipedia ' s page about her, there are links to various international cataloguing efforts for reference purposes. same name describes two different subjects sometimes two different authors have been published under the same name. this can happen if there is a title which is identical to another title or to a collective uniform title. this, too, can cause confusion. different authors can be distinguished correctly from each other by, for example, adding a middle initial to one of the names ; in addition, other information can be added to one entry to clarify the subject, such as birth year, death year, range of active years such as 1918 – 1965 when the person flourished, or a brief descriptive epithet. when cataloguers come across different subjects with similar or identical headings, they can disambiguate them using authority control. authority records and files a customary way of enforcing authority control in a bibliographic catalog is to set up a separate index of authority records, which relates to and governs the headings used in the main catalog. this separate index is often referred to as an " authority file. " it contains an indexable record of all decisions made by cataloguers in a given library ( or — as is increasingly the case — cataloguing consortium ), which cataloguers consult when making, or revising, decisions about headings. as a result, the records contain documentation about sources used to establish a particular preferred heading, and may contain information discovered while researching the heading which may be useful. while authority files provide information about a particular subject, their primary function is not to provide information but to organize it. they contain enough information to establish that a given author or title is unique, but that is all ; irrelevant but interesting information is generally excluded. although practices vary internationally, authority records in the english - speaking world generally contain : - headings show the preferred title chosen as the official and authorized version. it is important that the heading be unique ; if there is a conflict with an identical heading, then one of the two will have to be chosen : since the headings function as access points, making sure that they are distinct and not in conflict with existing entries is important. for example, the english novelist william collins ( 1824 – 89 ), whose works include the moonstone and the woman in white is better known as wilkie collins. cataloguers have to decide which name the public would most likely look under, and whether to use a see also reference to link alternative forms of an individual ' s name. - cross references are other forms of the


is better known as wilkie collins. cataloguers have to decide which name the public would most likely look under, and whether to use a see also reference to link alternative forms of an individual ' s name. - cross references are other forms of the name or title that might appear in the catalog and include : - see references are forms of the name or title that describe the subject but which have been passed over or deprecated in favor of the authorized heading form - see also references point to other forms of the name or title that are also authorized. these see also references generally point to earlier or later forms of a name or title. - statement ( s ) of justification is a brief account made by the cataloguer about particular information sources used to determine both authorized and deprecated forms. sometimes this means citing the title and publication date of the source, the location of the name or title on that source, and the form in which it appears on that source. for example, the irish writer brian o ' nolan, who lived from 1911 to 1966, wrote under many pen names such as flann o ' brien and myles na gopaleen. catalogers at the united states library of congress chose one form — " o ' brien, flann, 1911 – 1966 " — as the official heading. the example contains all three elements of a valid authority record : the first heading o ' brien, flann, 1911 – 1966 is the form of the name that the library of congress chose as authoritative. in theory, every record in the catalog that represents a work by this author should have this form of the name as its author heading. what follows immediately below the heading beginning with na gopaleen, myles, 1911 – 1966 are the see references. these forms of the author ' s name will appear in the catalog, but only as transcriptions and not as headings. if a user queries the catalog under one of these variant forms of the author ' s name, he or she would receive the response : " see o ’ brien, flann, 1911 – 1966. " there is an additional spelling variant of the gopaleen name : " na gcopaleen, myles, 1911 – 1966 " has an extra c inserted because the author also employed the non - anglicized irish spelling of his pen - name, in which the capitalized c shows the correct root word while the preceding g indicates its pronunciation in context. so if a library user comes across this spelling variant, he or she will be led to the same author regardless


spelling of his pen - name, in which the capitalized c shows the correct root word while the preceding g indicates its pronunciation in context. so if a library user comes across this spelling variant, he or she will be led to the same author regardless. see also references, which point from one authorized heading to another authorized heading, are exceedingly rare for personal name authority records, although they often appear in name authority records for corporate bodies. the final four entries in this record beginning with his at swim - two - birds... 1939. constitute the justification for this particular form of the name : it appeared in this form on the 1939 edition of the author ' s novel at swim - two - birds, whereas the author ' s other noms de plume appeared on later publications. access control the act of choosing a single authorized heading to represent all forms of a name is often difficult, sometimes arbitrary and on occasion politically sensitive. an alternative is the idea of access control, where variant forms of a name are related without the endorsement of one particular form. authority control and cooperative cataloging before the advent of digital online public access catalogs and the internet, creating and maintaining a library ' s authority files was generally carried out by individual cataloging departments within each library — that is, if such cataloguing was done at all. this often resulted in substantial disagreement between different libraries over which form of a given name was considered authoritative. as long as a library ' s catalog was internally consistent, differences between catalogs did not matter greatly. however, even before the internet revolutionized the way libraries go about cataloging their materials, catalogers began moving toward the establishment of cooperative consortia, such as oclc and rlin in the united states, in which cataloging departments from libraries all over the world contributed their records to, and took their records from, a shared database. this development prompted to the need for national standards for authority work. in the united states, the primary organization for maintaining cataloging standards with respect to authority work operates under the aegis of the library of congress, and is known as the name authority cooperative program, or naco authority. there are various standards using different acronyms. - isaar ( cpf ) – international standard archival authority record for corporate bodies, persons, and families. [ dead link ] published by the international council on archives - marc standards for authority records in machine - readable format. - metadata authority description schema ( mads ), an xml schema for an authority element set that may be used to provide metadata


dead link ] published by the international council on archives - marc standards for authority records in machine - readable format. - metadata authority description schema ( mads ), an xml schema for an authority element set that may be used to provide metadata about agents ( people, organizations ), events, and terms ( topics, geographics, genres, etc. ). - encoded archival context, an xml schema for authority records conforming to isaar ( cpf ) see also - knowledge organization systems - library classification systems : - ontology ( information science ) - simple knowledge organization system ( skos ) for representation of thesauri, classification schemes, taxonomies, subject - heading systems, or any other type of structured controlled vocabulary. - universal authority file ( gemeinsame normdatei or gnd ), authority file by the german national library - virtual international authority file ( viaf ), an aggregation of authority files currently focused on personal and corporate names. - orcid ( open researcher and contributor id ), a nonproprietary alphanumeric code to uniquely identify scientific and other academic authors. authors - including wikipedia editors - may obtain an orcid by signing up at orcid. org. - block, rick j. 1999. “ authority control : what it is and why it matters. ”, accessed march 30, 2006 - " why does a library catalog need authority control and what is ". government of vermont. november 25, 2012. - " authority control at the nmsu library ". new mexico state university. november 25, 2012. - " authority control in the card environment ". government of vermont. november 25, 2012. retrieved november 25, 2012. - kathleen l. wells of the university of southern mississippi libraries ( november 25, 2012 ). " got authorities? why authority control is good for your library ". tennessee libraries. - " auctor ". online etymology dictionary. december 7, 2012. retrieved 2012 - 12 - 07. "... note : root words for both author and authority are words such as auctor or autor and autorite from the 13th century. - - author ( n ) c. 1300, autor " father, " from o. fr. auctor, acteor " author, originator, creator, instigator ( 12c., mod. fr. auteur ), from l. auctorem ( nom. auctor )... - - authority ( n. ) early


