rest ( protein, fat, vitamins and minerals ) is passed through to the feed coproducts or human food ingredients. - one of the most significant and immediate benefits of higher grain prices is a dramatic reduction in federal farm support payments. according to the u. s. department of agriculture, corn farmers received $ 8. 8 billion in government support in 2006. because of higher corn prices, payments are expected to drop to $ 2. 1 billion in 2007, a 76 percent reduction. - while the eroei and economics of corn based ethanol are a bit weak, it paves the way for cellulosic ethanol which should have much better eroei and economics. - while basic nourishment is clearly important, fundamental societal needs of energy, mobility, and energy security are too. if farmers crops can help their country in these areas also, it seems right to do so. since reaching record high prices in june 2008, corn prices fell 50 % by october 2008, declining sharply together with other commodities, including oil. as ethanol production from corn has continue at the same levels, some have argued [ who? ] that this trend shows the belief that the increased demand for corn to produce ethanol was mistaken. " analysts, including some in the ethanol sector, say ethanol demand adds about 75 cents to $ 1. 00 per bushel to the price of corn, as a rule of thumb. other analysts say it adds around 20 percent, or just under 80 cents per bushel at current prices. those estimates hint that $ 4 per bushel corn might be priced at only $ 3 without demand for ethanol fuel. ". these industry sources consider that a speculative bubble in the commodity markets holding positions in corn futures was the main driver behind the observed hike in corn prices affecting food supply. controversy within the international system the united states and brazil lead the industrial world in global ethanol production, with brazil as the world ' s largest exporter and biofuel industry leader. in 2006 the u. s. produced 18. 4 billion liters ( 4. 86 billion gallons ), closely followed by brazil with 16. 3 billion liters ( 4. 3 billion gallons ), producing together 70 % of the world ' s ethanol market and nearly 90 % of ethanol used as fuel. these countries are followed by china with 7. 5 %, and india with 3. 7 % of the global market share. since 2007, the concerns, criticisms and controversy surrounding the food vs biofuels issue has reached the international system, mainly heads of states,


followed by china with 7. 5 %, and india with 3. 7 % of the global market share. since 2007, the concerns, criticisms and controversy surrounding the food vs biofuels issue has reached the international system, mainly heads of states, and inter - governmental organizations ( igos ), such as the united nations and several of its agencies, particularly the food and agriculture organization ( fao ) and the world food programme ( wfp ) ; the international monetary fund ; the world bank ; and agencies within the european union. the 2007 controversy : ethanol diplomacy in the americas in march 2007, " ethanol diplomacy " was the focus of president george w. bush ' s latin american tour, in which he and brazil ' s president, luiz inacio lula da silva, were seeking to promote the production and use of sugar cane based ethanol throughout latin america and the caribbean. the two countries also agreed to share technology and set international standards for biofuels. the brazilian sugar cane technology transfer will permit various central american countries, such as honduras, nicaragua, costa rica and panama, several caribbean countries, and various andean countries tariff - free trade with the u. s. thanks to existing concessionary trade agreements. even though the u. s. imposes a usd 0. 54 tariff on every gallon of imported ethanol, the caribbean nations and countries in the central american free trade agreement are exempt from such duties if they produce ethanol from crops grown in their own countries. the expectation is that using brazilian technology for refining sugar cane based ethanol, such countries could become exporters to the united states in the short - term. in august 2007, brazil ' s president toured mexico and several countries in central america and the caribbean to promote brazilian ethanol technology. this alliance between the u. s. and brazil generated some negative reactions. while bush was in sao paulo as part of the 2007 latin american tour, venezuela ' s president hugo chavez, from buenos aires, dismissed the ethanol plan as " a crazy thing " and accused the u. s. of trying " to substitute the production of foodstuffs for animals and human beings with the production of foodstuffs for vehicles, to sustain the american way of life. " chavez ' complaints were quicky followed by then cuban president fidel castro, who wrote that " you will see how many people among the hungry masses of our planet will no longer consume corn. " " or even worse, " he continued, " by offering financing to poor countries to produce ethanol from corn or any other kind of food, no


" you will see how many people among the hungry masses of our planet will no longer consume corn. " " or even worse, " he continued, " by offering financing to poor countries to produce ethanol from corn or any other kind of food, no tree will be left to defend humanity from climate change. " ' daniel ortega, nicaragua ' s president, and one of the preferencial recipients of brazil technical aid, said that " we reject the gibberish of those who applaud bush ' s totally absurd proposal, which attacks the food security rights of latin americans and africans, who are major corn consumers ", however, he voiced support for sugar cane based ethanol during lula ' s visit to nicaragua. the 2008 controversy : global food prices as a result of the international community ' s concerns regarding the steep increase in food prices, on april 14, 2008, jean ziegler, the united nations special rapporteur on the right to food, at the thirtieth regional conference of the food and agriculture organization ( fao ) in brasilia, called biofuels a " crime against humanity ", a claim he had previously made in october 2007, when he called for a 5 - year ban for the conversion of land for the production of biofuels. the previous day, at their annual international monetary fund and world bank group meeting at washington, d. c., the world bank ' s president, robert zoellick, stated that " while many worry about filling their gas tanks, many others around the world are struggling to fill their stomachs. and it ' s getting more and more difficult every day. " luiz inacio lula da silva gave a strong rebuttal, calling both claims " fallacies resulting from commercial interests ", and putting the blame instead on u. s. and european agricultural subsidies, and a problem restricted to u. s. ethanol produced from maize. he also said that " biofuels aren ' t the villain that threatens food security. " in the middle of this new wave of criticism, hugo chavez reaffirmed his opposition and said that he is concerned that " so much u. s. - produced corn could be used to make biofuel, instead of feeding the world ' s poor ", calling the u. s. initiative to boost ethanol production during a world food crisis a " crime. " german chancellor angela merkel said the rise in food prices is due to poor agricultural policies and changing eating habits in developing nations, not biofuels as some critics


. s. initiative to boost ethanol production during a world food crisis a " crime. " german chancellor angela merkel said the rise in food prices is due to poor agricultural policies and changing eating habits in developing nations, not biofuels as some critics claim. on the other hand, british prime minister gordon brown called for international action and said britain had to be " selective " in supporting biofuels, and depending on the u. k. ' s assessment of biofuels ' impact on world food prices, " we will also push for change in eu biofuels targets ". stavros dimas, european commissioner for the environment said through a spokeswoman that " there is no question for now of suspending the target fixed for biofuels ", though he acknowledged that the eu had underestimated problems caused by biofuels. on april 29, 2008, u. s. president george w. bush declared during a press conference that " 85 percent of the world ' s food prices are caused by weather, increased demand and energy prices ", and recognized that " 15 percent has been caused by ethanol ". he added that " the high price of gasoline is going to spur more investment in ethanol as an alternative to gasoline. and the truth of the matter is it ' s in our national interests that our farmers grow energy, as opposed to us purchasing energy from parts of the world that are unstable or may not like us. " regarding the effect of agricultural subsidies on rising food prices, bush said that " congress is considering a massive, bloated farm bill that would do little to solve the problem. the bill congress is now considering would fail to eliminate subsidy payments to multi - millionaire farmers ", he continued, " this is the right time to reform our nation ' s farm policies by reducing unnecessary subsidies ". just a week before this new wave of international controversy began, u. n. secretary general ban ki - moon had commented that several u. n. agencies were conducting a comprehensive review of the policy on biofuels, as the world food price crisis might trigger global instability. he said " we need to be concerned about the possibility of taking land or replacing arable land because of these biofuels ", then he added " while i am very much conscious and aware of these problems, at the same time you need to constantly look at having creative sources of energy, including biofuels. therefore, at this time, just criticising biofuel may not be a good solution. i would urge we need


