gainesville, fla. — joint research between florida museum of natural history and chinese scientists to discover and interpret the world ’ s earliest known flowering fossil is the subject of a pbs nova documentary, “ first flower, ” which debuts at 8 p. m. april 17. the origin of flowers is one of botany ’ s deepest mysteries, and in the nova documentary, florida musuem paleobotanist david dilcher guides viewers through segments of the amazing story of the evolution of flowers. “ there ’ s no doubt about it, flowers are all about sex, ” said dilcher, a graduate research professor and paleobotany curator at the florida museum and a member of the national academy of sciences. the search for the world ’ s first flower drew dilcher to a remote chinese lake where colleague sun ge of jilin university in changchun, china, discovered a 125 million - year - old fossil that scientists believe is the earliest known flower. although the fossil lacked the aesthetic petals associated with modern flowers, dilcher recognized the plant stalk had seeds enclosed within carpels, which are female reproductive structures found in flowers. this led him to conclude the fossil was in fact an early form of a flower. the fossil was named archaefructus liaoningensis, which means “ ancient fruit from liaoning province of northeast china. ” flower production demands an amazing amount of a plant ’ s precious energy, which leads some scientists to question why and how the world ’ s first flowers evolved. angiosperms, or flowering plants that have male pollen and female ovaries, are thought to have made their first appearance on earth roughly 130 million years ago. today, they dominate the plant world. today, bees, moths, hummingbirds and other insects facilitate plant reproduction by spreading pollen, but this is the culmination of a complex relationship that evolved over millions of years and that scientists are still decoding. “ flowering plants were the first advertisers in the world, ” dilcher said. “ they put out beautiful colors, colorful patterns, they put out fragrances. and they gave a reward such as nectar or pollen for any insect that would come and visit them. ” flowers go to elaborate lengths to advertise their sexual organs, the female parts and the male parts, dilcher said. “ if they could attract these mobile pollinators to visit, crawl around, and feed in flowers, pick up pollen on their legs, pick up pollen on their bodies, ” dilcher said, “ and then fly


parts, dilcher said. “ if they could attract these mobile pollinators to visit, crawl around, and feed in flowers, pick up pollen on their legs, pick up pollen on their bodies, ” dilcher said, “ and then fly to another flower some distance away, and repeat this process, they could effectively transfer their male genetic material some distance away to another flower. ” pamela and doug soltis, florida museum researchers who study plant and flower dna to better understand evolutionary origins, also are interviewed in “ first flower. ” the soltis ’ work addresses evolutionary origins of flowers and flowering plants, plant speciation and the conservation genetics of endangered plant species in florida. doug soltis also is chair of uf ’ s department of botany. the journal science featured sun ’ s and dilcher ’ s fossil flower research on its cover in 1998 and 2002. sun is a geologist and director of the paleontology and stratigraphy lab at jilin university. dilcher holds professorial appointments and teaches at jilin university and nanjing university in china, in addition to teaching at the university of florida. writer : delene beeland media contact : paul ramey, email @ example. com source : david dilcher ( 352 ) 392 - 1721 ext. 460 source : sun ge ( 352 ) 392 - 1721 ext. 460 ; until april 12


wool rugs have what is called a particular " hand " or texture that reflects the level of ' scratchiness ' found in the finished product. the manner of grooming and shearing and resulting processing of the fiber can vary widely amongst carpet producers. further complications regarding the wide range in texture is the fact that it varies considerably across the body of an individual sheep, as well as differences related to and based on the actual sex of the sheep. add in nutritional factors, age and the general health of the sheep, and you have yet another class of variables to mix into the fold. wool rugs, such as in many oriental designs, incorporate a process in which the individual weavers harvest a longer wool fiber bearing a greater overall density, sometimes twice the size of other wool fiber, thus giving rise to a very different finished wool area rug. the resulting product, whether oriental or not, retained a luster often missing from modern designs which typically utilize inappropriate or inferior wool fiber and then apply cheap but boldly hued synthetic colors to the weaving process. modern machine woven techniques lack the subtlety in coloring and texture as well as even the element of human error and irregularity uniquely found and favored in antique productions found in such places as persia or india. wool rug research into synthetic dyeing processes intensified in the 19th century as european producers sought to re - create and reproduce the complexity, design and detail of the nomadic oriental weaver. this led to a literal mass production so that european and american consumers could participate in the home furnishings phenomenon. coloring properties were expanded to accept color treatments based on fuchsin dyes, with colors ranging from fuchsin - magenta to basic red to basic violet to acid violet and red violet. oriental or contemporary design elements could now use these fuchsin dyes to achieve an initially startling effect. one drawback though, however, was that these same fuchsin dyes were highly light sensitive, and accordingly would rapidly fade or gray with exposure to normal levels of diffused sunlight. even during the first quarter of the 20th century this process was still being utilized. the result was that these chemically unstable fuchsin dyes guaranteed an underlying flow of repeat buyers who would eventually discard their now graying and dull flooring after only a short number of years of use, and purchase a new one. meanwhile, the antique market, which is based solely on organically produced vegetable dyes, continues to provid buyers with far greater wear and coloring vibrancy. © 2011 floorbiz, inc. all


9. 0 sleepwatch ® ( actigraphy ) measure of sleep on workdays and non - workdays it was hypothesized that deployment of a combination of four fatigue management technologies would result in increased sleep time ( actigraph determined ) under both canadian hours - of - service ( study phase 1 ) and u. s. hours - of - service ( study phase 2 ). however, analyses of actigraphy data for sleep episodes in the no feedback versus feedback conditions revealed no statistically significant differences in sleep duration in either the canada study phase or the u. s. study phase ( see " prior sleep " variable in tables 13 and 24 ). " prior sleep " was defined by all the sleep time found in each 24 - hour period ( from noon to noon, across consecutive days in the 2 - week period for each condition ) using an actigraphic software program called " action 4 " ( developed by ambulatory monitoring, inc., ardsley, ny ), as well as software that could recognize and eliminate from consideration periods of time when the actigraph was not on the wrist of a driver. although the overall comparisons of actigraphically - defined 24 - hour cumulative sleep time ( prior sleep ) were not different between the feedback and no feedback conditions, it was clear that the u. s. study phase drivers had an average of 50 minutes less sleep per day than their canadian counterparts during the no feedback condition, and 39 minutes less sleep per day than their canadian counterparts during the feedback condition ( compare " prior sleep " in tables 13 and 24 ). the reduced daily sleep times in the u. s. drivers were consistent with the differences between study phases in the predominant time - of - day for driving - canada drivers had approximately 75 % of their driving in daylight ( and therefore, slept mostly in the nighttime ), while u. s. drivers had approximately 90 % of their driving at night ( and therefore slept more in the daytime ). it has long been established that sleep duration is reduced when people work nights, owing to circadian biological forces and environmental factors, which alone or together can truncate daytime sleep durations. analyses were performed to determine whether the actigraphically - defined sleep duration differences of 50 minutes ( no feedback difference between canada and u. s. ) and 39 minutes ( feedback difference between canada and u. s. ) were statistically significantly different from each other. in addition, sleep durations would likely be affected by workdays and non - workdays


canada and u. s. ) and 39 minutes ( feedback difference between canada and u. s. ) were statistically significantly different from each other. in addition, sleep durations would likely be affected by workdays and non - workdays, especially in the night driving u. s. subjects, such that non - workdays would likely involve significantly more sleep than workdays. as a result of these considerations, a series of analyses were conducted comparing actigraph - defined sleep obtained by canada drivers and u. s. drivers on workdays and non - workdays, during the no feedback 2 - week period and the feedback 2 - week period. these analyses yielded important new insights into the impact of fmt feedback on drivers ' sleep durations. tables 49 through 58, and tables 7 through 9, display the results these analyses. 9. 1 sleep durations on workdays and non - workdays tables 51, 52, 53, and 54 reveal that drivers slept significantly more on non - workdays than on workdays. during the no feedback 2 - week period of the canada study phase, drivers averaged 7 hours and 17 minutes sleep per 24 hour period on non - workdays compared to 6 hours and 15 minutes on workdays ( p = 0. 023 ), a mean difference of 1 hours and 2 minutes ( table 51 ). similarly, during the feedback 2 - week period of the canada study phase, drivers averaged 7 hours and 31 minutes of sleep per 24 hours on non - workdays compared to 6 hours and 14 minutes on workdays ( p = 0. 0005 ), a mean difference of 1 hour and 17 minutes ( table 53 ). comparable results were obtained in the u. s. study phase. during the no feedback 2 - week period of study phase 2, the u. s. drivers averaged 6 hours and 32 minutes of sleep per 24 hours on non - workdays compared to 5 hours and 14 minutes on workdays ( p = 0. 018 ), a mean difference of 1 hour and 18 minutes ( table 52 ). similarly, during the feedback period, u. s. drivers averaged 7 hours and 32 minutes sleep compared to 5 hours and 1 minute on workdays ( p = 0. 0004 ), a mean difference of 2 hours and 31 minutes ( table 54 ). these are relatively large differences in 24 - hour sleep durations, suggesting that drivers developed sleep debts across the workweek. figure 7