" author, originator, creator, instigator ( 12c., mod. fr. auteur ), from l. auctorem ( nom. auctor )... - - authority ( n. ) early 13c., autorite " book or quotation that settles an argument, " from o. fr. auctorite " authority, prestige, right, permission, dignity, gravity ; the scriptures " ( 12c. ; mod. fr. autorite ),... ( see author ).... " - " authority ( control ) ". memidex. december 7, 2012. retrieved 2012 - 12 - 07. " etymology... autorite " book or quotation that settles an argument ", from old french auctorite... " - " authority ". merriam - webster dictionary. december 7, 2012. retrieved 2012 - 12 - 07. " see " origin of authority " - - middle english auctorite, from anglo - french auctorite, from latin auctoritat -, auctoritas opinion, decision, power, from auctor first known use : 13th century... " - " cataloguing authority control policy ". national library of australia. november 25, 2012. " the primary purpose of authority control is to assist the catalogue user in locating items of interest. " - " authority control at lti ". lti. november 25, 2012. - " brief guidelines on authority control decision - making ". ncsu libraries. november 25, 2012. - " authority control in unicorn workflows august 2001 ". rutgers university. november 25, 2012. " why authority control? " - burger, robert h. authority work : the creation, use, maintenance and evaluation of authority records and files. littleton, colo. : libraries unlimited, 1985 - clack, doris hargrett. authority control : principles, applications, and instructions. chicago : american library association, 1990. - maxwell, robert l. maxwell ' s guide to authority work. chicago : american library association, 2002. - calhoun, karen ( june 1998 ). " a bird ' s eye view of authority control in cataloging ". cornell university library. retrieved november 25, 2012. - virtual international authority file records for princess diana, retrieved march 12, 2013 - note : this is the article title as of march 12, 2013 - mason, moya k ( november 25, 2012 ), purpose of authority work


25, 2012. - virtual international authority file records for princess diana, retrieved march 12, 2013 - note : this is the article title as of march 12, 2013 - mason, moya k ( november 25, 2012 ), purpose of authority work and files - wynar, bs ( 1992 ), introduction to cataloguing and classification ( 8th ed. ), littleton, co : libraries unlimited. - authorities files, library of congress ; the original record has been abbreviated for clarity. - calhoun, karen, a bird ' s eye view of authority control in cataloging, cornell university library. - note : see linda barnhart ' s access control records : prospects and challenges from the 1996 oclc conference ' authority control in the 21st century ' for more information. - " naco home : naco ( program for cooperative cataloging ( pcc ), library of congress ) ". loc. gov. retrieved 2011 - 12 - 18. - http : / / www. ica. org / en / node / 30230 [ dead link ] - " icarchives : page d ' accueil : accueil ". ica. org. retrieved 2011 - 12 - 18. - library of congress network development and marc standards office. " marc 21 format for authority data : table of contents ( network development and marc standards office, library of congress ) ". loc. gov. retrieved 2011 - 12 - 18. - note : see orcid. org


| | this article needs additional citations for verification. ( april 2008 ) | a blackboard ( uk english ) or chalkboard ( us english ) is a reuseable writing surface on which text or drawings are made with sticks of calcium sulfate or calcium carbonate, known, when used for this purpose, as chalk. blackboards were originally made of smooth, thin sheets of black or dark grey slate stone. modern versions are often green because the color is considered easier on the eyes. a blackboard can simply be a piece of board painted with matte dark paint ( usually black or dark green ). a more modern variation consists of a coiled sheet of plastic drawn across two parallel rollers, which can be scrolled to create additional writing space while saving what has been written. the highest grade blackboards are made of a rougher version porcelain enamelled steel ( black, green, blue or sometimes other colours ). porcelain is very hard wearing and blackboards made of porcelain usually last 10 – 20 years in intensive use. lecture theatres may contain a number of blackboards in a grid arrangement. the lecturer then moves boards into reach for writing and then move them out of reach, allowing a large amount of material to be shown simultaneously. the chalk marks can be easily wiped off with a damp cloth, a sponge or a special blackboard eraser consisting of a block of wood covered by a felt pad. however, chalk marks made on some types of wet blackboard can be difficult to remove. blackboard manufacturers often advise that a new or newly resurfaced blackboard be completely covered using the side of a stick of chalk and then that chalk brushed off as normal to prepare it for use. chalk sticks sticks of processed " chalk " are produced especially for use with blackboards in white and also in various colours. these are not actually made from chalk rock but from calcium sulfate in its dihydrate form, gypsum. advantages and disadvantages as compared to whiteboards, blackboards have a variety of advantages : - chalk requires no special care ; whiteboard markers must be capped or else they dry out. - chalk is an order of magnitude cheaper than whiteboard markers for a comparable amount of writing. - it is easier to draw lines of different weights and thicknesses with chalk than with whiteboard markers. - chalk has a mild smell, whereas whiteboard markers often have a pungent odor. - chalk writing often provides better contrast than whiteboard markers. on the other hand, chalk produces dust, the amount depending on the quality of chalk used


markers. - chalk has a mild smell, whereas whiteboard markers often have a pungent odor. - chalk writing often provides better contrast than whiteboard markers. on the other hand, chalk produces dust, the amount depending on the quality of chalk used. some people find this uncomfortable or may be allergic to it, and according to the american academy of allergy, asthma and immunology ( aaaai ), there are links between chalk dust and allergy and asthma problems. the dust also precludes the use of chalk in areas shared with dust - sensitive equipment such as computers. the scratching of fingernails on a blackboard, as well as other pointed, especially metal objects against blackboards, produces a sound that is well known for being extremely irritating to most people. many are averse also to merely the sight or thought of this sort of contact. etymology and history they use black tablets for the children in the schools, and write upon them along the long side, not the broadside, writing with a white material from the left to the right. the first classroom uses of large blackboards are difficult to date, but they were used for music education and composition in europe as far back as the sixteenth century. the term " blackboard " is attested in english from the mid - eighteenth century ; the oxford english dictionary provides a citation from 1739, to write " with chalk on a black - board ". the term " chalkboard " was used interchangeably with " blackboard " in the united kingdom in the early nineteenth century, but by the twentieth century had become primarily restricted to north american english. the blackboard was introduced into the us education system from europe in 1801. this occurred at west point, where george baron, an english mathematician, used chalk and blackboard in a lecture on september 21. james pillans has been credited with the invention of coloured chalk ( 1814 ) : he had a recipe with ground chalk, dyes and porridge. see also | look up blackboard or chalkboard in wiktionary, the free dictionary. | | wikimedia commons has media related to : blackboards | - chalkboard gag from the simpsons - interactive whiteboard - sidewalk chalk - sound of fingernails scraping chalkboard - webmd. " reading, writing, and wheezing? not necessarily ". asthma health center. webmd. retrieved sept. 19, 2000. - " full text of " alberuni ' s india. an account of the religion, philosophy, literature, geography, chronology, astronomy, customs,


a textbook or coursebook is a manual of instruction in any branch of study. textbooks are produced according to the demands of educational institutions. although most textbooks are only published in printed format, many are now available as online electronic books and increasingly, although illegally, in scanned format on file sharing networks. the ancient greeks wrote texts intended for education. the modern textbook has its roots in the standardization made possible by the printing press. johannes gutenberg himself may have printed editions of ars minor, a schoolbook on latin grammar by aelius donatus. early textbooks were used by tutors and teachers, who used the books as instructional aids ( e. g., alphabet books ), as well as individuals who taught themselves. the greek philosopher socrates ( 469 - 399 b. c. ) lamented the loss of knowledge because the media of transmission were changing. before the invention of the greek alphabet 2, 500 years ago, knowledge and stories were recited aloud, much like homer ' s epic poems. the new technology of writing meant stories no longer needed to be memorized, a development socrates feared would weaken the greeks ' mental capacities for memorizing and retelling. ( paradoxically, we know about socrates ' concerns only because they were written down by his student plato in his famous dialogues. ) the next revolution for books came with the 15th - century invention of printing with changeable type. the invention is attributed to german metalsmith johannes gutenberg, who cast type in molds using a melted metal alloy and constructed a wooden - screw printing press to transfer the image onto paper. gutenberg ' s first and only large - scale printing effort was the now iconic gutenberg bible in the 1450s — a latin translation from the hebrew old testament and the greek new testament [ disambiguation needed ], copies of which can be viewed on the british library website www. bl. uk. gutenberg ' s invention made mass production of texts possible for the first time. although the gutenberg bible itself was stratospherically expensive, printed books began to spread widely over european trade routes during the next 50 years, and by the 16th century printed books had become more widely accessible and less costly. compulsory education and the subsequent growth of schooling in europe led to the printing of many standardized texts for children. textbooks have become the primary teaching instrument for most children since the 19th century. two textbooks of historical significance in united states schooling were the 18th century new england primer and the 19th century mcguffey readers. technological advances change the way people