aware of these problems, at the same time you need to constantly look at having creative sources of energy, including biofuels. therefore, at this time, just criticising biofuel may not be a good solution. i would urge we need to address these issues in a comprehensive manner. " regarding jean ziegler ' s proposal for a five - year ban, the u. n. secretary rejected that proposal. a report released by oxfam in june 2008 criticized biofuel policies of high - income countries as neither a solution to the climate crisis nor the oil crisis, while contributing to the food price crisis. the report concluded that from all biofuels available in the market, brazilian sugarcane ethanol is not very effective, but it is the most favorable biofuel in the world in term of cost and greenhouse gas balance. the report discusses some existing problems and potential risks, and asks the brazilian government for caution to avoid jeopardizing its environmental and social sustainability. the report also says that : " rich countries spent up to $ 15 billion last year supporting biofuels while blocking cheaper brazilian ethanol, which is far less damaging for global food security. " a world bank research report published on july 2008 found that from june 2002 to june 2008 " biofuels and the related consequences of low grain stocks, large land use shifts, speculative activity and export bans " pushed prices up by 70 percent to 75 percent. the study found that higher oil prices and a weak dollar explain 25 - 30 % of total price rise. the study said that "... large increases in biofuels production in the united states and europe are the main reason behind the steep rise in global food prices " and also stated that " brazil ' s sugar - based ethanol did not push food prices appreciably higher ". the renewable fuels association ( rfa ) published a rebuttal based on the version leaked before its formal release. the rfa critique considers that the analysis is highly subjective and that the author " estimates the impact of global food prices from the weak dollar and the direct and indirect effect of high petroleum prices and attributes everything else to biofuels. " an economic assessment by the oecd also published on july 2008 agrees with the world bank report regarding the negative effects of subsidies and trade restrictions, but found that the impact of biofuels on food prices are much smaller. the oecd study is also critical of the limited reduction of ghg emissions achieved from biofuels produced in europe and north america, concluding that


and trade restrictions, but found that the impact of biofuels on food prices are much smaller. the oecd study is also critical of the limited reduction of ghg emissions achieved from biofuels produced in europe and north america, concluding that the current biofuel support policies would reduce greenhouse gas emissions from transport fuel by no more than 0. 8 percent by 2015, while brazilian ethanol from sugar cane reduces greenhouse gas emissions by at least 80 percent compared to fossil fuels. the assessment calls on governments for more open markets in biofuels and feedstocks in order to improve efficiency and lower costs. the oecd study concluded that "... current biofuel support measures alone are estimated to increase average wheat prices by about 5 percent, maize by around 7 percent and vegetable oil by about 19 percent over the next 10 years. " another world bank research report published on july 2010 found their previous study may have overestimated the contribution of biofuel production, as the paper concluded that " the effect of biofuels on food prices has not been as large as originally thought, but that the use of commodities by financial investors ( the so - called " financialization of commodities " ) may have been partly responsible for the 2007 / 08 spike. " see also - biofuel advocacy groups - methanol economy - methanol fuel - commodity price shocks - corn stoves - distillers grains - ethanol economy - ethanol fuel in australia - ethanol fuel in brazil - ethanol fuel in sweden - ethanol fuel in the philippines - ethanol fuel in the united states - food security - oil depletion - vegetable oil economy - world agricultural supply and demand estimates ( monthly report ) - 2007 – 2008 world food price crisis - congressional budget office ( april 2009 ), the impact of ethanol use on food prices and greenhouse - gas emissions, congress of the united states - bruce a. babcock ( june 2011 ), the impact of us biofuel policies on agricultural price levels and volatility, international centre for trade and sustainable development - goettemoeller, jeffrey ; adrian goettemoeller ( 2007 ), sustainable ethanol : biofuels, biorefineries, cellulosic biomass, flex - fuel vehicles, and sustainable farming for energy independence, prairie oak publishing, maryville, missouri, isbn 978 - 0 - 9786293 - 0 - 4. see chapter 7. food, farming, and land use. - neves, marcos fava, mairun junqueira alves pinto, marco


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acao urgente contra alta alimentar " ( in portuguese ). folha de sao paulo online. 2008 - 04 - 13. retrieved 2008 - 04 - 28. - raymond colitt ( 2008 - 04 - 16 ). " brazil lula defends biofuels from growing criticism ". reuters uk. retrieved 2008 - 04 - 28. - " chavez calls ethanol production ' crime ' ". the washington post. associated press. 2008 - 04 - 22. retrieved 2008 - 04 - 28. [ dead link ] - gernot heller ( 2008 - 04 - 17 ). " bad policy, not biofuel, drive food prices : merkel ". reuters. retrieved 2008 - 05 - 01. - " brown ' s biofuels caution welcomed ". bbc news. 2008 - 04 - 22. retrieved 2008 - 05 - 01. - " europe defends biofuels as debate rages ". deutsche welle. 2008 - 04 - 14. retrieved 2008 - 05 - 01. - " press conference by the president ". the white house. 2008 - 04 - 29. retrieved 2008 - 05 - 01. - oxfam ( 2008 - 06 - 25 ). " another inconvenient truth : biofuels are not the answer to climate or fuel crisis " ( pdf ). oxfam. retrieved 2008 - 07 - 30. report available in pdf - oxfam ( 2008 - 06 - 26 ). " another inconvenient truth : biofuels are not the answer to climate or fuel crisis ". oxfam web site. retrieved 2008 - 07 - 30. - " ong diz que etanol brasileiro e melhor opcao entre biocombustiveis " ( in portuguese ). bbcbrasil. 2008 - 06 - 25. retrieved 2008 - 07 - 30. - aditya chakrabortty ( 2008 - 07 - 04 ). " secret report : biofuel caused food crisis ". london : the guardian. retrieved 2008 - 07 - 29. - john m. urbanchuk ( 2008 - 07 - 11 ). " critique of world bank working paper " a note of rising food prices " " ( pdf ). renewable fuel association. retrieved 2008 - 07 - 29. [ dead link ] - fao world food situation - towards sustainable production and use of resources : assessing biofuels, united nations environment programme, october 2009 - the world bank : food price crises - plenty of space for biofuels in europe - ox


hydrothermal circulation in its most general sense is the circulation of hot water ; ' hydros ' in the greek meaning water and ' thermos ' meaning heat. hydrothermal circulation occurs most often in the vicinity of sources of heat within the earth ' s crust. this generally occurs near volcanic activity, but can occur in the deep crust related to the intrusion of granite, or as the result of orogeny or metamorphism. seafloor hydrothermal circulation the term includes both the circulation of the well known, high temperature vent waters near the ridge crests, and the much lower temperature, diffuse flow of water through sediments and buried basalts further from the ridge crests. the former circulation type is sometimes termed " active ", and the latter " passive ". in both cases the principle is the same : cold dense seawater sinks into the basalt of the seafloor and is heated at depth whereupon it rises back to the rock - ocean water interface due to its lesser density. the heat source for the active vents is the newly formed basalt, and, for the highest temperature vents, the underlying magma chamber. the heat source for the passive vents is the still - cooling older basalts. heat flow studies of the seafloor suggest that basalts within the oceanic crust take millions of years to completely cool as they continue to support passive hydrothermal circulation systems. hydrothermal vents are locations on the seafloor where hydrothermal fluids mix into the overlying ocean. perhaps the best known vent forms are the naturally - occurring chimneys referred to as black smokers. hydrothermal circulation is not limited to ocean ridge environments. the source water for hydrothermal explosions, geysers and hot springs is heated groundwater convecting below and lateral to the hot water vent. hydrothermal circulating convection cells exist any place an anomalous source of heat, such as an intruding magma or volcanic vent, comes into contact with the groundwater system. deep crust hydrothermal also refers to the transport and circulation of water within the deep crust, generally from areas of hot rocks to areas of cooler rocks. the causes for this convection can be : - intrusion of magma into the crust - radioactive heat generated by cooled masses of granite - heat from the mantle - hydraulic head from mountain ranges, for example, the great artesian basin - dewatering of metamorphic rocks which liberates water - dewatering of deeply buried sediments hydrothermal ore deposits during the early 1900s various geologists worked to classify hydrothermal ore deposits which were assumed to have formed from upward flowing aque


- dewatering of metamorphic rocks which liberates water - dewatering of deeply buried sediments hydrothermal ore deposits during the early 1900s various geologists worked to classify hydrothermal ore deposits which were assumed to have formed from upward flowing aqueous solutions. waldemar lindgren developed a classification based on interpreted decreasing temperature and pressure conditions of the depositing fluid. his terms : hypothermal, mesothermal, epithermal and teleothermal were based on decreasing temperature and increasing distance from a deep source. only the epithermal has been used in recent works. john guilbert ' s 1985 redo of lindgren ' s system for hydrothermal deposits includes the following : - ascending hydrothermal fluids, magmatic or meteoric water - porphyry copper and other deposits, 200 - 800 °c, moderate pressure - igneous metamorphic, 300 - 800 °c, low - moderate pressure - cordilleran veins, intermediate to shallow depths - epithermal, shallow to intermediate, 50 - 300 °c, low pressure - circulating heated meteoric solutions - circulating heated seawater - oceanic ridge deposits, 25 - 300 °c, low pressure see also - w. lindgren, 1933, mineral deposits, mcgraw hill, 4th ed. - guilbert, john m. and charles f. park, jr., 1986, the geology of ore deposits, freeman, p. 302 isbn 0 - 7167 - 1456 - 6


