ahuriri were also visited by other parties. aspiring was climbed by gordon mclaren and party, and murray douglas climbed mt cook - the club ' s first major post - war ascents. john armstrong carried on the tradition of capable and innovative presidents with entrepurnurial skills, a sense of adventure, and an even bigger sense of humour. on january 8th and 9th, 1966, six club members climbed mt cook - m. jones, g. kampjes, j. armstrong, g. hasler, i. meyer and h. laing. although club members had climbed cook before, and have since climbed far more formidable peaks, this does serve to give some idea of the standards reached during this period. a change in attitudes was noticed in 1966, and is evidenced in the following report which is worth a place in history : at a lively extraordinary general meeting held on october 26, 1966, the grandiose plans of the committee, led by radical president john armstrong, were amended. chief guide james consented to remain in the cabinet, as tramping is still an ' approved ' sport. the following motion was passed after hours of discussion and much amendment. " this club should continue to encourage tramping, climbing, ski mountaineering and ski - ing without detriment to the club ' s prime aim of tramping. " bob cunninghame : " there has been a considerable change in the last five years. there was next to no climbing up until that time. " gerry kampjes : " five or six years ago there was little ambition in the club and less than half the number of people. " graeme hasler : " safety is of paramount importance. we must have a balanced club " laurie kennedy : " something must suffer if we run a climbing course " jim freeman : " people now have more money and are able to spread out into areas and sports not previously possible. now less scope for tramping. climbing is the natural outcome of tramping " alan thomson : " need to support tramping " arthur james : " far better to have a small specialist club where you know most of the people rather than a large social ski - ing and climbing organisation. " jim cowie : " if the o. t. c. does not run an instruction course in climbing there is little incentive for the likes of me to remain in the club. " roger conroy : " let ' s change the name to the otago tramping and mountaineering club " ross adamson : " too much advertising on ski -


in climbing there is little incentive for the likes of me to remain in the club. " roger conroy : " let ' s change the name to the otago tramping and mountaineering club " ross adamson : " too much advertising on ski - ing by word of mouth and publications " photo : bob mckerrow ( l ) graeme lockett and keith mcivor on the summit of mt. huxley, easter 1967. photo : jim cowie christmas 1967 - 68 saw club trips led by john armstrong and bruce mason to the north routeburn, north col and rockburn, other ' s going on to fohn saddle and the beansburn. parties led by john fitzgerald went to martins bay, big bay, pyke, alabaster pass, olivines, cox saddle, hidden falls, park pass and rockkburn. trevor pullar looked after a party from the arawata river to mlilford heads, laurie kennedy ' s party went into the olivines whilst jim cowie, keith mcivor and bob mckerrow spent 10 days in the cook region and 10 days at aspiring. graeme hasler also, was back in the cook area. all in all, a fantastic amount of tramping and climbing was achieved during this season - on a scale which was to continue until the end of the ' 60 ' s. club member boh mckerrow was a member of the 1968 andean expedition, and in return for some assistance from the club, provided interesting accounts of his exploits. the number of club members who went south to the antarctic during the ' 60s included ken gousmett, keith mcivor, bob mckerrow and frank graveson. a large number of members have tramped and toured overseas, with some distinguishing themselves on the climbing scene. two names that spring to mind readily are bob mckerrow and murray jones. a recent bulletin of the ot & mc shows a very active club with membership rising and the nursery alive and well. thanks to lee davidson for permission to use extracts from her publication : the spirit of the hills : mountaineering in northwest otago, new zealand, 1882 - 1940. thanks also to the otago tramping and mountaineering club to use freely from their history :


yesterday i responded to novelist laurie halse anderson ’ s question about whether john adams actually wrote about 1777 as “ the year of the hangman. ” i quoted adams ’ s words from over a decade later indicating that unspecified, untraceable “ tories ” had said that 1777 “ had three gallowses in it, meaning the three sevens. ” however, adams didn ’ t write “ the year of the hangman, ” and neither did anyone else i can find in the 1770s. the label doesn ’ t appear the archive of americana database of period newspapers and pamphlets. nor is it in the adams family letters, the george washington papers, and the other digital databases i usually check for period usage. in fact, the earliest use of that phrase for 1777 that i found through google books is lynn montross ’ s the reluctant rebels : the story of the continental congress, 1774 - 1789, published in 1950. that book includes a chapter titled “ year of the hangman, ” and at one point says, “ it was the year of the hangman, and the gallows jokes exchanged in the state house were not so humorous after the imprisonment of [ richard ] stockton... ” as far as i can tell, montross coined that phrase ; i haven ’ t uncovered an earlier usage. he didn ’ t say the words came from 1777, only that it reflected how the patriots saw their situation that year. but then the same words appeared in other books, with the growing implication that it was a genuine period phrase : - the 1966 encyclopedia of the american revolution, edited by mark boatner, included an entry on “ hangman, year of the. ” - one part of the river and the rock : the history of fortress west point, 1775 - 1783, authored by dave richard palmer in 1969, carried that title. - the phrase “ year of the gallows ” comes from a character ’ s mouth in thomas fleming ’ s 1976 novel liberty tavern. - john s. pancake ’ s 1777 : the year of the hangman ( 1977 ) quotes adams ’ s original letter to explain its subtitle. - gary blackwood ’ s the year of the hangman ( 2002 ) is an alternate history marketed to teen - aged readers. - the strategy game shown above, designed by ed wimble, is “ an operational study of the campaign for philadelphia. ” - most recently, glenn f. williams ’ s award - winning military history year of the hangman : george washington ’ s campaign against the iroquois was published


kathryn stockett is the author of the help. it ’ s a fictional story about a black woman who goes to work for a white family in post civil rights era mississippi. coincidentally, ms. stocket was born in 1969 and grew up in jackson, mississippi and had a black maid who took care of her white family. although based on her childhood experiences, the story is not about her childhood or about her family ’ s housekeeper demetrie. ms. stockett says that even though she grew up in a town with a one to one black white ratio, she never had a black friend or a black neighbor or a black person in her school or any interaction with black people other than their maid demetrie. the black woman went to work for her family fourteen years before ms. stockett was born. she actually went to work for her grandmother and stayed for more than thirty years. the only relationship with black people that ms. stockett experienced was the one where the white people, a complete family unit with parents and children, hire a black woman, a woman without any interactions with her own black family or community, to wait on them. ms. stockett claims that her black maid was one of the closest people to her. from her perspective, their maid was treated like a queen who wanted for nothing. she adored the black maid as much as she adored her own mother. while her mother was always busy, demetrie stood in and played games with the white children and never got cross. it was the black maid who knew to rock them when they had stomachs aches. it was demetrie who went with the children to the doctor because demetrie knew how to get the children to sit still for their injections and whatever procedures they needed. black demetrie knew the young ms. stockett and her siblings better than the parents did. but on the other hand, ms. stockett admits to some embarrassment at her inability to truly appreciate the complex nature of the role demetrie had to play in their lives. for more than thirty years this black woman waited on this family. every single day that ms. stockett saw her only black friend the maid, the black woman would be seen wearing nothing other than her stark white maid uniform. ms. stockett was blissfully ignorant of the true nature of the relationship she and her family had with the hired help. ms. stockett says that the maid knew the unwritten rules of acceptable and unacceptable black behavior established by the white people of mississippi. she writes