the ilc promises extraordinary power in the study of the terascale. the annihilation of an electron and its antiparticle, the positron, allows the understanding of collisions to an unparalleled level of detail and precision. as others have comprehensively documented, the ilc view of the terascale, complementary to the lhc ' s perspective, makes the ilc an essential tool for unraveling new phenomena discovered at these extreme energies. it makes the ilc the top priority at fermilab for a future global facility. a superconducting ilc cavity credit : fermilab visual media services the ilc ' s opportunities for discovery have motivated the global particle physics community to come together in an effort to design the accelerator and its experimental program. the completion of the reference design report in early 2007 and the structuring of a collaborative worldwide r & d program represent successful community efforts. fermilab has contributed strongly to this effort : the design of the accelerator ; the development of superconducting radio - frequency, or scrf, technology in the u. s. ; the design of the physics and experimental program ; the site studies necessary for hosting the ilc at or near fermilab ; and the establishment of a test - beam facility for the development of ilc detectors. the ilc and related scrf efforts at fermilab make up by far the laboratory ' s largest future program. in the next phase of the ilc effort, fermilab ' s aim is to be a leader in the global engineering design and in the development of the scrf technology, steps necessary to reach a decision early in the next decade to build the ilc. fermilab is building the required infrastructure and test facilities and is coordinating the national efforts in the development of scrf technology, in collaboration with national and international partners in europe, asia and the u. s. to these efforts fermilab brings strong engineering capability, accelerator physics expertise and technology development skills. innovative detectors will be key to exploiting the ilc physics opportunities. in general, an improvement in resolution of both tracking and calorimetric detectors over the present state - of - the - art detectors will allow experimenters to distinguish the signals of new physics from backgrounds much more efficiently. fermilab has a strong instrumentation development effort in collaboration with laboratories and universities across the world. just as important for the global ilc effort, fermilab has developed and will operate a flexible high - energy test beam to provide


much more efficiently. fermilab has a strong instrumentation development effort in collaboration with laboratories and universities across the world. just as important for the global ilc effort, fermilab has developed and will operate a flexible high - energy test beam to provide a variety of particles and energies for testing detector technologies. a simulation of the decay of a z + higgs to four jets in an ilc detector credit : norman graf fermilab ' s goal is to host the ilc. geographically and geologically, the site is nearly optimal and could house the central facilities of the ilc, such as damping rings and experimental halls. two important aspects of fermilab ' s activities over the next three years are the study of the site and the design of conventional facilities necessary for the engineering design and working with the neighboring communities on issues associated with hosting the ilc in the region. fermilab has vigorously collaborated with local residents over the last two years, first with the community task force and currently with the ilc citizens ' task force and the envoy program. these activities will strengthen over the next three years of engineering design. finally, fermilab is strengthening its engineering capabilities as the laboratory moves toward the design of global accelerators. unlike the case of the detector community, which is accustomed to building detectors collaboratively across continents, much less collaboration has taken place in the development of global accelerators. the ilc is breaking new ground in this regard, and it is important that fermilab have the strongest engineering capabilities and systems in place in order to lead in the integration of components produced around the world into a functioning accelerator. the ilc is key to the future of u. s. particle physics and to fermilab ' s future.


some food and nutrition messages are being heard by american consumers, with survey data from the international food information council foundation ’ s ( ific ) indicating that 70 and 63 % of consumers trying to consume less sugar and hfcs, respectively. data from ific ’ s annual survey, published in the journal of the academy of nutrition and dietetics, also indicated that awareness of trans - fats increased between 2006 and 2010, from 81 to 90 %, while omega - 3 awareness has stayed constant at around 74 %. on the flip side, no increase in efforts to consume more omega - 3s has been observed in the 1, 000 - plus consumers participating in the survey. “ having five years of consumer research offers invaluable insights on how the communication of dietary guidance impacts consumers, ” said marianne smith edge, ms, rd, ld, fada, senior vice president, nutrition & food safety at the ific foundation and co - author of the article. “ and, we have not stopped at five years. the ific foundation remains committed to continuing to field this survey to gain and share insights on consumers ’ knowledge and behaviors. further, this helps focus consumer communication efforts on areas where they are needed most. ” calories and weight gain however, many health and nutrition messages are not being heard, with the survey also revealing that a staggering 70 % of consumers could not correctly identify that “ calories in general are what causes weight gain ”. the ific survey also revealed that “ americans consistently reported that they actively used food and beverage packaging label information when deciding whether to purchase or consume food and beverages ”. the top source was the nutrition facts panel ( 68 % in 2010 ), followed by expiration date ( 66 % in 2010 ). interestingly, brand names are increasingly being used to influence purchases, with 50 % of consumers saying this influenced their purchase and consumption habits in 2010, up from 38 % in 2006. “ during the 5 years of the survey, there has been an explosion in access to technology and information, including food, nutrition, and health counsel, yet this has not appeared to facilitate greater consumer understanding or action, ” wrote the authors. “ these data raise the question of whether traditional nutrition communications may have contributed to consumer confusion and perhaps, the lack of motivation expressed by many americans. ” “ some nutrition and health messages are indeed being heard and americans desire to engage in healthful behaviors. imparting knowledge and direction through education may foster short - term action or interest, but current approaches have not facilitated established


webmd medical news laura j. martin, md oct. 31, 2011 - - it ' s no surprise that many sodas have a lot of sugar. what may be more surprising is that many fruit drinks, often billed as healthier alternatives, are often loaded with close to the same amount of sugar and calories. that is one of the findings of a new report from yale university. the report, being presented today at the american public health association annual meeting in washington, d. c., also finds that many beverage companies are marketing their drinks to kids and teens despite a promise to stop. the american beverage association, an industry trade group, takes issue with the new findings. it says the beverage companies have taken many positive steps to protect children ' s health, including advertising only certain types of drinks on programming to children 12 and under. researchers from yale university ' s rudd center for food policy and obesity looked at the contents of close to 600 drinks made by 14 companies. they included sugary sodas, energy and sports drinks, fruit drinks, flavored waters, and iced teas as well as diet energy drinks and diet children ' s fruit drinks. they found that an 8 - ounce serving of a full - calorie, non - diet fruit drink has on average 110 calories and 7 teaspoons of sugar. this is equal to the amount that is found in an 8 - ounce serving of sugary soda or energy drink. " the companies have pledged not to advertise to children or if they do, it will just be for certain better - for - you products, " says study researcher jennifer harris, phd. she is director of marketing initiatives at the yale rudd center for food policy and obesity. unfortunately, their idea of " better - for - you " drinks is water, sugar, and a tiny amount of juice, she says. " many fruit and energy drinks have as much added sugar and calories as sugary sodas, " harris says. some of these drinks have as much sugar as an 8 - year - old should consume in a day, she says. full - calorie iced teas, sports drinks, and flavored waters typically contain 3 to 5 teaspoons of sugar per 8 - ounce serving, the report states. the stakes are high, harris says. drinking just one 8 - ounce sugar - sweetened drink everyday increases a child ' s odds for becoming obese by 60 %. sugary drinks are the no. 1 source of added sugar in our diets and the


are high, harris says. drinking just one 8 - ounce sugar - sweetened drink everyday increases a child ' s odds for becoming obese by 60 %. sugary drinks are the no. 1 source of added sugar in our diets and the no. 1 source of calories for teens, the report states. " parents believe that drinks like capri sun, sunny d, gatorade, and vitamin water are healthy choices for their kids, but they are not, " harris says. " we were surprised by how little juice there was in children ' s fruit drinks. and a lot of diet drinks have artificial sweeteners. but unless you know the chemical name, you wouldn ' t realize it, " she says. harris says that the only appropriate drinks for children are water, low - fat milk, and 100 % fruit juices. nutritionist dana greene, rd, agrees. " don ' t be fooled by healthy - looking labels, " she says. " read the fine print and if you can ' t pronounce it, you probably don ' t need or want it in your child ' s body. " the researchers also analyzed advertising on television, the internet, social media sites, and mobile apps. many beverage companies got behind the children ' s food and beverage advertising initiative in november 2006. the initiative is designed to shift the mix of foods advertised to children under 12 to encourage healthier choices. the report says that many - - although not all - - of these companies are not making good on their promises. the exposure of children and teens to tv ads hawking unhealthy sugary soda doubled from 2008 to 2010, the study shows. the companies also seem to be increasingly targeting african - american and hispanic youth, the new report suggests. in fact, african - american children and teens saw as much as 90 % more ads than the white children and teens. the study also shows that energy drinks are marketed to children and teens even though the american academy of pediatrics explicitly states these beverages are not appropriate for them. many beverage companies are also reaching kids and teens where they live - - namely social media sites including facebook, twitter, and youtube, the study shows. twenty - one sugary drink brands had youtube channels in 2010. susan k. neely, american beverage association president and ceo, says in a written statement that there has been a " dramatic change " in food and beverage advertising during children ' s programming. " the people at our member companies - - many of whom are parents themselves - -


, american beverage association president and ceo, says in a written statement that there has been a " dramatic change " in food and beverage advertising during children ' s programming. " the people at our member companies - - many of whom are parents themselves - - are delivering on their commitment to advertise only water, juice and milk on programming for children under 12. " what ' s more, the beverage industry has also removed full - calorie soft drinks from schools in favor of lower - calorie, smaller portion drinks, she says. " this report is another attack by known critics in an ongoing attempt to single out one product as the cause of obesity when both common sense and widely accepted science have shown that the reality is far more complicated, " says neely. still, scott kahan, md, an obesity expert at johns hopkins university in baltimore, says he is concerned about these trends. " decades of social science research show that marketing affects all of our preferences and choice, but kids are sitting ducks for advertisers, " he says. " putting a character like shrek on food makes it taste better to kids. " in recent years, there has been a shift from focusing on preventing infections in children to concern about chronic diseases such as diabetes that are nutrition - related. " we wouldn ' t let our kids be attacked by ads for germ - infected products that would make them sick, but this study shows we are allowing them to be attacked by marketers of unhealthy foods that will make them sick, " kahan says. he says that voluntary pledges by industry may not be enough. " there needs to be serious discussion about what the rules should be and who needs to play be them. " sources : scott kahan, md, johns hopkins university, baltimore. jennifer harris, director of marketing initiatives, yale rudd center for food policy and obesity. american public health association, oct. 29 - nov. 2, 2011, washington, d. c. dana greene, rd, nutritionist, boston. statement, american beverage association statement, oct. 29, 2011. here are the most recent story comments. view all the views expressed here do not necessarily represent those of fox16 - breaking news and weather to plan your day for little rock and central arkansas the health news section does not provide medical advice, diagnosis or treatment. see additional information.