naval aviation is the application of military air power by navies, including ships that embark fixed - wing aircraft or helicopters. in contrast, maritime aviation is the operation of aircraft in a maritime role under the command of non - naval forces such as the former raf coastal command or a nation ' s coast guard. an exception to this is the united states coast guard, which is considered part of u. s. naval aviation. naval aviation is typically projected to a position nearer the target by way of an aircraft carrier. carrier aircraft must be sturdy enough to withstand demanding carrier operations. they must be able to launch in a short distance and be sturdy and flexible enough to come to a sudden stop on a pitching deck ; they typically have robust folding mechanisms that allow higher numbers of them to be stored in below - decks hangars. these aircraft are designed for many purposes including air - to - air combat, surface attack, submarine attack, search and rescue, materiel transport, weather observation, reconnaissance and wide area command and control duties. u. s. naval aviation began with pioneer aviator glenn curtiss who contracted with the navy to demonstrate that airplanes could take off from and land aboard ships at sea. one of his pilots, eugene ely, took off from the uss birmingham anchored off the virginia coast in november 1910. two months later ely landed aboard another cruiser uss pennsylvania in san francisco bay, proving the concept of shipboard operations. however, the platforms erected on those vessels were temporary measures. the u. s. navy and glenn curtis experienced two firsts during january 1911. on january 27, curtiss flew the first seaplane from the water at san diego bay and the next day u. s. navy lt theodore g. “ spuds ” ellyson, a student at the nearby curtiss school, took off in a curtiss “ grass cutter ” plane to become the first naval aviator. meanwhile, captain henry c. mustin successfully designed the concept of the catapult launch, and in 1915 made the first catapult launching from a ship underway. through most of world war i, the world ' s navies relied upon floatplanes and flying boats for heavier - than - air craft. in january 1912, the british battleship hms africa took part in aircraft experiments at sheerness. she was fitted for flying off aircraft with a 100 - foot ( 30 m ) downward - sloping runway which was installed on her foredeck, running over her forward 12 - inch ( 305 - mm ) turret from her forebridge to her bows and equipped with rails to guide the aircraft.


with a 100 - foot ( 30 m ) downward - sloping runway which was installed on her foredeck, running over her forward 12 - inch ( 305 - mm ) turret from her forebridge to her bows and equipped with rails to guide the aircraft. the gnome - engined short improved s. 27 " s. 38 ", pusher seaplane piloted by lieutenant charles samson become the first british aircraft to take - off from a ship while at anchor in the river medway, on 10 january 1912. africa then transferred her flight equipment to her sister ship hibernia. in may 1912, with commander samson, again flying " s. 38, " first instance of an aircraft to take off from a ship which was underway occurred. hibernia steamed at 10. 5 knots ( 19 km / h ) at the royal fleet review in weymouth bay, england. hibernia then transferred her aviation equipment to battleship london. based on these experiments, the royal navy concluded that aircraft were useful aboard ship for spotting and other purposes, but that interference with the firing of guns caused by the runway built over the foredeck and the danger and impracticality of recovering seaplanes that alighted in the water in anything but calm weather more than offset the desirability of having airplanes aboard. however, shipboard naval aviation had begun in the royal navy, and would become a major part of fleet operations by 1917. other early operators of seaplanes were france, germany and russia. the foundations of greek naval aviation were set in june 1912, when lieutenant dimitrios kamberos of the hellenic aviation service flew with the " daedalus ", a farman aviation works aircraft that had been converted into a seaplane, at an average speed of 110 km per hour, achieving a new world record. then, on january 24, 1913 the first wartime naval aviation interservice cooperation mission, took place above the dardanelles. greek army first lieutenant michael moutoussis and greek navy ensign aristeidis moraitinis, on board the maurice farman hydroplane ( floatplane / seaplane ), drew a diagram of the positions of the turkish fleet against which they dropped four bombs. this event was widely commented upon in the press, both greek and international. wwi and the first carrier strikes the first strike from a carrier against a land target as well as a sea target took place in september 1914 when the imperial japanese navy seaplane carrier wakamiya conducted the world ' s first ship - launched air raids from kiaochow


first carrier strikes the first strike from a carrier against a land target as well as a sea target took place in september 1914 when the imperial japanese navy seaplane carrier wakamiya conducted the world ' s first ship - launched air raids from kiaochow bay during the battle of tsingtao in china. the four maurice farman seaplanes bombarded german - held land targets ( communication centers and command centers ) and damaged a german minelayer in the tsingtao peninsula from september until november 6, 1914, when the germans surrendered. on the western front the first naval air raid occurred on december 25, 1914 when twelve seaplanes from hms engadine, riviera and empress ( cross - channel steamers converted into seaplane carriers ) attacked the zeppelin base at cuxhaven. fog, low cloud and anti - aircraft fire prevented the raid from being a complete success, but the raid demonstrated the feasibility of attack by ship - borne aircraft and showed the strategic importance of this new weapon. development in the interwar period genuine aircraft carriers did not emerge beyond britain until the early 1920s. in the united states, billy mitchell ' s 1921 demonstration of the battleship - sinking ability of land - based heavy bombers made many united states navy admirals angry. however, some men, such as captain ( soon rear admiral ) william a. moffett, saw the publicity stunt as a means to increase funding and support for the navy ' s aircraft carrier projects. moffett was sure that he had to move decisively in order to avoid having his fleet air arm fall into the hands of a proposed combined land / sea air force which took care of all the united states ' s airpower needs. ( that very fate had befallen the two air services of the united kingdom in 1918 : the royal flying corps had been combined with the royal naval air service to become the royal air force, a condition which would remain until 1937. ) moffett supervised the development of naval air tactics throughout the ' 20s. many british naval vessels carried float planes, seaplanes or amphibians for reconnaissance and spotting : two to four on battleships or battlecruisers and one on cruisers. the aircraft, a fairey seafox or later a supermarine walrus, were catapult - launched, and landed on the sea alongside for recovery by crane. several submarine aircraft carriers were built by japan. the french navy built one large ( but ineffective ) aircraft carrying submarine, the surcouf. world war ii world war ii saw the emergence of naval aviation as


on the sea alongside for recovery by crane. several submarine aircraft carriers were built by japan. the french navy built one large ( but ineffective ) aircraft carrying submarine, the surcouf. world war ii world war ii saw the emergence of naval aviation as a significant, often decisive, element in the war at sea. the principal users were japan, united states ( both with pacific interests to protect ) and the united kingdom. other colonial powers, e. g. france and the netherlands, showed a lesser interest. other powers such as germany and italy did not develop independent naval aviation, for geographic or political reasons. soviet naval aviation was mostly organized as land - based coast defense force ( apart from some scout floatplanes it consisted almost exclusively of land - based types also used by the air force and air defence units ). during the course of the war, seaborne aircraft were used in fleet actions at sea ( battle of midway, bismarck ), pre - emptive strikes against naval units in port ( battle of taranto, attack on pearl harbor ), support of ground forces ( battle of okinawa, allied invasion of italy ) and anti - submarine warfare ( the battle of the atlantic ). carrier - based aircraft were specialized as dive bombers, torpedo bombers, and fighters. surface - based aircraft such as the pby catalina helped finding submarines and surface fleets. in wwii the aircraft carrier replaced the battleship as the most powerful naval offensive weapons system as battles between fleets were increasingly fought out of gun range by aircraft. the japanese yamato, the most powerful battleship ever built, was first turned back by light escort carrier aircraft and later sunk lacking its own air cover. the us launched normally land - based bombers from carriers in a raid against tokyo. smaller carriers were built in large numbers to escort slow cargo convoys or supplement fast carriers. aircraft for observation or light raids were also carried by battleships and cruisers, while blimps were used to search for attack submarines. experience showed that there was a need for widespread use of aircraft which could not be met quickly enough by building new fleet aircraft carriers. this was particularly true in the north atlantic, where convoys were highly vulnerable to u - boat attack. the british authorities used unorthodox, temporary, but effective means of giving air protection such as cam ships and merchant aircraft carriers, merchant ships modified to carry a small number of aircraft. the solution to the problem were large numbers of mass - produced merchant hulls converted into escort aircraft carriers ( also known as " jeep carriers " ). these basic vessels, unsuited to