for children. textbooks have become the primary teaching instrument for most children since the 19th century. two textbooks of historical significance in united states schooling were the 18th century new england primer and the 19th century mcguffey readers. technological advances change the way people interact with textbooks. online and digital materials are making it increasingly easy for students to access materials other than the traditional print textbook. students now have access to electronic and pdf books, online tutoring systems and video lectures. an example of e - book publishing is principles of biology from nature publishing. most notably, an increasing number of authors are foregoing commercial publishers and offering their textbooks under a creative commons or other open license. the new york times recently endorsed the use of free, open, digital textbooks in the editorial " that book costs how much? " the " broken market " the textbook market does not operate in exactly the same manner as most consumer markets. first, the end consumers ( students ) do not select the product, and the product is not purchased by faculty or professors. therefore, price is removed from the purchasing decision, giving the producer ( publishers ) disproportionate market power to set prices high. similarities are found in the pharmaceutical industry, which sells its wares to doctors, rather than the ultimate end - user ( i. e. patient ). this fundamental difference in the market is often cited as the primary reason that prices are out of control. the term " broken market " first appeared in economist james koch ' s analysis of the market commissioned by the advisory committee on student financial assistance. this situation is exacerbated by the lack of competition in the textbook market. consolidation in the past few decades [ when? ] has reduced the number of major textbook companies from around 30 to just a handful. consequently, there is less competition than there used to be, and the high cost of starting up ' keeps new companies from entering. new editions & the used book market students seek relief from rising prices through the purchase of used copies of textbooks, which tend to be less expensive. most college bookstores offer used copies of textbooks at lower prices. most bookstores will also buy used copies back from students at the end of a term if the book is going to be re - used at the school. books that are not being re - used at the school are often purchased by an off - campus wholesaler for 0 - 30 % of the new cost, for distribution to other bookstores where the books will be sold. textbook companies have countered this by encouraging faculty to assign homework that


- used at the school are often purchased by an off - campus wholesaler for 0 - 30 % of the new cost, for distribution to other bookstores where the books will be sold. textbook companies have countered this by encouraging faculty to assign homework that must be done on the publisher ' s website. if a student has a new textbook then he or she can use the pass code in the book to register on the site. if the student has purchased a used textbook then he or she must pay money directly to the publisher in order to access the website and complete assigned homework. students who look beyond the campus bookstore can typically find lower prices. with the isbn or title, author and edition, most textbooks can be located through online used book sellers or retailers. most leading textbook companies publish a new edition every 3 or 4 years, more frequently in math & science. harvard economics chair james k. stock has stated that new editions are often not about significant improvements to the content. " new editions are to a considerable extent simply another tool used by publishers and textbook authors to maintain their revenue stream, that is, to keep up prices, " a study conducted by the student pirgs found that a new edition costs 12 % more than a new copy of previous edition, and 58 % more than a used copy of the previous edition. textbook publishers maintain these new editions are driven by faculty demand. the student pirgs ' study found that 76 % of faculty said new editions were justified “ half of the time or less ” and 40 % said they were justified “ rarely ” or “ never. ” the pirg study has been criticized by publishers, who argue that the report contains factual inaccuracies regarding the annual average cost of textbooks per student. the student pirgs also point out that recent emphasis on electronic textbooks, or " etextbooks, " does not always save students money. even though the book costs less up - front, the student will not recover any of the cost through resale. another publishing industry practice that has been highly criticized is " bundling, " or shrink - wrapping supplemental items into a textbook. supplemental items range from cd - roms and workbooks to online passcodes and bonus material. students do not always have the option to purchase these items separately, and often the one - time - use supplements destroy the resale value of the textbook. according to the student pirgs, the typical bundled textbook is 10 % - 50 % more than an unbundled textbook, and 65 % of professors said they “ rarely


one - time - use supplements destroy the resale value of the textbook. according to the student pirgs, the typical bundled textbook is 10 % - 50 % more than an unbundled textbook, and 65 % of professors said they “ rarely ” or “ never ” use the bundled items in their courses. a 2005 government accountability office ( gao ) report found that the production of these supplemental items was the primary cause of rapidly increasing prices : while publishers, retailers, and wholesalers all play a role in textbook pricing, the primary factor contributing to increases in the price of textbooks has been the increased investment publishers have made in new products to enhance instruction and learning... while wholesalers, retailers, and others do not question the quality of these materials, they have expressed concern that the publishers ’ practice of packaging supplements with a textbook to sell as one unit limits the opportunity students have to purchase less expensive used books.... if publishers continue to increase these investments, particularly in technology, the cost to produce a textbook is likely to continue to increase in the future. bundling has also been used as a means of segmenting the used book market. each combination of a textbook and supplemental items receives a separate isbn. a single textbook could therefore have dozens of isbns that denote different combinations of supplements packaged with that particular book. when a bookstore attempts to track down used copies of textbooks, they will search for the isbn the course instructor orders, which will locate only a subset of the copies of the textbook. legislation on the state and federal level seeks to limit the practice of bundling, by requiring publishers to offer all components separately. publishers have testified in favor of bills including this provision, but only in the case that the provision exempts the loosely defined category of " integrated textbooks. " the federal bill only exempts 3rd party materials in integrated textbooks, however publisher lobbyists have attempted to create a loophole through this definition in state bills. price disclosure given that the problem of high textbook prices is linked to the " broken " economics of the market, requiring publishers to disclose textbook prices to faculty is a solution pursued by a number of legislatures. by inserting price into sales interactions, this regulation will supposedly make the economic forces operate more normally. no data suggests that this is in fact true. however, the student pirgs have found that publishers actively withhold pricing information from faculty, making it difficult to obtain. their most recent study found that 77 % of faculty say publisher sales representatives do not volunteer prices, and only 40 % got an answer when


the student pirgs have found that publishers actively withhold pricing information from faculty, making it difficult to obtain. their most recent study found that 77 % of faculty say publisher sales representatives do not volunteer prices, and only 40 % got an answer when they directly asked. furthermore, the study found that 23 % of faculty rated publisher websites as “ informative and easy to use ” and less than half said they typically listed the price. the us congress passed a law in the 2008 higher education opportunity act that would require price disclosure. legislation requiring price disclosure has passed in connecticut, washington, minnesota, oregon, arizona, oklahoma, and colorado. publishers are currently supporting price disclosure mandates, though they insist that the " suggested retail price " should be disclosed, rather than the actual price the publisher would get for the book. used textbook market once a textbook is purchased from a retailer for the first time, there are several ways a student can sell his / her textbooks back at the end of the semester. students can sell to 1 ) the college / university bookstore ; 2 ) fellow students ; or 3 ) a number of online web sites or student swap service. campus buyback as for buyback on a specific campus, faculty decisions largely determine how much a student receives. if a professor chooses to use the same book the following semester, even if it is a custom text, designed specifically for an individual instructor, bookstores often buy the book back. the gao report found that, generally, if a book is in good condition and will be used on the campus again the next term, bookstores will pay students 50 percent of the original price paid. if the bookstore has not received a faculty order for the book at the end of the term and the edition is still current, they may offer students the wholesale price of the book, which could range from 5 to 35 percent of the new retail price, according to the gao report. when students resell their textbooks during campus “ buyback ” periods, these textbooks are often sold into the national used textbook distribution chain. if a textbook is not going to be used on campus for the next semester of courses then many times the college bookstore will sell that book to a national used book company. the used book company then resells the book to another college bookstore. finally, that book is sold as used to a student at another college at a price that is typically 75 % of the new book price. at each step, a markup is applied to the book to enable the respective companies to continue to operate. student to


