confuse the jury. " in 1985, the 3rd circuit decided u. s. v. downing, 753 f. 2d 1224 ( 3d cir. ' 85 ), the most significant precursor to daubert. in downing, the court considered the admissibility of expert testimony concerning the reliability of eyewitness identification. the court concluded that the language and spirit of the fed. r. evid., in addition to the experience of the courts in attempting to apply frye, suggested that an approach more flexible than the general acceptance test for the admissibility of novel scientific evidence was appropriate. downing instructed the district courts to undertake a preliminary inquiry as to the soundness of the theory or technique on which proffered scientific evidence was based. this inquiry was to include consideration of the risk that the jury would be overwhelmed, confused or misled and assessment of the materiality of the evidence to the issue in dispute. the third circuit envisioned a multi - factored analysis of the reliability of the evidence. the court permitted, but did not require, the identification of a relevant scientific community and a determination of the degree of acceptance within that community. in language reminiscent of frye, the court suggested that in many cases, the general acceptance factor was likely to be decisive. additional factors that district courts could consider included the novelty of the technique and its relationship to established modes of scientific analysis, the existence of specialized literature dealing with the technique, the likelihood that the scientific basis of the new technique has been exposed to critical scientific scrutiny, the qualifications and professional stature of the expert witness, and the potential and actual non - judicial uses of the scientific technique. according to downing, district courts should also focus on the risk of error, both the frequency with which the method leads to erroneous results and the type of error generated by the technique. finally, the district courts should consider whether the expert testimony had been offered in earlier cases to support or dispute the merits of a particular procedure. the downing opinion noted that " other factors could be added to the list. " the third circuit ' s articulation of a clear alternative to frye set the stage for the supreme court ' s resolution in daubert of the conflict among the circuits over the appropriate standard of reliability for scientific evidence under rule 702. the cases decided after the adoption of rule 702, but prior to daubert, reflected the different approaches of the courts described in the preceding section. occasionally, courts would restate and apply the frye general acceptance test. some courts


rights. appellants, a dairy farmer and his wife, were convicted of willfully holding two retarded farm workers in involuntary servitude and of conspiring to deprive the workers of their constitutional right to be free from involuntary servitude154 as guaranteed by the thirteenth amendment. the couple ' s son was also convicted on the conspiracy charge. the kozminskis argued on appeal that the district court erred in admitting expert psychological testimony to show that the two victims were detained against their will. a psychologist testified that the victims ' limited mental ability, combined with the psychological pressures exerted on them by the conditions at the dairy farm, created an " involuntary conversion " to complete dependency. the 6th circuit, sitting en banc, held that the district court improperly admitted this evidence. the court explained : " for expert testimony to be admissible under rule 702, a fourpart test must be met : ( 1 ) a qualified expert ; ( 2 ) testifying on a proper subject ; ( 3 ) in conformity to a generally accepted explanatory theory ; ( 4 ) the probative value of which outweighs any prejudicial effect. " according to the 6th circuit, the only arguably relevant theory shown to have general acceptance by the trial testimony was the " captivity syndrome " associated with the brainwashing of prisoners of war. the appellate court was not satisfied that any established theory existed to support a conclusion that the kozminskis ' actions resulted in complete dependency on the part of the victims : " as bad as conditions on the kozminski ' s dairy farm are alleged to be, they fall short of those found in a chinese prison camp. accordingly, captivity syndrome is inapplicable as a matter of law given the facts of this case. " because frye ' s requirement of a generally accepted explanatory theory was not met, the court held the testimony inadmissible under rule 702. a concurring opinion in kozminski cited frye and emphasized the need to protect a defendant in a criminal case against scientific evidence which may bear an " aura of special reliability and trustworthiness, " even when it is based on an unproved hypothesis which has yet to obtain any degree of acceptance in its field. id. at 1199 ( krupansky, j., concurring ). a dissenting opinion urged that the frye test should not be applicable to the testimony because it was properly categorized


obtain any degree of acceptance in its field. id. at 1199 ( krupansky, j., concurring ). a dissenting opinion urged that the frye test should not be applicable to the testimony because it was properly categorized as " other specialized " rather than " scientific " knowledge under rule 702, and as such, could be based on a subjective assessment of the victims and their conditions of confinement. id. at 1215 ( guy, j., dissenting ). the dissent, noting the abandonment of frye by the second and third circuits, also argued that the majority ' s concern with the reliability of the expert testimony could be better addressed under rule 403, which permits the exclusion of relevant evidence if its probative value is substantially outweighed, inter alia, by the danger of unfair prejudice, confusion of the issues, or misleading the jury. id. at 1214. spencer v. general elec., 688 f. supp. 1072 ( e. d. va. ' 88 ), typifies the third approach mentioned above, where the court attempts its own assessment of the scientific reliability of proffered expert testimony. spencer involved a title vii sexual harassment claim and state tort claims against a former supervisor and employer brought by an employee claiming to be a victim of rape and other sexual misconduct. at trial, the plaintiff attempted to introduce the testimony of a forensic psychiatrist that plaintiff suffered from post traumatic stress disorder ( ptsd ) as proof that the rape actually occurred. ultimately, the district court held the testimony inadmissible for this purpose. noting that ptsd is a condition recognized in psychiatry as the emotional reaction to traumatic events, such as rape, the court cited the american psychiatric assn., diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders for the proposition that ptsd may be caused by a variety of traumatic events outside the range of common experiences, such as military combat, bombing, torture, airplane crashes, or rape. in the case of rape, the condition is sometimes labeled rape trauma syndrome ( rts ). the court concluded, however, that evidence of ptsd or rts was not a scientifically reliable means of proving that a rape occurred : " evidence of ptsd occasioned by rape "... " is not a scientifically reliable means of proving that a rape occurred. ptsd is simply a diagnostic category created by psychiatrists ; it is a human construct, an artificial classification of certain behavioral patterns. rts was developed by rape counselors as


" is not a scientifically reliable means of proving that a rape occurred. ptsd is simply a diagnostic category created by psychiatrists ; it is a human construct, an artificial classification of certain behavioral patterns. rts was developed by rape counselors as a therapeutic tool to help identify, predict, and treat emotional problems experienced by the counselor ' s clients or patients. it was not developed or devised as a tool for ferreting out the truth in cases where it is hotly disputed whether the rape occurred. unlike fingerprints, blood tests, and lie detector tests, rts was not devised to determine the ' truth ' or accuracy of a particular past event - - i. e., whether, in fact, a rape in the legal sense occurred. "... " the scientific evaluation of rape trauma syndrome has not reached a level of reliability that surpasses the quality of common sense evaluation present in jury deliberations. " while the district court made its own determination of the reliability of the proffered evidence, its opinion did not completely ignore frye. the court questioned several authorities which had admitted ptsd or rts evidence under the frye test based on findings that the disorders were " generally accepted to be a common reaction to sexual assault. " the court opined that the relevant issue was not whether rape victims may display certain symptoms, but whether diagnosis of ptsd or rts provided scientifically reliable proof that an alleged victim was raped. thus, the court believed that, under frye, the evidence should not be admitted for this purpose. after trial, the district court held that the employee failed to prove by a preponderance of evidence that the alleged sexual assaults and rape took place. the evidence issue was not raised on appeal, and the 4th circuit affirmed. spencer v. general elec, supra. the court ' s exclusion of the psychiatric evidence of ptsd to corroborate the plaintiff ' s testimony that she was raped, on grounds that such evidence was irrelevant, seems questionable. the diagnosis of the plaintiff with a disorder that experts recognize as affecting persons who have suffered significant trauma subsequent to the date of the alleged incident was relevant because it tended to support her testimony that she had indeed been raped. such evidence is relevant even if the diagnosis standing alone did not show the cause of the condition. the court ' s evidentiary ruling in spencer has not been cited by any other federal court. nonetheless, the decision illustrates the types of issues which a court following the third line of authority must address in an effort


guide to writing history papers reading, writing, and researching for history : a guide for college students a comprehensive but easy - to - skim web guide to writing history papers. recommended by history dept faculty. using call numbers to find books books and journals are arranged on our shelves according to the library of congress ( lc ) classification system. each is assigned a unique call number based on its subject matter and other characteristics. items on the same subject will often be grouped together. in using a call number to locate a book on the shelf, consider each element in turn before moving on to the next segment. these call numbers are arranged as they should appear on the shelves. in each case, the element shown in boldface distinguishes the number from the preceding one : each call number consists of several elements. for example : : the first line, tk, is based on the broad subject of the book. within class t for technology, tk represents electrical engineering. the second line, 7881. 6, defines the subject matter more finely. when looking for the book, read this as a whole number with a decimal component. in this example, tk7881. 6 represents magnetic recording ( a subdivision of tk — electrical engineering ). the third line, m29, usually indicates author, but may also represent a further subject subdivision, geographic area, etc. there may also be a fourth line, formatted the same way. when looking for the book, read the numeric component as if it were preceded by a decimal point. in the example above, the numeric part of m29 should be read as ". 29 " ( and the call number tk7881. 6 m29 comes before tk7881. 6 m4 ). the year of publication, such as 1993, may also be present. these file in chronological order and often indicate successive editions of a book. the call number may also have additional elements, such as volume numbers. to use library databases from off campus you have to set up the proxy server : this changes your browser settings. where ' s the pdf? many article databases contain information about articles ( citations or abstracts ), not the entire text of the article. once you ' ve used an article database to find articles on your topic, you may need to use this button : in order to locate and read the full text of the article. the uc - elinks button appears in nearly all the databases available from the ucb library website. uc - eli