was blissfully ignorant of the true nature of the relationship she and her family had with the hired help. ms. stockett says that the maid knew the unwritten rules of acceptable and unacceptable black behavior established by the white people of mississippi. she writes that while laws supporting segregation were erased, the rules supporting segregation were not. in order for the black maid to be accepted in certain white people circles, she had to have that white uniform. in order for black people to exist among these white people, they had best submit and accept their secondary status. but stuck in the oblivious world of her childhood, ms. stockett wants to maintain her claim that demetrie was a queen. the black maid wasn ’ t allowed to use the same bathroom facilities of the white people. the black woman had to use a bathroom located on the side of the house. the black woman was not allowed to use the same utensils as the white family. the black woman wasn ’ t allowed to wear anything but her white uniform. the black woman sacrificed a life with her own family in order to keep her job. does ms. stockett honestly think that this black woman felt like she was the recipient of royal treatment as she cleaned behind white people? ms. stockett and her family never saw their black housekeeper as an equal. they never appreciated her as a valued member of their family. she was the help and she was only the help. like many black people who are admired by people in the white community, the reason white people admire these black people is because these black people are accepting their position as nothing more than the staff to white people. unfortunately, by being the go to person for white people, demetrie allowed ms. stockton and her family to develop an impression that the natural order of things was that black people are treated like royalty when they are given the privilege to wait on white people. if someone hired ms. stockett ’ s mother to be their servant, if they forced ms. stockett ’ s mother to use an outhouse and eat with her own special set of eating utensils because she was not allowed to share the eating utensils of everyone else, i seriously doubt if ms. stockett would think that they were treating mom like a queen. if her mother had to surrender her identity and wear nothing but a white uniform in order to be accepted i doubt if she would mistake it for anything other than what it truly is, a not so subtle reminder that the dreams and goals of the help takes a back seat to the


surrender her identity and wear nothing but a white uniform in order to be accepted i doubt if she would mistake it for anything other than what it truly is, a not so subtle reminder that the dreams and goals of the help takes a back seat to the whims of the employer. back in the day black people who completely devoted themselves to their white employers or owners were called house negroes. some black people were more than happy to adapt to whatever life the white establishment defined as acceptable for black people. a lot of these black people were more willing to identify with the white family that would make them use the outhouse and eat off their own supper dish instead of identifying with the black community full of their peers that had to work out in the field. some black people would embrace the subjugation of the black community. unfortunately, i have little doubt that if ms. stockett ’ s black friend was alive today, demetrie would absolve her white family of anything and everything that could have been construed as poor treatment. the black maid demetrie made her choice some time ago. more than likely there would be no hard feelings. ms. stockett can feel safe that there was nothing but love between her and the only black person she ever knew in her life who wasn ’ t allowed to use the bathroom in the house or eat off the same plates as white people but was somehow treated like a queen. most house negroes were more than happy to support the subjugation of black people as long as they lived better than the general subjugated population.


scientific name : coenonympha tullia rests with wings closed. some have row of ‘ eyespots ’ on underwings, like ringlet, but some don ’ t. the large heath is restricted to wet boggy habitats in northern britain, ireland, and a few isolated sites in wales and central england. the adults always sit with their wings closed and can fly even in quite dull weather provided the air temperature is higher than 14b : c. the size of the underwing spots varies across its range ; a heavily spotted form ( davus ) is found in lowland england, a virtually spotless race ( scotica ) in northern scotland, and a range of intermediate races elsewhere ( referred to aspolydama ). the butterfly has declined seriously in england and wales, but is still widespread in parts of ireland and scotland. size and family - family – browns - small / medium sized - wing span range ( male to female ) - 41mm - listed as a section 41 species of principal importance under the nerc act in england - listed as a section 42 species of principal importance under the nerc act in wales - classified as a northern ireland priority species by the niea - uk bap status : priority species - butterfly conservation priority : high - european status : vulnerable - protected in great britain for sale only the main foodplant is hare ' s - tail cottongrass ( eriophorum vaginatum ) but larvae have been found occasionally on common cottongrass ( e. angustifolium ) and jointed rush ( juncus articulatus ). early literature references to white beak - sedge ( rhyncospora alba ), are probably erroneous. - countries – england, scotland and wales - northern britain and throughout ireland - distribution trend since 1970 ’ s = - 43 % the butterflies breed in open, wet areas where the foodplant grows, this includes habitats such as ; lowland raised bogs, upland blanket bogs and damp acidic moorland. sites are usually below 500m ( 600m in the far north ) and have a base of sphagnum moss interspersed with the foodplant and abundant cross - leaved heath ( the main adult nectar source ). in ireland, the butterfly can be found where manual peat extraction has lowered the surface of the bog, creating damp areas with local concentrations of foodplant.


we said on the getting started page that html is nothing more than a box of highlighters that we use to carefully describe our text. this is mostly the entire story. normally our content is just text we want to define in some way. but what if our content is not just text? what if, let ’ s say, we have a bunch of images that we want to include on the page? we certainly can ’ t type in 4 - thousand pixels on the keyboard to make up a 200x200 - pixel image … motivation and syntax when the content we want is not text, then we have to have of including that content on the page. the most common example is an image. the problem, however, is that html tags are like highlighters — they have an opening tag and a closing tag. between the opening and closing tags fits the data that is “ highlighted ” by the tag. if we were to have an < image > tag in html ( we don ’ t have that tag — one close to it though ), what would go “ inside ” of it? what might you replace the stuff with inside of it simply doesn ’ t make sense for an < image > tag to exist like all the other html tags because the other html tags define something else while image is, itself, something that can be defined. the image tag and all such manner of tags are called “ element ” tags because, just like the name implies, the tags are themselves the elements all their own. for all intents and purposes you can treat element tags just like text. if your content is like the words in a textbook and regular html is like a pack of highlighters, then these special element tags are indeed like the text and not like the highlighters at all. the xml standard says that every tag must be closed. but we have this new breed of tags that really don ’ t make sense to be closed. what we have is a compromise between the two extremes. we have a self - closing tag. the tag is just like the tags we learned about on the general syntax page with two exceptions. - there is no closing tag - there is a > to indicate that the tag is self - closing. so this looks like : ( there is commonly a space before the /, but again spacing after the name of the tag is arbitrary. ) you might imagine that there could be a tag that produces the copyright symbol ( © ). there isn ’ t ( we ’ ll get to special characters later ). but if there were,