, merchant ships modified to carry a small number of aircraft. the solution to the problem were large numbers of mass - produced merchant hulls converted into escort aircraft carriers ( also known as " jeep carriers " ). these basic vessels, unsuited to fleet action by their capacity, speed and vulnerability, nevertheless provided air cover where it was needed. the royal navy had observed the impact of naval aviation and, obliged to prioritise their use of resources, abandoned battleships as the mainstay of the fleet. hms vanguard was therefore the last british battleship and her sisters were cancelled. the united states had already instigated a large construction programme ( which was also cut short ) but these large ships were mainly used as anti - aircraft batteries or for shore bombardment. other actions involving naval aviation included : - battle of the atlantic, aircraft carried by low - cost escort carriers were used for antisubmarine patrol, defense, and attack. - at the start of the pacific war in 1941, japanese carrier - based aircraft sank many us warships at pearl harbor and land - based aircraft sank two large british warships. engagements between japanese and american naval fleets were then conducted largely or entirely by aircraft - examples include the battles of coral sea, midway, bismarck sea and philippine sea. - battle of leyte gulf, with the first appearance of kamikazes, perhaps the largest naval battle in history. japan ' s last carriers and pilots are deliberately sacrificed, a battleship is sunk by aircraft. - operation ten - go demonstrated u. s. air supremacy in the pacific theater by this stage in the war and the vulnerability of surface ships without air cover to aerial attack. strategic projection carrier - based naval aviation provides a country ' s seagoing forces with air cover over areas that may not be reachable by land - based aircraft, giving them a considerable advantage over navies composed primarily of surface combatants. in the case of the united states navy during and after the cold war, virtual command of the sea in many of the world ' s waterways allowed it to deploy aircraft carriers and project air power almost anywhere on the globe. by operating from international waters, u. s. carriers can bypass the need for conventional airbases or overflight rights, both of which can be politically difficult to acquire. during the cold war, the navies of nato faced a significant threat from soviet submarine forces, specifically soviet navy ssn and ssgn assets. this resulted in the development and deployment of light aircraft carriers with major anti - submarine warfare ( asw ) capabilities by european nato navies.


##vies of nato faced a significant threat from soviet submarine forces, specifically soviet navy ssn and ssgn assets. this resulted in the development and deployment of light aircraft carriers with major anti - submarine warfare ( asw ) capabilities by european nato navies. one of the most effective weapons against submarines is the asw helicopter, several of which could be based on these light aircraft carriers. these light carriers were typically around 20, 000 tons displacement and carried a mix of asw helicopters and bae sea harrier or harrier ii v / stol aircraft. - argentine naval aviation - brazilian naval aviation - fleet air arm ( ran ) - fleet air arm ( royal navy ) - french naval aviation - indian naval air arm - marineflieger ( german navy ) - mexican naval aviation - pakistan naval air arm - people ' s liberation army naval air force - peruvian naval aviation - russian naval aviation - united states naval aviator see also - military aviation - aircraft carrier - escort carrier - carrier - based aircraft - flying boat - aerial warfare - modern us navy carrier air operations - hellenic air force history - the first steps - hellenic air force history - balcan wars - wakamiya is " credited with conducting the first successful carrier air raid in history " source : globalsecurity. org, also " the first air raid in history to result in a success " ( here ) - " sabre et pinceau ", christian polak, p92 - ijn wakamiya aircraft carrier - boyne ( 2003 ), pp. 227 – 8 - clark g. reynolds, the fast carriers : the forging of an air navy ( 1968 ; 1978 ; 1992 ) - william f. trimble, hero of the air : glenn curtiss and the birth of naval aviation ( 2010 )


| | this article needs additional citations for verification. ( september 2009 ) | bread crumbs or breadcrumbs ( regional variants : breading, crispies ) are small particles of dry bread, used for breading or crumbing foods, topping casseroles, stuffing poultry, thickening stews, adding inexpensive bulk to meatloaves and similar foods, and making a crisp and crunchy coating for fried foods, especially breaded cutlets like tonkatsu and schnitzel. the japanese variety of bread crumbs is called panko. dry breadcrumbs are made from dry breads which have been baked or toasted to remove most remaining moisture, and may even have a sandy or even powdery texture. bread crumbs are most easily produced by pulverizing slices of bread in a food processor, using a steel blade to make coarse crumbs, or a grating blade to make fine crumbs. a grater or similar tool will also do. the breads used to make soft or fresh bread crumbs are not quite as dry, so the crumbs are larger and produce a softer coating, crust, or stuffing. the crumb of bread crumb is also a term that refers to the texture of the soft, inner part of a bread loaf, as distinguished from the crust, or " skin ". different from croutons they are not to be confused with croutons, though both are made of dried bread. croutons are approximately cubic pieces typically 0. 5 to 8 cubic centimeters in size while breadcrumbs are irregularly shaped and range in size from roughly 1 to 500 cubic millimeters. both probably originated as a way to use stale bread and unwanted crust. panko ( ハン ) is a variety of flaky bread crumb used in japanese cuisine as a crunchy coating for fried foods, such as tonkatsu. panko is made from bread baked by passing an electric current through the dough, yielding bread without crusts. it has a crisper, more airy texture than most types of breading found in western cuisine and resists absorbing oil or grease when fried, resulting in a lighter coating. white panko is made from bread which has had the crusts removed while tan “ panko ” is made from the whole loaf of bread. outside japan, its use is becoming more popular in both asian and non - asian dishes : it is often used on fish and seafood and is often available in asian markets


##s removed while tan “ panko ” is made from the whole loaf of bread. outside japan, its use is becoming more popular in both asian and non - asian dishes : it is often used on fish and seafood and is often available in asian markets, specialty stores, and, increasingly, in many large supermarkets. panko is produced worldwide, particularly in asian countries, including japan, korea, thailand, china, and vietnam. in february 2012, the us fast - food chain wendy ' s introduced a cod fillet sandwich that they advertised as having a panko breading. the japanese first learned to make bread from the portuguese : the word panko is derived from pao ( portuguese for " bread " ) and - ko, a japanese suffix indicating " flour ", " crumb ", or " powder " ( as in komeko, " rice powder ", sobako, " buckwheat flour ", and komugiko, " wheat flour " ). breading ( also known as crumbing ) is a dry grain - derived food coating for a piece of food such as meat, vegetable, poultry, fish, shellfish, crustacean, seitan, or textured soy, made from bread crumbs or a breading mixture with seasonings. breading can also refer to the process of applying a bread - like coating to a food. breading is well suited for frying as it lends itself to creating a crisp coating around the food. breading mixtures can be made of breadcrumb, flour, cornmeal, and seasoning that the item to be breaded is dredged in before cooking. if the item to be breaded is too dry for the coating to stick, the item may first be moistened with buttermilk, raw egg, or other liquid. breading contrasts with batter, which is a grain - based liquid coating for food that produces a smoother and finer texture, but which can be softer overall. - " panko bread crumbs : the secrets revealed ". youtube. 2010 - 04 - 01. retrieved 2012 - 11 - 17. - marshall, jo ( 2010 - 10 - 05 ). " cookcabulary : panko is a crumby ingredient - fall river, ma ". the herald news. retrieved 2012 - 11 - 17.


phosphorescence is a specific type of photoluminescence related to fluorescence. unlike fluorescence, a phosphorescent material does not immediately re - emit the radiation it absorbs. the slower time scales of the re - emission are associated with " forbidden " energy state transitions in quantum mechanics. as these transitions occur very slowly in certain materials, absorbed radiation may be re - emitted at a lower intensity for up to several hours after the original excitation. commonly seen examples of phosphorescent materials are the glow - in - the - dark toys, paint, and clock dials that glow for some time after being charged with a bright light such as in any normal reading or room light. typically the glowing then slowly fades out within minutes ( or up to a few hours ) in a dark room. the study of phosphorescent materials led to the discovery of radioactivity in 1896. in simple terms, phosphorescence is a process in which energy absorbed by a substance is released relatively slowly in the form of light. this is in some cases the mechanism used for " glow - in - the - dark " materials which are " charged " by exposure to light. unlike the relatively swift reactions in a common fluorescent tube, phosphorescent materials used for these materials absorb the energy and " store " it for a longer time as the processes required to re - emit the light occur less often. quantum mechanical most photoluminescent events, in which a chemical substrate absorbs and then re - emits a photon of light, are fast, on the order of 10 nanoseconds. light is absorbed and emitted at these fast time scales in cases where the energy of the photons involved matches the available energy states and allowed transitions of the substrate. in the special case of phosphorescence, the absorbed photon energy undergoes an unusual intersystem crossing into an energy state of higher spin multiplicity ( see term symbol ), usually a triplet state. as a result, the energy can become trapped in the triplet state with only classically " forbidden " transitions available to return to the lower energy state. these transitions, although " forbidden ", will still occur in quantum mechanics but are kinetically unfavored and thus progress at significantly slower time scales. most phosphorescent compounds are still relatively fast emitters, with triplet lifetimes on the order of milliseconds. however, some compounds have triplet lifetimes up to minutes or even