what is pathology? pathology, or general pathology, is the medical specialty focused on the diagnosis of disease through analysis of blood, tissues or urine in a pathology lab. a division of pathology is anatomical pathology ( study of organs and tissues to diagnose disease ), which is broken into the following subspecialties : forensic pathology ( determining cause of death ), autopsy pathology ( performing autopsies ), surgical pathology, and cytopathology ( study of diseases on the cellular level ). other subspecialties include clinical chemical pathology ( study of antibodies, hormones, immune system and pharmacology ), clinical pathology ( working directly with patients ), hematology ( study of blood ) and microbiology ( study of bacteria, parasites and viruses ). who are pathologists? pathologists are doctors who are concerned with the diagnosis of disease, as well as prevention and treatment. these specialists use a microscope or other diagnostic tools to look at blood, urine or other body fluid specimens and detect chemical makeup in the body. based on the test results, he or she may recommend additional study of the specimen. pathologists typically work in a hospital or pathology lab, and may work in administrative roles supervising divisions of a clinical pathology lab. they may oversee special divisions of the lab, such as the blood bank, clinical chemistry, hematology, immunology and serology, and microbiology. pathologists are certified by the american board of pathology. what types of specimens does a pathologist collect? general pathology relates to the collection of a specimen or specimens for the diagnosis of disease. the types of specimens a pathologist may collect include : related articles : do it yourself lab tests new sensor could replace finger - prick testing - blood – usually drawn from a vein through a needle in the forearm, or sometimes pricked from a finger. - urine – the “ random method ” is when a patient urinates into a cup ; “ clean catch specimen ” takes a sample of urine after the outer genital area has been sanitized ; and a “ sterile urine test ” requires catheterization ( a tube inserted through the urethra into the bladder to take a sample of urine ). sometimes the patient will need to undergo several urine tests to measure changes in urine over time. - sputum ( phlegm ) – samples are taken from sputum that has been coughed into a clean container. - feces – collected by the patient into a clean plastic or cardboard container. - other bodily fluids – spinal fluid, pl


the term unix - like is widely used to describe operating systems that share many of the characteristics of the original unix, which was written in 1969 by ken thompson at bell labs, and its early successors. the popularity of this term is mainly due to the fact that it is a very convenient and logical way of describing the numerous and diverse operating systems that fit into this category. it is also due in part to the controversy about what really is unix and how this term should be used. this controversy, in turn, has arisen largely as a result of the complex history of unix and the operating systems that have been based on it. the category of unix - like operating systems clearly includes those systems that have all three of the following characteristics : a direct source code lineage from the original unix, obvious unix characteristics and officially describe themselves as being unix. source code is the version of software as it is originally written ( i. e., typed into a computer ) by a human in plain text ( i. e., human readable alphanumeric characters ). such systems include aix ( developed by ibm ), hp - ux ( developed by hp ), irix ( developed by silicon graphics ), solaris ( developed by sun microsystems ) and true64 ( developed by compaq for alpha processors and now owned by hp ). the category of unix - like operating systems also includes unix clones. a clone is a program ( i. e., an operating system or an application program ) that has functions and behavior similar to another program but which does not contain source code from that program. the functions and behavior of the unix clones are so similar to those of the early ( and later ) versions of unix, in fact, that many knowledgeable users consider them to be unix. however, they do not have a direct lineage to the original unix source code, and most of them do not officially describe themselves as being unix. this category includes the bsds ( i. e., freebsd, netbsd, openbsd and darwin ), linux, minix, qnx and cygwin. unix - like operating systems also generally contain most or all of the enhancements and new features that were subsequently added at the university of california at berkeley ( ucb ) and which are known as the berkeley extensions. the berkeley extensions include such now nearly universal innovations as the c shell, also referred to as csh, tcp / ip ( transmission control protocol / internet protocol ), which forms the basis for both the internet and


are known as the berkeley extensions. the berkeley extensions include such now nearly universal innovations as the c shell, also referred to as csh, tcp / ip ( transmission control protocol / internet protocol ), which forms the basis for both the internet and most local networks, virtual memory, which allows a hard disk drive ( hdd ) to simulate additional main memory, and the vi text editor. thus, it has been suggested that operating systems that refer to themselves as unix might more appropriately call themselves something such as unix / berkeley. bsd ( berkeley software distribution ), the version of unix developed at ucb in the 1970s and early 1980s, was widely considered to be a type of unix, as are its modern day descendants. in fact, bsd even included unix in its name, such as bsd unix 4. 0, which was released in october 1980. the original name for the operating system developed at bell labs was unix ( all upper case ). this term became a trademark that was eventually acquired by the open group, an industry consortium that was formed in 1996. the open group attempts to permit operating systems to call themselves unix only if they both conform to its single unix specification and pay a substantial fee ( which is one of its main sources of revenue ). thus, at least theoretically, an operating system would not have to contain any of the original unix source code or bear much superficial resemblance to the original unix to be permitted to call itself unix. adding to the complexity of the situation is the fact that there is some controversy as to whether the term unix is actually a valid trademark. this is because trademark law states that when a term becomes very widely used as a generic term ( i. e., a term that describes a class of products rather than just a single brand ) it can lose its legally protected trademark status. apple computer, which uses darwin ( a unix - like operating system based on bsd ) as the core of its increasingly popular mac os x operating system, claims that the term unix has become generic and thus that it is not a legally valid trademark. apple has vastly greater legal and financial resources than the bsds or most of the linux distributions ( i. e., versions ), and thus it is not afraid to call its operating system unix. in fact, it makes a number of statements on its website explicitly referring to itself as unix ( and not as unix - like ), including the following : " don ' t let its elegant and easy - to - use interface fool you. beneath the surface of mac os


makes a number of statements on its website explicitly referring to itself as unix ( and not as unix - like ), including the following : " don ' t let its elegant and easy - to - use interface fool you. beneath the surface of mac os x lies an industrial - strength unix foundation hard at work to ensure that your computing experience remains free of system crashes and compromised performance. " as a result, the open group is suing apple computer for alleged trademark violation. this is a necessary move for the open group, as attempting to protect a trademark from abuse can be an important factor in legal decisions about the validity of the trademark. however, some industry observers expect that this case will be settled quietly out of court because neither side wants to risk a negative judgment1. the bsd operating systems are widely regarded as free ( both in a monetary sense and with regard to use ) implementations of unix, and thus as unix. however, in contrast to apple, they make a point of not referring to themselves as being unix on their websites or other materials in order to avoid potentially costly legal problems. for example, freebsd, the most popular of the bsd systems ( at least until the recent rise of darwin ), describes itself as being "... a very economical alternative to commercial unix® workstations. " netbsd describes itself on its homepage as "... a free, secure, and highly portable unix - like open source operating system available for many platforms,... " openbsd describes itself as "... a free, multi - platform 4. 4bsd - based unix - like operating system. " some operating systems do not seek unix branding because the royalties would be prohibitively expensive for them due to the facts that they are updated frequently ( which would require costly recertification ) and that they are made available freely over the internet. moreover, developers of such systems generally feel that such branding would not provide any significant advantage, as their users are generally well informed and are interested in the intrinsic values of the systems rather than in their names. the term unix - like does not have any negative implication about the validity of the unix trademark. in fact, it could even be argued that it supports the trademark by providing a convenient term for describing operating systems that resemble the original unix and its early successors so that they, and their users, will not be tempted to inappropriately use the term unix. other terminology is also sometimes used to refer to unix - like operating systems, particularly un * x,


. 461 to 468, may have been most famous for work he did before ascending to the papacy : the former aristocrat and then bishop convinced the feared attila the hun not to sack rome. it ' s possible leo offered attila a pile of loot, or the warlord used the meeting as an excuse to turn back, given his own strategic concerns. another possibility is that the pope may have played on attila ' s superstitious fear of dying soon after the sacking, just as alaric i ( king of a tribe of goths ) did after the despoiling of rome decades earlier, according to " absolute monarchs : a history of the papacy. " [ saint or spiritual slacker? test your religious knowledge ] cadaver on trial pope formosus headed the catholic church from a. d. 891 to 896, and his reign was marked by political battles and infighting. he was excommunicated about 20 years prior to his reign, but then later absolved. after his death, his cadaver was exhumed, put on trial, and judged to be unworthy of the papacy. all of his papal edicts were deemed invalid, the fingers he used to make sacraments were ripped off, and he was tossed into the tiber river. the current pope isn ' t the only benedict to have stepped down. during a tumultuous time in the catholic church ' s history known as the saeculum obscurum ( sometimes called the rule of the harlots ), the popes engaged in corrupt venal behavior and were too closely allied to one aristocratic family. fed up, the people in rome raised benedict v to the highest position in a. d. 964. but the founder of the holy roman empire, king otto, wasn ' t having it : he elected an antipope, leo viii, instead. benedict v chose to step down a few months after being elected. ( at this chaotic time, it wasn ' t unheard of to have two popes elected. ) the next benedict, benedict vi, also faced an ignominious end to his reign : when king otto died in 974, benedict vi was imprisoned and put to death by his antipope successor. another benedict, pope benedict ix, had three runs at the papacy. the ne ' er - do - well ascended to the highest office in 1032 as a result of family connections at the tender age of 20, according to the catholic encyclopedia. the ruler