spacing after the name of the tag is arbitrary. ) you might imagine that there could be a tag that produces the copyright symbol ( © ). there isn ’ t ( we ’ ll get to special characters later ). but if there were, you might imagine there being an element tag called copyrightsymbol that we could use right in line with our text to produce a © images on web sites take the form of image files stored on a server. much like line breaks, images are element tags that are treated like text. the difference is that the image element tag is replaced by the actual image file. we mentioned the ( non - existent ) < image > tag earlier in our discussion on the necessity of the element - style tags. the real tag to include an image on the page is < img >. this tag makes little sense if used without its let ’ s say we have the image image1. jpg,, uploaded to the same folder as our html file. to include the image on the page, all we have to insert is : < p > < img src = ". / image1. jpg " / > < / p > which would be rendered ( displayed ) like : and, again, images are like text — they go right in with your content : < p > this is image1 : < img src = ". / image1. jpg " / >. cool, right? < / p > this would be rendered like : this is image1 :. cool, right? ( more information on how to reference your images using different paths depending on where your images are stored can be found on the internet file management page of the web publishing at the uw online curriculum. ) if your images contribute to the content of your site, then you should provide an alt attribute for your images. the alt attribute is a text version of your image. usually it is just a concise sentence describing the image. the alt attribute will be used if your image is unavailable for any reason ( e. g. if you delete the image file, if your viewers can ’ t see images, etc. ) if we had a picture of a dog jumping into a lake called spot. jpg, we might use the following html to place it on the page : < p > a picture i took : < img src = ". / spot. jpg " alt = " spot jumping into a lake. " / > < / p > if your image is purely


to place it on the page : < p > a picture i took : < img src = ". / spot. jpg " alt = " spot jumping into a lake. " / > < / p > if your image is purely a visual element ( e. g. an icon next to a download link or an image used in your page ’ s layout ), then you don ’ t need to provide an alt attribute. if your web design work is sponsored by the university, be sure to check out the uw ’ s page on web site accessibility by clicking here. the spacing rules of html say that when we break the line in the source code ( e. g. using the enter key on the keyboard ), we don ’ t also break the line on the rendered ( displayed ) version of the page. this is why the following two blocks of code : < p > this is text. this is more text < / p > < p > this is text this is text < / p > … are considered equivalent. they will both be displayed by the web browser in exactly the same way : this is text. this is more text < br / > element tag. the following block of code :.. is rendered like : < p > in what particular thought to work i know not ; < br / > but in the gross and scope of my opinion, < br / > this bodes some strange eruption to our state. < br / > < / p > in what particular thought to work i know not ; but in the gross and scope of my opinion, this bodes some strange eruption to our state. above we imagined that there was an html element tag called copyrightsymbol that would be used to produce a copyright symbol ( © ). if there were such a tag, we might have the following html : < p > this page is copyright ( < copyrightsymbol / > ) 1989 by george orwell < / p > there turns out to be so many such symbols that the creators of html decided to create a whole group of “ special symbols ” ( or “ special characters ” ). these characters are used in the place of any character you cannot type using a standard us - english qwerty keyboard. they are also used in the place of some “ reserved ” characters ( like the less - than and greater - than signs, <, and > ). there are many such characters. they all start with an ampersand ( & ) and end with a semicolon


docetism. the term " docetism " comes from the greek word dokeo ( i seem, i appear ), and was first used by serapion, bishop of antioch ( 190 - 208 ), to refer to certain heretics of the early church. in its earliest expression, docetism apparently grew out of the difficulties of explaining how the son of god could be subject to the vicissitudes of humanity, including suffering and death. the earliest docetists would explain that christ only seemed or appeared to suffer, for he only seemed to be mortal and fleshly as other humans. in reality, they would argue, he is god and, therefore, not truly subject to the problems of humanity. it is generally assumed that the emphasis on the reality of christ ' s physical body in john 1 : 14, 1 john 1 : 1 - 4 and 4 : 1 - 3, and 2 john 7 is a refutation of this incipient heresy. during the second century, the positions of docetists were multiplied and amplified into various gnostic systems, including some that denied the substantive reality of the incarnate christ, and others that stated that the heavenly christ descended upon the mortal jesus at his baptism and departed when jesus was before pilate. the crucifixion scene described in the apocalypse of peter is an example of the latter, portraying the spiritual savior laughing above the cross while soldiers nail the mortal jesus to the tree. among those especially charged with docetism were cerinthus and marcion. there is also a docetic portrayal of jesus in some anti - christian writings of the mandaean gnostics. irenaeus and tertullian, both writing in the late second century, attacked this heresy, and tertullian claimed that some valentinians were guilty of docetism. photius ( ninth century ) charged clement of alexandria with docetism, but clement rebuked the denial of christ ' s flesh in his own writings. c. wilfred griggs click tabs to swap between content that is broken into logical sections.


janet barresi state superintendent if you ' re a parent, do you know how your childs ' school is doing? what if the school received an annual report card – a grade of a to f – just like the report cards students receive? if you heard that a school had an academic performance index ( api ) score of 921, would you know what that means? two measures, senate bill 348 and house bill 1456 have either passe committee or a floor vote in the oklahoma legislature to give parents and citizens an easy - to - understand way to compare schools and to see how their childrens ' schools are doing. api measures performance and progress in schools or districts and is based on factors including state tests scores ; attendance, dropout and graduation rates ; act scores and participation ; advanced placement ( ap ) credit ; and college remediation rates in reading and mathematics. the possible scores range from 0 to 1, 500. but the api can be confusing. by contrast, under house bill 1456, schools would receive a letter grade based on student performance results from a combination of state tests and end - of - instruction tests, gains made in reading and mathematics ; and improvement shown by students who had previously scored in the lowest 25th percentile of the state. state grades would be assigned as follows : • a would mean schools are making excellent progress ; • b would mean schools are making above average progress ; • c would mean schools are making satisfactory progress ; • d would mean schools are making less than satisfactory progress ; • f would mean schools are failing to make adequate progress. florida has had success with a similar plan since 1999, and test scores have risen over the past decade. in 2009, a record number of schools scored an a and the number of schools graded f was at its lowest in three years. a grading system for oklahoma schools will provide much - needed transparency. families will have a better idea of how schools rate and they will also have the tools to find the best educational opportunities in their area. i ' ve heard concerns from some who say this new system of grading schools would cause competition among schools – to which i say, absolutely! competition spurs excellence. it works in the private sector whe businesses compete. and it will work for schools, too.