leapfrog tag - the latest in teaching children to read leapfrog make reading interactive with the use of a tag pen to help read the book and play games. your child can hold the pen and touch a symbol on the page to read the story to them by the characters in the book, with a signalling sound to tell them when to turn the page. alternatively they can touch another symbol to have just that page read to them. to aid understanding and memory there are games within the story asking kids to find favourite characters or demonstrate their understanding by pointing to parts of the picture when asked a question. the stories are cute and the characters are colourful and fun. in the ozzie and mack story i tested, the tale is followed by a series of learning games. there is an alphabet page when pounces the letters and gives examples of words starting with the individual letters. in ozzie ' s rhyme time band the kids can point to ryhming words which are read out loud to them. the game that goes with this page asks kids to find words as they are read to them. tree house telephone shows children how adding the letter ' e ' to words changes them - for example, not to note. river roundup explains more complicated words like a mini dictionary. on each of the game pages there are 3 levels - children work their way through each level. because the tag stores what your children have played so far, they can only move up a level once they have mastered the previous one. the tag system comes with a cd which loads a program connecting your tag pen to programs on the leapfrog website. here you can dowload stories and receive rewards for using the tag reading system. i ' m not sure what the rewards are - as clearly i didn ' t play long enough with my tag to earn any!!! i started off unsure about the tag reading system - as i ' m very much one for natural parenting and i ' d prefer to play these games with the kids myself rather than relying on technology. however, as i played with the leapfrog tag i could see how useful it could be for busy families. these days not everyone has enough time to teach kids to read, or maybe can ' t think up enough entertaining games to play with the kids to help them. i also know that some kids are very reluctant to be shown what to do by an adult, but are quite happy to sit by themselves learning from this type of technology. i wasn ' t enamoured by the internet part of the product


them. i also know that some kids are very reluctant to be shown what to do by an adult, but are quite happy to sit by themselves learning from this type of technology. i wasn ' t enamoured by the internet part of the product and was concerned about entering personal data into yet another website - even though i was assured this was intended to help construct an age appropriate learning plan. i thought the product was good enough on its own not to need the rewards element on the website. it ' s just a personal opinion, but i really don ' t think we need to use the internet for everything - including learning how to read. on balance, my concerns are purely personal and for what it is setting out to do, the leap frog does succeed. it ' s easy for children to understand and very easy to use. the stories are well laid out and beautifully illustrated. the games are well thought through for the intended age range of 4 - 8 years old - though you could start kids on these books earlier than that. i like the fact that there are levels of games to play and so the book continues to be useful as the child reading progresses. the leapfrog tag system can be bought at amazon for £33. 99 and includes your first tag book. there are more tag books available from £11. 10 on amazon and include some favourite characters such as spongbob square pants, cat in the hat and kung fu panda. a selection is here at amazon : | add to del. icio. us | | digg this review |


juridical procedures relating to the anabaptists juridical procedures relating to the anabaptists ( legal action against the anabaptists ; german, rechtsprechung ). legal action against anabaptists developed in a natural way out of the juridical practice concerning heretics in general. in the 12th century when ecclesiastical defection or nonconformity led to the rise of albigensian and waldensian sectarianism, the roman church undertook stern measures of repression. pope gregory ix, 1227 - 1241, creator of the first compilation of canonical law, established the inquisition, and emperor frederick ii, 1220 - 1250, in his sicilian law code put the temporal arm of imperial law at the disposal of the church in all cases against heretics. in the 15th century, when the old roman law was assimilated into the german law, the civil code of the holy roman empire renewed the old laws of the emperors gratian, valentinian ii, and theodosius i ( all of a. d. 380 ) concerning the exclusive right and authority of the catholic church, and that of the emperors honorius and theodosius ii ( a. d. 413 ) concerning the capital crime of rebaptism, punishable with death ( corpus juris civilis i, 1 and vi, 2 ). in criminal law, trials by torture ( to obtain confessions incriminating to the accused ) had been in use for various crimes against general security ever since the 13th century. in the trials of anabaptists in particular the questionnaire set up before cross - examination was easily manipulated in such a way that it would influence the outcome of the trial. the first anabaptist to die thus as a " heretic " on catholic soil was eberli bolt, executed in the canton of schwyz on 29 may 1525, the first on reformed soil was felix manz at zurich on 5 january 1527, and the first on lutheran soil were two men and four women at reinhardsbrunn on 18 january 1530 ( see also gotha for names ). in the course of the persecution of the anabaptists a double change is evident on the part of the government, due to a considerable extent to the peasants ' war ; the charge shifted more and more from heresy to sedition ; and on the part of the reformers the sentencing of heresy grew more bitter to the extent that in heresy they were no longer attacking a hostile


to a considerable extent to the peasants ' war ; the charge shifted more and more from heresy to sedition ; and on the part of the reformers the sentencing of heresy grew more bitter to the extent that in heresy they were no longer attacking a hostile church, but defending their own. - - ec 2. jurisdictional practices of ferdinand i in all of austria, bavaria, and the territories of the swabian league. ferdinand i, archduke of austria, king of bohemia and hungary, and later also emperor of the holy roman empire, " the prince of darkness " as jakob hutter called him in his epistle of 1535, the " tyrant and enemy of divine truth who has had many of ours innocently and mercilessly murdered, " was a staunch fighter for the undisturbed integrity of the catholic church, with the mandate of 20 august 1527, he ushered in a systematic persecution in his domain by publishing a list of heretical doctrines, adherence to which would lead to capital punishment ( see mandates ). the anabaptists were charged with only two obnoxious articles : rejection of infant baptism and abuse of the sacrament of the altar. in the ordinance of 26 february 1528, to the austrian government he complained about laxity in the proceedings against anabaptists ( see austria ). but very soon he transformed these heresy - proceedings into extraordinary proceedings against " rebels. " south german influence on ferdinand ' s mandates is very probable. bavaria had already proclaimed martial law ( standrecht ) against anabaptists. " the ducal secretary pernoder testified that no proper court session was held for the prisoners but that the sentence was simply read to them, whereupon they were led to execution " ( wiswedel, ii, 55 ). the swabian league with its practice of martial law shows again the governmental ideas regarding those who deviated from the old church. many were sentenced to death without recourse to any juridical process, e. g., eitelhans langenmantel. on 7 march 1528, the swabian league issued a mandate against the anabaptists which expressly said that " it can easily be estimated even by a simple christian with little understanding " to what an extent anabaptism will lead to " new revolts and rebellions, " unless torture is undertaken and earnest punishment ( klupfel, ii, 319 ). the specter of the peasants ' war ( 1525 ) was constantly in ferdinand ' s mind.


will lead to " new revolts and rebellions, " unless torture is undertaken and earnest punishment ( klupfel, ii, 319 ). the specter of the peasants ' war ( 1525 ) was constantly in ferdinand ' s mind. like other princes of the time he too saw in anabaptism a real threat to governmental authority. to be sure, this was not the only reason for his ruthless persecution of the anabaptists ; another was the presumed christological heresies. blasphemous words against " the mother of god, " for instance, were to be punished " in body, life, and property according to the occasion and the degree of guilt. " anyone who administered holy communion without having been consecrated as a priest was to be punished with " fire, sword, or water according to the judgment of the judges " ( nicoladoni, 259 ). ferdinand argued that since seditious acts would surely ensue from heretical teachings ( considered even more serious than a criminal act ), extraordinary procedures should be pursued in all such cases, disregarding general legal practices. ferdinand ' s policy concerning anabaptists had, no doubt, also a significant influence upon the ill - famed mandate against anabaptism of the diet of speyer, passed 22 april 1529. on the basis of this mandate anabaptists were to be condemned to death by fire and sword, " without previous inquisition by spiritual judges. " as it is generally known, the reformers ( luther, melanchthon ) gave their consent to this basic mandate. the motivating force behind ferdinand was no doubt his confessor, the court preacher johann faber, who also played an important role at the diet of speyer. it was he who one year earlier cross - examined balthasar hubmaier and otherwise engaged in literary activities against the anabaptists. luther ' s views on heretics and their punishment have been thoroughly investigated by sohm, kohler, wappler, paulus, and more recently by john oyer ( see bibliography ). until about 1524, luther definitely rejected the idea of governmental intervention in matters of faith. in his letter " to the christian nobility of the german nation " ( 1520 ) he states that heretics should be conquered " with scripture not with fire, as the forefathers did. if it were an art to overcome heretics with fire, then the executioners would be the most learned doctors on earth. " he urged lenience toward


heretics should be conquered " with scripture not with fire, as the forefathers did. if it were an art to overcome heretics with fire, then the executioners would be the most learned doctors on earth. " he urged lenience toward the zwickau prophets, and did not even want them to be imprisoned ( luther ' s correspondence, ed. de wette, letter of 17 january 1522, ii, 135 ). in his book von weltlicher obrigkeit ( 1522 ) he sharply opposed government interference in spiritual matters. also in a letter to his prince of saxony he admonished that the office of the word should not be resisted. " just let them preach confidently and vigorously what they can and against whom they will, for... there must be sects " ( luther ' s letters, ibid., 21 august 1524 (? ), ii, 547 ). in 1525, however, a change took place in luther ' s opinion. in a letter dated 4 march 1525, to spengler, the city clerk of nurnberg, concerning the " three ungodly painters " ( against whom the city council was conducting a trial ) the concept of " blasphemy " occurs for the first time. for this particular offense it was necessary for the temporal powers to step in automatically. as to punishment, luther does not express himself yet. in the years 1526 - 1528, the concept of " sedition " takes the more prominent place. this idea had been drilled into the national consciousness during the peasants ' war, mainly by the weight of lutheran publicity. now, on 9 february 1526 luther declared to the prince elector that in order to prevent sedition and a mob spirit, " there shall be one kind of preaching only at one place " ( luther ' s letters, ibid., ill, 88 ff. ). the word " sedition " was also utilized in connection with the newly established lutheran church inspections ( the electoral instructions for the inspectors of 16 june 1527, use this term expressly. sehling, i, 142 ff. ). hence, anyone who did not agree with the lutheran church on a point of doctrine, was subject to the temporal authorities also on the suspicion of sedition. it should be emphasized, however, that with the by far greatest number of anabaptists there was no evidence of seditious tendencies whatever to justify the intervention of the government, even though great divergencies existed