benedict, pope benedict ix, had three runs at the papacy. the ne ' er - do - well ascended to the highest office in 1032 as a result of family connections at the tender age of 20, according to the catholic encyclopedia. the ruler reportedly lacked all moral balance and led a dissolute life. in 1044, the city of rome elected an antipope ( a second pope ). benedict ix drove out the antipope, but then stepped down — only after selling the papacy to yet another priest. before he died, he seized the highest office one more time, but benedict ix ' s final stint was short lived. one legend has it that from a. d. 855 to 877, a pope john who reigned may have actually been a woman. the story, recounted by a dominican monk named martin in 1265 and several others, claims that pope john was a girl who was brought to athens in men ' s clothing, according to " absolute monarchs : a history of the papacy. " she took up study and became a master of learning, the story goes, but became pregnant and gave birth in a church procession. however, the chaos at the time and the discrepancies between different stories suggests this " pope joan " may never have existed. many of the men who have been chosen for the highest office didn ' t get a chance to do much with it. pope - elect stephen was elected in a. d. 752, but died just a few days later, without being consecrated into office. pope damasus ii ascended to the papacy in 1048, after several political squabbles, but passed away just 23 days later. celestine iv, who was elected in 1241, died just 16 days later — too early for his coronation. and pope urban vii, at 12 days in a. d. 1590, was the shortest - reigning pope in the catholic church ' s history. the catholic church has also had several periods where no pope reigned. these gaps, known as interregnums, usually occurred when the cardinals who vote for the pope were deadlocked. the last pope to abdicate, pope gregory xii, was elected in 1406, more than 600 years ago. a man noted for his piety, he was originally elected to end the schism that occurred after pope innocent vii died, according to the catholic encyclopedia. gregory xii was one of three popes to rule at the time, and the ensuing chaos must have convinced him it was time


earth from space : easter island easter island as seen by astronauts aboard the international space station on sept. 25, 2002. on easter sunday in 1722, dutch explorer jacob roggeveen became the first known european to encounter this polynesian island and gave it the name it has become most widely known by. easter island ( also known as rapa nui in the native language ) is one of the most isolated spots on earth, lying some 2, 000 miles from the nearest areas of human habitation ( tahiti and chile ) — even more remote than the astronauts orbiting at 210 nautical miles above the earth.. the island, which is only 15 miles long, was annexed by chile in 1888. ( in spanish, it is called " isla de pascua, " which means " easter island. " ) archaeological evidence suggests that polynesians from other pacific islands discovered and colonized easter island around the year 400. the island and its early inhabitants are best known for the giant stone monoliths, known as moai, placed along the coastline. it is thought that the population grew bigger than was sustainable on the small island, resulting in civil war, deforestation and near collapse of the island ecosystem. today, a new forest ( primarily eucalyptus ) has been established in the center of the island ( the dark green in the image ), according to a nasa statement. volcanic landforms dominate the geography of the island, including the large crater rana kao at the southwest end of the island and a line of cinder cones that stretch north from the central mountain. near rana kao is the longest runway in chile, which served as an emergency landing spot for the space shuttle before its retirement in 2011. more from livescience. com


high blood pressure, or hypertension, affects almost one in three adults in the united states. however, this serious health condition isn ' t limited to just those ages 18 and older. the number of children and adolescents with high blood pressure is increasing. this rise can be partly blamed on the increasing number of overweight and obese children. high blood pressure is a major risk factor for heart disease and is the primary risk factor for stroke. prehypertension is a condition that increases a child ' s risk of developing high blood pressure in the future. children with hypertension have a higher risk for high blood pressure as adults. high blood pressure in childhood is also correlated with early development of atherosclerosis in adulthood. systolic pressure is the top number in a blood pressure reading and corresponds to the pressure in arteries when the heart contracts. diastolic pressure is the bottom number in a blood pressure reading, and corresponds to the pressure in the arteries between heart beats, when the heart relaxes. the american academy of pediatrics recommends that children ages 3 years and older have their blood pressure measured each time they see their health care provider for routine checkups. normal blood pressure in children depends on their gender, age, and height. parents and health care providers encourage children with high blood pressure to make lifestyle changes, such as losing weight. other changes may include increased exercise and improved diet. a doctor may also give a child prescription medication to help control blood pressure. regular exercise helps control weight and may keep blood pressure in check. regular exercise means 30 to 60 minutes of moderate physical activity on most days. sedentary activities should be limited to less than two hours a day. a healthy diet for a child with prehypertension or high blood pressure includes fresh vegetables and fruits, additional fiber, and nonfat dairy products, as well as limited salt and sodium. the american heart association recommends a maximum daily sodium intake of 1, 500 mg / day ; however, this number may be lower, depending on your child ' s age and other health considerations. please consult your child ' s pediatrician regarding the recommended sodium intake for your child.


south korea ( officially, republic of korea ) encompasses an area of 98, 477 sq. km. ( 38, 022 sq. mi. ), about the size of state of indiana. its capital is seoul ( population 10. 3 million ) ; other major cities are : busan, daegu, inchon, gwangju, daejeon, and ulsan. the terrain of south korea consists of forested mountain ranges separated by deep, narrow valleys and cultivated plains along the coasts. south korea is bordered by north korea to the north and is surrounded by the sea of japan, korean strait, and yellow sea. an independent korean state or a collection of states has existed almost continuously for several millennia. between its initial unification in the 7th century, until the 20th century, korea existed as a single independent country. in 1905, following the russo - japanese war, korea became a protectorate of imperial japan, and in 1910 it was annexed as a colony. korea regained its independence following japan ' s surrender to the united states in 1945. after world war ii, the republic of korea ( rok ) was set up in the southern half of the korean peninsula. during the korean war ( 1950 - 53 ), us troops and un forces fought alongside soldiers from the rok to defend south korea from democratic people ' s republic of korea attacks supported by china and the soviet union. an armistice was signed in 1953, splitting the peninsula along a demilitarized zone at about the 38th parallel. after 1953, south korea achieved rapid economic growth. in 1993, kim young - sam became south korea ' s first civilian president, following 32 years of military rule. in june 2000, a historic north - south summit took place between south ' s president kim dae - jung and the north ' s leader kim jong il. the natural hazards facing south korea consist of occasional typhoons bringing high winds and floods and low - level seismic activity. in 2004, south korea ' s oil consumption was 2. 149 barrels per day ( bbl / day ) ; its exports were 644, 100 bbl / day and imports were 2. 83 million bbl / day. u. s. state department background notes ; cia world factbook, 2007 / 9 ; 2007 / 12


historical diversification of migration patterns in a passerine bird forlag : society for the study of evolution migratory strategies of birds require complex orientation mechanisms, morphological adaptations, and life - history adjustments. from an evolutionary perspective, it is important to know how fast this complex combination of traits can evolve. we analyzed mitochondrial control - region dna sequences in 241 blackcaps ( sylvia atricapilla ) from 12 populations with different migratory behaviors. the sample included sedentary populations in europe and atlantic archipelagos and migratory populations with different distances of migration, from regional to intercontinental migrations, and different heading directions ( due to a migratory divide in central europe ). there was no genetic structure between migratory and sedentary populations, or among populations from different biogeographic areas ( atlantic islands, the iberian peninsula, or the continent ), however we found evidence of a genetic structure when comparing populations located on either side of the migratory divide. these findings support an independent evolution of highly divergent migratory strategies in blackcaps, occurring after a postglacial colonization of the continent along western and eastern routes. accordingly, mismatch - distribution analyses suggested an expansion of blackcaps from a very small population size, and time estimates dated such an expansion during the last postglacial period. however, the populations in gibraltar, located in a putative mediterranean refuge, appeared to be independent of these processes, showing evidence of restricted gene flow with other populations and demonstrating insignificant historical changes in effective population size. our results show that the interruption of gene flow between migratory and sedentary populations is not necessary for the maintenance of such a polymorphism, and that even the most divergent migratory strategies of a bird species are susceptible to evolution in response to historical environmental changes. - biology and life sciences - molecular ecology and evolution lab - issn : 0014 - 3820


arts and artisans of early 19th - century portland text by william david barry and john mayer images from maine historical society, the maine state museum portland ' s growth began in 1786 when citizens changed the name of the town from falmouth neck. between then and the middle of the nineteenth century, the footprint of the city as it exists today was established, a maritime economy flourished, and the population increased dramatically. newly enriched merchants and community leaders from portland ' s middle and upper classes provided support for itinerant and local artisans. by the early nineteenth century, products made by native born and locally trained artists replaced those of itinerants and the work of these portland artisans found their way into private home and influenced the efforts of students, teachers, and performers in city schools, theaters, and academies. the demand for the arts helped native born and locally trained decorative painters, gilders, silversmiths, potters, furniture and cabinetmakers, tinsmiths, and other artisans thrive in portland in the early nineteenth century. fashionable costumes and stately poses rendered with care and emphasis provide a visual sense of the personal style and stature of the period. finely crafted furniture made with exotic or colorful materials illustrate changes over time in taste, design, and craftsmanship. these works represent the distinctive nature of the arts and artisans of portland. this two - part online exhibit is based on an exhibit featured from june to december 2005 at the maine historical society museum. the exhibit was sponsored by noyes & chapman insurance, maine employers mutual insurance co. and the phineas w. sprague memorial foundation. click on the links below the images to view part i : early years ; and part ii : arts flourish in portland.