according to my understanding, it is a roman adaptation of the epitrachelion and orarion - essentially priestly neck - garments. i wouldn ' t read too much into the clothing style itself, as it changes infrequently and often erratically and illogically. but the garment itself, functionally, is simply the symbol of the priesthood or diaconate, but styled differently. it ' s also important to note how simple they can be, so it is likely that they were adapted as priestly garments some time after they were in common use by aristocracy. the interesting part is that while in the orthodox tradition the stole is two different garments for the priest and deacon, in the west it is almost the same garment simply worn differently, albeit with the final effect being identical : the priest ' s is symmetrical and comes down like a beard, and the deacon ' s is asymmetrical and worn like a sash. this suggests a common origin to all of the stoles, but does not tell us what the proto - garment was, or if one of the two was the proto - garment. i would be inclined to assume the orthodox garments, partly because of the oriental churches ( non - chalcedonians ) : etc... the naming is western ( stole ) but it seems like the garment is mostly unchanged and similar to the eastern orthodox one.


| title | | the national pictorial primer, or, the first book for children ( p. 42 ) | | publisher | | george f. cooledge & brother | | publisher location | | united states - - new york - - new york | | publication date | | 1850 - 1859? | | image production process | | relief prints - - wood engravings | | notes | | illustrated with uncolored wood engravings. | includes illustrated alphabets and lessons that cover a wide variety of subjects including history, the natural sciences, moral behavior, religion, and pastimes and occupations. the stories also warn of the evils and consequences of drinking, fighting, playing with guns, playing too close to fires, imprisonment, and worshipping false gods. this lesson is about four boys who try to steal watermelons from a farmer ' s garden and are punished. the lesson ends by reminding children that " it is as bad to steal from your neighbor ' s field as it is to take money out of his purse. " the illustration shows the young boys trying to escape over a fence with their stolen watermelons. in the background is the farmer and his watchdog. the illustration at the top of the page depicts the bay of new york, " one of the finest harbors in the world. " | contextual notes | | george f. cooledge & brother published at 323 pearl st., franklin square, new york, from 1844 to 1871. | | subjects ( lcsh ) | | readers ( primary ) | | category | | primers ( instructional books ) | | digital collection | | children ' s historical literature collection | | digital id number | | chl1341 | | repository | | university of washington libraries, special collections division | | repository collection | | children ' s historical literature collection pe1119. a1 n36 1850 | | physical description | | 48 p. : illustrated ; 19. 5 x 12 cm. | | digital reproduction information | | photographed from original book in tiff format using a canon eos digital rebel xti / eos 400d, resized and enhanced using adobe photoshop, and imported as jpeg2000 using contentdm ' s software jpeg2000 extension. 2009. | | exhibit checklist | | exhibit checklist l. 24 |


picture this : flourishing soybean fields. green leaves, thick canopy, strong stands and roots, an abundance of pods. optimal moisture, not too hot, not too cold. no disease or pest incidence. the best possible soybean - growing environment you can imagine. now picture this : reality. though the optimal growing conditions may exist, the odds of no pests and disease are pretty small, and chances are you ' ll deal with a variety of them through the growing season. to alleviate the pain and pressure, though, university and extension personnel have a wealth of data and advice to help combat those pesky pests and dreadful diseases. last growing season certainly saw its share of pests and disease, along with not - so - optimal growing conditions around soybean - producing regions of the u. s. from stink bugs in the south to soybean cyst nematode ( scn ) in the north, growers had their hands full of managing beans under reality conditions. “ minnesota was very dry in much of the soybean growing areas, and diseases did not develop as they normally do, ” says dean malvick, university of minnesota extension plant pathologist. “ though 2007 was not a representative year, disease problems did exist, including scn, sds, brown stem rot, charcoal rot — due to dry weather — phytophthora and fusarium root rot. ” he expects much of the same this year, including white mold, if minnesota has near - normal rainfall, except for charcoal rot. kentucky experienced plenty of charcoal rot and scn. “ charcoal rot is always associated with drought, and much of kentucky was in serious drought during the second half of the summer in 2007, ” says don hershman, extension plant pathologist for university of kentucky. “ scn is always present, but the effects are worst when plants are under drought stress. ” missouri fields had an elevated number of stink bugs, along with white grubs, says wayne bailey, university of missouri extension entomologist. soybean aphid was also present, and reached economic infestations in a few counties and in fields with potassium deficiencies. pathologists and entomologists from across the south and the midwest have given their predictions about what to watch in 2008. granted no one can provide a solid outlook, but here ' s what they recommend you watch for this year. symptoms : plant sap is removed via sucking from the small, yellowish, glob - shaped aphid, causing leaves to


in 2008. granted no one can provide a solid outlook, but here ' s what they recommend you watch for this year. symptoms : plant sap is removed via sucking from the small, yellowish, glob - shaped aphid, causing leaves to wilt and curl. if numbers are high, leaves may become yellow and distorted ; the plant may be stunted, covered in dark, sooty mold. from seedling to blooming, aphids will colonize tender leaves / branches, later moving down to colonize near the middle / lower underside of leaves and stem. time of attack : v1 - v2 on upper leaves, petioles, stem ( scout twice / week ) ; r1 - r4 on undersides of mid - canopy leaves, stems. conditions favoring : northern states with cooler summer temps ; fields with previous aphid populations ; late plantings ; crops stressed by hot, dry weather ; high overwintering populations. management : foliar - applied insecticide when populations reach 250 / plant and continue to increase and 80 % of field is infested ; time treatment to maximize effectiveness. beneficial lady beetles could help in control. species : redbanded, southern green, brown, green symptoms : flat pod syndrome and delayed maturity ; brown and green species attack pods and seeds. feeding punctures cause small brown / black spots. young seeds can be deformed or undersized ; older seeds become shriveled and discolored. time of attack : r1 - r7 reproductive stages. conditions favoring : high populations of bugs and vulnerable growth stages ; common along louisiana and texas gulf coast. management : cultivar selection and planting date. rescue insecticide treatments when threshold reached while scouting. populations also partially suppressed by predators and parasitic wasps. bean leaf beetle symptoms : feeding is identified by small, round holes between veins. entire pods may be clipped and the outside layer of pod tissue entirely consumed. beetles feed on plants at all stages of development. overwintering populations feed on cotyledons and leaves. the next generation feeds on leaves and the final generation feeds on leaves and pods. time of attack : all season ; first generation : late v, early r ; second generation : pod - fill stage. conditions favoring : early planting and above - normal summer temperatures. late - planted fields and below - normal temps can cause better conditions for second - generation beetle pod feeding. management : timely application of rescue treatment if sampling / defoliation threshold is reached. symptoms : leaves appear