that book is sold as used to a student at another college at a price that is typically 75 % of the new book price. at each step, a markup is applied to the book to enable the respective companies to continue to operate. student to student sales students can also sell or trade textbooks among themselves. after completing a course, sellers will often seek out members of the next enrolling class, people who are likely to be interested in purchasing the required books. this may be done by posting flyers to advertise the sale of the books or simply soliciting individuals who are shopping in the college bookstore for the same titles. many larger schools have independent websites set up for the purpose of facilitating such trade. these often operate much like digital classified ads, enabling students to list their items for sale and browse for those they wish to acquire. also, at the us air force academy, it is possible to e - mail entire specific classes, allowing for an extensive network of textbook sales to exist. student online marketplaces online marketplaces are one of the two major types of online websites students can use to sell used textbooks. online marketplaces may have an online auction format or may allow the student to list their books for a fixed price. in either case, the student must create the listing for each book themselves and wait for a buyer to order, making the use of marketplaces a more passive way of selling used textbooks. unlike campus buyback and online book, students are unlikely to sell all their books to one buyer using online marketplaces, and will likely have to send out multiple books individually. online book buyers online book buyers buy textbooks, and sometimes other types of books, with the aim of reselling them for a profit. like online marketplaces, online book buyers operate year - round, giving students the opportunity to sell their books even when campus " buyback " periods are not in effect. students enter the isbn numbers of the books they wish to sell and receive a price quote or offer. these online book buyers often offer " free shipping " ( which in actuality is built into the offer for the book ), and allow students to sell multiple books to the same source. because online book buyers are buying books for resale, the prices they offer may be lower than students can get on online marketplaces. however, their prices are competitive, and they tend to focus on the convenience of their service. some even claim that buying used textbooks online and selling them to online book buyers has a lower total cost than even textbook rental services. textbook


online marketplaces. however, their prices are competitive, and they tend to focus on the convenience of their service. some even claim that buying used textbooks online and selling them to online book buyers has a lower total cost than even textbook rental services. textbook exchanges in response to escalating textbook prices, limited competition, and to provide a more efficient system to connect buyers and sellers together, online textbook exchanges were developed. most of today ' s sites handle buyer and seller payments, and usually deduct a small commission only after the sale is completed. according to textbook author henry l. roediger ( and wadsworth publishing company senior editor vicki knight ), the used textbook market is illegitimate, and entirely to blame for the rising costs of textbooks. as methods of " dealing with this problem ", he recommends making previous editions of textbooks obsolete, binding the textbook with other materials, and passing laws to prevent the sale of used books. the concept is not unlike the limited licensing approach for computer software, which places rigid restrictions on resale and reproduction. the intent is to make users understand that the content of any textbook is the intellectual property of the author and / or the publisher, and that as such, subject to copyright. obviously, this idea is completely opposed to the millennia - old tradition of the sale of used books, and would make that entire industry illegal. rental programs in - store rentals are processed by either using a kiosk and ordering books online with a third party facilitator or renting directly from the store ' s inventory. some stores use a hybrid of both methods, opting for in - store selections of the most popular books and the online option for more obscure titles or books they consider too risky to put in the rental system. open textbooks the latest trend in textbooks is " open textbooks. " an open textbook is a free, openly licensed textbook offered online by its author ( s ). according to pirg, a number of textbooks already exist, and are being used at schools such as the mit and harvard. a 2010 study published found that open textbooks offer a viable and attractive means to meet faculty and student needs while offering savings of approximately 80 % compared to traditional textbook options. although the largest question seems to be who is going to pay to write them, several state policies suggest that public investment in open textbooks might make sense. to offer another perspective, any jurisdiction might find itself challenged to find sufficient numbers of credible academics who would be willing to undertake the effort of creating an open textbook without realistic compensation, in order


state policies suggest that public investment in open textbooks might make sense. to offer another perspective, any jurisdiction might find itself challenged to find sufficient numbers of credible academics who would be willing to undertake the effort of creating an open textbook without realistic compensation, in order to make such a proposal work. the other challenge involves the reality of publishing, which is that textbooks with good sales and profitability subsidize the creation and publication of low demand but believed to be necessary textbooks. subsidies skew markets and the elimination of subsidies is disruptive ; in the case of low demand textbooks the possibilities following subsidy removal include any or all of the following : higher retail prices, a switch to open textbooks, a reduction of the number of titles published. on the other hand, independent open textbook authoring and publishing models are developing. most notably, the startup publisher flat world knowledge already has dozens of college - level open textbooks that are used by more than 900 institutions in 44 countries. their innovative business model was to offer the open textbook free online, and then sell ancillary products that students are likely to buy if prices are reasonable - print copies, study guides, epub,. mobi ( kindle ), pdf download, etc. flat world knowledge compensates its authors with royalties on these sales. with the generated revenue flat world knowledge funded high - quality publishing activities with a goal of making the flat world financial model sustainable. however, in january, 2013 flat world knowledge announced their financial model could no longer sustain their free - to - read options for students. flat world knowledge intends to have open textbooks available for the 125 highest - enrolled courses on college campuses within the next few years. ck - 12 flexbooks are the open textbooks designed for united states k - 12 courses. ck - 12 flexbooks are designed to facilitate conformance to national and united states and individual state textbook standards. ck - 12 flexbooks are licensed under a creative commons by - nc - sa license, are easy to update, and easy to customize. ck - 12 flexbooks are free to use online and offer formats suitable for use on portable personal reading devices and computers - both online and offline. formats for both ipad and kindle are offered. school districts may select a title as is or customize the open textbook to meet local instructional standards. the file may be then accessed electronically or printed using any print on demand service without paying a royalty, saving 80 % or more when compared to traditional textbook options. an example print on demand open textbook title, " college algebra " by stitz


standards. the file may be then accessed electronically or printed using any print on demand service without paying a royalty, saving 80 % or more when compared to traditional textbook options. an example print on demand open textbook title, " college algebra " by stitz & zeager through lulu is 608 pages, royalty free, and costs about $ 20 ordered one at a time ( march, 2011 ). ( any print on demand service could be used - this is just an example. school districts could easily negotiate even lower prices for bulk purchases to be printed in their own communities. ) teacher ' s editions are available for educators and parents. titles have been authored by various individuals and organizations and are vetted for quality prior to inclusion in the ck - 12 catalog. an effort is underway to map state educational standards correlations. stanford university provided a number of titles in use. ck - 12 foundation is a non - profit organization with a mission to reduce the cost of textbook materials for the k - 12 market both in the u. s. and worldwide using a standards driven, open - licensed, web - based, collaborative content aggregation model. curriki is another modular k - 12 content non - profit " empowering educators to deliver and share curricula. " selected curriki materials are also correlated to u. s. state educational standards. some curriki content has been collected into open textbooks and some may be used for modular lessons or special topics. | this section may rely excessively on sources too closely associated with the subject, preventing the article from being verifiable and neutral. ( march 2012 ) | wikibooks is a wikimedia project that aims to provide and promote the editing of open - content textbooks. wikibooks is for textbooks, annotated texts, instructional guides, and manuals. these materials can be used in a traditional classroom, an accredited or respected institution, a home - school environment, as part of a wikiversity course or for self - learning. as a general rule only instructional books are suitable for inclusion. most types of books, both fiction and non - fiction, are not allowed on wikibooks, unless they are instructional. the use of literary elements, such as allegory or fables as instructional tools can be permitted in some situations. although the project does not permit verbatim copies of pre - existing works ( those would be covered by wikisource ), it does permit annotated texts, which are a kind of text that includes an original text