thus progress at significantly slower time scales. most phosphorescent compounds are still relatively fast emitters, with triplet lifetimes on the order of milliseconds. however, some compounds have triplet lifetimes up to minutes or even hours, allowing these substances to effectively store light energy in the form of very slowly degrading excited electron states. if the phosphorescent quantum yield is high, these substances will release significant amounts of light over long time scales, creating so - called " glow - in - the - dark " materials. where s is a singlet and t a triplet whose subscripts denote states ( 0 is the ground state, and 1 the excited state ). transitions can also occur to higher energy levels, but the first excited state is denoted for simplicity. some examples of " glow - in - the - dark " materials do not glow by phosphorescence. for example, " glow sticks " glow due to a chemiluminescent process which is commonly mistaken for phosphorescence. in chemiluminescence, an excited state is created via a chemical reaction. the light emission tracks the kinetic progress of the underlying chemical reaction. the excited state will then transfer to a " dye " molecule, also known as a sensitizer or fluorophor, and subsequently fluoresce back to the ground state common pigments used in phosphorescent materials include zinc sulfide and strontium aluminate. use of zinc sulfide for safety related products dates back to the 1930s. however, the development of strontium aluminate, with a luminance approximately 10 times greater than zinc sulfide, has relegated most zinc sulfide based products to the novelty category. strontium aluminate based pigments are now used in exit signs, pathway marking, and other safety related signage. | this section requires expansion. ( october 2008 ) | see also - karl a. franz, wolfgang g. kehr, alfred siggel, jurgen wieczoreck, and waldemar adam " luminescent materials " in ullmann ' s encyclopedia of industrial chemistry 2002, wiley - vch, weinheim. doi : 10. 1002 / 14356007. a15 _ 519 - zitoun, d. ; bernaud, l. ; manteghetti, a. microwave synthesis of a long - lasting phosphor. j. chem. ed. 2009, 86, 72 -


the pueblo people are a native american people in the southwestern united states. their traditional economy is based on agriculture and trade. when first encountered by the spanish in the 16th century, they were living in villages that the spanish called pueblos, meaning " towns ". of the 21 pueblos that exist today, taos, acoma, zuni, and hopi are the best - known. the main pueblos are located primarily in new mexico and arizona. while there are numerous subdivisions of pueblo people that have been published in the literature, kirchhoff ( 1954 ) published a subdivision of the pueblo people into two subareas : the group that includes hopi, zuni, keres, jemez which share exogamous matrilineal clans, have multiple kivas, believe in emergence of people from the underground, have four or six directions beginning in the north, and have four and seven as ritual numbers. this group stands in contrast to the tanoan - speaking pueblos ( other than jemez ) who have nonexogamous patrilineal clans, two kivas or two groups of kivas and a general belief in dualism, emergence of people from underwater, five directions beginning in the west, and ritual numbers based on multiples of three. eggan ( 1950 ) in contrast, posed a dichotomy between eastern and western pueblos, based largely on subsistence differences with the western or desert pueblos of zuni and hopi dry - farmers and the eastern or river pueblos irrigation farmers. they mostly grew maize ( corn ). linguistic differences between the pueblos point to their diverse origins. the hopi language is uto - aztecan ; zuni is a language isolate ; keresan is a dialect continuum that includes acoma, laguna, santa ana, zia, cochiti, santo domingo, san felipe. the tanoan is an areal grouping of three branches consisting of 6 languages : towa ( jemez ), tewa ( san juan, san ildefonso, santa clara, tesuque, nambe, pojoaque, and hano ) ; and the 3 tiwa languages taos, picuris, and southern tiwa ( sandia, isleta ). the pueblos are believed to be descended from the three major cultures that dominated the region before european contact : - mogollon, an area near the gila wilderness - hohokam, archaeological term for a settlement in the southwest - ancient pueblo peoples ( or


little given to quarrelling or dissipation... most of the pueblos have annual ceremonies that are open to the public. one such ceremony is the pueblo ' s feast day, held on the day sacred to its roman catholic patron saint. ( these saints were assigned by the spanish missionaries so that each pueblo ' s feast day would coincide with a traditional ceremony. ) some pueblos also have ceremonies around the christmas and at other times of the year. the ceremonies usually feature traditional dances outdoors accompanied by singing and drumming, interspersed with non - public ceremonies in the kivas. they may also include a roman catholic mass and processions. formerly, all outside visitors to a public dance would be offered a meal in a pueblo home, but because of the large number of visitors, such meals are now by personal invitation only. pueblo prayer included substances as well as words ; one common prayer material was ground - up maize — white cornmeal. thus a man might bless his son, or some land, or the town by sprinkling a handful of meal as he uttered a blessing. once, after the 1692 re - conquest, the spanish were prevented from entering a town when they were met by a handful of men who uttered imprecations and cast a single pinch of a sacred substance. the puebloans employed prayer sticks, which were colorfully decorated with beads, fur, and feathers ; these prayer sticks ( or talking sticks ) were also used by other nations. by the 13th century, puebloans used turkey feather blankets for warmth. cloth and weaving were known to the puebloans before the conquest, but it is not known whether they knew of weaving before or after the aztecs. but since clothing was expensive, they did not always dress completely until after the conquest, and breechcloths were not uncommon. corn was a staple food for the pueblo people. they were what was called " dry farmers ". because there was not a lot of water in new mexico, they farmed using as little water as possible, which restricted what they could grow. because of this, they mainly would farm many types of corn, beans and squash. they would use pottery to hold their food and water. ( see also : agriculture in the prehistoric southwest ) the most highly developed native communities of the southwest were large villages or pueblos at the top of the mesas, rocky tablelands typical to the region. the archetypal deities appear as visionary beings who bring blessings and receive love. a vast collection of myths defines the relationships between man, nature


were large villages or pueblos at the top of the mesas, rocky tablelands typical to the region. the archetypal deities appear as visionary beings who bring blessings and receive love. a vast collection of myths defines the relationships between man, nature, plants and animals. man depended on the blessings of children, who in turn depended on prayers and the goddess of himura. children led the religious ceremonies to create a more pure and holy ritual. list of pueblos new mexico - acoma pueblo — keres language speakers. one of the oldest continuously inhabited villages in the us. access to mesa - top pueblo by guided tour only ( available from visitors ' center ), except on sept 2nd ( feast day ). photography by $ 10 permit per camera only. photographing of acoma people allowed only with individual permission. no photography permitted in mission san esteban del rey or of cemetery. sketching prohibited. video recording strictly prohibited. video devices will be publicly destroyed if used. - cochiti pueblo — keres speakers. - isleta pueblo — tiwa language speakers. established in the 14th century. both isleta and ysleta were of shoshonean stock. the isleta was originally shiewhibak - jemez pueblo — towa language speakers. photography and sketching prohibited at pueblo, but welcomed at red rocks. - kewa pueblo ( formerly santo domingo pueblo ) — keres speakers. known for turquoise work and the corn dance. - laguna pueblo — keres speakers. ancestors 3000 bc, established before the 14th century. church july 4, 1699. photography and sketching prohibited on the land, but welcomed at san jose mission church. - nambe pueblo — tewa language speakers. established in the 14th century. was an important trading center for the northern pueblos. nambe is the original tewa name, and means " people of the round earth ". feast day of st. francis october 4. - ohkay owingeh pueblo — tewa speakers. originally named o ' ke oweenge in tewa. headquarters of the eight northern indian pueblos council. home of the pope, one of the leaders of the august 1680 pueblo revolt. known as san juan pueblo until november 2005. - picuris pueblo, penasco, new mexico — tiwa speakers. - pojoaque pueblo, santa fe, new mexico — tewa speakers. re - established in the 1930s. - sandia pueblo, bernalillo, new mexico — tiwa speakers. originally named nafiat