the suspicion of sedition. it should be emphasized, however, that with the by far greatest number of anabaptists there was no evidence of seditious tendencies whatever to justify the intervention of the government, even though great divergencies existed in points of doctrine. the task of church organization, however, made it imperative now to find a justification for proceedings against all those who showed any anti - lutheran mind. since, as was generally assumed, the suspicion of sedition was not a sufficient ground for proceeding against deviators, it became necessary to find a new weapon. that was the concept of " blasphemy, " used by luther for the first time in the above - mentioned letter to spengler of 1525. apparently melanchthon was the first to draw the logical conclusions from this situation and demanded of the government that it punish false teachings. the occasion for this was given first by the exceedingly embarrassing results of the church inspections in saxony which seemed to indicate a threat to the very existence of the new church ( corp. reform. ; opera melanchthoni, i, col. 941 ). it was also melanchthon who became instrumental in the formulation of the official " opinion " of the theological faculty of the university of wittenberg concerning the legal aspects of the punishment of deviations in all matters of church discipline. here the idea of blasphemy is clearly stated as the main argument for the death penalty. according to the study by meissner, the wittenberg theologians seemed to have arrived at this idea of blasphemy as the most serious criminal fault by all opponents by pointing to the concept of " ingratitude to the gospel " ( luther ' s letter of 22 november 1526, loc. cit. ill, 135 ) as well as by reference to the electoral instructions of 16 june 1527 ( richter, i, 78 ). in a letter of 15 february 1530, melanchthon promoted the idea that blasphemous articles of faith, even if they have nothing to do with sedition, must be punished with the sword. by this procedure an extraordinarily effective legal device was now found for the persecution of all " heretics " and at the same time for the defense of the new church. luther bestowed his sanction upon this device in his exposition of the 82d psalm. the background of it is as follows : around 1530, a new party had arisen in nurnberg which advocated toleration and liberty


of the new church. luther bestowed his sanction upon this device in his exposition of the 82d psalm. the background of it is as follows : around 1530, a new party had arisen in nurnberg which advocated toleration and liberty of conscience in matters of religion. thereupon, on 17 march 1530, spengler wrote to veit dietrich at wittenberg asking him to persuade luther — then just working on an exposition of psalm deus sedet in synagoga — to put into this new booklet a condemnation of the new party and its philosophy, all the more as this party defended its stand by reference to the " booklet by doctor luther addressed to the elector of saxony, against the fanatical thomas muntzer. " veit dietrich then looked luther up and expounded to him the principles of the prevailing criminal law of the time. luther then developed these ideas further in his exposition of the 82d psalm ( hausdorff ). in this exposition luther stressed first of all the high dignity of all authorities ( or magistrates ), which at one place he calls outright " gods. " seditious heretics are to be " punished straightway and without compunction. " but likewise also those who teach only contrary to a published article of faith should be punished as open blasphemers who " are not to be tolerated. " against them he recommended quick justice, on the basis of leviticus 24 : 16 and also the church fathers, who had no more patience with false doctrines than moses. that luther ' s exposition of the 82d psalm was actually considered as a declaration of principles to guide legal practices can be proved by numerous references ( see meissner ). the courts of saxony only too willingly concurred with the suggestions and opinions of the wittenberg theologians. " they followed the opposite course from ferdinand ' s juridical practice, namely, turning from the persecution of sedition to a secular trial of heretics " ( meissner ). one might also mention the imperial cities of germany, which followed in general also the direction of the wittenberg theologians in their administration of justice in all cases of anabaptism. johann brenz of wurttemberg for many years had defended toleration as a matter of principle. in his booklet, ob eine weltliche obrigkeit mit gottlichem und billigem recht moge die wiedertaufer durch feuer und schwert vom heben zum tod


. in his booklet, ob eine weltliche obrigkeit mit gottlichem und billigem recht moge die wiedertaufer durch feuer und schwert vom heben zum tode richten lassen ( 1528 ), he taught that mere heresy not associated with revolt should be fought only with the spiritual sword, the word of god, inasmuch as it does not belong to the concern of the temporal powers. furthermore this booklet proved that the accusation against the anabaptists was definitely unjustified. through this booklet brenz ' influence on the juridical practice in wurttemberg and elsewhere was quite beneficent : there were at least no death sentences in wurttemberg. but later on, unfortunately, brenz drifted into the current of luther and melanchthon. in 1557, he became a signatory of the declaration of several theologians entitled prozess wie es soil gehalten werden mit den wiedertaufern, durch etliche gelehrt so zu worms versammelt gewesen, gestellt ( see bedenken ). this gloomy document deals in patricular with juridical questions concerning the proper course of trials of " heretics. " the heads and seducers were to be put to death as blasphemers, for god had clearly commanded secular authorities to punish blasphemy. for that reason it had been right to punish servetus [ the anti - trinitarian, 1553 ]. the concept of blasphemy, as developed by luther and melanchthon, is interpreted as formal only ( as meissner has shown ), i. e., it does not define particular non - orthodox teachings but in general means simply opposition as such ; i. e., rebellion against the new church. it should, however, be mentioned that in the stuttgart copy of this document ( here called " bendenken, etc. " ) the passage about servetus ' execution as well as another passage advocating death penalty for heresy is crossed out. gustav bossert, jr., assumes that either the duke of wurttemberg or brenz deleted these passages, and concludes accordingly that both the duke and the wurttemberg theologians agreed basically with brenz ' earlier stand opposing the shedding of blood ( blatter, 25 ). these two reformers of strasbourg were entirely dependent on wittenberg. in a document called reformationsprogramm (


and the wurttemberg theologians agreed basically with brenz ' earlier stand opposing the shedding of blood ( blatter, 25 ). these two reformers of strasbourg were entirely dependent on wittenberg. in a document called reformationsprogramm ( program for the reformation ) of 1535 sent in the name of the strasbourg clergy to the count palatine rupprecht, the establishment of a formal inquisition, ruthless intervention of the government in family life with respect to the baptism of children, and the sharpest measures against all foes or deprecators of the gospel are demanded ( original copy of this document in the state library in munich ). bucer believed that the government had the right to introduce christianity among its subjects and to eradicate any false worship. " unorthodox teachers are to be punished by body and life. "... " the power of the government over the conscience of its subjects is most harshly represented by bucer " ( hagen ). like luther also zwingli went dirough a certain change in his ideas concerning the punishment of heretics. in the earlier period of his reformatory activities he was possessed by the same optimism as luther that the pure gospel would renew everything and turn it to the good. but when in 1525 anabaptism appeared in zurich and tried to establish congregations on a new testament pattern, he lost more and more the feeling that the norm of the gospel and the new " christian state " do not absolutely coincide. he began teaching the identity of christianity and civil order, and committed to the " christian " government of zurich not only the supervision of general morality but also the care for the particular discipline of the new reformed church. he is said to have recommended the beheading of anabaptists " on the strength of imperial law, " as balthasar hubmaier claimed ( ein gesprach balthasar hubmors von dem kindertauff, 1526 ). the swiss authorities only too willingly acted upon his advice and opinion in all anabaptist trials. calvin at first intended to have the spiritual office exclusively take charge of church discipline without any participation by the state. but soon developments in geneva likewise went far beyond this initial program ; the state police now also began to become involved in matters of church discipline. " we have sharpened the sword that they may accomplish their blood work " ( corp. ref., opera calvini, viii, 477 ). he expected from the state unconditional subjugation of all heretics and devi


church discipline. " we have sharpened the sword that they may accomplish their blood work " ( corp. ref., opera calvini, viii, 477 ). he expected from the state unconditional subjugation of all heretics and deviators. the execution of michel servetus in 1553 is a clear illustration of calvin ' s enormous inluence upon the temporal authorities of geneva. see also punishment of anabaptists bossert, g. jr. " aus der nebenkirchlichen religiosen bewegung der reformationszeit in wurttemberg. " blatter fur wurttembergische kirchengeschichte 28 ( 1929 ) : 1 - 41. corpus reformatorum, opera calvini corpus reformatorum, opera melanchthoni. de wette, wilhelm martin leberecht, ed. martin luther, briefe, sendschreiben und bedenken. berlin, 1826 - 1827 : ii - iii. hagen, carl. deutschlands literarische und religiose verhaltnisse im reformationszeitalter. frankfurt, 1886. hausdorff, urban gottlieb. lebensbeschreibung eines christlichen politici lazari spengler ' s. nurnberg, 1741. hege, christian and christian neff. mennonitisches lexikon. 4 vols. frankfurt & weierhof : hege ; karlsruhe ; schneider, 1913 - 1967 : iii, 433 - 439. hermelink, heinrich. der toleranzgedanke im reformationszeitalter. 1908. klupfel, k. urkunden zur geschichte des schwabischen bundes 1488 - 1533. stuttgart, 1853 : part 2. kohler, walter. reformation und ketzerprozess. tubingen and leipzig, 1901. kreider, robert. " the anabaptists and the civil authorities of strasbourg, 1525 - 1555. " church history 24 ( 1955 ) : 99 - 118. meissner, erich. " die rechtsprechung uber die wiedertaufer und die antitauferische publizistik. " ph. d. dissertation, gottingen, 1921. this dissertation forms the basis for the material in the present article. nicoladoni, a. johannes bunderlin von linz und die oberosterreichischen taufergemeinden