in some situations. although the project does not permit verbatim copies of pre - existing works ( those would be covered by wikisource ), it does permit annotated texts, which are a kind of text that includes an original text within it and serves as a guide to reading or studying that text. annotated editions of previously published source texts may only be written if the source text is compatible with the project ' s license. mit opencourseware provides several open textbooks. international market pricing similar to the issue of reimportation of pharmaceuticals into the u. s. market, the gao report also highlights a similar phenomenon in textbook distribution. retailers and publishers have expressed concern about the reimportation of lower - priced textbooks from international locations. specifically, they cited the ability students have to purchase books from online distribution channels outside the united states at lower prices, which may result in a loss of sales for u. s. retailers. additionally, the availability of lower - priced textbooks through these channels has heightened distrust and frustration among students regarding textbook prices, and college stores find it difficult to explain why their textbook prices are higher, according to the national association of college stores. retailers and publishers have also been concerned that some u. s. retailers may have engaged in reimportation on a large scale by ordering textbooks for entire courses at lower prices from international distribution channels. while the 1998 supreme court decision quality king v. l ' anza protects the reimportation of copyrighted materials under the first - sale doctrine, textbook publishers have still attempted to prevent the u. s. sale of international editions by enforcing contracts which forbid foreign wholesalers from selling to american distributors. concerned about the effects of differential pricing on college stores, the national association of college stores has called on publishers to stop the practice of selling textbooks at lower prices outside the united states. for example, some u. s. booksellers arrange for drop - shipments in foreign countries which are then re - shipped to america where the books can be sold online at used prices ( for a " new " unopened book ). the authors often getting half - royalties instead of full - royalties, minus the charges for returned books from bookstores. cost distribution according to the national association of college stores, the entire cost of the book is justified by expenses, with typically 11. 7 % of the price of a new book going to the author ' s royalties ( or a committee of editors at the publishing house ), 22. 7 % going to the store,


cost of the book is justified by expenses, with typically 11. 7 % of the price of a new book going to the author ' s royalties ( or a committee of editors at the publishing house ), 22. 7 % going to the store, and 64. 6 % going to the publisher. the store and publisher amounts are slightly higher for canada. bookstores and used - book vendors profit from the resale of textbooks on the used market, with publishers only earning profits on sales of new textbooks. according to the gao study published july 2005 : following closely behind annual increases in tuition and fees at postsecondary institutions, college textbook and supply prices have risen at twice the rate of annual inflation over the last two decades. rising at an average of 6 percent each year since academic year 1987 - 1988, compared with overall average price increases of 3 percent per year, college textbook and supply prices trailed tuition and fee increases, which averaged 7 percent per year. since december 1986, textbook and supply prices have nearly tripled, increasing by 186 percent, while tuition and fees increased by 240 percent and overall prices grew by 72 percent. while increases in textbook and supply prices have followed increases in tuition and fees, the cost of textbooks and supplies for degree - seeking students as a percentage of tuition and fees varies by the type of institution attended. for example, the average estimated cost of books and supplies per first - time, full - time student for academic year 2003 - 2004 was $ 898 at 4 - year public institutions, or about 26 percent of the cost of tuition and fees. at 2 - year public institutions, where low - income students are more likely to pursue a degree program and tuition and fees are lower, the average estimated cost of books and supplies per first - time, full - time student was $ 886 in academic year 2003 - 2004, representing almost three - quarters of the cost of tuition and fees. according to the 2nd edition of a study by the united states public interest research group ( us pirg ) published in february 2005 : " textbook prices are increasing at more than four times the inflation rate for all finished goods, according to the bureau of labor statistics producer price index. the wholesale prices charged by textbook publishers have jumped 62 percent since 1994, while prices charged for all finished goods increased only 14 percent. similarly, the prices charged by publishers for general books increased just 19 percent during the same time period. " according to the 2007 edition of the college board ’ s trend in college pricing report published october 2007 : " college costs continue to rise


14 percent. similarly, the prices charged by publishers for general books increased just 19 percent during the same time period. " according to the 2007 edition of the college board ’ s trend in college pricing report published october 2007 : " college costs continue to rise and federal student aid has shown slower growth when adjusted for inflation, while textbooks, as a percentage of total college costs, have remained steady at about 5 percent. " k - 12 textbooks in most u. s. k - 12 public schools, a local school board votes on which textbooks to purchase from a selection of books that have been approved by the state department of education. teachers receive the books to give to the students for each subject. teachers are usually not required to use textbooks, however, and many prefer to use other materials instead. textbook publishing in the u. s. is a business primarily aimed at large states. this is due to state purchasing controls over the books. the texas state board of education spends in excess of $ 600 million annually on its central purchasing of textbooks. high school in recent years, high school textbooks of united states history have come under increasing criticism. authors such as howard zinn ( a people ' s history of the united states ), gilbert t. sewall ( textbooks : where the curriculum meets the child ) and james w. loewen ( lies my teacher told me : everything your american history textbook got wrong ), make the claim that u. s. history textbooks contain mythical untruths and omissions, which paint a whitewashed picture that bears little resemblance to what most students learn in universities. inaccurately retelling history, through textbooks or other literature, has been practiced in many societies, from ancient rome to the soviet union ( ussr ) and the people ' s republic of china. the content of history textbooks is often determined by the political forces of state adoption boards and ideological pressure groups. science textbooks have been the source of ongoing debates and have come under scrutiny from several organizations. the presentation or inclusion of controversial scientific material has been debated in several court cases. poorly designed textbooks have been cited as contributing to declining grades in mathematics and science in the united states and organizations such as the american academy of arts and sciences ( aaas ) have criticized the layout, presentation, and amount of material given in textbooks. discussions of textbooks have been included on creation and evolution in the public education debate. the smith v. board of school commissioners of mobile county case brought forward a debate about scientific fact being presented in textbooks. in his book, surely you ' re


textbooks. discussions of textbooks have been included on creation and evolution in the public education debate. the smith v. board of school commissioners of mobile county case brought forward a debate about scientific fact being presented in textbooks. in his book, surely you ' re joking, mr. feynman!, the late physics nobel prize laureate richard p. feynman described his experiences as a member of a committee that evaluated science textbooks. at some instances, there were nonsensical examples to illustrate physical phenomena ; then a company sent — for reasons of timing — a textbook that contained blank pages, which even got good critiques. feynman himself experienced attempts at bribery. largely in the us, but increasingly in other nations, k - 12 mathematics textbooks have reflected the controversies of new math and reform mathematics which have sought to replace traditional mathematics in what have been called the math wars. traditional texts, still favored in asia and other areas, merely taught the same time - tested mathematics that most adults have learned. by contrast " progressive " approaches seek to address problems in social inequity with approaches that often incorporate principles of constructivism and discovery. texts such as terc and cmp discourage or omit standard mathematics methods and concepts such as long division and lowest common denominators. for example an index entry to multiply fractions would lead to " devise your own method to multiply fractions which work on these examples ", and the formula for the area of a circle would be an exercise for a student to derive rather than including it in the student text. by the 2000s, while some districts were still adopting the more novel methods, others had abandoned them as unworkable. higher education in the u. s., college and university textbooks are chosen by the professor teaching the course, or by the department as a whole. students are typically responsible for obtaining their own copies of the books used in their courses, although alternatives to owning textbooks, such as textbook rental services and library reserve copies of texts, are available in some instances. in some european countries, such as sweden or spain, students attending institutions of higher education pay for textbooks themselves, although higher education is free of charge otherwise. with higher education costs on the rise, many students are becoming sensitive to every aspect of college pricing, including textbooks, and in many cases amount to one tenth of tuition costs. the 2005 government accountability office report on college textbooks said that since the 1980s, textbook and supply prices have risen twice the rate of inflation in the past two decades. a 2005 pi