— tiwa speakers. - pojoaque pueblo, santa fe, new mexico — tewa speakers. re - established in the 1930s. - sandia pueblo, bernalillo, new mexico — tiwa speakers. originally named nafiat. established in the 14th century. on the northern outskirts of albuquerque. - san felipe pueblo — keres speakers. 1706. photography and sketching prohibited at pueblo. - san ildefonso pueblo, between pojoaque and los alamos — tewa speakers. originally at mesa verde and bandelier. the valuable black - on - black pottery was made famous here by maria and julian martinez. photography by $ 10 permit only. sketching prohibited at pueblo. heavily - visited destination. - santa ana pueblo — keres speakers. photography and sketching prohibited at pueblo. - santa clara pueblo, espanola, new mexico — tewa speakers. 1550. originally inhabited puye cliff dwellings on santa clara canyon. the valuable black - on - black pottery was developed here - taos pueblo — tiwa speakers. world heritage site. national historic landmark. - tesuque pueblo santa fe — tewa speakers. originally named te tesugeh oweengeh 1200. national register of historic places. pueblo closed to public. camel rock casino and camel rock suites as well as the actual camel rock are open. - zia pueblo — keres speakers. new mexico ' s state flag uses the zia symbol. - zuni pueblo — zuni language speakers. first visited 1540 by spanish. mission 1629 - hopi tribe nevada - kykotsmovi — hopi language speakers. area of present villages settled around 700 ad - ysleta del sur pueblo, el paso, texas — originally tigua ( tiwa ) speakers. also spelled ' isleta del sur pueblo '. this pueblo was established in 1680 as a result of the pueblo revolt. some 400 members of isleta, socorro and neighboring pueblos were forced or accompanied the spaniards to el paso as they fled northern new mexico. three missions ( ysleta, socorro, and san elizario ) were established on the camino real to santa fe. the san elizario mission was administrative ( that is, non puebloan ). - some of the piru puebloans settled in senecu, and then in socorro, texas, adjacent to ysleta, texas ( which is now within el paso city limits ). when the rio grande would flood the valley or change course, these missions


piru puebloans settled in senecu, and then in socorro, texas, adjacent to ysleta, texas ( which is now within el paso city limits ). when the rio grande would flood the valley or change course, these missions would lie variously on the north or south sides of the river. although socorro and san elizario are still separate communities, ysleta has been annexed into el paso. feast days - san felipe pueblo feast day : may 1 - ohkay owingeh pueblo feast day : june 24 - sandia pueblo feast day : june 13. - ysleta / isleta del sur pueblo feast day : june 13. - cochiti pueblo feast day : july 14 - san felipe pueblo feast day : july 25 - santa ana pueblo feast day : july 26 - picuris pueblo feast day : august 10 - jemez pueblo feast day : august 2 - santo domingo pueblo feast day : august 4 - santa clara pueblo feast day : august 12 - zia pueblo feast day : august 15 - acoma pueblo feast day of san esteban del rey : september 2 - laguna pueblo feast day : september 19 - taos pueblo feast day : september 30 - nambe pueblo feast day of st. francis : october 4 - pojoaque pueblo feast day : december 12, january 6 - isleta pueblo feast days there is a short history of creating pottery among the various pueblo communities. mera, in his discussion of the " rain bird " motif, a common and popular design element in pueblo pottery states that, " in tracing the ancestry of the " rain bird " design it will be necessary to go back to the very beginnings of decorated pottery in the southwest to a ceramic type which as reckoned by present day archaeologists came into existence some time during the early centuries of the christian era. " bird effigy, pottery, cochiti pueblo. field museum pottery bowl, jemez pueblo, field museum, chicago ancestral hopi bowl, ca. 1300 ad see also - arizona tewa - carol jean vigil - tanoan languages - navajo people - pueblo revolt - tewa people - keresan languages - zuni people - on june 2, 1924 these peoples were granted us citizenship. in 1948, they were granted the right to vote in new mexico. - paul kirchhoff, " gatherers and farmers in the greater southwest : a problem in classification ", american anthropologist, new series, vol. 56, no. 4, southwest issue ( aug., 1954 ), pp.


new mexico. - paul kirchhoff, " gatherers and farmers in the greater southwest : a problem in classification ", american anthropologist, new series, vol. 56, no. 4, southwest issue ( aug., 1954 ), pp. 529 - 550 - fred russell eggan, social organization of the western pueblos, university of chicago press, 1950 - cordell, linda s. ancient pueblo peoples. st. remy press and smithsonian institution, 1994. isbn 0 - 89599 - 038 - 5. - paul horgan ( 1954 ), great river vol. 1 p. 286. library of congress card number 54 - 9867 - gregg, j. 1844. commerce of the prairies. new york : henry g. langley, chpt. 14, the pueblos, p. 55 - paul horgan, great river p. 158 - turkeys domesticated not once, but twice - " elk - foot of the taos tribe by eanger irving couse ". smithsonian american art museum and the renwick gallery. retrieved 2012 - 08 - 10. - " isleta pueblo ". catholic encyclopedia ( 1910 ) viii - mera, h. p., pueblo designs : 176 illustrations of the " rain bird, dover publications, inc, 1970, first published by the laboratory of anthropology, santa fe, new mexico, 1937 p. 1 - fletcher, richard a. ( 1984 ). saint james ' catapult : the life and times of diego gelmirez of santiago de compostela. oxford university press. ( on - line text, ch. 1 ) - florence hawley ellis an outline of laguna pueblo history and social organization southwestern journal of anthropology, vol. 15, no. 4 ( winter, 1959 ), pp. 325 – 347 - indian pueblo cultural center in albuquerque, nm offers information from the pueblo people about their history, culture, and visitor etiquette. - paul horgan, great river : the rio grande in north american history. vol. 1, indians and spain. vol. 2, mexico and the united states. 2 vols. in 1, 1038 pages - wesleyan university press 1991, 4th reprint, isbn 0 - 8195 - 6251 - 3 - pueblo people, ancient traditions modern lives, marica keegan, clear light publishers, santa fe, new mexico, 1998, profusely illustrated hardback, isbn 1 - 57416 - 000 - 1 - elsie clews parsons, pueblo indian religion ( 2 vols.


lives, marica keegan, clear light publishers, santa fe, new mexico, 1998, profusely illustrated hardback, isbn 1 - 57416 - 000 - 1 - elsie clews parsons, pueblo indian religion ( 2 vols., chicago, 1939 ). - ryan d, a. l. kroeber elsie clews parsons american anthropologist, new series, vol. 45, no. 2, centenary of the american ethnological society ( apr. - jun., 1943 ), pp. 244 – 255 - parthiv s, ed. handbook of north american indians, vol. 9, southwest. washington : smithsonian institution, 1976. - julia m. keleher and elsie ruth chant ( 2009 ). the padre of isleta the story of father anton docher. sunstone press publishing. | wikimedia commons has media related to : pueblo people | | wikisource has the text of the 1879 american cyclopædia article pueblo indians. | - kukadze ' eta towncrier, pueblo of laguna - pueblo of isleta - pueblo of laguna - pueblo of sandia - pueblo of santa ana - the smu - in - taos research publications digital collection contains nine anthropological and archaeological monographs and edited volumes representing the past several decades of research at the smu - in - taos ( fort burgwin ) campus near taos, new mexico, including papers on taos archaeology and taos archeology


rotten and pocket boroughs a rotten, decayed, or pocket borough was a parliamentary borough or constituency in the united kingdom that had a very small electorate and could be used by a patron to gain undue and unrepresentative influence within the unreformed house of commons. a rotten borough was an election borough with a very tiny population, often small enough that voters could be personally bribed. these boroughs had often been assigned representation when they were large cities, but the borough boundaries were never updated as the town ' s population declined. for example, in the 12th century old sarum had been a busy cathedral city but was abandoned when salisbury was founded nearby ; despite this, old sarum retained its two members. many such rotten boroughs were controlled by peers who gave the seats to their sons, other relations or friends ; they had additional influence in parliament because they held seats themselves in the house of lords. pocket boroughs were boroughs that could effectively be controlled by a single person who owned most of the land in the borough. as there was no secret ballot at the time, the landowner could evict residents who did not vote for the person he wanted. by the 19th century there were moves toward reform and this political movement was eventually successful, culminating in the reform act 1832, which disfranchised the 57 rotten boroughs and redistributed representation in parliament to new major population centres. the ballot act of 1872 enacted a secret ballot, making vote bribery impractical as there is no way of knowing for certain how an individual has voted. historical background a " borough " was a town that possessed a royal charter giving it the right to elect two members ( known as burgesses ) to the house of commons. it was unusual for such a borough to change its boundaries as the town or city it was based on expanded, so that in time the borough and the town were no longer identical in area. the true rotten borough was a borough with a very small electorate. typically, rotten boroughs had gained representation in parliament when they were flourishing centres with a substantial population, but had become depopulated or even deserted over the centuries. some had once been important places or had played a major role in england ' s history, but had fallen into insignificance. for centuries, constituencies electing members to the house of commons did not change to reflect population shifts, and in some places the number of electors became so few that they could be bribed. a member of parliament for one borough might represent only a few people, whereas some large population