" ph. d. dissertation, gottingen, 1921. this dissertation forms the basis for the material in the present article. nicoladoni, a. johannes bunderlin von linz und die oberosterreichischen taufergemeinden in den jahren 1525 - 1531. berlin, 1893. oyer, john. " the writings of luther against the anabaptists. " mennonite quarterly review 27 ( april 1953 ). oyer, john. " the writings of melanchthon against the anabaptists. " mennonite quarterly review 26 ( october 1952 ). paulus, nikolaus. protestantismus und tolerant im sechzehnten jahrhundert. freiburg i. br., 1911. richter, a. l. die evangelischen kirchenordnungen des 16. jahrhunderts, 1, 2. weimar, 1846. schraepler, horst. " die rechtliche behandlung der taufer in wurttemberg, hessen, baden, kurpfalz und der deutschen schweiz in den jahren 1525 - 1618. " tubingen doctoral dissertation, 1956. sehling, emil, ed. die evangelischen kirchenordnungen des 16. jahrhunderts i, part i. leipzig, 1902. wappler, paul. inquisition und ketzerprozesse in zwickau zur reformationszeit. leipzig, 1908. wiswedel, wilhelm. bilder and fuhrergestalten aus dem taufertum. 3 v. kassel : j. g. oncken verlag, 1928 - 1952. adapted by permission of herald press, harrisonburg, virginia, and waterloo, ontario, from mennonite encyclopedia, vol. 3, pp. 129 - 132. all rights reserved. for information on ordering the encyclopedia visit the herald press website. ©1996 - 2013 by the global anabaptist mennonite encyclopedia online. all rights reserved. to cite this page : mla style : crous, ernst and wilhelm wiswedel. " juridical procedures relating to the anabaptists. " global anabaptist mennonite encyclopedia online. 1957. web. 23 may 2013. http : / / www. gameo. org / encyclopedia / contents / j864. html. apa style : crous, ernst and wilhelm wiswedel. ( 1957 ). jurid


water and air in the soil are important for good plant growth. good drainage and a porous surface helps water penetrate the soil into the root zone. water and organic materials in the soil together interact in such a way as to benefit the roses. as organic matter decomposes in the soil, it gives off carbon dioxide which replaces some of the oxygen in the soil. thus, soil air contains less oxygen and more carbon dioxide, but carbon dioxide is dissolved by water in the soil to form a weak acid. - sunday, 05 may 2013 22 : 38 - by ed zasadzinski, past president of ne ohio rose society - sunday, 05 may 2013 13 : 14 - by kathy van mullekom daily press ( newport news, va. ) ( mct ) any azaleas flowering in your yard this spring are probably asian in origin _ not american species that offer different sights and pleasing scents. " azaleas native to the united states are colorful and well adapted to our challenging climate, " says les parks, curator of herbaceous plants at norfolk botanical garden in southeastern virginia. - sunday, 05 may 2013 13 : 13 - by angie hicks ( mct ) the garbage disposal is often one of the most - used appliances in the kitchen. it ' s also the most abused. " foreign objects in the disposal is the most common issue, " said kevin harner of kevin harner appliance services co. in enola, pa. " i ' ve seen everything run the gamut from paper clips and bottle caps, to nails and screws in there. - sunday, 05 may 2013 13 : 12 - by norman winter mcclatchy - tribune news service ( mct ) mixed floral hanging containers have become the rage across the country, and thanks to the coconut liner it is easy to jump on the basket bandwagon. it wasn ' t long ago that you only saw such beautiful displays when visiting mild - climate tourist areas, and now everyone can either buy them already made or be like monet, and create a piece of floral art. - sunday, 17 march 2013 09 : 43 - by mary beth breckenridge akron beacon journal ( mct ) you probably hate reading about bedbugs. believe me, i ' m not too crazy about having to write about them. but bedbugs are an increasingly vexing problem.


hob - search results articles about hob we are all looking for ways to increase production without sacrificing quality. one of the most cost - effective ways is by improving the substrate material of your hob. solid carbide hobs are widely used in many applications throughout the world. lmt - fette was the first to demonstrate the use of solid carbide hobs in 1993 on modern high - speed carbide ( hsc ) hobbing machines. since then the process of dry hobbing has been continuously improving through research and product testing. dry hobbing is proving to be successful in the gear cutting industry as sales for dry hobbing machines have steadily been rising along with the dramatic increase in sales of solid carbide hobs. today it is common practice when climb hobbing to keep the direction of the hob thread the same as that of the helical gear. the same generalization holds true for the mass production of gears for automobiles. it is the authors ' opinion, however, that conventional hobbing with a reverse - handed hob is more effective for the high - speed manufacture of comparatively small module gears for automobiles. the authors have proven both experimentally and theoretically that reverse - handed conventional hobbing, using a multi - thread hob with a smaller diameter is very effective for lengthening the life of the hob and for increasing cutting efficiency at high speeds. the hobbing process the hobbing process involves a hob which is threaded with a lead and is rotated in conjunction with the gear blank at a ratio dependent upon the number of teeth to be cut. a single thread hob cutting a 40 - tooth gear will make 40 revolutions for each revolution of the gear. the cutting action in hobbing is continuous, and the teeth are formed in one passage of the hob through the blank. see fig. 1 for a drawing of a typical hob with some common nomenclature. the method of cutting teeth on a cylindrical gear by the hobbing process has been in existence since the late 1800s. advances have been made over the years in both the machines and the cutting tools used in the process. this paper will examine hob tool life and the many variables that affect it. the paper will cover the state - of - the - art cutting tool materials and coatings, hob tool design characteristics, process speeds and feeds, hob shifting strategies, wear characteristics, etc. the paper will also discuss the use of a common denominator method for evaluating hob tool life in terms of meters (


and coatings, hob tool design characteristics, process speeds and feeds, hob shifting strategies, wear characteristics, etc. the paper will also discuss the use of a common denominator method for evaluating hob tool life in terms of meters ( or inches ) per hob tooth as an alternative to tool life expressed in parts per sharpening. there are great advantages in dry hobbing, not only for friendliness toward the environment, but also for increasing productivity and for decreasing manufacturing cost. dry hobbing, however, often causes failures in hob cutting edges or problems with the surface quality of gear tooth flanks. these difficulties are not present when hobbing with cutting oil. pinching and crushing of generated chips between the hob cutting edge and the work gear tooth flank is considered a major cause of those problems. gear hobbing is a generating process. the term generating refers to the fact that the gear tooth form cut is not the conjugate form of the cutting tool, the hob. during hobbing both the hob and the workpiece rotate in a continuous rotational relationship. during this rotation, the hob is typically fed axially with all the teeth being gradually formed as the tool traverses the work face ( see fig. 1a ). this is part ii of a two - part series on the basics of gear hobbing. part i discussed selection of the correct type of hobbing operation, the design features of hobs and hob accuracy. this part will cover sharpening errors and finish hob design considerations. the first part of this article, which ran in the september / october 1994 issue, explained the fundamentals of gear hobbing and some of the latest techniques, including methods of hob performance analysis and new tool configurations, being used to solve specific application problems. in this issue, the author continues his exploration of hobbing by describing the effects of progress on requirements in accuracy, as well as the latest in materials, coating and dry hobbing. we make a lot of single - start worm and worm gear sets, and it always seems as though we ' re buying another special hob. we also do a lot of spur gear cutting, and the spur gear hobs and the worm gear hobs look alike, so we wonder why we cannot use the standard hobs for cutting worm gears too. can we do this? two questions on hobbing cover the various types of hobs and their unusual names, as well as the importance of hob swivel angle. today ' s high technology hobs are


prolong tool life — is shown by means of gear finish hobbing. typical profile angle deviations that occur with increasing tool wear are discussed. finally, an approach is presented here to attain improved profile accuracy over the whole tool life of the finishing hob. chicago - results of recent studies on residual stress in gear hobbing, hobbing without lubricants and heat treating were reported by representatives of infac ( instrumented factory for gears ) at an industry briefing in march of this year. can a gear profile generated by the hobbing method be an ideal involute? in strictly theoretical terms - no, but in practicality - yes. a gear profile generated by the hobbing method is an approximation of the involute curve. let ' s review a classic example of an approximation. many people in the gear industry have heard of skiving, a process wherein solid carbide or inserted carbide blade hobs with 15 - 60 degrees of negative rake are used to recut gears to 62 rc. the topic of this article is the use of neutral ( zero ) rake solid carbide hobs to remove heat treat distortion, achieving accuracies of agma 8 to agma 14, din 10 - 5 and improving surface finish on gears from 8 dp - 96 dp (. 3 module -. 26 m. ). in addition to the face milling system, the face hobbing process has been developed and widely employed by the gear industry. however, the mechanism of the face hobbing process is not well known. with reference to the machining of an involute spur or helical gear by the hobbing process, this paper suggests a new criterion for selecting the position of the hob axis relative to the gear axis. the gear hobbing process is a generating type of production operation. for this reason, the form of the hob tooth is always different from the form of the tooth that it produces. several innovations have been introduced to the gear manufacturing industry in recent years. in the case of gear hobbing — the dry cutting technology and the ability to do it with powder - metallurgical hss — might be two of the most impressive ones. and the technology is still moving forward. the aim of this article is to present recent developments in the field of gear hobbing in conjunction with the latest improvements regarding tool materials, process technology and process integration. the art of gear hobbing has advanced dramatically since the development and introduction of unique machine and tool features such as