including textbooks, and in many cases amount to one tenth of tuition costs. the 2005 government accountability office report on college textbooks said that since the 1980s, textbook and supply prices have risen twice the rate of inflation in the past two decades. a 2005 pirg study found that textbooks cost students $ 900 per year, and that prices increased four times the rate of inflation over the past decade. a june 2007 advisory committee on student financial assistance ( acsfa ) report, “ turn the page, ” reported that the average u. s. student spends $ 700 – $ 1000 per year on textbooks. while many groups have assigned blame to publishers, bookstores or faculty, the acsfa also found that assigning blame to any one party — faculty, colleges, bookstores or publishers — for current textbook costs is unproductive and without merit. the report called on all parties within the industry to work together to find productive solutions, which included a movement toward open textbooks and other lower - cost digital solutions. textbook prices are considerably higher in law school. students ordinarily pay close to $ 200 for case books consisting of cases available free online. textbook bias on controversial topics in cases of history, science, current events, and political textbooks, the writer might be biased towards one way or another. topics such as actions of a country, presidential actions, and scientific theories are common potential biases. see also - casebook - a special type of textbook used in law schools in the united states. - japanese textbook controversy - pakistani textbooks controversy - kanawha county textbook controversy - sourcebook – collection of texts, often used in social sciences and humanities in the united states - wikibooks - a sister project to wikipedia whose goal is to create textbooks. - workbook - usually filled with practice problems, where the answers can be written directly in the book. - problem book - a textbook, usually graduate level, organized as a series of problems and full solutions. - open textbook - more information about open textbook options. - http : / / wondermark. com / socrates - vs - writing / true stuff : socrates vs. the written word, january 27th, 2011. by david malki - marcia clemmitt, " learning online literacy, " in " reading crisis? " cq researcher, feb. 22, 2008, pp. 169 - 192. - british library, “ treasures in full : gutenberg bible, ” www. bl. uk / treasures / gutenberg / background. html. - koch, james p. " an economic


. 22, 2008, pp. 169 - 192. - british library, “ treasures in full : gutenberg bible, ” www. bl. uk / treasures / gutenberg / background. html. - koch, james p. " an economic analysis of textbook prices and the textbook market ", 2006 - 09. retrieved on 2012 - 06 - 12. ( alternative location ( pdf ) ) - rose, marla matzer. city at the head of the class : consolidation, talent pool have made columbus a hotbed for educational publishers. august 5, 2007. retrieved 2 / 14 / 09. archived from the original on 23 may 2011. - d ' gama, alissa and benjamin jaffe. " professors find differents uses for textbook profits. " the harvard crimson, 4 march 2008. retrieved on 7 october 2011. - rip - off 101 : how the current practices of the textbook industry drive up the cost of college textbooks the student pirgs ( 2004 ) - capriccioso, rob. throwing down the book. inside higher ed, august 29, 2006. retrieved 2 / 14 / 09. - allen, nicole. course correction : how digital textbooks are off track and how to set them straight. the student pirgs ( 2008 ) - required reading : a look at the words publishing tactics at work, the student pirgs ( 2006 ) - " college textbooks : enhanced offerings appear to drive recent price increases. " u. s. government accountability office, washington, dc, 2005. abstract. retrieved 7 october 2011. - analysis of textbook affordability provisions in h. r. 4137, the student pirgs - " higher education opportunity act. " h. r. 4137, u. s. house of representatives, 110th congress ( 2007 - 2008. ) public law no. 110 - 315. retrieved 7 october 2011. - hb 2048. missouri house of representatives, 28 august 2008. retrieved 7 october 2011. - summarized history for bill number sb08 - 073. colorado general assembly, 2008. last updated 04 august 2008. retrieved 07 october 2011. - zomer, saffron. exposing the textbook industry, the student pirgs ( 2007 ) - washington governor signs college textbook transparency act, the student pirgs ( press release ) - see pirg ' s catalog of open textbooks for examples of open textbooks - a cover to cover solution by nicole allen of the student pirgs. 2010. - flat world knowledge president eric frank addresses oregon legislators on


##rgs ( press release ) - see pirg ' s catalog of open textbooks for examples of open textbooks - a cover to cover solution by nicole allen of the student pirgs. 2010. - flat world knowledge president eric frank addresses oregon legislators on solving textbook affordability. pressitt. february 21, 2011. - open - source textbook co. flat world goes back to school with 40, 000 new customers - venture beat 8 / 20 / 09 - 150, 000 college students save $ 12 million using flat world knowledge open textbooks. marketwire. august 23, 2010. - flat world knowledge : open college textbooks by sanford forte. opensource. com. february 23, 2010. - organizational behavior v1. 1 by talya bauer & berrin erdogan. irvington, ny : flat world knowledge. 2010. ( free online open textbook format sample - pdf view ) - introduction to psychology by charles stangor. irvington, ny : flat world knowledge. 2010. ( free online open textbook format sample - web view ) - see flat world knowledge ' s website - flat world knowledge website. - flat world knowledge gets $ 15 million in funding. publishers weekly. january 20, 2011. - ck - 12 flexbooks. homepage. - carl stitz / jeff zeager on ohio textbook hq 2010. - ck - 12 - standards correlations united states. - human biology - genetics ck - 12 flexbook by the program in human biology, stanford university. ( sample of free web access format ) - about ck - 12 foundation - curriki. org homepage. - lewin, tamar ( 21 october 2003 ). " students find $ 100 textbooks cost $ 50, purchased overseas ". the new york times. retrieved 24 september 2009. - " testimony of marc l. fleischaker, counsel, national association of college stores ". hearing on " are college textbooks priced fairly? ". u. s. house of representatives, committee on education and the workforce, subcommittee on 21st century competitiveness. 20 july 2004. archived from the original on 7 october 2011. retrieved 24 september 2009. - rip - off 101 : second edition, the student pirgs ( 2005 ) further reading - slatalla, michelle ( august 30, 2007 ), " knowledge is priceless but textbooks are not ", new york times. | wikimedia commons has media related to : textbooks |


food vs. fuel food vs. fuel is the dilemma regarding the risk of diverting farmland or crops for biofuels production in detriment of the food supply on a global scale. the " food vs. fuel " or " food or fuel " debate is international in scope, with valid arguments on all sides of the issue. there is disagreement about how significant the issue is, what is causing it, and what can or should be done about it. biofuel production has increased in recent years. some commodities like maize ( corn ), sugar cane or vegetable oil can be used either as food, feed, or to make biofuels. for example, since 2006, a portion of land that was also formerly used to grow other crops in the united states is now used to grow corn for biofuels, and a larger share of corn is destined to ethanol production, reaching 25 % in 2007. a major debate exists on the extent to which biofuels policies contributed to high agricultural prices levels and volatility. a recent study for the international centre for trade and sustainable development shows that market - driven expansion of ethanol in the us increased maize prices by 21 percent in 2009, in comparison with what prices would have been had ethanol production been frozen at 2004 levels. lester r. brown claimed that, since converting the entire grain harvest of the us would only produce 16 % of its auto fuel needs, energy markets are effectively placed in competition with food markets for scarce arable land, resulting in higher food prices. a lot of r & d efforts are currently being put into the production of second generation biofuels from non - food crops, crop residues and waste. second generation biofuels could hence potentially combine farming for food and fuel and moreover, electricity could be generated simultaneously, which could be beneficial for developing countries and rural areas in developed countries. with global demand for biofuels on the increase due to the oil price increases taking place since 2003 and the desire to reduce oil dependency as well as reduce ghg emissions from transportation, there is also fear of the potential destruction of natural habitats by being converted into farmland. environmental groups have raised concerns about this trade - off for several years, but now the debate reached a global scale due to the 2007 – 2008 world food price crisis. on the other hand, several studies do show that biofuel production can be significantly increased without increased acreage. therefore stating that the crisis in hand relies on the food scarcity. brazil has been considered to have the world ' s first sustainable biofuels