members to the house of commons did not change to reflect population shifts, and in some places the number of electors became so few that they could be bribed. a member of parliament for one borough might represent only a few people, whereas some large population centres were poorly represented. manchester, for example, was part of the larger constituency of lancashire and did not elect members separately until 1832. examples of rotten boroughs include the following : - old sarum in wiltshire had 3 houses and 7 voters - east looe in cornwall had 167 houses and 38 voters - dunwich in suffolk had 44 houses and 32 voters ( most of this formerly prosperous town having fallen into the sea ) - plympton erle in devon had 182 houses and 40 voters - gatton in surrey had 23 houses and 7 voters - newtown on the isle of wight had 14 houses and 23 voters - bramber in west sussex had 35 houses and 20 voters - callington in cornwall had 225 houses and 42 voters each of these boroughs could elect two members of the commons. by the time of the 1831 general election, out of 406 elected members, 152 were chosen by fewer than 100 voters, and 88 by fewer than 50 voters each. many such rotten boroughs were controlled by peers who gave the seats to their sons, other relations, or friends, thus having influence in the house of commons while also holding seats themselves in the house of lords. prior to being awarded a peerage, arthur wellesley, the duke of wellington, served in the irish house of commons as a member for the rotten borough of trim in county meath. a common expression referring to such a situation was that " mr. so - and - so had been elected on lord this - and - that ' s interest ". there were also boroughs who were dependent not on a particular patron but rather on the treasury or admiralty and thus returned the candidates nominated by the ministers in charge of those departments. such boroughs existed for centuries. the term rotten borough only came into usage in the 18th century, the qualification " rotten " suggesting both " corrupt " and " in decline for a very long time ". in the 19th century, there were moves toward reform, which broadly meant ending the over - representation of boroughs with few electors. this political movement had a major success in the reform act 1832, which disfranchised the 57 rotten boroughs listed below and redistributed representation in parliament to new major population centres and to places with significant industries. the ballot act of 1872 introduced the secret ballot, which greatly hindered patrons from controlling elections by


west indies and on the indian subcontinent were not represented at westminster officially, these groups often claimed that rotten boroughs provided opportunities for virtual representation in parliament for colonial interest groups. modern usage the magazine private eye has a column entitled ' rotten boroughs ', which lists stories of municipal wrongdoing ; borough is used here in its usual sense of a local district rather than a parliamentary constituency. in his book the age of consent, george monbiot compared small island states with one vote in the u. n. general assembly to " rotten boroughs ". in the satirical novel melincourt, or sir oran haut - ton ( 1817 ) by thomas love peacock, an orang - utan named sir oran haut - ton is elected to parliament by the " ancient and honourable borough of onevote ". the election of sir oran forms part of the hero ' s plan to persuade civilisation to share his belief that orang - utans are a race of human beings who merely lack the power of speech. " the borough of onevote stood in the middle of a heath, and consisted of a solitary farm, of which the land was so poor and intractable, that it would not have been worth the while of any human being to cultivate it, had not the duke of rottenburgh found it very well worth his while to pay his tenant for living there, to keep the honourable borough in existence. " the single voter of the borough is mr christopher corporate, who elects two mps, each of whom " can only be considered as the representative of half of him ". in chapter 7 of the novel vanity fair, author william makepeace thackeray introduces the fictitious borough of " queen ' s crawley, " so named in honor of a stopover in the small hampshire town of crawley by queen elizabeth i, who being delighted by the quality of the local beer instantly raised the small town of crawley into a borough, giving it two members in parliament. at the time of the story, in the early 19th century, the place had lost population, so that it was " come down to that condition of borough which used to be denominated rotten. " in diana wynne jones ' 2003 book " the merlin conspiracy " old sarum features as a character, with one line being " i ' m a rotten borough, i am. " in the aubrey – maturin series of seafaring tales, the pocket borough of milport ( also known as milford ) is initially held by general aubrey, the father of protagonist


being " i ' m a rotten borough, i am. " in the aubrey – maturin series of seafaring tales, the pocket borough of milport ( also known as milford ) is initially held by general aubrey, the father of protagonist jack aubrey. in the twelfth novel in the series, the letter of marque, jack ' s father dies and the seat is offered to jack himself by his cousin edward norton, the " owner " of the borough. the borough has just seventeen electors, all of whom are tenants of mr norton. in the first novel of george macdonald fraser ' s flashman series, the eponymous antihero, harry flashman, mentions that his father, sir buckley flashman, had been in parliament, but " they did for him at reform, " implying that the elder flashman ' s seat was in a rotten or pocket borough. in the episode dish and dishonesty of the bbc television comedy blackadder the third, edmund blackadder attempts to bolster the support of the prince regent in parliament by getting the incompetent baldrick elected to the rotten borough of dunny - on - the - wold. this was easily accomplished with a result of 16, 472 to nil, even though the constituency had only one voter ( blackadder himself ). in the video game, assassin ' s creed iii pocket and rotten boroughs are briefly mentioned in a database entry entitled " pocket boroughs ", and old sarum is mentioned as one of the worst examples of a pocket borough. in the game, shortly before the boston massacre an npc can be heard speaking to a group of peolpe on the colonies lack of representation in parliament and lists several rotten boroughs including old sarum. - " [ borough representation is ] the rotten part of the constitution. " — william pitt the elder - " the county of yorkshire, which contains near a million souls, sends two county members ; and so does the county of rutland which contains not a hundredth part of that number. the town of old sarum, which contains not three houses, sends two members ; and the town of manchester, which contains upwards of sixty thousand souls, is not admitted to send any. is there any principle in these things? " tom paine, from rights of man, 1791 - from h. m. s. pinafore by gilbert and sullivan : - sir joseph porter : i grew so rich that i was sent - by a pocket borough into parliament. - i always voted at my party ' s


of man, 1791 - from h. m. s. pinafore by gilbert and sullivan : - sir joseph porter : i grew so rich that i was sent - by a pocket borough into parliament. - i always voted at my party ' s call, - and i never thought of thinking for myself at all. - chorus : and he never thought of thinking for himself at all. - sir joseph : i thought so little, they rewarded me - by making me the ruler of the queen ' s navee! - fairy queen : let me see. i ' ve a borough or two at my disposal. would you like to go into parliament? - from the letter of marque by patrick o ' brian - ' could you not spend an afternoon at milport, to meet the electors? there are not many of them, and those few are all my tenants, so it is no more than a formality ; but there is a certain decency to be kept up. the writ will be issued very soon. ' - the borough of queen ' s crawley in thackeray ' s vanity fair is a rotten borough eliminated by the reform act of 1832 : - when colonel dobbin quitted the service, which he did immediately after his marriage, he rented a pretty country place in hampshire, not far from queen ' s crawley, where, after the passing of the reform bill, sir pitt and his family constantly resided now. all idea of a peerage was out of the question, the baronet ' s two seats in parliament being lost. he was both out of pocket and out of spirits by that catastrophe, failed in his health, and prophesied the speedy ruin of the empire. see also - apportionment ( politics ) - reynolds v. sims, a us supreme court case that ended a similar practice in the united states - the people ' s book ; comprising their chartered rights and practical wrongs [ by w. carpenter ] at google books - see lewis namier, the structure of politics at the accession of george iii - pearce, robert and stearn, roger ( 2000 ). access to history, government and reform : britain 1815 - 1918 ( second edition ), page 14. hodder & stoughton. - pearce, robert and stearn, roger ( 2000 ). access to history, government and reform : britain 1815 - 1918 ( second edition ). hodder & stoughton. - pearce, robert and stearn, roger ( 2000 ). access to history, government and reform :


| | this article needs additional citations for verification. ( december 2009 ) | a semi - acoustic guitar or hollow - body electric is a type of electric guitar that originates from the 1930s. it has both a sound box and one or more electric pickups. this is not the same as an acoustic - electric guitar, which is an acoustic guitar with the addition of pickups or other means of amplification, either added by the manufacturer or the player. in the 1930s guitar players and manufacturers were attempting to increase the overall volume of the guitar, which had a hard time competing with other instruments, specifically in large orchestras and jazz bands, due to its lack of volume. this created a series of experiments that focused on creating a guitar that could be amplified through electric currents and out through a speaker. in 1936, gibson attempted to make their first production line of electric guitars. these guitars, known as es - 150 ’ s ( electric spanish series ) were the first manufactured semi - acoustic guitars. they were based on a standard production archtop and had f holes on the face of the guitar which functioned as a soundbox. this model was used to resemble the traditional jazz box guitars that were popular at the time. the soundbox on the guitar allowed a limited amount of sound waves to emit from the hollow body of the guitar, which was customary of all full acoustic models before this guitar. the purpose of these guitars, however, was to be able to be amplified from electric sound waves. this was made possible by the charlie christian pickup, a magnetic single - coil pickup, which allowed the sound of the guitar to be amplified through electric currents. the clear sound produced by the pickups made the es series immediately popular with jazz musicians. the first semi - acoustic guitars are often thought of as an evolutionary step in the progression from acoustic guitars to full electric models. however, the es - 150 was made several years after the first solid body electric guitar, which was made by rickenbacker. the es series was merely an experiment by the gibson company in order to test out the potential success of electric guitars. this experiment proved to be a successful financial venture and is often referred to as the first successful electric guitar. the es - 150 was followed by the es - 250 a year later, in what became a long line of semi acoustics for the gibson company. in 1949 gibson released two new models ( the es - 175 and es - 5 ). these guitars had built - in electric pickups that came standard in their design and can largely be considered as