is to present recent developments in the field of gear hobbing in conjunction with the latest improvements regarding tool materials, process technology and process integration. the art of gear hobbing has advanced dramatically since the development and introduction of unique machine and tool features such as no backlash, super rigidity, automatic loading of cutting tools, cnc controls, additional machine power and improved cutter materials and coatings. it is essential to utilize all these features to run the machine economically. to meet the future goals of higher productivity and lower production costs, the cutting speeds and feeds in modern gear hobbing applications have to increase further. in several cases, coated carbide tools have replaced the commonly used high speed steel ( hss ) tools. today, as part of filling a typical gear hobbing or shaping machine order, engineers are required to perform an spc acceptance test. this spc test, while it is contractually necessary for machine acceptance, is not a machine acceptance test. it is a process capability test. it is an acceptance of the machine, cutting tool, workholding fixture, and workpiece as integrated on the cutting machine, using a gear measuring machine, with its work arbor and evaluation software, to measure the acceptance elements of the workpiece. in the past gear manufacturers have had to rely on hob manufacturers ' inspection of individual elements of a hob, such as lead, involute, spacing, and runout. these did not always guarantee correct gears, as contained elements may cause a hob to produce gears beyond tolerance limits. fig. 1 shows the effects of positive and negative rake on finished gear teeth. incorrect positive rake ( a ) increase the depth and decreases the pressure angle on the hob tooth. the resulting gear tooth is thick at the top and thin at the bottom. incorrect negative rake ( b ) decreases the depth and increases the pressure angle. this results in a cutting drag and makes the gear tooth thin at the top and thick at the bottom. question : when cutting worm gears with multiple lead stock hobs we find the surface is " ridged ". what can be done to eliminate this appearance or is to unavoidable? this article examines the dry hobbing capabilities of two cutting tool materials — powder metallurgical high - speed steel ( pm - hss ) and cemented carbide. cutting trials were carried out to analyze applicable cutting parameters and possible tool lives as well as the process reliability. to consider the influences of the machinability of different workpiece materials, a case hardening


hss ) and cemented carbide. cutting trials were carried out to analyze applicable cutting parameters and possible tool lives as well as the process reliability. to consider the influences of the machinability of different workpiece materials, a case hardening steel and a tempered steel were examined. for environmental and economic reasons, the use of coolant in machining processes is increasingly being questioned. rising coolant prices and disposal costs, as well as strains on workers and the environment, have fueled the debate. the use of coolant has given rise to a highly technical system for handling coolant in the machine ( cooling, filtering ) and protecting the environment ( filter, oil - mist collector ). in this area the latest cutting materials - used with or without coolant - have great potential for making the metal - removal process more economical. the natural progression to completely dry machining has decisive advantages for hobbing. hobbing is one of the most fundamental processes in gear manufacturing. its productivity and versatility make hobbing the gear manufacturing method of choice for a majority of spur and helical gears. in today ’ s manufacturing environment, shorter and more efficient product development has become the norm. it is therefore important to consider every detail of the development process, with a particular emphasis on design. for green machining of gears, the most productive and important process is hobbing. in order to analyze process design for this paper, a manufacturing simulation was developed capable of calculating chip geometries and process forces based on different models. as an important tool for manufacturing technology engineers, an economic feasibility analysis is implemented as well. the aim of this paper is to show how an efficient process design — as well as an efficient process — can be designed. it takes confidence to be the first to invest in new manufacturing technology. but the payback can be significant. that has been the experience at the ford motor company ' s transmission & chassis division plant at indianapolis, in, which boasts the world ' s first production application of dry hobbing. the objective, according to dr. - ing. hansjorg geiser, head of development and design for gear machines at liebherr, was to develop and design a combined turning and hobbing machine in which turning, drilling and hobbing work could be carried out in the same clamping arrangement as the hobbing of the gearings and the subsequent chamfering and deburring processes. prior to the introduction of titanium nitride to the cutting tool industry in the early 1980s, there was very little


the same clamping arrangement as the hobbing of the gearings and the subsequent chamfering and deburring processes. prior to the introduction of titanium nitride to the cutting tool industry in the early 1980s, there was very little progress in the general application of hobbing in the gear cutting industry. the productivity gains realized with this new type of coating initiated a very active time of advancement in the gear manufacturing process. gear gashing is a gear machining process, very much like gear milling, utilizing the principle of cutting one or more tooth ( or tooth space ) at a time. the term " gashing " today applies to the roughing, or roughing and finishing, of coarse diametral pitch gears and sprockets. manufacturing these large coarse gears by conventional methods of rough and finish hobbing can lead to very long machining cycles and uneconomical machine utilization. the following is a general overview of some of the different factors that lead to the specific design. and the selection of the correct tool for a given hobbing application. load - carrying capacity of gears, especially the surface durability, is influenced by their tooth surface roughness in addition to their tooth profiles and tooth traces. precision gears play a vital role in today ' s economy. through their application, automobile transmissions are more compact and efficient, ships sail faster, and diesel locomotives haul more freight. today great emphasis is being placed upon the reduction of noise in all gear applications and, to be quiet, gears must be accurate. as we approach the problem of hard gear processing, it is well to take a look at the reason for discussing it at this time. in our present economic atmosphere throughout the world, more and more emphasis is being placed upon efficiency which is dictated by higher energy costs. our company manufactures a range of hardened and ground gears. we are looking into using skiving as part of our finishing process on gears in the 4 - 12 module range made form 17 crnimo6 material and hardened to between 58 and 62 rc. can you tell us more about this process? hobbing is probably the most popular gear manufacturing process. its inherent accuracy and productivity makes it a logical choice for a wide range of sizes. some results of evaluation by this method in the automotive industry. the newer profile - shifted ( long and short addendum ) gears are often used as small size reduction gears for automobiles or motorcycles. the authors have investigated the damage to each cutting edge when small size mass - produced gears with shifted profiles are used at high speeds


profile - shifted ( long and short addendum ) gears are often used as small size reduction gears for automobiles or motorcycles. the authors have investigated the damage to each cutting edge when small size mass - produced gears with shifted profiles are used at high speeds. nc and cnc metal cutting machines are among the most popular machine tools in the business today, there is also a strong trend toward using flexible machining centers and flexible manufacturing systems. the same trend is apparent in gear cutting. currently the trend toward cnc tools has increased, and sophisticated controls and peripheral equipment for gear cutting machines are now available ; however, the investment in a cnc gear machine has to be justified on the basis of economic facts as well as technical advantages. the seemingly simple process of placing a uniform chamfer on the face ends of spur and helical gears, at least for the aerospace industry, has never been a satisfactory or cost effective process. i would like to comment on david arnesen ' s article, " dry hobbing saves automaker money, improves gear quality, " in the nov / dec, 1996 issue. q & a with liebherr ' s dr. alois mundt. new tool from lmt - fette provides combination of operations. flute index flute index or spacing is defined as the variation from the desired angle between adjacent or nonadjacent tooth faces measured in a plane of rotation. agma defines and provides tolerance for adjacent and nonadjacent flute spacing errors. in addition, din and iso standards provide tolerances for individual flute variation ( fig. 1 ). this article describes a method of obtaining gear tooth profiles from the geometry of the rack ( or hob ) that is used to generate the gear. this method works for arbitrary rack geometries, including the case when only a numerical description of the rack is available. examples of a simple rack, rack with protuberances and a hob with root chamfer are described. the application of this technique to the generation of boundary element meshes for gear tooth strength calculation and the generation of finite element models for the frictional contact analysis of gear pairs is also described. investment in advanced new manufacturing technologies is helping to reinvent production processes for bevel gear cutters and coarse - pitch hobs at gleason - delivering significant benefits downstream to customers seeking shorter deliveries, longer tool life and better results. the cutting tool is basic to gear manufacturing. whether it ' s a hob, broach, shaper cutter or edm wire


analysis to their own situations by the formidabilty of the mathematical calculations. i am making the following small suggestion concerning the evaluation of the constant terms. a brief introduction to the subject of thin film coatings and their application to gear hobs and shaper cutters is followed by a detailed description of the chemical vapor deposition process and the physical vapor deposition process. advantages and disadvantages of each of these processes is discussed. emphasis is placed upon : application engineering of coated gear tools based on laboratory and field test results. recommendations are suggested for tool design improvements and optimization of gear cutting operations using coated tools. productivity improvements potentially available by properly utilizing coated tools are considered in terms of both tool cost and machining cost. new material technology allows for more efficient and flexible hobbing. in this paper a new method for the introduction of optimal modifications into gear tooth surfaces — based on the optimal corrections of the profile and diameter of the head cutter, and optimal variation of machine tool settings for pinion and gear finishing — is presented. the goal of these tooth modifications is the achievement of a more favorable load distribution and reduced transmission error. the method is applied to face milled and face hobbed hypoid gears. bevel gear manufacturers live in one of two camps : the face hobbing / lapping camp, and the face milling / grinding camp. the quality of the finished gear is influenced by the very first machining operations of the blank. since the gear tooth geometry is generated on a continuously rotating blank in hobbing or shaping, it is important that the timed relationship between the cutter and workpiece is correct. if this relationship is disturbed by eccentricities of the blank to its operating centerline, the generated gear teeth will not be of the correct geometry. during the blanking operations, the gear ' s centerline and locating surfaces are established and must be maintained as the same through the following operations that generate the gear teeth. indexable carbide insert ( ici ) cutting tools continue to play a pivotal role in gear manufacturing. by offering higher cutting speeds, reduced cycle times, enhanced coatings, custom configurations and a diverse range of sizes and capabilities, ici tools have proven invaluable for finishing and pre - grind applications. they continue to expand their unique capabilities and worth in the cutting tool market. nowadays, finish hobbing ( which means that there is no post - hobbing gear finishing operation ) is capable of producing higher quality gears and is growing in popularity. this article is part four of an eight - part series on the tribol