talking about economic troubles download mp3 ( right - click or option - click the link. ) i ' m susan clark with the special english program words and their stories. in the nineteen thirties, a song, " brother, can you spare a dime?, " was very popular in the united states. it was the time of the big depression. the song had meaning for many people who had lost their jobs. a dime is a piece of money whose value is one - tenth of a dollar. today, a dime does not buy much. but it was different in the nineteen thirties. a dime sometimes meant the difference between eating and starving. the american economy today is much better. yet, many workers are concerned about losing their jobs as companies re - organize. americans have special ways of talking about economic troubles. people in businesses may say they feel the pinch. or they may say they are up against it. or, if things are really bad, they may say they have to throw in the towel. a pinch is painful pressure. to feel the pinch is to suffer painful pressure involving money. the expression, feel the pinch, has been used since the sixteenth century. the famous english writer william shakespeare wrote something very close to this in his great play " king lear. " king lear says he would accept necessity ' s sharp pinch. he means he would have to do without many of the things he always had. much later, the times of london newspaper used the expression about bad economic times during the eighteen sixties. it said, " so much money having been spent... all classes felt the pinch. " worse than feeling the pinch is being up against it. the saying means to be in a lot of trouble. word expert james rogers says the word " it " in the saying can mean any and all difficulties. he says the saying became popular in the united states and canada in the late nineteenth century. writer george ade used it in a book called " artie. " he wrote, " i saw i was up against it. " sometimes a business that is up against it will have to throw in the towel. this means to accept defeat or surrender. throwing in the towel may mean that a company will have to declare bankruptcy. the company will have to take legal steps to let people know it has no money to pay its debts. word expert charles funk says an eighteen seventy - four publication called the slang dictionary explains throwing in the towel. it says the words probably come from the sport of boxing, or prizefighting. the book says the


frilled sharks, chlamydoselachus anguineus taxonomy animalia chordata elasmobranchii hexanchiformes chlamydoselachidae chlamydoselachus anguineus description & behavior frilled sharks, chlamydoselachus anguineus ( garman, 1884 ), aka frill sharks, frill - gilled sharks, greenland sharks, scaffold sharks, and silk sharks are members of the most ancient frill and cow sharks order, hexanchiformes. hexanchiform sharks have a single dorsal fin, either six or seven gill slits ( versus the 5 found in all other existing sharks ), and no nictitating membranes ( protective third eyelids ). the frilled shark, chlamydoselachus anguineus, is currently one of only two known species of frilled sharks. the southern african frill shark, c. africana, was recently discovered ( 2009 ) off southern angola, namibia and south africa. they are both very different in other ways from the cow sharks and are likely to be moved to their own order chlamydoselachiformes in the near future. frilled sharks, chlamydoselachus anguineus, are deepwater eel - like sharks that reach lengths up to 2 m and are thought to reach sexual maturity when they are 1. 35 to 1. 5 m long. they are dark brown or gray in color above, sometimes lighter below, and have six pairs of " frilly " gill slits where the first gill slit is joined under their jaws forming a sort of collar. frilled sharks ' heads are broad and flattened with short, rounded snouts. their nostrils are vertical slits, separated into incurrent and excurrent openings by a leading flap of skin. the moderately large eyes are horizontally oval ( like a cat ' s ). their mouth is located at the leading edge of their snout ( terminal ) rather than underneath like most sharks and they have small tricuspid teeth in both jaws. their rows of teeth are rather widely spaced, numbering 19 – 28 teeth in their upper jaws and 21 – 29 teeth in their lower jaws. each tooth is small, with three slender, needle - like cusps alternating with two cusplets. their very long jaws are positioned terminally ( at the end of the snout ), as opposed to the underslung jaws of most sharks. they have a small lobe - like dorsal fin set


like cusps alternating with two cusplets. their very long jaws are positioned terminally ( at the end of the snout ), as opposed to the underslung jaws of most sharks. they have a small lobe - like dorsal fin set far back over their pelvic fins with an anal fin that is larger than their dorsal fin. their pectoral fins are small and paddle - shaped and their very long caudal fin ( tail fin ) has a small ventral lobe and without a subterminal notch. frilled sharks also have a pair of thick skin folds of unknown function ( possibly to help allow for expansion when digesting larger prey ) running along their bellies, separated by a groove, and their midsections are relatively longer in females than in males. frilled shark differs from their southern african relative, c. africana, by having more vertebrae ( 160 – 171 vs 147 ) and more turns in the spiral valve intestine ( 35 – 49 versus 26 – 28 ), as well as differences in various proportional measurements such as a longer head and shorter gill slits. the maximum known length is 1. 7 m for males and 2. 0 m for females. frilled sharks are highly specialized for life in the deep sea with reduced, poorly - calcified skeletons and enormous livers filled with low - density lipids, which allows them to maintain their position in water with little effort. they are also one of the few sharks with an " open " lateral line, in which the mechanoreceptive hair cells are positioned in grooves that are directly exposed to the surrounding seawater. this configuration is thought to be the most primitive in sharks and may enhance their sensitivity to minute movements of prey in their proximity. many frilled sharks are found with the tips of their tails missing, probably from predatory attacks by other shark species. these sharks, or a proposed giant relative, have been suggested as a source for reports of sea serpents. world range & habitat frilled sharks, chlamydoselachus anguineus, are an uncommon " primitive " shark species typically found near the sea floor in waters over outer continental and island ( insular ) shelves and upper slopes, usually at depths between 120 and 1, 280 m but up to 1, 570 m and occasionally even at the surface. frilled sharks are thought to have a wide though patchy distribution ( 74°n - 58°s, 169°w - 180°e ) in the atlantic and pacific oceans.


to 1, 570 m and occasionally even at the surface. frilled sharks are thought to have a wide though patchy distribution ( 74°n - 58°s, 169°w - 180°e ) in the atlantic and pacific oceans. in suruga bay, japan they are most common at depths between 50 m and 200 m. in the western indian ocean they are found off south africa as c. africana. in the western pacific, frilled sharks are known to live off japan and south to new zealand, new south wales and tasmania in australia. in the eastern / central pacific they have been observed off hawaii, southern california to northern chile. frilled sharks have also been observed in the eastern atlantic from waters off northern norway to northern namibia, and possibly off the eastern cape of good hope in south africa. in the central atlantic, they have been caught at several locations along the mid - atlantic ridge, from north of the azores to the rio grande rise off southern brazil, as well as over the vavilov ridge off west africa. in the western atlantic, it has been reported from off new england, georgia, and suriname. feeding behavior ( ecology ) frilled sharks, chlamydoselachus anguineus, feed on cephalopods ( mainly squid ), other sharks, and bony fishes. feeding behavior has not yet been observed by this weak - swimming species, though they are thought to capture active, fast - moving squid by taking advantage of injured squid or those that are exhausted and dying after spawning. alternatively, they may surprise their prey by curving their body like a spring, bracing themselves with rear positioned fins, and launching quick strikes forward like a snake. they may also be able to close their gill slits creating negative internal pressure to suck prey quickly into their mouth. they have many small, sharp, rear - pointing ( recurved ) teeth that function much like squid jigs which could easily snag the body or tentacles of a squid, particularly as they are rotated outwards when their jaws are protruded. observations of captive frilled sharks swimming with their mouths open might also suggest that the small teeth, light against their dark mouths, may even fool squid into attacking and entangling themselves. using their long, extremely flexible jaws they should be able to swallow large prey ( up to half its size! ) whole, while their many rows of needle - like teeth would make escape essentially futile. examining the length and articulation of their jaws appears to show that frille


jaws they should be able to swallow large prey ( up to half its size! ) whole, while their many rows of needle - like teeth would make escape essentially futile. examining the length and articulation of their jaws appears to show that frilled sharks cannot deliver as strong a bite as more conventionally built sharks. most captured individuals have been found with no or barely identifiable stomach contents, suggesting that they have a fast digestion rate and / or long intervals between feedings. one 1. 6 m long individual, caught off japan, was found to have swallowed an entire 590 g japanese catshark, apristurus japonicus. squid comprise some 60 % of the diet of these sharks in suruga bay and this includes not only slow - moving, deep - dwelling squid such as chiroteuthis and histioteuthis, but also relatively large, powerful swimmers of the open ocean such as onychoteuthis, sthenoteuthis, and todarodes. frilled sharks, chlamydoselachus anguineus, are aplacental viviparous ( aka ovoviviparity ) where the embryos emerge from their egg capsules inside their mother ' s uterus and are nourished by their yolk until birth. frilled sharks ' gestation period may be as long as three and a half years, the longest of any vertebrate. between 2 and 15 young are born at a time ( average is 6 ) measuring 40 – 60 cm long, and there appears to be no distinct breeding season ( which is expected as these sharks inhabits depths at which there is little to no seasonal influence ). male frill sharks attain sexual maturity at 1. 0 – 1. 2 m long and females at 1. 3 – 1. 5 m. a possible mating aggregation of 15 male and 19 female frilled sharks was recorded over a seamount on the mid - atlantic ridge. conservation status & comments frilled sharks, chlamydoselachus anguineus, are listed as near threatened ( nt ) by the iucn red list : " a generally rare to uncommon deepwater species, with a few localities where it is taken more commonly as bycatch in several fisheries. not an important target species, but a regular though small bycatch in many bottom trawl, midwater trawl, deep - set longline, and deep - set gillnet fisheries. as bycatch, this species is variously either used for