other hand, several studies do show that biofuel production can be significantly increased without increased acreage. therefore stating that the crisis in hand relies on the food scarcity. brazil has been considered to have the world ' s first sustainable biofuels economy and its government claims brazil ' s sugar cane based ethanol industry has not contributed to the 2008 food crisis. a world bank policy research working paper released in july 2008 concluded that "... large increases in biofuels production in the united states and europe are the main reason behind the steep rise in global food prices ", and also stated that " brazil ' s sugar - based ethanol did not push food prices appreciably higher ". however, a 2010 study also by the world bank concluded that their previous study may have overestimated the contribution of biofuel production, as " the effect of biofuels on food prices has not been as large as originally thought, but that the use of commodities by financial investors ( the so - called " financialisation of commodities " ) may have been partly responsible for the 2007 / 08 spike. " a 2008 independent study by oecd also found that the impact of biofuels on food prices are much smaller. food price inflation from 1974 to 2005 real food prices ( adjusted for inflation ) dropped by 75 %. food commodity prices were relatively stable after reaching lows in 2000 and 2001. therefore, recent rapid food price increases are considered extraordinary. a world bank policy research working paper published on july 2008 found that the increase in food commodities prices was led by grains, with sharp price increases in 2005 despite record crops worldwide. from january 2005 until june 2008, maize prices almost tripled, wheat increased 127 percent, and rice rose 170 percent. the increase in grain prices was followed by increases in fats and oil prices in mid - 2006. on the other hand, the study found that sugar cane production has increased rapidly, and it was large enough to keep sugar price increases small except for 2005 and early 2006. the paper concluded that biofuels produced from grains have raised food prices in combination with other related factors between 70 to 75 percent, but ethanol produced from sugar cane has not contributed significantly to the recent increase in food commodities prices. an economic assessment report published by the oecd in july 2008 found that "... the impact of current biofuel policies on world crop prices, largely through increased demand for cereals and vegetable oils, is significant but should not be overestimated. current biofuel support measures alone are estimated


2008 found that "... the impact of current biofuel policies on world crop prices, largely through increased demand for cereals and vegetable oils, is significant but should not be overestimated. current biofuel support measures alone are estimated to increase average wheat prices by about 5 percent, maize by around 7 percent and vegetable oil by about 19 percent over the next 10 years. " corn is used to make ethanol and prices went up by a factor of three in less than 3 years ( measured in us dollars ). reports in 2007 linked stories as diverse as food riots in mexico due to rising prices of corn for tortillas, and reduced profits at heineken the large international brewer, to the increasing use of corn ( maize ) grown in the us midwest for ethanol production. ( in the case of beer, the barley area was cut in order to increase corn production. barley is not currently used to produce ethanol. ) wheat is up by almost a factor of 3 in 3 years, while soybeans are up by a factor of 2 in 2 years ( both measured in us dollars ). as corn is commonly used as feed for livestock, higher corn prices lead to higher prices in animal source foods. vegetable oil is used to make biodiesel and has about doubled in price in the last couple years. the price is roughly tracking crude oil prices. the 2007 – 2008 world food price crisis is blamed partly on the increased demand for biofuels. during the same period rice prices went up by a factor of 3 even though rice is not directly used in biofuels. the usda expects the 2008 / 2009 wheat season to be a record crop and 8 % higher than the previous year. they also expect rice to have a record crop. wheat prices have dropped from a high over $ 12 / bushel in may 2008 to under $ 8 / bushel in may. rice has also dropped from its highs. according to a 2008 report from the world bank the production of biofuel pushed food prices up. these conclusions were supported by the union of concerned scientists in their september 2008 newsletter in which they remarked that the world bank analysis " contradicts u. s. secretary of agriculture ed schaffer ' s assertion that biofuels account for only a small percentage of rising food prices. " according to the october consumer price index released nov. 19, 2008, food prices continued to rise in october 2008 and were 6. 3 percent higher than october 2007. [ dubious ] since july 2008 fuel costs dropped by nearly 60 percent


food prices. " according to the october consumer price index released nov. 19, 2008, food prices continued to rise in october 2008 and were 6. 3 percent higher than october 2007. [ dubious ] since july 2008 fuel costs dropped by nearly 60 percent. proposed causes ethanol fuel as an oxygenate additive the demand for ethanol fuel produced from field corn was spurred in the u. s. by the discovery that methyl tertiary butyl ether ( mtbe ) was contaminating groundwater. mtbe use as an oxygenate additive was widespread due to mandates of the clean air act amendments of 1992 to reduce carbon monoxide emissions. as a result, by 2006 mtbe use in gasoline was banned in almost 20 states. there was also concern that widespread and costly litigation might be taken against the u. s. gasoline suppliers, and a 2005 decision refusing legal protection for mtbe, opened a new market for ethanol fuel, the primary substitute for mtbe. at a time when corn prices were around us $ 2 a bushel, corn growers recognized the potential of this new market and delivered accordingly. this demand shift took place at a time when oil prices were already significantly rising. other factors that food prices went up at the same time fuel prices went up is not surprising and should not be entirely blamed on biofuels. energy costs are a significant cost for fertilizer, farming, and food distribution. also, china and other countries have had significant increases in their imports as their economies have grown. sugar is one of the main feedstocks for ethanol and prices are down from 2 years ago. part of the food price increase for international food commodities measured in us dollars is due to the dollar being devalued. protectionism is also an important contributor to price increases. 36 % of world grain goes as fodder to feed animals, rather than people. over long time periods population growth and climate change could cause food prices to go up. however, these factors have been around for many years and food prices have jumped up in the last 3 years, so their contribution to the current problem is minimal. government regulations of food and fuel markets france, germany, the united kingdom and the united states governments have supported biofuels with tax breaks, mandated use, and subsidies. these policies have the unintended consequence of diverting resources from food production and leading to surging food prices and the potential destruction of natural habitats. fuel for agricultural use often does not have fuel taxes ( farmers get duty - free petrol or diesel fuel ). biofuels may


security act in 2006. " it ' s time for congress to realize what farmers in america ' s heartland have known all along - that we have the capacity and ingenuity to decrease our dependence on foreign oil by growing our own fuel, " said u. s. senator for illinois barack obama. two - thirds of u. s. oil consumption is due to the transportation sector. the energy independence and security act of 2007 has a significant impact on u. s. energy policy. with the high profitability of growing corn, more and more farmers switch to growing corn until the profitability of other crops goes up to match that of corn. so the ethanol / corn subsidies drive up the prices of other farm crops. the us - an important export country for food stocks - will convert 18 % of its grain output to ethanol in 2008. across the us, 25 % of the whole corn crop went to ethanol in 2007. the percentage of corn going to biofuel is expected to go up. since 2004 a us subsidy has been paid to companies that blend biofuel and regular fuel. the european biofuel subsidy is paid at the point of sale. companies import biofuel to the us, blend 1 % or even 0. 1 % regular fuel, and then ship the blended fuel to europe, where it can get a second subsidy. these blends are called b99 or b99. 9 fuel. the practice is called " splash and dash ". the imported fuel may even come from europe to the us, get 0. 1 % regular fuel, and then go back to europe. for b99. 9 fuel the us blender gets a subsidy of $ 0. 999 per gallon. the european biodiesel producers have urged the eu to impose punitive duties on these subsidized imports. us lawmakers are also looking at closing this loophole. proposed action freeze on first generation biofuel production environmental campaigner george monbiot has argued for a 5 - year freeze on biofuels while their impact on poor communities and the environment is assessed. it has been suggested that a problem with monbiot ' s approach is that economic drivers may be required in order to push through the development of more sustainable second - generation biofuel processes : it is possible that these could be stalled if biofuel production decreases. some environmentalists [ who? ] are suspicious that second - generation biofuels may not solve the problem of a potential clash with food as they also use significant agricultural resources such as