market. nowadays, finish hobbing ( which means that there is no post - hobbing gear finishing operation ) is capable of producing higher quality gears and is growing in popularity. this article is part four of an eight - part series on the tribology aspects of angular gear drives. each article will be presented first and exclusively by gear technology, but the entire series will be included in dr. stadtfeld ’ s upcoming book on the subject, which is scheduled for release in 2011. fred young, ceo of forest city gear, talks about sophisticated gear manufacturing methods and how they can help solve common gear - related problems. sandvik presents the latest in gear milling technologies. indexable carbide insert cutting tools for gears are nothing new. but big gears have recently become a very big business. the result is that there ' s been a renewed interest in carbide insert cutting tools. question : do machines exist that are capable of cutting bevel gear teeth on a gear of the following specifications : 14 teeth, 1 " circular pitch, 14. 5 degrees pressure angle, 4 degrees pitch cone angle, 27. 5 " cone distance, and an 2. 5 " face width? the complete product news section from the may 2009 issue of gear technology. question : i have just become involved with the inspection of gears in a production operation and wonder why the procedure specifies that four involute checks must be made on each side of the tooth of the gear being produced, where one tooth is checked and charted in each quadrant of the gear. why is this done? these particular gears are checked in the pre - shaved, finish - shaved, and the after - heat - treat condition, so a lot of profile checking must be done. among the various types of gearing systems available to the gear application engineer is the versatile and unique worm and worm gear set. in the simpler form of a cylindrical worm meshing at 90 degree axis angle with an enveloping worm gear, it is widely used and has become a traditional form of gearing. ( see fig. 1 ) this is evidenced by the large number of gear shops specializing in or supplying such gear sets in unassembled form or as complete gear boxes. special designs as well as standardized ratio sets covering wide ratio ranges and center distanced are available with many as stock catalog products. helical gears can drive either nonparallel or parallel shafts. when these gears are used with nonparallel shafts, the contact is a point, and the design and manufacturing requirements are less critical


available with many as stock catalog products. helical gears can drive either nonparallel or parallel shafts. when these gears are used with nonparallel shafts, the contact is a point, and the design and manufacturing requirements are less critical than for gears driving parallel shafts. the forming of gear teeth has traditionally been a time - consuming heavy stock removal operation in which close tooth size, shape, runout and spacing accuracy are required. this is true whether the teeth are finished by a second forming operation or a shaving operation. in order to increase the load carrying capacity of hardened gears, the distortion of gear teeth caused by quenching must be removed by precision cutting ( skiving ) and / or grinding. in the case of large gears with large modules, skiving by a carbide hob is more economical than grinding when the highest accuracy is not required. high - speed machining using carbide has been used for some decades for milling and turning operations. the intermittent character of the gear cutting process has delayed the use of carbide tools in gear manufacturing. carbide was found at first to be too brittle for interrupted cutting actions. in the meantime, however, a number of different carbide grades were developed. the first successful studies in carbide hobbing of cylindrical gears were completed during the mid - 80s, but still did not lead to a breakthrough in the use of carbide cutting tools for gear production. since the carbide was quite expensive and the tool life was too short, a tin - coated, high - speed steel hob was more economical than an uncoated carbide hob. bodine electric co. of chicago, il., has a 97 - year history of fine - and medium - pitch gear manufacturing. like anywhere else, traditions, old systems, and structures can be beneficial, but they can also become paradigms and obstacles to further improvements. we were producing a high quality product, but our goal was to become more cost effective. carbide hobbing is seen as a technological innovation capable of enabling a dramatic, rather than an incremental, enhancement to productivity and cost savings. recent trends in gear cutting technology have left process engineers searching for direction about which combination of cutting tool material, coating, and process technology will afford the best quality at the lowest total cost. applying the new technologies can have associated risks that may override the potential cost savings. the many interrelated variables to be considered and evaluated tend to cloud the issue and make


, and process technology will afford the best quality at the lowest total cost. applying the new technologies can have associated risks that may override the potential cost savings. the many interrelated variables to be considered and evaluated tend to cloud the issue and make hobbing process development more difficult. increased productivity in roughing operations for gear cutting depends mainly on lower production costs in the hobbing process. in addition, certain gears can be manufactured by shaping, which also needs to be taken into account in the search for a more cost - effective form of production. traditionally, profile and lead inspections have been indispensable portions of a standard inspection of an involute gear. this also holds true for the worm of a worm gear drive ( ref. 1 ). but the inspection of the profile and the lead is rarely performed on a worm wheel. one of the main reasons is our inability to make good definitions of these two elements ( profile and lead ) for the worm wheel. several researchers have proposed methods for profile and lead inspections of a worm wheel using cnc machines or regular involute and lead inspections of a worm wheel using cnc machines or regular involute measuring machines. hu and pennell measured a worm wheel ' s profile in an " involute " section and the lead on the " pitch " cylinder ( ref. 2 ). this method is applicable to a convolute helicoid worm drive with a crossing angle of 90 degrees because the wheel profile in one of the offset axial planes is rectilinear. this straight profile generates an involute on the generated worm wheel. unfortunately, because of the hob oversize, the crossing angle between the hob and the worm wheel always deviates from 90 degrees by the swivel angle. thus, this method can be implemented only approximately by ignoring the swivel angle. another shortcoming of this method is that there is only one profile and one lead on each flank. if the scanned points deviated from this curve, it produced unreal profile deviation. octrue discussed profile inspection using a profile checking machine ( ref. 3 ). conical involute gears, also known as beveloid gears, are generalized involute gears that have the two flanks of the same tooth characterized by different base cylinder radii and different base helix angles. in the past, the blades of universal face hobbing cutters had to be resharpened on three faces. those three faces formed the active part of the


the same tooth characterized by different base cylinder radii and different base helix angles. in the past, the blades of universal face hobbing cutters had to be resharpened on three faces. those three faces formed the active part of the blade. in face hobbing, the effective cutting direction changes dramatically with respect to the shank of the blade. depending on the individual ratio, it was found that optimal conditions for the chip removal action ( side rake, side relief and hook angle ) could just be established by adjusting all major parameters independently. this, in turn, results automatically in the need for the grinding or resharpening of the front face and the two relief surfaces in order to control side rake, hook angle and the relief and the relief angles of the cutting and clearance side. quality gear manufacturing depends on controlled tolerances and geometry. as a result, ferritic nitrocarburizing has become the heat treat process of choice for many gear manufacturers. the primary reasons for this are : 1. the process is performed at low temperatures, i. e. less than critical. 2. the quench methods increase fatigue strength by up to 125 % without distorting. ferritic nitrocarburizing is used in place of carburizing with conventional and induction hardening. 3. it establishes gradient base hardnesses, i. e. eliminates eggshell on tin, tiain, crc, etc. in addition, the process can also be applied to hobs, broaches, drills, and other cutting tools. in 1961 i presented a paper, " calculating conjugate helical forms, " at the semi - annual meeting of the american gear manufacturers association ( agma ). since that time, thousands of hobs, shaper cutters and other meshing parts have been designed on the basis of the equations presented in that paper. this article presents the math of that paper without the formality of its development and goes on to discuss its practical application. this article summarizes the development of an improved titanium nitride ( tin ) recoating process, which has, when compared to conventional recoat methods, demonstrated tool life increases of up to three times in performance testing of hobs and shaper cutters. this new coating process, called super tin, surpasses the performance of standard tin recoating for machining gear components. super tin incorporates stripping, surface preparation, smooth coating techniques and polishing before and after recoating. the


, to auctions and into farmers ' back yards. the traditional way of controlling the quality of hypoid gears ' tooth flank form is to check the tooth flank contact patterns. but it is not easy to exactly judge the tooth flank form quality by the contact pattern. in recent years, it has become possible to accurately measure the tooth flank form of hypoid gears by the point - to - point measuring method and the scanning measuring method. but the uses of measured data of the tooth flank form for hypoid gears have not yet been well developed in comparison with cylindrical involute gears. in this paper, the tooth flank form measurement of generated face - milled gears, face - hobbed gears and formulate / generated gears are reported. the authors discuss the advantages and disadvantages of scanning and point - to - point measuring of 3 - d tooth flank forms of hypoid gears and introduce some examples of uses of measured data for high - quality production and performance prediction. the dictionary of american biography describes him as " one of the founders of the gear - cutting industry in the united state. " he built the first hobbing machine for cutting spur gears. he founded the companies that are now boston gear and philadelphia gear corp. imagine the $ 10 bill with the face of edwin r. fellows on it and on the back, a picture of his invention : the gear shaping machine. or the $ 5 bill with george b. grant and a picture of the first hobbing machine, which he built. when parts you manufacture pass through numerous processes such as deep hole drilling, machining, hobbing and grinding, a cmm is essential when your customers require 100 percent in - process and final inspection. there are several methods available for improving the quality of spur and helical gears following the standard roughing operations of hobbing or shaping. rotary gear shaving and roll - finishing are done in the green or soft state prior to heat treating. a treasure trove of gear and power components for aspiring engineers and dedicated hobbyists. dollhouses may be toys for children, but an old - time working miniature machine shop is the ultimate toy for a self - proclaimed hobby machinist like greg bierck. one of the major problems of plastic gear design is the knowledge of their running temperature. of special interest is the bulk temperature of the tooth to predict the fatigue life, and the peak temperature on the surface of the tooth to avert surface failure. this paper presents the results of an experimental method that uses an infrared radiometer to