target species, but a regular though small bycatch in many bottom trawl, midwater trawl, deep - set longline, and deep - set gillnet fisheries. as bycatch, this species is variously either used for meat, fishmeal, or discarded. occasionally kept in aquaria ( japan ). there is some concern that expansion of deepwater fisheries effort ( geographically and in depth range ) will increase the levels of bycatch. although little is known of its life history, this deepwater species is likely to have very little resilience to depletion as a result of even non - targeted exploitation. it is classified as near threatened due to concern that it may meet the vulnerable a2d + a3d + 4d criteria. " on august 27, 2004, the first observation of this species in its natural habitat was made by the rov johnson - sea - link ii, on the blake plateau off the southeastern united states ( see the first photo above ). on january 21, 2007, a japanese fisherman discovered a 1. 6 m long female alive at the surface, perhaps there because of illness or weakness from the warm water. it was brought to awashima marine park in shizuoka, where it died after a few hours ( see the video above ). garman, and numerous authors since, have advanced the frilled shark as an explanation for sea serpent sightings. because of the shark ' s modest size, some cryptozoologists have posited the existence of a giant relative, particularly as larger chlamydoselachus species are known from the fossil record. references & further research research chlamydoselachus anguineus » barcode of life ~ bioone ~ biodiversity heritage library ~ cites ~ cornell macaulay library [ audio / video ] ~ encyclopedia of life ( eol ) ~ esa online journals ~ fishbase ~ florida museum of natural history ichthyology department ~ gbif ~ google scholar ~ itis ~ iucn redlist ( threatened status ) ~ marine species identification portal ~ ncbi ( pubmed, genbank, etc. ) ~ ocean biogeographic information system ~ plos ~ sciris ~ siris ~ tree of life web project ~ unep - wcmc species database ~ worms feedback & citation find an error or having trouble with something? let us know and we ' ll have a look! help us continue to share the wonders of the ocean with the world, raise awareness of marine conservation issues and their solutions, and support marine


ancient secrets of merlin ’ s barrow unearthed the wiltshire landscape around avebury and silbury hill is at the heart of prehistoric britain, and has world heritage designation. now another monument can be added to its archaeological treasures : the marlborough mound. the mound lies in the heart of the grounds of marlborough college, and has been interwoven with local folklore for hundreds of years. the town ’ s motto, ubi nunc sapientis ossa merlini ( ‘ where now are the bones of wise merlin? ’ ), echoes the myth which convinced generations that merlin ’ s bones were buried under the mound. these were the seductive arthurian legends that may have drawn the interest of tennyson and william morris back to their connections with marlborough and its mound – or ‘ merlin ’ s barrow ’, as the burghers of the town claimed. not only has the mound stimulated some of the region ’ s most enduring threads of mythology, it has also been recognised as a feature of considerable historical significance. it was the motte on which the keep of marlborough castle was built fifty years after the norman conquest. subsequently, it became the centrepiece of a major seventeenth century garden. the latest research, however, has extended its history back by three millennia. recent coring of the mound at marlborough college has produced four samples of charcoal, allowing radiocarbon dating for the first time. the samples, which came from different levels in the mound, were taken from two bore holes through the height of the 19m monument, showing that it was built in the years around 2400 bc. this is the first positive evidence proving the theory that the castle motte is in fact a re - used prehistoric structure of the highest national standing. jim leary, who led the recent archaeological investigations for english heritage at the nearby silbury hill, and is co - author of the recently published ‘ the story of silbury hill ’ coordinated eh ’ s contribution, which also included radiocarbon dating. he says, “ this is an astonishing discovery. the marlborough mound has been one of the biggest mysteries in the wessex landscape. for centuries people have wondered whether it is silbury ’ s little sister ; and now we have an answer. this is a very exciting time for british prehistory. ” the master of marlborough college is equally enthusiastic : ‘ we are thrilled at the discovery of another aspect of our rich history, and one which can be added to the educational opportunities at the school. ’ the work is part of a major conservation programme being undertaken by the marlborough mound


| | this article may require copy editing for grammar, style, cohesion, tone, or spelling. ( july 2012 ) | | | this article ' s lead section may not adequately summarize key points of its contents. ( july 2012 ) | a memory management unit ( mmu ), sometimes called paged memory management unit ( pmmu ), is a computer hardware component responsible for handling accesses to memory requested by the cpu. its functions include translation of virtual addresses to physical addresses ( i. e., virtual memory management ), memory protection, cache control, bus arbitration and in simpler computer architectures ( especially 8 - bit systems ) bank switching. modern mmus typically divide the virtual address space ( the range of addresses used by the processor ) into pages, each having a size which is a power of 2, usually a few kilobytes, but they may be much larger. the bottom n bits of the address ( the offset within a page ) are left unchanged. the upper address bits are the ( virtual ) page number. the mmu normally translates virtual page numbers to physical page numbers via an associative cache called a translation lookaside buffer ( tlb ). when the tlb lacks a translation, a slower mechanism involving hardware - specific data structures or software assistance is used. the data found in such data structures are typically called page table entries ( ptes ), and the data structure itself is typically called a page table. the physical page number is combined with the page offset to give the complete physical address. a pte or tlb entry may also include information about whether the page has been written to ( the dirty bit ), when it was last used ( the accessed bit, for a least recently used page replacement algorithm ), what kind of processes ( user mode, supervisor mode ) may read and write it, and whether it should be cached. sometimes, a tlb entry or pte prohibits access to a virtual page, perhaps because no physical random access memory has been allocated to that virtual page. in this case the mmu signals a page fault to the cpu. the operating system ( os ) then handles the situation, perhaps by trying to find a spare frame of ram and set up a new pte to map it to the requested virtual address. if no ram is free, it may be necessary to choose an existing page ( known as a victim ), using some replacement algorithm, and save it to disk ( this is called " paging " ). with some mmus,


virtual address. if no ram is free, it may be necessary to choose an existing page ( known as a victim ), using some replacement algorithm, and save it to disk ( this is called " paging " ). with some mmus, there can also be a shortage of ptes or tlb entries, in which case the os will have to free one for the new mapping. in some cases a " page fault " may indicate a software bug. a key benefit of an mmu is memory protection : an os can use it to protect against errant programs, by disallowing access to memory that a particular program should not have access to. typically, an os assigns each program its own virtual address space. an mmu also reduces the problem of fragmentation of memory. after blocks of memory have been allocated and freed, the free memory may become fragmented ( discontinuous ) so that the largest contiguous block of free memory may be much smaller than the total amount. with virtual memory, a contiguous range of virtual addresses can be mapped to several non - contiguous blocks of physical memory. in some early microprocessor designs, memory management was performed by a separate integrated circuit such as the vlsi vi475 ( 1986 ) or the motorola 68851 ( 1984 ) used with the motorola 68020 cpu in the macintosh ii or the z8015 ( 1985 ) used with the zilog z8000 family of processors. later microprocessors such as the motorola 68030 and the zilog z280 placed the mmu together with the cpu on the same integrated circuit, as did the intel 80286 and later x86 microprocessors. while this article concentrates on modern mmus, commonly based on pages, early systems used a similar concept for base - limit addressing, that further developed into segmentation. those are occasionally also present on modern architectures. the x86 architecture provided segmentation rather than paging in the 80286, and provides both paging and segmentation in the 80386 and later processors ( although the use of segmentation is not available in 64 - bit operation ). most modern systems divide memory into pages that are 4 - 64 kb in size, often with the possibility to use huge pages from 2 mb to 512 mb in size. page translations are cached in a tlb. some systems, mainly older risc designs, trap into the os when a page translation is not found in the tlb. most systems use a hardware - based tree


mb to 512 mb in size. page translations are cached in a tlb. some systems, mainly older risc designs, trap into the os when a page translation is not found in the tlb. most systems use a hardware - based tree walker. most systems allow the mmu to be disabled ; some disable the mmu when trapping into os code. vax pages are 512 bytes, which is very small. an os may treat multiple pages as if they were a single larger page, for example linux on vax groups 8 pages together, thus the system is viewed as having 4 kb pages. the vax divides memory into 4 fixed - purpose regions, each 1 gb in size. they are : page tables are big linear arrays. normally this would be very wasteful when addresses are used at both ends of the possible range, but the page table for applications is itself stored in the kernel ' s paged memory. thus there is effectively a 2 - level tree, allowing applications to have sparse memory layout without wasting lots of space on unused page table entries. the vax mmu is notable for lacking an accessed bit. oses which implement paging must find some way to emulate the accessed bit if they are to operate efficiently. typically, the os will periodically unmap pages so that page - not - present faults can be used to let the os set an accessed bit. arm architecture based application processors implement an mmu defined by arm ' s virtual memory system architecture. the current architecture defines ptes for describing 4 kb and 64 kb pages, 1 mb sections and 16 mb super - sections ; legacy versions also defined a 1 kb tiny page. the arm uses a two - level pagetable if using 4 kb and 64 kb pages, or just a one - level pagetable for 1 mb sections and 16 mb sections. tlb updates are performed automatically by page - table walking hardware. the ibm system / 370 has had an mmu since the early 1970s ; it was initially known as a dat ( dynamic address translation ) box. it has the unusual feature of storing accessed and dirty bits outside of the page table. they refer to physical memory rather than virtual memory. they are accessed by special - purpose instructions. this reduces overhead for the os, which would otherwise need to propagate accessed and dirty bits from the page tables to a more physically oriented data structure. this makes os - level virtualization easier. [ clarification needed ] these features have been inherited by succeeding mainframe architectures, up to the current z


standard powerpc mmu begins two simultaneous lookups. one lookup attempts to match the address with one of 4 or 8 data block address translation ( dbat ) registers, or 4 or 8 instruction block address translation registers ( ibat ) as appropriate. the bat registers can map linear chunks of memory as large as 256 mb, and are normally used by an os to map large portions of the address space for the os kernel ' s own use. if the bat lookup succeeds, the other lookup is halted and ignored. the other lookup, not directly supported by all processors in this family, is via a so - called " inverted page table " which acts as a hashed off - chip extension of the tlb. first, the top 4 bits of the address are used to select one of 16 segment registers. 24 bits from the segment register replace those 4 bits, producing a 52 - bit address. the use of segment registers allows multiple processes to share the same hash table. the 52 - bit address is hashed, then used as an index into the off - chip table. there, a group of 8 page table entries is scanned for one that matches. if none match due to excessive hash collisions, the processor tries again with a slightly different hash function. if this too fails, the cpu traps into the os ( with mmu disabled ) so that the problem may be resolved. the os needs to discard an entry from the hash table to make space for a new entry. the os may generate the new entry from a more - normal tree - like page table or from per - mapping data structures which are likely to be slower and more space - efficient. support for no - execute control is in the segment registers, leading to 256 mb granularity. a major problem with this design is poor cache locality caused by the hash function. tree - based designs avoid this by placing the page table entries for adjacent pages in adjacent locations. an operating system running on the powerpc may minimize the size of the hash table to reduce this problem. it is also somewhat slow to remove the page table entries of a process ; the os may avoid reusing segment values to delay facing this or it may elect to suffer the waste of memory associated with per - process hash tables. g1 chips do not search for page table entries, but they do generate the hash with the expectation that an os will search the standard hash table via software. the os can write to the tlb. g2, g3, and early g4 chips use hardware