is possible that these could be stalled if biofuel production decreases. some environmentalists [ who? ] are suspicious that second - generation biofuels may not solve the problem of a potential clash with food as they also use significant agricultural resources such as water. [ who? ] a recent un report on biofuel also raises issues regarding food security and biofuel production. jean ziegler, then un special rapporteur on food, concluded that while the argument for biofuels in terms of energy efficiency and climate change are legitimate, the effects for the world ' s hungry of transforming wheat and maize crops into biofuel are " absolutely catastrophic, " and terms such use of arable land a " crime against humanity. " ziegler also calls for a 5 - year moratorium on biofuel production. ziegler ' s proposal for a five - year ban was rejected by the u. n. secretary ban ki - moon, who called for a comprehensive review of the policies on biofuels, and said that " just criticising biofuel may not be a good solution ". food surpluses exist in many developed countries. for example, the uk wheat surplus was around 2 million tonnes in 2005. this surplus alone could produce sufficient bioethanol to replace around 2. 5 % of the uk ' s petroleum consumption, without requiring any increase in wheat cultivation or reduction in food supply or exports. however, above a few percent, there would be direct competition between first generation biofuel production and food production. this is one reason why many view second generation biofuels as increasingly important. non - food crops for biofuel there are different types of biofuels and different feedstocks for them, and it has been proposed that only non - food crops be used for biofuel. this avoids direct competition for commodities like corn and edible vegetable oil. however, as long as farmers are able to derive a greater profit by switching to biofuels, they will. the law of supply and demand predicts that if fewer farmers are producing food the price of food will rise. second generation biofuels use lignocellulosic raw material such as forest residues ( sometimes referred to as brown waste and black liquor from kraft process or sulfite process pulp mills ). third generation biofuels ( biofuel from algae ) use non - edible raw materials sources that can be used for biodiesel and bioethanol. soybean oil, which only represents half of the


the us ethanol tariff and some us ethanol subsidies are currently set to expire over the next couple years. the eu is rethinking their biofuels directive due to environmental and social concerns. on january 18, 2008 the uk house of commons environmental audit committee raised similar concerns, and called for a moratorium on biofuel targets. germany ended their subsidy of biodiesel on jan 1 2008 and started taxing it. reduce farmland reserves and set asides to avoid overproduction and to prop up farmgate prices for agricultural commodities, some countries [ who? ] have farm subsidy programs to encourage farmers not to produce and leave productive acres fallow. the 2008 crisis prompted proposals to bring some of the reserve farmland back into use. in europe about 8 % of the farmland is in set aside programs. farmers have proposed freeing up all of this for farming. two - thirds of the farmers who were on these programs in the uk are not renewing when their term expires. sustainable production of biofuels second generation biofuels are now being produced from the cellulose in dedicated energy crops ( such as perennial grasses ), forestry materials, the co - products from food production, and domestic vegetable waste. advances in the conversion processes will almost certainly improve the sustainability of biofuels, through better efficiencies and reduced environmental impact of producing biofuels, from both existing food crops and from cellulosic sources. lord ron oxburgh suggests that responsible production of biofuels has several advantages : produced responsibly they are a sustainable energy source that need not divert any land from growing food nor damage the environment ; they can also help solve the problems of the waste generated by western society ; and they can create jobs for the poor where previously were none. produced irresponsibly, they at best offer no climate benefit and, at worst, have detrimental social and environmental consequences. in other words, biofuels are pretty much like any other product. far from creating food shortages, responsible production and distribution of biofuels represents the best opportunity for sustainable economic prospects in africa, latin america and impoverished asia. biofuels offer the prospect of real market competition and oil price moderation. crude oil would be trading 15 per cent higher and gasoline would be as much as 25 per cent more expensive, if it were not for biofuels. a healthy supply of alternative energy sources will help to combat gasoline price spikes. continuation of the status quo an additional policy option is to continue the current trends of government incentive for


as 25 per cent more expensive, if it were not for biofuels. a healthy supply of alternative energy sources will help to combat gasoline price spikes. continuation of the status quo an additional policy option is to continue the current trends of government incentive for these types of crops to further evaluate the effects on food prices over a longer period of time due to the relatively recent onset of the biofuel production industry. additionally, by virtue of the newness of the industry we can assume that like other startup industries techniques and alternatives will be cultivated quickly if there is sufficient demand for the alternative fuels and biofuels. what could result from the shock to food prices is a very quick move toward some of the non - food biofuels as are listed above amongst the other policy alternatives. impact on developing countries demand for fuel in rich countries is now competing against demand for food in poor countries. the increase in world grain consumption in 2006 happened due to the increase in consumption for fuel, not human consumption. the grain required to fill a 25 us gallons ( 95 l ) fuel tank with ethanol will feed one person for a year. several factors combine to make recent grain and oilseed price increases impact poor countries more : - poor people buy more grains ( e. g. wheat ), and are more exposed to grain price changes. - poor people spend a higher portion of their income on food, so increasing food prices influence them more. - aid organizations which buy food and send it to poor countries see more need when prices go up but are able to buy less food on the same budget. the impact is not all negative. the food and agriculture organization ( fao ) recognizes the potential opportunities that the growing biofuel market offers to small farmers and aquaculturers around the world and has recommended small - scale financing to help farmers in poor countries produce local biofuel. on the other hand, poor countries that do substantial farming have increased profits due to biofuels. if vegetable oil prices double, the profit margin could more than double. in the past rich countries have been dumping subsidized grains at below cost prices into poor countries and hurting the local farming industries. with biofuels using grains the rich countries no longer have grain surpluses to get rid of. farming in poor countries is seeing healthier profit margins and expanding. interviews with local peasants in southern ecuador provide strong anecdotal evidence that the high price of corn is encouraging the burning of tropical forests. the destruction of tropical forests now account for 20 % of all greenhouse gas emmisons


profit margins and expanding. interviews with local peasants in southern ecuador provide strong anecdotal evidence that the high price of corn is encouraging the burning of tropical forests. the destruction of tropical forests now account for 20 % of all greenhouse gas emmisons. national corn growers association us government subsidies for making ethanol from corn have been attacked as the main cause of the food vs fuel problem. to defend themselves, the us corn growers association has published their views on this issue. they consider the " food vs fuel " argument to be a fallacy that is " fraught with misguided logic, hyperbole and scare tactics. " claims made by the ncga include : - corn growers have been and will continue to produce enough corn so that supply and demand meet and there is no shortage. farmers make their planting decisions based on signals from the marketplace. if demand for corn is high and projected revenue - per - acre is strong relative to other crops, farmers will plant more corn. in 2007 us farmers planted 92, 900, 000 acres ( 376, 000 km2 ) with corn, 19 % more acres than they did in 2006. - the u. s. has doubled corn yields over the last 40 years and expects to double them again in the next 20 years. with twice as much corn from each acre, corn can be put to new uses without taking food from the hungry or causing deforestation. - us consumers buy things like corn flakes where the cost of the corn per box is around 5 cents. most of the cost is packaging, advertising, shipping, etc. only about 19 % of the us retail food prices can be attributed to the actual cost of food inputs like grains and oilseeds. so if the price of a bushel of corn goes up, there may be no noticeable impact on us retail food prices. the us retail food price index has gone up only a few percent per year and is expected to continue to have very small increases. - most of the corn produced in the us is field corn, not sweet corn, and not digestible by humans in its raw form. most corn is used for livestock feed and not human food, even the portion that is exported. - only the starch portion of corn kernels is converted to ethanol. the rest ( protein, fat, vitamins and minerals ) is passed through to the feed coproducts or human food ingredients. - one of the most significant and immediate benefits of higher grain prices is a dramatic reduction in federal farm support payments. according