planting and above - normal summer temperatures. late - planted fields and below - normal temps can cause better conditions for second - generation beetle pod feeding. management : timely application of rescue treatment if sampling / defoliation threshold is reached. symptoms : leaves appear sandblasted. heavily infested leaves turn red - brown and die. webbing may be present on undersides of leaves. heavy infestation causes leaves to wilt and die. time of attack : v2 - r7. conditions favoring : drought conditions. management : treatment by air or ground application if infested areas increase in size ( no established threshold ). cool, wet weather conditions may reduce infestation. sudden death syndrome symptoms : leaves become brown, with veins remaining green ; leaf blades drop off but petioles remain attached. brown to gray discoloration of internal taproot. time of attack : during pod set and fill. conditions favoring : cool, wet conditions throughout summer ; well - fertilized fields ; early planting / maturity ; soil compaction ; fields with history of sds ; co - infection with scn. management : resistant cultivars ; avoid early planting — wait until soils are warmer and drier ; eliminate soil compaction. symptoms : small, black sclerotia form on lower stem and roots, both internally and externally. early season infection produces red - brown lesions. premature plant death ; plants wilt and eventually die. time of attack : r3 - r6. conditions favoring : extended periods of hot, dry weather. management : reduced plant populations ; rotation ; planting fullest maturity group ; irrigation, if available. no way to stave off damage in drought year. soybean cyst nematode symptoms : difficult to spot in high - yielding fields or when soil moisture is optimal. yellowing and stunting of plants ; white to yellow lemon - shaped cysts on roots. time of attack : as soil warms and root systems develop. conditions favoring : those that favor soybean growth. may first appear near field entrances, flooded areas, weedy areas, high - ph spots, lower - yielding areas. moisture and fertility stress can enhance disease. management : crop rotation, resistant varieties ( rotate resistant varieties, as well ), introduction prevention. test soil samples. symptoms : seed rot. seedlings may grow poorly, turn yellow and die. dieback of young plants with damping - off of lower stem. management : seed treatments ; delayed planting until soils are warmer / dr


who needed the holy land when they could fight a crusade on their doorstep? throughout the 12th century, danish forces raided the northern coasts of germany and poland time and time again. the aim was to fight the region ’ s pillaging pagans, the wends, a mixture of tribes that in turn attacked the danish coastline with regularity – raids that were particularly unwelcome during a danish civil war from 1146 - 57. despite times of peace, trade and even intermarriage between the danes and the wends ( harald bluetooth was indeed married to a wendish princess ), they were feared and hated by all in denmark. in 1147 pope eugene iii declared the second crusade in an attempt to reconquer the holy land from the muslims in the middle east. concurrently, holy war was also made a universal principle. this meant that any war waged against the enemies of god – such as the heathen wends - was now viewed by the church as a holy war and would grant the christian warriors divine privileges. the danish crusades were quickly proclaimed. the warring parties laid down their arms and put the civil war on hold, so they could do god ’ s biding. they joined the princes and dukes of northern germany in the fight against the heathens in their backyard. the saxons had been granted permission to fight the wends by a powerful abbot, bernard of clairvaux, rather than joining the second crusade to the holy land, as other germans had done. their decision made good financial sense. expeditions against the wends were much easier to organise and considerably cheaper than joining the crusade to the holy land. it also opened the door to a future taxation of their defeated neighbours. alas, it did not go very well for the christian forces. the danes and the saxons were unable to defeat the wends and ended up negotiating a peace agreement. the wends agreed to release their prisoners and accept the christian faith as their own, but almost as soon as the saxons and danes turned their backs, they returned to their pagan ways and escalated their attacks on the coasts of denmark, which was once again embroiled in civil war. but they hadn ’ t reckoned on valdemar the great, who became king of denmark in 1157 after decisively ending the civil war in victory. he immediately launched an attack on the wends, whose attack on denmark had never stopped during the civil war, and over the next 15 years he completed approximately 20 expeditions against the wends. he joined forces with his


ending the civil war in victory. he immediately launched an attack on the wends, whose attack on denmark had never stopped during the civil war, and over the next 15 years he completed approximately 20 expeditions against the wends. he joined forces with his old enemy henry the lion, the duke of saxony, in a shaky alliance. rather than just guarding themselves against wendish aggression, the two leaders expanded into the wendish areas. henry the lion was more successful, since he had a large population that he could use to colonise the newly conquered areas. valdemar, on the other hand, could not find danes willing to accept the task of settling in the wendish areas. it was simply too dangerous. the danish activity culminated with the historic conquest of the pagan stronghold of arkona in 1168. the fall of arkona signalled the danish conquest of the island of rugen and is described in detail by the danish chronicler saxo. he described how king valdemar and archbishop absalon ( the founder of copenhagen no less ) had the pagan idol svantevit destroyed. not only was the big wooden idol chopped to pieces, they used the pieces as firewood and cooked the victory feast for the troops with it, whilst the pagan temple was stripped of its treasures. the population of rugen was then christened and the island remained under danish rule until 1325, while the danish church remained in charge of ecclesiastical matters until 1660. to this day, danish scholars are still arguing whether or not the danish expeditions against the wends were crusades. the motives seem to have been very mixed indeed. an example is the conquest of arkona, which was characterised by pillaging and taxation of the area on one hand, but also the building of churches and other religious institutions on the other hand. historians agree that the expedition of 1147 can rightly be called a danish crusade as it was initiated by the pope, who promised indulgence. but that is about it. some historians believe that all the danish expeditions were crusades based on their claim that religious motives were the main reason for the expeditions. they believe that the pope ’ s proclamation of a holy war as a universal principle was still valid after the second crusade ( 1147 - 49 ). other historians, in contrast, point to the viking - like manner of the expeditions and argue that saxo only described the expedition in 1147 as a crusade, whilst the others were described as conquests driven by vengeance against the pillaging wends. they believe


it is possible to use a hash function to construct a block cipher with a structure similar to des? because a hash function is one way and a block cipher must be reversible ( to decrypt ), how is it possible? migrated from security. stackexchange. com nov 8 ' 12 at 12 : 26 it is possible to build a block cipher out of a great many things. if you want to use a hash function, the classic trick is to follow a feistel structure, which is, incidentally, the same kind of structure than what des uses. the schematics on the wikipedia page are quite clear ; you would use the hash function for the " f " part, which combines one ( sub ) key and one half of the current block, to produce a value which is to be xored with the other half of the current block. the beauty of the scheme is that the " f " function is always invoked in the same direction, both for encryption and for decryption. therefore, it can be a one - way function, like a hash function. luby and rackoff have demonstrated in 1988 that the feistel scheme offers remarkable security with as little as four rounds, provided that the " f " function is " perfect " and that the cipher block size is big enough ( to get the standard " 128 - bit security " out of the luby - rackoff proof, you need 256 - bit blocks ). of course, any concrete hash function cannot be really " perfect " ( see for instance this answer ) and there are a lot of subtle details which can destroy the security of the best thought cipher structure. as usual, you are strongly advised not to build your own crypto ( unless you are quite clear with yourself that you do it for learning and not to actually protect any data of value ). also, if you build such a cipher, you will probably notice that the resulting performance is disappointing. with a secure hash function like sha - 256, you could expect an encryption bandwidth roughly 20 times lower than what aes would get you. it is possible to use a hash function like ( sha family, for instance ) in ofb or cfb ( and possibly ctr ), by using the hash function ( with the key as part of the input! ) in the place of the block cipher encryption. that said, thomas is right - - do not build your own crypto. just use a normal block cipher. you ' ll get better performance ( especially if it ' s