not search for page table entries, but they do generate the hash with the expectation that an os will search the standard hash table via software. the os can write to the tlb. g2, g3, and early g4 chips use hardware to search the hash table. the latest chips allow the os to choose either method. on chips that make this optional or do not support it at all, the os may choose to use a tree - based page table exclusively. the x86 architecture has evolved over a very long time while maintaining full software compatibility even for os code. thus the mmu is extremely complex, with many different possible operating modes. normal operation of the traditional 80386 cpu and its successors ( ia - 32 ) is described here. the cpu primarily divides memory into 4 kb pages. segment registers, fundamental to the older 8088 and 80286 mmu designs, are not used in modern oses with one major exception : access to thread - specific data for applications or cpu - specific data for os kernels, which is done with explicit use of the fs and gs segment registers. all memory access involves a segment register, chosen according to the code being executed. the segment register acts as an index into a table, which provides an offset to be added to the virtual address. except when using fs or gs as described above, the os ensures that the offset will be zero. after the offset is added, the address is masked to be no larger than 32 bits. the result may be looked up via a tree - structured page table, with the bits of the address being split as follows : 10 bits for the branch of the tree, 10 bits for the leaves of the branch, and the 12 lowest bits being directly copied to the result. some operating systems, such as openbsd with its w ^ x feature, and linux with the exec shield or pax patches, may also limit the length of the code segment, as specified by the cs register, to disallow execution of code in modifiable regions of the address space. minor revisions of the mmu introduced with the pentium have allowed very large 4 mb pages by skipping the bottom level of the tree. minor revisions of the mmu introduced with the pentium pro introduced the physical address extension ( pae ) feature, enabling 36 - bit physical addresses via three - level page tables ( with 9 + 9 + 2 bits for the three levels, and the 12 lowest bits being directly copied to the result ; large pages become only 2 mb


extension ( pae ) feature, enabling 36 - bit physical addresses via three - level page tables ( with 9 + 9 + 2 bits for the three levels, and the 12 lowest bits being directly copied to the result ; large pages become only 2 mb in size ). in addition, the page attribute table allowed specification of cacheability by looking up a few high bits in a small on - cpu table. no - execute support was originally only provided on a per - segment basis, making it very awkward to use. more recent x86 chips provide a per - page no - execute bit in the pae mode. the w ^ x, exec shield, and pax mechanisms described above emulate per - page non - execute support on machines x86 processors lacking the nx bit by setting the length of the code segment, with a performance loss and a reduction in the available address space. x86 - 64 is a 64 - bit extension of x86 that almost entirely removes segmentation in favor of the flat memory model used by almost all operating systems for the 386 or newer processors. in long mode, all segment offsets are ignored, except for the fs and gs segments. when used with 4 kb pages, the page table tree has four levels instead of three. the virtual addresses are divided up as follows : 16 bits unused, 9 bits each for 4 tree levels ( total : 36 bits ), and the 12 lowest bits directly copied to the result. with 2 mb pages there are only three levels of page table, for a total of 27 bits used in paging and 21 bits of offset. some newer cpus also support a 1 gb page with two levels of paging and 30 bits of offset. cpuid can be used to determine if 1 gb pages are supported. in all three cases, the 16 highest bits are required to be equal to the 48th bit, or in other words, the low 48 bits are sign extended to the higher bits. this is done to allow a future expansion of the addressable range, without compromising backwards compatibility. in all levels of the page table, the page table entry includes a no - execute bit. tanenbaum et al., recently stated that the b5000 ( and descendant systems ) have no mmu. to understand the functionality provided by an mmu, it is instructive to study a counter example of a system that achieves this functionality by other means. the b5000 was the first commercial system to support virtual memory after the atlas. it provides the two


functionality provided by an mmu, it is instructive to study a counter example of a system that achieves this functionality by other means. the b5000 was the first commercial system to support virtual memory after the atlas. it provides the two functions of an mmu in different ways. firstly, the mapping of virtual memory addresses. instead of needing an mmu, the mcp systems are descriptor based. each allocated memory block is given a master descriptor with the properties of the block, i. e., the size, address, and whether present in memory. when a request is made to access the block for reading or writing, the hardware checks its presence via the presence bit ( pbit ) in the descriptor. a pbit of 1 indicates the presence of the block. in this case the block can be accessed via the physical address in the descriptor. if the pbit is zero, an interrupt is generated for the mcp ( operating system ) to make the block present. if the address field is zero, this is the first access to this block and it is allocated ( an init pbit ). if the address field is non - zero, it is a disk address of the block, which has previously been rolled out, so the block is fetched from disk and the pbit is set to 1 and the physical memory address updated to point to the block in memory ( another pbit ). this makes descriptors equivalent to a page - table entry in an mmu system. system performance can be monitored through the number of pbits. init pbits indicate initial allocations, but a high level of other pbits indicate that the system may be thrashing. note that all memory allocation is therefore completely automatic ( one of the features of modern systems ) and there is no way to allocate blocks other than this mechanism. there are no such calls as malloc or dealloc, since memory blocks are also automatically discarded. the scheme is also lazy, since a block will not be allocated until it is actually referenced. when memory is near full, the mcp examines the working set, trying compaction ( since the system is segmented, not paged ), deallocating read - only segments ( such as code - segments which can be restored from their original copy ), and as a last resort, rolling dirty data segments out to disk. secondly, protection. since all accesses are via the descriptor the hardware can check all


segments ( such as code - segments which can be restored from their original copy ), and as a last resort, rolling dirty data segments out to disk. secondly, protection. since all accesses are via the descriptor the hardware can check all accesses are within bounds, and in the case of a write that the process has write permission. the mcp system is inherently secure and thus has no need of an mmu to provide this level of memory protection. descriptors are read only to user processes and may only be updated by the system ( hardware or mcp ). ( descriptors have a tag of 5 and odd - tagged words are read only – code words have a tag of 3. ) blocks can be shared between processes via copy descriptors in the process stack – thus some processes may have write permission, whereas others not. a code segment is read only, thus reentrant and shared between processes. copy descriptors contain a 20 - bit address field giving index of the master descriptor in the master descriptor array. this also implements a very efficient and secure ipc mechanism. blocks can easily be relocated since only the master descriptor needs update when a block ' s status changes. the only other aspect is performance – do mmu - or non - mmu - based systems provide better performance? mcp systems may be implemented on top of standard hardware that does have an mmu ( e. g., a standard pc ). even if the system implementation uses the mmu in some way, this will not be at all visible at the mcp level. here you can share your comments or contribute with more information, content, resources or links about this topic.


short talk bulletin - vol. xi may, 1933 no. 5 " thou shalt not remove thy neighbor ' s landmark, which they of old have set in thine inheritance, which thou shalt inherit in the land the lord thy god hath given thee ( deuteronomy xix : 14 ). the masons " of old time set thine inheritance " ( masonry ) certain fundamental principles which are named as " landmarks " as early as the constitutions of 1723. men have quarreled about the stone markers set up as boundaries for land ever since sections of the earth were claimed as property ; in like manner have masons differed about what are and what are not landmarks of the order. in this country particularly, with forty - nine jurisdictions, each sovereign within its own territory, arguments about landmarks are never ending. this bulletin attempts not to settle any of these numerous controversies, but only to bring before the average lodge member some of the reasons why his neighbor ' s masonic landmarks may differ from those his own grand lodge may have set up for him to follow. in 1858 albert gallatin mackey, the great masonic jurist and authority, listed twenty - five fundamental principles as the true landmarks of freemasonry. although critical scholarship has since riddled the list as to accuracy, mackey ' s ideas of what constitute the essential qualities of a landmark - antiquity, universality and irrevocability - are still respected. this definition excludes from the classification of landmarks any principle which is any two of these but no the third, it is by his own standards that many critics have measured mackey ' s landmarks and found them wanting. as an example of what is meant ; it is " ancient, " in the sense that it was recognized in the " constitutions " of the grand lodge in 1723, that a grand master appoints own deputy grand master. but the practice is by no means universal. lodges are now universally governed by grand lodges, but the practice has antiquity of only two hundred and sixteen years. according to mackey ' s dicta, neither the manner of creating a deputy grand master not the fundamental governing body of the craft can be considered as landmarks. a few principles are so universally recognized that they are freely admitted to be essentials, even in jurisdictions which have no pronouncements as to the landmarks. belief in a supreme being, the volume of sacred law as a necessary part of the furniture of the lodge, that a masons must be a man are essentials all over the world, though not