long line of semi acoustics for the gibson company. in 1949 gibson released two new models ( the es - 175 and es - 5 ). these guitars had built - in electric pickups that came standard in their design and can largely be considered as the first fully electric semi - acoustic guitars. prior models were not built with pickups ; rather, they came as attachments. as the production and popularity of solid body electric guitars increased, there was still a market of guitar players who wanted to have the traditional look associated with the semi - acoustic guitars of the 1930s but also wanted the versatility and comfort of new solid body guitars. several models, including the es - 350t by gibson, were made in the 1950s to accommodate this growing demand by including a more comfortable version of the archtop model. these variations were followed by an entirely new type of guitar that featured a block of solid wood between the front and back sections of the guitars cutaway. this guitar was still acoustic but had a smaller open section inside of the guitar which makes less sound waves emit from the f hole sound boxes on the guitar. the variant was first manufactured in 1958 by gibson and is commonly referred to as a semi - hollow body guitar because of the smaller body of the guitar. rickenbacker also choose to pursue making semi - acoustic guitars in 1958. when the company changed ownership in 1954, they hired german guitar crafter, roger rossmiesl. he developed the 330 series for rickenbacker, which was a wide semi - acoustic that did not use a traditional f hole. rather its used a sleeker dash hole on one side of the guitar, the other side had a large pickguard. this model boasted a modern design with a unique fireglo finish. it quickly became one of rickenbacker ' s most popular series and became a strong competitor to gibson ' s models. in addition to the main model variants of the guitar, gibson made several small changes to the guitar including a laminated top for the es - 175 model and mounted top pickups for general use on all their models, as opposed to charlie christian models from the 1930s. while gibson provided many of the innovations in semi - acoustic guitars from the 1930s to the 1950s, there were also various makes by other companies including a hollow achtop by gretsch. the 6120 model by gretsch became very popular as a rockabilly model despite having almost no technical differences from gibson models. rickenbacker was also a prominent maker of the semi - hollow body


achtop by gretsch. the 6120 model by gretsch became very popular as a rockabilly model despite having almost no technical differences from gibson models. rickenbacker was also a prominent maker of the semi - hollow body guitar. gibson, gretsch, rickenbacker, and other companies still make semi - acoustic and semi - hollow body guitars, making slight variations on their yearly designs. the semi - acoustic and semi - hollow body guitars were generally praised for their clean and warm tones. this led to widespread use throughout the jazz communities in the 1930s. as new models came out with sleeker designs, the guitars began to make their way into popular circles. the guitar became used in pop, folk, and blues. the guitars made an extensive amount of feedback when played through an amplifier at a loud level, this made the guitars unpopular for bands playing in large stages who had to play loud enough to fill their venues. as rock became more experimental, towards the late 60s and 70s the guitar became more popular because of its feedback issues which led to " wilder " sounds. today, semi - acoustic and semi - hollow body guitars are still popular in jazz, indie rock, and various other genres. [ examples needed ] famous guitarists who have used semi acoustic guitars include john lennon of the beatles and b. b. king. semi - acoustic guitars have also been valued as good practice guitars because, when played " unplugged, " they are quieter than full acoustic guitars, but more audible than solid - body electric guitars because of their open cavity. this makes the guitar particularly useful when volume is an issue. some semi - acoustic models have a fully hollow body ( for instance the gibson es - 175 and epiphone casino ), others may have a solid center block running the length and depth of the body, called semi hollow body ( for instance the gibson es - 335 ). other guitars are borderline between semi - acoustic and solid body. for example, some telecaster guitars have chambers built in to an otherwise solid body to enrich the sound. this type of instrument can be referred to as a semi - hollow or a chambered body guitar. exactly where the line is to be drawn between a constructed sound box and a solid wooden body, whose construction also affects the sound according to many players, is not generally agreed. any of the following can be called semi - acoustic : - instruments starting from a solid body " blank " which has been routed out to make a chambered body guitar. - instruments with


affects the sound according to many players, is not generally agreed. any of the following can be called semi - acoustic : - instruments starting from a solid body " blank " which has been routed out to make a chambered body guitar. - instruments with semi - hollow bodies constructed from plates of wood around a solid core, having no soundholes, such as the gibson lucille or brian may red special. - instruments with a solid core but hollow bouts and soundholes ( usually f - holes ), such as the gibson es - 335. in these, the bridge is fixed to a solid block of wood rather than to a sounding board, and the belly vibration is minimised much as in a solid body instrument. - thin - bodied archtop guitars, such as the epiphone casino. these possess both a sounding board and sound box, but the function of these is purely to modify the sound transmitted to the pickups. such guitars are still intended purely as electric instruments, and while they do make some sound when the pickups are not used, the tone is weak and not normally considered musically useful. - full hollowbody semi - acoustic instruments, often called jazz guitars, such as the gibson es - 175 ; these have a full - size sound box, but are still intended to be played through an amplifier. the rickenbacker 330 jg some companies that have produced famous semi - acoustic guitars include : gibson, gretsch and rickenbacker. a variety of manufacturers now produce semi - acoustic model guitars : d ' angelico, epiphone, ibanez, etc. - fully hollow body - thinline hollow body ( thin body ) - semi hollow body ( with center block ) - other semi hollow ( solid - body with cavities ) - various types - archtop guitars. guitars with a fully hollow or semi - hollow body, with or without pickups. - electro - acoustic guitars. fully acoustic guitars with piezo pickups. - hybrid guitars. guitars with both magnetic and piezo pickups. can be solid, semi - hollow or hollow bodied. - silent guitars. solid body guitars with a piezo pickups. - ingram, adrian, a concise history of the electric guitar, melbay, 2001. - hunter, dave, the rough guide to guitar, penguin books, 2011. - miller, a. j., the electric guitar : a history of an american icon, baltimore, md, smithsonian institute, 2004. - martin a. darryl, innovation and the development of the modern


london and zurich agreements | | this article needs additional citations for verification. ( december 2006 ) | the london and zurich agreements for the constitution of cyprus started with an agreement on the 19 february 1959 in lancaster house in london, between turkey, greece, the united kingdom and cypriot community leaders ( archbishop makarios iii for greek cypriots and dr. fazıl kucuk for turkish cypriots ). on that basis, a constitution was drafted and agreed together with two further treaties of alliance and guarantee in zurich on 11 february 1960. cyprus was accordingly proclaimed an independent state on 16 august 1960. following the failure of the agreement in 1963 and subsequent de facto military partition of cyprus into greek - cypriot and turkish - cypriot regions, the larger greek - cypriot region, controlled by the cyprus government, claims that the 1960 constitution basically remains in force, whereas the turkish - cypriot region claims to have seceded by the declaration of independence of the turkish republic of northern cyprus in 1983. constitutional provisions | | this section may contain original research. ( july 2009 ) | the constitution provided for under the agreements divided the cypriot people into two communities on the basis of ethnic origin. the president had to be a greek - cypriot elected by the greek - cypriots, and the vice - president a turkish - cypriot elected by the turkish - cypriots. the vice - president was granted the right of a final veto on laws passed by the house of representatives and on decisions of the council of ministers which was composed of ten ministers, three of whom had to be turkish - cypriots nominated by the vice - president. in the house of representatives, the turkish cypriots were elected separately by their own community. the house had no power to modify the basic articles of the constitution in any respect and any other modification required separate majorities of two thirds of both the greek cypriot and the turkish cypriot members. any modification of the electoral law and the adoption of any law relating to municipalities or any fiscal laws required separate simple majorities of the greek cypriot and turkish cypriot members of the house. it was thus impossible for representatives of one community alone to pass a bill. the highest judicial organs, the supreme constitutional court and the high court of justice, were presided over by neutral presidents - neither greek - cypriot nor turkish - cypriot - who by virtue of their casting votes were supposed to maintain the balance between the greek and turkish members of the courts. whereas under the previous regime greek - cypriot and turkish - cypriot judges tried all cases irrespective of the origin of the litigants, the constitution provided