who we are what is the ctbt? the comprehensive nuclear - test - ban treaty ( ctbt ) bans nuclear explosions by everyone, everywhere : on the earth ' s surface, in the atmosphere, underwater and underground. why is the ctbt important? it makes it very difficult for countries to develop nuclear bombs for the first time, or for countries that already have them, to make more powerful bombs. it also prevents the huge damage caused by radioactivity from nuclear explosions to humans, animals and plants. over 2000 nuclear explosions from 1945 to 1996 over 2000 nuclear tests were carried out between 1945 and 1996, when the ctbt opened for signature : by the united states ( 1000 + ), the soviet union ( 700 + ), france ( 200 + ), the united kingdom and china ( 45 each ). three countries have broken the de facto moratorium and tested nuclear weapons since 1996 : india and pakistan in 1998, and the democratic people ’ s republic of korea ( dprk ) in 2006 and 2009. ctbt almost universal but has yet to become law many attempts were made during the cold war to negotiate a comprehensive test ban, but it was only in the 1990s that the treaty became a reality. the ctbt was negotiated in geneva between 1994 and 1996. 183 countries have signed the treaty, of which 159 have also ratified it ( as of february 2013 ), including three of the nuclear weapon states : france, the russian federation and the united kingdom. but 44 specific nuclear technology holder countries must sign and ratify before the ctbt can enter into force. of these, eight are still missing : china, egypt, india, iran, israel, north korea, pakistan and the usa. india, north korea and pakistan have yet to sign the ctbt. the last annex 2 state to ratify the treaty was indonesia on 6 february 2012. headquarters in vienna since the treaty is not yet in force, the organization is called the preparatory commission for the comprehensive nuclear - test - ban treaty organization ( ctbto ). it was founded in 1996, has over 260 staff from over 70 countries, and is based in vienna. it is headed by the executive secretary, tibor toth from hungary. the ctbto ’ s main tasks are the promotion of the treaty and the build - up of the verification regime so that it is operational when the treaty enters into force. the annual budget is around us $ 120, 000, 000 or €82, 000, 000. verification regime to make sure that no nuclear explosion goes undete


up of the verification regime so that it is operational when the treaty enters into force. the annual budget is around us $ 120, 000, 000 or €82, 000, 000. verification regime to make sure that no nuclear explosion goes undetected the treaty has a unique and comprehensive verification regime to make sure that no nuclear explosion goes undetected. this regime consists of three pillars : the international monitoring system ( ims ) will, when complete, consist of 337 facilities worldwide to monitor the planet for signs of nuclear explosions. over 85 percent of the facilities are already up and running. the ims uses the following four state - of - the - art technologies ( numbers reflect final configuration ) : • seismic : 50 primary and 120 auxiliary seismic stations monitor shockwaves in the earth. the vast majority of these shockwaves – many thousands every year – are caused by earthquakes. but man - made explosions such as mine explosions or the north korean nuclear tests in 2006 and 2009, are also detected. • hydroacoustic : 11 hydroacoustic stations “ listen ” for sound waves in the oceans. sound waves from explosions can travel extremely far underwater. • infrasound : 60 stations on the surface can detect ultra - low frequency sound waves ( inaudible to the human ear ) that are emitted by large explosions. • radionuclide : 80 stations measure the atmosphere for radioactive particles ; 40 of them also pick up noble gas. only these measurements can give a clear indication as to whether an explosion detected by the other methods was actually nuclear or not. they are supported by 16 radionuclide laboratories. on - site inspections can be dispatched to the area of a suspicious nuclear explosion if the data from the ims indicate that a nuclear test has taken place there. inspectors will collect evidence on the ground at the suspected site. such an inspection can only be requested and approved by member states once the ctbt has entered into force. a large on - site inspection exercise was carried out in september 2008 in kazakhstan and the next one is planned for 2014 in jordan. helping tsunami warning and the environment the huge amount of data collected by the stations can also be used for other purposes than detecting nuclear explosions. they can provide tsunami warning centres with almost real - time information about an underwater earthquake, thus helping to warn people earlier and possibly saving lives. during the march 2011 fukushima power plant accident, the network ' s radionuclide stations tracked the dispersion of radioactivity on a global scale. the data could also help


over the weekend, the washington post published a series of articles on the poor health of the chesapeake bay and its tributaries. cleaning up the bay, which has been in serious trouble since the early 1980s is especially complicated since its tributaries pass through multiple jurisdictions ; new york, pennsylvania, maryland, delaware, the district of columbia, virginia, and west virginia all contain part of the watershed, which is fed by two major rivers ( the potomac and susquehanna ) and numerous smaller tributaries. that means that cleanup strategies have to be coordinated among the various stakeholders, which then have to fight their own internal battles over funding and enforcement priorities. in the meantime, work is being left undone. maryland, virginia and pennsylvania all pledged that their farmers would put up fences along streambanks to keep cows out. but they didn ' t make it a legal requirement : officials feared this kind of regulation would be a burden on farmers and would be difficult to enforce.... the problem with cow manure is that it contains nitrogen that feeds algae blooms, which in turn cause dead zones throughout much of the bay. cow manure is just one of many nitrogen or phosphorus sources within the watershed. sources include fertilizers, sewage, detergents, and septic tanks, among others. while the cleanup has effected some reductions in nitrogen and phosphorus, and stabilized some underwater life, it has fallen far short of its goals. but in virginia, many farmers simply didn ' t want the hassle. and reimbursement funding, which came out of state budget surpluses, was often short. from july 2006 to june 2007, virginia turned away 144 farmers who wanted to fence off 84 miles of streambank. now, virginia has reached only about 20 percent of its goal for fencing off streams. across the chesapeake watershed, the figure is 27 percent.