no pronouncements as to the landmarks. belief in a supreme being, the volume of sacred law as a necessary part of the furniture of the lodge, that a masons must be a man are essentials all over the world, though not necessarily listed in all jurisdictions. on the validity of certain principles all authorities agree, but differ as to their antiquity, universality and irrevocability. a substantial minority of american grand jurisdictions have officially adopted mackey ' s twenty - five ancient landmarks, but a majority either follow other compilations, use other old charges, or decline to specify what are and what are not the landmarks of the craft. the right and power of any grand lodge to determine for itself just what is and what is not " law " in its jurisdiction is unquestioned. therefore, when a jurisdiction sets forth any list of landmarks in its code, they have all the force of ancient landmarks in that jurisdiction, whether they are actually so or not. " actually so " refers to inherent nature ; that which cannot be altered by law, no matter what the lawmaking authority. the national legislature has the undoubted " right " to enact a law that unsupported objects must fall. " per contra, " it then has the right to repeal the law of gravity, and forbid things to fall when no longer supported. but it has not the " power " to enforce, change or suspend the law of gravity! a grand lodge which says " thus and such is an ancient landmark " in that jurisdiction, " give that pronouncement the full force and effect of an ancient landmark " in that jurisdiction, but its edict does not " actually " make it such. one jurisdiction follows lockwood ' s list of nineteen landmarks, of which number 8 reads : " that every lodge has an inherent right to be represented in grand lodge by its first three officers, or their proxies. " this is good masonic law in most jurisdictions, but not all ; the mason from this jurisdiction ( washington, d. c. ) who moves to new york or texas and there affiliates finds that this is not a landmark in either of these jurisdictions, since neither new york not texas admit wardens to grand lodge. in the general assemblies of ancient times each mason, craftsman or entered apprentice, represented himself. in grand lodges masons are represented by their officers. evidently a change has been made in the manner of governing the craft. as a landmark is not subject to change, this particular principle of law does not conform to mack


entered apprentice, represented himself. in grand lodges masons are represented by their officers. evidently a change has been made in the manner of governing the craft. as a landmark is not subject to change, this particular principle of law does not conform to mackey ' s definition of a landmark. no wonder his neighbor ' s landmark is a matter of confusion to brethren from neighboring but differing jurisdictions! mackey ' s fourteenth landmark asserts that every mary mason has the right of visitation. just what is a " right? " until that word is defined this so - called landmark cannot be discussed intelligently. if it here means " power superior to all other powers, " then it is merely nonsense. if it here means " privileged until a higher privilege overcomes it, " how may it be considered to conform to the requirements of a landmark? even so, how can the word " right " be translated " privilege? " a privilege may be withdrawn ; an inherent right cannot! as many jurisdictions rule on the " right of visit " in different ways - even those which have adopted mackey ' s list - it can hardly be considered a true landmark, " if " we judge by mackey ' s own pronouncement on what constitutes a landmark and " if " the word " right " means what it says. in some jurisdictions a mason cannot visit without a good standing card ; in others any member may object to any visitor and the master must exclude ; in still others, some masters close the doors of their lodges to all visitors on election nights, and so on. occasionally there is a conflict between ritual and landmarks as adopted. a certain jurisdiction lists fifty - four landmarks, of which number 18 reads : " every lodge, grand or subordinate, when lawfully congregated, must be regularly clothed, tyled and opened before it can proceed to work. " many other jurisdictions agree that it is a landmark that a lodge must be " duly tiled. " our ancient brethren met on high hills and low vales to observe the approach of cowans and eavesdroppers. did they " truly tile? " california lodge no. 1 of the district of columbia was chartered to go to california during the gold rush of 1849. had that lodge ( now california no. 1 on the register of the grand lodge of california ) been wrecked going around the horn ; had only the members of the lodge, with their charter, been saved upon an otherwise uninhabited island ; if they then held meetings with no tiler - since there were no cowans or eavesdrop


of california ) been wrecked going around the horn ; had only the members of the lodge, with their charter, been saved upon an otherwise uninhabited island ; if they then held meetings with no tiler - since there were no cowans or eavesdroppers against whom to tile - would they have violated the so - called landmark? many rituals give " three " as the irreducible minimum for a master mason ' s lodge ; a lodge must have a master and two wardens. if under some strange circumstances, three and only three met as a lodge, what becomes of the so - called landmark which requires a tiler? secrecy undoubtedly conforms to the classification of the three essentials of a landmark ; but about " the means " of securing secrecy is at least room for argument. other masonic laws, good where in force but not necessarily landmarks, are mackey ' s 8th : " the prerogative of the grand master to make masons at sight " and the 11th landmark of a western grand lodge which reads : " every person, to be made a mason must be a man of lawful age, free born and ; hale and sound, as a man ought to be. " several grand jurisdictions have enacted legislation preventing a grand master from convening an emergent lodge for the purpose of making a mason " at sight. " others consider that it is an inherent right of grand masters to convene emergent lodges ( that is, give a certain number of brethren a dispensation to hold a lodge ) and that no law can take this right from him. if a landmark cannot be changed, and this " has been " changed, is it truly a landmark, or merely a matter of common law? all will agree that no woman can be made a mason. but what becomes of the " lawful age " provision in the face of the fact that washington - and many another man - was made a mason before he was twenty - one? he would be a daring debater who argued that the father of his country was not regularly and legitimately initiated. the " hale and sound " provision is by no means universal ; many jurisdictions stick to the strict letter of the " doctrine of the perfect youth " while others admit the lame and the halt under a grand master ' s dispensation, worshipful master ' s judgment or even grand lodge law relaxing restrictions in favor of men of the army or navy who had arms or legs shot off in the war! a number of grand jurisdictions have never adopted any list or classification of landmarks


moral law, the golden rule and the hope of a life everlasting. " those who question these as landmarks usually qualify by agreeing that they are teachings of the order, but are in doubt as to just how old all of them may be, as such. dean roscoe pound, whose " masonic jurisprudence " is generally considered to be among the most profound analyses of landmarks, thinks seven are unquestionable : ( 1 ) belief in god ; ( 2 ) belief in the persistence of personality ; ( 3 ) a book of the law as an indispensable part of the furniture of every lodge ; ( 4 ) the legend of the third degree ; ( 5 ) secrecy ; ( 6 ) the symbolism of the operative art ; and, ( 7 ) that a mason must be a man free born and of age. " of thirty - nine jurisdictions of our forty - nine, eighteen either have adopted, recognized or follow mackey ' s list of twenty - five landmarks ; two use the old charges, or old charges and general regulations as landmarks ; eight have adopted, recognized or follow lists of landmarks of their own, and eleven either have not adopted, do not recognize, or do not follow any special compilation of landmarks, preferring to leave the question untouched. reduced to a percentage basis, mackey is followed in 46. 1 % plus of these thirty - nine jurisdictions ; old charges and regulations in 5. 1 % ; own landmarks in 20. 5 % plus and no special list in 28. 2 % plus. obviously there is no universality of opinion as to what is and what is not a landmark, and yet all jurisdictions agree there " are " landmarks. many " laws of nature " recognized in former times are believed in no longer ; knowledge of science and of nature is in a state of flux. what appears to be the truth today may be the error of tomorrow. possibly this is true also of our conception of the ancient landmarks, and that no list of all those fundamentals of the craft which are " actually " landmarks is possible. both that statement and this bulletin are without prejudice to the undoubted fact that in those jurisdictions which have adopted any list of landmarks, whether all inclusive or not, the principles there denominated as landmarks have the force of landmarks within the borders of those jurisdictions.


definitionby mayo clinic staff click to enlarge | visual acuity test | | manual visual field testing | a complete eye exam involves a series of tests designed to evaluate your vision and check for eye diseases. your eye doctor may use a variety of instruments, shine bright lights directly at your eyes and request that you look through an array of lenses. each test during an eye exam evaluates a different aspect of your vision or eye health. - pediatric eye evaluations. san francisco, calif. : american academy of ophthalmology. http : / / one. aao. org / printerfriendly. aspx? cid = 2e30f625 - 1b04 - 45b9 - 9b7c - c06770d02fe5. accessed jan. 24, 2013. - comprehensive eye and vision examination. american optometric association. http : / / www. aoa. org / eye - exams. xml. accessed jan. 24, 2013. - clinical practice guidelines : comprehensive adult eye and vision examination. st. louis, mo. : american optometric association. http : / / www. aoa. org / eye - exams. xml accessed jan. 24, 2013. - riordan - eva p, et al. vaughan & asbury ' s general ophthalmology. 18th ed. new york, n. y. : the mcgraw - hill companies ; 2011. http : / / www. accessmedicine. com / resourcetoc. aspx? resourceid = 720. accessed jan. 24, 2013. - what is a doctor of optometry? american optometric association. http : / / www. aoa. org / x4891. xml. accessed jan. 24, 2013.


when exposed to cold temperatures, especially with a high wind chill factor and high humidity, or to a cool, damp environment for prolonged periods, your body ' s control mechanisms may fail to keep your body temperature normal. when more heat is lost than your body can generate, hypothermia, defined as an internal body temperature less than 95 f ( 35 c ), can result. wet or inadequate clothing, falling into cold water and even not covering your head during cold weather can increase your chances of hypothermia. signs and symptoms of hypothermia include : - slurred speech - abnormally slow breathing - cold, pale skin - loss of coordination - fatigue, lethargy or apathy - confusion or memory loss - bright red, cold skin ( infants ) signs and symptoms usually develop slowly. people with hypothermia typically experience gradual loss of mental acuity and physical ability, so they may be unaware that they need emergency medical treatment. older adults, infants, young children and people who are very lean are at particular risk. other people at higher risk of hypothermia include those whose judgment may be impaired by mental illness or alzheimer ' s disease and people who are intoxicated, homeless or caught in cold weather because their vehicles have broken down. other conditions that may predispose people to hypothermia are malnutrition, cardiovascular disease and an underactive thyroid ( hypothyroidism ). to care for someone with hypothermia : - call 911 or emergency medical assistance. while waiting for help to arrive, monitor the person ' s breathing. if breathing stops or seems dangerously slow or shallow, begin cardiopulmonary resuscitation ( cpr ) immediately. - move the person out of the cold. if going indoors isn ' t possible, protect the person from the wind, cover the head, and insulate the individual from the cold ground. - remove wet clothing. replace wet things with a warm, dry covering. - don ' t apply direct heat. don ' t use hot water, a heating pad or a heating lamp to warm the person. instead, apply warm compresses to the center of the body — head, neck, chest and groin. don ' t attempt to warm the arms and legs. heat applied to the arms and legs forces cold blood back toward the heart, lungs and brain, causing the core body temperature to drop. this can be fatal. - don ' t give the person alcohol