temperature. of special interest is the bulk temperature of the tooth to predict the fatigue life, and the peak temperature on the surface of the tooth to avert surface failure. this paper presents the results of an experimental method that uses an infrared radiometer to measure the temperature variation along the profile of a plastic gear tooth in operation. measurements are made on 5. 08, 3. 17, 2. 54, 2. 12 mm module hob cut gears made from nylon 6 - 6, acetal and uhmwpe ( ultra high molecular weight polyethylene ). all the tests are made on a four square testing rig with thermoplastic / steel gear pairs where the plastic gear is the driver. maximum temperature prediction curves obtained through statistical analysis of the results are presented and compared to data available from literature. two major processes used for cutting gears, hobbing and shaping. this article describes advanced machine design and cutter materials for gear shaping. a universal gear is one generated by a common rack on a cylindrical, conical, or planar surface, and whose teeth can be oriented parallel or skewed, centered, or offset, with respect to its axes. mating gear axes can be parallel or crossed, non - intersecting or intersecting, skewed or parallel, and can have any angular orientation ( see fig. 1 ) the taper gear is a universal gear. it provides unique geometric properties and a range of applications unmatched by any other motion transmission element. ( see fig. 2 ) the taper gear can be produced by any rack - type tool generator or hobbing machine which has a means of tilting the cutter or work axis and / or coordinating simultaneous traverse and infeed motions. traditional methods of manufacturing precision gears usually employ either hobbing or shaper cutting. both of these processes rely upon generating the conjugate tooth form by moving the work - piece in a precise relation to the tool. recently, attention has been given to forming gear teeth in a single step. advantages to such a process include reduced production time, material savings, and improved performance characteristics. drawbacks include complicated tool designs, non - uniformity of gears produced throughout the life of the tooling, and lengthy development times. after shaping or hobbing, the tooth flanks must be either chamfered or duburred. here it is paramount that the secondary burr produced will not be formed into the flank, but to the face of the gear, because during hardening, the secondary burr will straighten up and, due to its extreme hardness, will


or duburred. here it is paramount that the secondary burr produced will not be formed into the flank, but to the face of the gear, because during hardening, the secondary burr will straighten up and, due to its extreme hardness, will lead to excessive tool wear. grinding is a technique of finish - machining, utilizing an abrasive wheel. the rotating abrasive wheel, which id generally of special shape or form, when made to bear against a cylindrical shaped workpiece, under a set of specific geometrical relationships, will produce a precision spur or helical gear. in most instances the workpiece will already have gear teeth cut on it by a primary process, such as hobbing or shaping. there are essentially two techniques for grinding gears : form and generation. the basic principles of these techniques, with their advantages and disadvantages, are presented in this section. why brushes? in this age of hi - tech, robots, automatic machines, machining cells, etc., is there a niche somewhere for power brushes? let me answer by asking another question. what tool does the gear manufacturer have in his arsenal that allows him to deburr green gears, hardened gears, hobbed gears, ground gears and shaved gears? what tool allows him to deburr powder metal gears - green and sintered - brass gears, bronze gears, stainless gears made of exotic materials such as inconel, waspaloy, or hastaloy, and fiber and plastic gears? how about spur gears, helical gears, sprockets, both internal and external splines, clutch teeth and pump gears? hobs, broaches, shaper cutters, shaver cutters, milling cutters, and bevel cutters used in the manufacture of gears are commonly made of high speed steel. these specialized gear cutting tools often require properties, such as toughness or manufacturability, that are difficult to achieve with carbide, despite the developments in carbide cutting tools for end mills, milling cutters, and tool inserts. news items about hob 1 bourn and koch hobbing machine offers single setup options ( may 3, 2012 ) the bourn and koch 100 h horizontal hobbing machine can hob splines and geared shafts up to 100 mm in diameter. mount tools in... read news 2 koepfer ' s heavy duty hobbing machine offers extended part size capacity ( june 6, 2007 ) the heavy - duty model 300 from koepfer america provides


shafts up to 100 mm in diameter. mount tools in... read news 2 koepfer ' s heavy duty hobbing machine offers extended part size capacity ( june 6, 2007 ) the heavy - duty model 300 from koepfer america provides for a bigger part diameter, coarser diametral pitch, and bigger hob capacity than... read news 3 koepfer america launches large capacity cnc hob sharpening machine ( august 7, 2007 ) koepfer america developed the new kfs250 cnc hob sharpening machine, which is based on its kfs100 series. the kfs250 series h... read news 4 gleason debuts opti - cut tools for gashing, shaping and hobbing ( november 9, 2007 ) a new family of cutting tools was recently introduced by the gleason corporation for the gashing, shaping and hobbing of gears. this new... read news 5 koepfers versatile mz 130 provides same - setup gear hobbing and worm milling ( january 10, 2007 ) koepfers mz130 hobbing and worm milling cnc machine from monnier + zahner was designed with versatility and ease of use in mind.... read news 6 new clamping devices for tool and hob manufacturing from toolink ( february 9, 2005 ) the k? nigdorn hydraulic expansion mandrels from toolink enginering manually clamp hobs located between centers on the machine. the system... read news 7 new hob sharpening machine from doimak ( january 28, 2005 ) the af - 75 is a new grinding machine designed for sharpening hobs. among the various features of this model are high accuracy and an op... read news 8 new face drivers for gear hobbing from logansport ( february 2, 2005 ) the fdnc face drivers from logansport matsumoto are designed for gear hobbing operations. according to the companys press releas... read news 9 dtr offers hobs for cutting wind turbine and heavy industrial gears ( january 21, 2010 ) dtr corporation recently announced its full line of high - performance, large coarse pitch hobs for cutting wind turbine and heavy industri... read news 10 gleason introduces newest hobbing machine ( february 15, 2006 ) the new genesis 130h cnc vertical hobbing machine features a design that optimizes dry machining, reduces floor space and improves cycle...


.. read news 10 gleason introduces newest hobbing machine ( february 15, 2006 ) the new genesis 130h cnc vertical hobbing machine features a design that optimizes dry machining, reduces floor space and improves cycle... read news 11 cutting tool sharpener handles large diameter hobs ( february 11, 2010 ) in response to market demand for a machine capable of sharpening large, heavy hobs, j. schneeberger has developed the corvus c500 coarse... read news 12 gleason introduces titan 1200h hobbing machine ( december 29, 2011 ) gleason has introduced the titan 1200h hobbing machine, the first of a new series of titan hobbers designed for larger cylindrical gears... read news 13 exsys tool provides roughing / gear hobbing on single machine ( august 16, 2011 ) a special compact gear hobber system from exsys tool, inc. allows shops to generate splines, spur or helical gears in one operation. the... read news 14 mag acquiring samputensili gear hobbing line ( october 11, 2010 ) mag, a manufacturing technology company, has acquired the gear hobbing and chamfering / deburring product line of samputensili gmbh in chem... read news 15 new gear hobbing center from koepfer emag ( february 24, 2005 ) the vsc 250 / 400 duo wf from emag koepfer allows complete soft machining of gears on a single machine. according to the companys... read news 16 h 400 cnc hobs small or large batches ( may 9, 2012 ) run small lots or mass produce straight and helical gears ; crowned and tapered gears ; worm gears ; chain sprockets and toothed belt discs ;... read news 17 zoller offers inspection for hob cutters ( january 14, 2013 ) gear cutting is a challenging task. only perfect and re - sharpened tools can guarantee correct workpieces, short setup times and low downt... read news 18 speedcore allows for more efficient and flexible hobbing ( october 21, 2011 ) in today ' s gear manufacturing environment, flexibility and efficiency are key factors in modern machine tool technology. productivity... read news 19 lmt - fette opens illinois hob facility ( april 23, 2006 ) lmt - fette established a new precision manufacturing facility in libertyville, il. the first phase of


in modern machine tool technology. productivity... read news 19 lmt - fette opens illinois hob facility ( april 23, 2006 ) lmt - fette established a new precision manufacturing facility in libertyville, il. the first phase of the new plant will handle product... read news 20 ingersoll introduces 2 - start insert hob ( february 10, 2011 ) ingersoll recently introduced a 2 - start indexable carbide insert hob, which nearly doubles productivity for machining gears with large nu... read news 21 gleason invests in coarse pitch hob production cell ( august 2, 2011 ) in response to unprecedented global demand for large cylindrical gears, gleason cutting tools corporation has invested in an advanced coa... read news 22 gleason installs 10 meter capacity gear hobber in china ( april 2, 2013 ) gleason corporation recently announced the successful installation of a p 8000 / 10000 gear hobber at changzhou tianshan heavy industry mac... read news 23 luren introduces hob sharpening machine ( january 7, 2011 ) luren precision co., ltd. recently introduced the cnc hob sharpening machine lhg - 3040. this machine is built with a rigid structure for ma... read news


an independent republic of armenia was proclaimed at the end of the 1914 - 1918 war but it lasted only until the beginning of the 1920s when the bolsheviks incorporated it into the soviet union. armenia ' s return to independence in 1991 was overshadowed by the conflict over nagorno - karabakh, the predominantly armenian - populated region in azerbaijan ( see current conflicts section ). full - scale war broke out the same year as ethnic armenians in karabakh fought for independence, supported by troops and resources from armenia proper. a ceasefire in place since 1994 has failed to deliver any lasting solution. russia, france and the us co - chair the osce ' s minsk group, which has been attempting to broker an end to the dispute for over a decade. in 1997, the group tabled settlement proposals seen as a starting point for negotiations by azerbaijan and armenia but not by the de facto authorities in nagorno - karabakh itself. when the then - armenian - president levon ter - petrosyan tried to encourage nagorno - karabakh to enter into talks he was forced to resign amid cries of betrayal. azerbaiijan declared illegitimate a referendum held in the region in december 2006. armenia ' s president serzh sarkisian and azerbaijan ' s ilham aliyev agreed in november 2008 to intensify their efforts to find a political settlement to the dispute over nagorno - karabakh. they claimed to have made significant progress at talks in prague in may 2009 on the sidelines of the eu ' s eastern partnership summit. this overview is based on the bbc online country profile for armenia.