published in speaking tree, nov. 28, 2010 the kanda puranam, the tamil version of the sanskrit skanda purana, retells the story of how shiva ’ s son, murugan, ( known as kartikeya, in north india ) defeated the demon taraka and his brothers, simhamukhan and surapadman. on his defeat, simhamukhan begs forgiveness so murugan instructs him to turn into a lion and serve as the vehicle of durga. while fighting murugan, surapadman takes the form of a mountain. murugan breaks the mountain into two with his spear. one part of the mountain turns into a peacock that becomes murugan ’ s vehicle while the other part becomes a rooster that becomes murugan ’ s symbol on his flag. thus, says this narrative, the vehicles of durga and her son, murugan, are actually demons who have been subdued and transformed and become worthy of being associated with the divine. in hindu mythology, every god and goddess is associated with one animal or the other. brahma, the creator, is associated with a swan, vishnu, the preserver, with an eagle, shiva, the destroyer, with a bull. lakshmi, goddess of wealth, is associated with an elephant, saraswati, goddess of knowledge, with a goose, and durga, goddess of power, with lions and tigers. the river - goddesses ganga and yamuna ride a dolphin ( or crocodile ) and turtle respectively. the animals are called vahana, or vehicles, transporting the gods. sometimes, the same animal serves as the insignia on the deity ’ s flag. thus shiva, who rides a bull has a flag called vrishabha - dhvaja, which means the flag with the symbol of a bull. at other times, different animals serve as vahanas and as symbols on flags. murugan rides a peacock but has the rooster on his flag. through the animals an idea is communciated. the idea of love and desire in most indian poetry is expressed through the parrot, bees, butterflies and the constellation makara which marks the advent of spring. and so kama, the god of desire, is described as riding a parrot, having bees and butterflies constituting as the string of his bow whose shaft is made of sugarcane, and as having the symbol of makara on his flag. hamsa or geese ( often confused with swans ) is said to have the ability to separate milk from


bees and butterflies constituting as the string of his bow whose shaft is made of sugarcane, and as having the symbol of makara on his flag. hamsa or geese ( often confused with swans ) is said to have the ability to separate milk from water. this makes hamsa the symbol of intellectual discrimination and so is associated with saraswati, goddess of knoweldge. rats are an annoying pest and so serve as the symbol of problems. they are also highly fertile. so they are symbols of cascading problems. ganesha, the god who removes obstacles, has the rat as his vehicle ; by mounting the rat and domesticating it as his vehicle, he blocks the problems that plague our life. shiva ’ s bull communicates shiva ’ s independence, vishnu ’ s hawk indicates his mobility and wider vision of things. animals are not just vehicles or symbols of the gods ; they are the forms that the god takes. hanuman, who serves ram, is a monkey. vishnu, for example, turns into fish and turtle and wild boar in order to save the world. the earth - goddess, prithvi, often is seen in the form of a cow. ganesha has the head of an elephant while the ashwini twins have horse heads and ketu, the planetary body associated with anxiety and restlessness, is a headless serpent. in metaphysics, animals are jiva - atmas, souls wrapped in flesh. their flesh is superior to plants because they are mobile. their flesh is inferior to human beings because they do not possess the highly developed brain that enables humans to imagine, love, create and care. it says that only after 84 lakh rebirths is a jiva - atma blessed with human flesh. what distinguishes humans from all other living creatures is our infinite ability to empathize, an ability that is highly limited in animals. by riding on animals, the gods are perhaps reminding us of our ability to overpower our animal instincts of self - preservation and self - propagation and focus on the unique human capability of self - realization which can only happen when we are able to feel for the rest of the world. unfortunately, most of the time we prefer regression to evolution, behave as animals thinking only about survival. in fact, we are worse than animals, for animals think only about survival of their bodies, and do not have the wherewithal to do otherwise. we, on the other hand, spend all our lives working towards survival of our imagined self - image. so long as we


cyanobacterial emergence at 2. 8 gya and greenhouse feedbacks d. schwartzman, k. caldeira & a. pavlov approximately 2. 8 billion years ago, cyanobacteria and a methane - influenced greenhouse emerged nearly simultaneously. here we hypothesize that the evolution of cyanobacteria could have caused a methane greenhouse. apparent cyanobacterial emergence at about 2. 8 gya coincides with the negative excursion in the organic carbon isotope record, which is the first strong evidence for the presence of atmospheric methane. the existence of weathering feedbacks in the carbonate - silicate cycle suggests that atmospheric and oceanic co2 concentrations would have been high prior to the presence of a methane greenhouse ( and thus the ocean would have had high bicarbonate concentrations ). with the onset of a methane greenhouse, carbon dioxide concentrations would decrease. bicarbonate has been proposed as the preferred reductant that preceded water for oxygenic photosynthesis in a bacterial photosynthetic precursor to cyanobacteria ; with the drop of carbon dioxide level, archean cyanobacteria emerged using water as a reductant instead of bicarbonate ( dismukes et al., 2001 ). our thermodynamic calculations, with regard to this scenario, give at least a tenfold drop in aqueous co2 levels with the onset of a methane - dominated greenhouse, assuming surface temperatures of about 60°c and a drop in the level of atmospheric carbon dioxide from about 1 to 0. 1 bars. the buildup of atmospheric methane could have been triggered by the boost in oceanic organic productivity that arose from the emergence of pre - cyanobacterial oxygenic phototrophy at about 2. 8 – 3. 0 gya ; high temperatures may have precluded an earlier emergence. a greenhouse transition timescale on the order of 50 – 100 million years is consistent with results from modeling the carbonate - silicate cycle. this is an alternative hypothesis to proposals of a tectonic driver for this apparent greenhouse transition.


from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia | part of the politics series on | | communism portal | communism is a social structure in which classes are abolished and property is commonly controlled, as well as a political philosophy and social movement that advocates and aims to create such a society. karl marx, the father of communist thought, posited that communism would be the final stage in society, which would be achieved through a proletarian revolution and only possible after a socialist stage develops the productive forces, leading to a superabundance of goods and services. " pure communism " in the marxian sense refers to a classless, stateless and oppression - free society where decisions on what to produce and what policies to pursue are made democratically, allowing every member of society to participate in the decision - making process in both the political and economic spheres of life. in modern usage, communism is often used to refer to bolshevism or marxism - leninism and the policies of the various communist states which had government ownership of all the means of production and centrally planned economies. communist regimes, all inspired only by the leninist current, have historically been authoritarian, repressive, and coercive governments concerned primarily with preserving their own power. as a political ideology, communism is usually considered to be a branch of socialism ; a broad group of economic and political philosophies that draw on the various political and intellectual movements with origins in the work oftheorists of the industrial revolution and the french revolution. communism attempts to offer an alternative to the problems with the capitalist market economy and the legacy of imperialism and nationalism. marx states that the only way to solve these problems is for the working class ( proletariat ), who according to marx are the main producers of wealth in society and are exploited by the capitalist - class ( bourgeoisie ), to replace the bourgeoisie as the ruling class in order to establish a free society, without class or racial divisions. the dominant forms of communism, such as leninism, stalinism, maoism and trotskyism are based on marxism, as well as others forms of communism ( such as luxemburgism and council communism ), but non - marxist versions of communism ( such as christian communism and anarchist communism ) also exist. karl marx never provided a detailed description as to how communism would function as an economic system, but it is understood that a communist economy would consist of common ownership of the means of production, culminating in the negation of the concept of private ownership of capital, which referred to