' t attempt to warm the arms and legs. heat applied to the arms and legs forces cold blood back toward the heart, lungs and brain, causing the core body temperature to drop. this can be fatal. - don ' t give the person alcohol. offer warm nonalcoholic drinks, unless the person is vomiting. - don ' t massage or rub the person. handle people with hypothermia gently because their skin may be frostbitten, and rubbing frostbitten tissue can cause severe damage. - mechem cc, et al. accidental hypothermia in adults. http : / / www. uptodate. com / home / index. html. accessed march 3, 2012. - corneli hm, et al. clinical manifestations of hypothermia in children. http : / / www. uptodate. com / home / index. html. accessed march 3, 2012. - ferri ff. ferri ' s clinical advisor 2011 : instant diagnosis and treatment. philadelphia, pa. : mosby elsevier ; 2011. http : / / www. mdconsult. com / books / page. do? eid = 4 - u1. 0 - b978 - 0 - 323 - 05611 - 3.. 00017 - 3 - - sc0285 & isbn = 978 - 0 - 323 - 05611 - 3 & uniqid = 321844243 - 3 # 4 - u1. 0 - b978 - 0 - 323 - 05611 - 3.. 00017 - 3 - - sc0285. accessed march 3, 2012. - hypothermia. the merck manuals : the merck manual for healthcare professionals. http : / / www. merckmanuals. com / professional / injuries _ poisoning / cold _ injury / hypothermia. html. accessed march 3, 2012.


blacks in metropolitan hartford are slightly more segregated by neighborhood than latinos, the census study found. but because blacks tend to be more segregated in u. s. cities and suburbs, metro hartford ' s segregation ranking for blacks was significantly better - 24th of 43 - in 2000. » the latest on traffic, delays and road construction delivered to your mobile phone. click to sign up to receive text alerts! the hartford metropolitan area - a 58 - town, 1. 2 million person region - was the fourth most segregated among 36 metros for latinos in 2000, trailing only providence, new york and newark, according to the census study. the study tracked the distribution of people across the nation ' s largest cities and suburbs between 1980 and 2000. during that period, hispanics grew more segregated in most u. s. metro areas the census bureau studied, probably because of rapid foreign immigration in those regions. but greater hartford bucked that trend. between 1980 and 2000, only three of the metro areas studied by the census bureau - san antonio, tampa - st. petersburg, fla., and miami - experienced higher rates of latino integration than greater hartford. in contrast, most northeast metropolitan areas, including providence, new york and boston, saw significant increases in latino segregation. fernando betancourt, director of the legislature ' s latino and puerto rican affairs commission, said economic advancement has given some latinos access to new neighborhoods. " still, i am very aware of the incredible concentration of latinos in urban areas, and how poverty correlates with that fact, " he said. and some experts argued that metro hartford ' s relatively high latino segregation standing is the more significant measure to consider than a modest trend toward integration. " i just don ' t think this is one of the places that latinos did very well, " said john logan, a sociologist at the state university of new york at albany who studies segregation. " my reading of hartford is that as the hispanic population grew substantially in the last 20 years, it remained very highly segregated, unusually segregated. " in a state where public schools are organized along neighborhood lines and town boundaries, neighborhood residential segregation isn ' t just a moral issue. it ' s a legal and financial one - especially with connecticut facing a budget crisis and the prospect that it may need to spend even more on school desegregation because of the sheff vs. o ' neill case. the state department of education says connecticut has authorized more than $ 1 billion to facilitate school desegregation since the 1997 verdict favor


may need to spend even more on school desegregation because of the sheff vs. o ' neill case. the state department of education says connecticut has authorized more than $ 1 billion to facilitate school desegregation since the 1997 verdict favoring the plaintiffs in the 13 - year - old sheff case, which charged that segregation was preventing minority students from receiving an equal education. the sheff plaintiffs say those remedies are not sufficient. neither side would comment on their discussions, nor on how much money could be at stake. but one lawyer for the plaintiffs said that while the progress in neighborhood segregation was good news, the pace of change was too slow to mean much for school integration. " that ' s like waiting for the glaciers to melt to put out a fire, " said dennis parker, of the naacp legal defense fund. " you need to do something more quickly. " while a few suburbs near hartford have many more black and latino residents than a decade ago, parker said many of hartford ' s outlying suburbs are not becoming significantly more diverse. " in fact, having schools that are not racially and ethnically isolated may speed the process of housing change, because the composition of the schools has an effect on where people choose to live, " parker said. the 2000 census counted about 114, 000 hispanics and 106, 000 blacks in the hartford metro area. many latinos are highly concentrated in relatively few neighborhoods, almost all of them in either hartford or new britain ; while blacks are most highly concentrated in hartford, bloomfield and windsor. blacks and latinos are about equally likely to live in neighborhoods where their own ethnic group constitutes more than half the population. about 30 percent of latinos live in mostly latino areas ; about 33 percent of blacks live in mostly black neighborhoods.


chromosomes are present in every cell of the body. these chromosomes carry the dna information that defines many aspects of an individual ' s life. dna evidence is used to determine if the individual will develop normally or not. there are a few genetic abnormalities that may be caught at an early stage of pregnancy. the tendency is to suggest that such pregnancies be terminated as they would only lead to the development of children who are born with abnormalities. the karyotype test is used to collect the information needed relating to the health and functioning of the chromosomes. there are several steps that need to be followed in order to perform the karyotype test. the sample is collected from a newborn baby or from the amniotic fluid of a pregnant woman. the entire karyotype test procedure requires one week to be performed. this is because the cells need to be collected and then divided and allowed to grow. when these cells grow in the laboratory, the doctors can identify the necessary genetic information in order to make a diagnosis. the actual process of collecting information from the chromosomes is complicated and requires extremely precise work. there is a specialized type of laboratory used for such testing. this is known as a cytogenetics laboratory. cytogenetics is a relatively modern field of medicine. for this reason, one may not find a cytogenetics laboratory in every hospital. there are specialty hospitals that deal with issues relating to genetics. one needs to have the karyotype test done in such a location. the chromosome karyotype test is conducted to identify a number of different genetic conditions. one such syndrome is down ' s syndrome. one may also discover conditions such as klinefelter syndrome, philadelphia syndrome and turner syndrome. all these conditions involve complications relating to the genetic makeup of cells. in order to understand these conditions further, one may speak with the doctor for clarifications. there is no preparation required for the karyotype test. in fact, as far as the patient is concerned, the karyotype test takes less than a minute to perform. if the test is performed on a pregnant woman, then it will be done when she visits the clinic for a checkup. if the karyotype test is done on a new born baby, then it will be done in the hospital itself. samples may then be transported to the appropriate laboratory capable of conducting the chromosome karyotype test. you could check with your doctor for the karyotype test cost as these rates would vary accordingly. also it is of utmost importance that the


women with heart disease are at greater risk than other women when going through a pregnancy, but most still have positive outcomes, a registry showed. compared with healthy pregnant women, those with structural or ischemic heart disease had higher rates of preterm birth ( 15 % versus 8 % ), fetal death ( 1. 7 % versus 0. 35 % ), and maternal mortality ( 1 % versus 0. 007 % ), but absolute rates remained relatively low, according to jolien roos - hesselink, md, of erasmus medical center in rotterdam, and colleagues. the risks conferred by heart disease were magnified in women with cardiomyopathies and in those living in developing countries, the researchers reported online in the european heart journal. however, they wrote, " most patients with adequate counseling and optimal care should not be discouraged and can go safely through pregnancy. " because of a limited amount of data detailing the effects of heart disease on pregnancy outcomes, the european society of cardiology started the european registry on pregnancy and heart disease in 2007. the ongoing registry enrolls pregnant women who have valvular heart disease, congenital heart disease, ischemic heart disease, or cardiomyopathies. for the current analysis, the researchers looked at data on 1, 321 pregnant women who were enrolled from 60 hospitals in 28 countries from 2007 to 2011. the median age was 30. most of the patients ( 72 % ) were in new york heart association class i, and only 0. 3 % were in nyha class iv. the most frequent diagnosis was congenital heart disease ( 66 % ), followed by valvular heart disease ( 25 % ), cardiomyopathy ( 7 % ), and ischemic heart disease ( 2 % ). the median duration of pregnancy was 38 weeks, and the median birth weight was 3, 010 grams ( 6 pounds 10 ounces ). thirteen of the mothers died - - seven from cardiac causes, three from thromboembolic events, and three from sepsis. the highest mortality rate occurred in patients with cardiomyopathy, who also carried higher rates of heart failure and ventricular arrhythmias. " cardiomyopathy is uncommon during pregnancy, but it is difficult to manage a pregnancy in the context of left ventricular dysfunction or peripartum cardiomyopathy with a high risk of an adverse outcome for both the mother and the baby, " the authors noted. " our study shows that more attention needs to be paid to this