a detailed description as to how communism would function as an economic system, but it is understood that a communist economy would consist of common ownership of the means of production, culminating in the negation of the concept of private ownership of capital, which referred to the means of production in marxian terminology. | it has been suggested that this section be split into a new article titled list of communist ideologies. ( discuss ) | in the schema of historical materialism, communism is the idea of a free society with no division or alienation, where mankind is free from oppression and scarcity. a communist society would have no governments, countries, or class divisions. in marxist theory, the dictatorship of the proletariat is the intermediate system between capitalism and communism, when the government is in the process of changing the means of ownership from privatism, to collective ownership. in political science, the term " communism " is sometimes used to refer to communist states, a form of government in which the state operates under a one - party system and declares allegiance to marxism - leninism or a derivative thereof. marxist schools of communism self - identified communists hold a variety of views, including marxism - leninism, trotskyism, council communism, luxemburgism, anarchist communism, christian communism, and various currents of left communism. however, the offshoots of the marxist - leninist interpretations of marxism are the most well - known of these and have been a driving force in international relations during most of the 20th century. like other socialists, marx and engels sought an end to capitalism and the systems which they perceived to be responsible for the exploitation of workers. but whereas earlier socialists often favored longer - term social reform, marx and engels believed that popular revolution was all but inevitable, and the only path to the socialist state. according to the marxist argument for communism, the main characteristic of human life in class society is alienation ; and communism is desirable because it entails the full realization of human freedom. marx here follows georg wilhelm friedrich hegel in conceiving freedom not merely as an absence of restraints but as action with content. according to marx, communism ' s outlook on freedom was based on an agent, obstacle, and goal. the agent is the common / working people ; the obstacles are class divisions, economic inequalities, unequal life - chances, and false consciousness ; and the goal is the fulfillment of human needs including satisfying work, and fair share of the product. they believed that communism allowed people to do what


obstacles are class divisions, economic inequalities, unequal life - chances, and false consciousness ; and the goal is the fulfillment of human needs including satisfying work, and fair share of the product. they believed that communism allowed people to do what they want, but also put humans in such conditions and such relations with one another that they would not wish to exploit, or have any need to. whereas for hegel the unfolding of this ethical life in history is mainly driven by the realm of ideas, for marx, communism emerged from material forces, particularly the development of the means of production. marxism holds that a process of class conflict and revolutionary struggle will result in victory for the proletariat and the establishment of a communist society in which private ownership is abolished over time and the means of production and subsistence belong to the community. marx himself wrote little about life under communism, giving only the most general indication as to what constituted a communist society. it is clear that it entails abundance in which there is little limit to the projects that humans may undertake. in the popular slogan that was adopted by the communist movement, communism was a world in which each gave according to their abilities, and received according to their needs. the german ideology ( 1845 ) was one of marx ' s few writings to elaborate on the communist future : " in communist society, where nobody has one exclusive sphere of activity but each can become accomplished in any branch he wishes, society regulates the general production and thus makes it possible for me to do one thing today and another tomorrow, to hunt in the morning, fish in the afternoon, rear cattle in the evening, criticise after dinner, just as i have a mind, without ever becoming hunter, fisherman, herdsman or critic. " marx ' s lasting vision was to add this vision to a theory of how society was moving in a law - governed way toward communism, and, with some tension, a political theory that explained why revolutionary activity was required to bring it about. in the late 19th century, the terms " socialism " and " communism " were often used interchangeably. however, marx and engels argued that communism would not emerge from capitalism in a fully developed state, but would pass through a " first phase " in which most productive property was owned in common, but with some class differences remaining. the " first phase " would eventually evolve into a " higher phase " in which class differences were eliminated, and a state was no longer needed. lenin frequently used the term " socialism " to refer to marx and engels


with some class differences remaining. the " first phase " would eventually evolve into a " higher phase " in which class differences were eliminated, and a state was no longer needed. lenin frequently used the term " socialism " to refer to marx and engels ' supposed " first phase " of communism and used the term " communism " interchangeably with marx and engels ' " higher phase " of communism. these later aspects, particularly as developed by vladimir ilyich lenin, provided the underpinning for the mobilizing features of 20th century communist parties. marxism - leninism is a version of socialism adopted by the soviet union and most communist parties across the world today. it shaped the soviet union and influenced communist parties worldwide. it was heralded as a possibility of building communism via a massive program of industrialization and collectivization. historically, under the ideology of marxism - leninism the rapid development of industry, and above all the victory of the soviet union in the second world war occurred alongside a third of the world being lead by marxist - leninist inspired parties. despite the fall of the soviet union and eastern bloc countries, many communist parties of the world today still lay claim to uphold the marxist - leninist banner. marxism - leninism expands on marxists thoughts by bringing the theories to what lenin and other communists considered, the age of capitalist imperialism, and a renewed focus on party building, the development of a socialist state, and democratic centralism as an organizational principle. lenin adapted marx ’ s urban revolution to russia ’ s agricultural conditions, sparking the “ revolutionary nationalism of the poor ”. the pamphlet what is to be done? ( 1902 ), proposed that the ( urban ) proletariat can successfully achieve revolutionary consciousness only under the leadership of a vanguard party of professional revolutionaries — who can achieve aims only with internal democratic centralism in the party ; tactical and ideological policy decisions are agreed via democracy, and every member must support and promote the agreed party policy. to wit, capitalism can be overthrown only with revolution — because attempts to reform capitalism from within ( fabianism ) and from without ( democratic socialism ) will fail because of its inherent contradictions. the purpose of a leninist revolutionary vanguard party is the forceful deposition of the incumbent government ; assume power ( as agent of the proletariat ) and establish a dictatorship of the proletariat government. moreover, as the government, the vanguard party must educate the proletariat — to dispel the societal false consciousness of religion and nationalism that are culturally instilled


' s 1913 work marxism and the national question, praised by lenin. - socialism in one country, - the theory of aggravation of the class struggle along with the development of socialism, a theoretical base supporting the repression of political opponents as necessary. trotsky and his supporters organized into the left opposition and their platform became known as trotskyism. stalin eventually succeeded in gaining control of the soviet regime and trotskyist attempts to remove stalin from power resulted in trotsky ' s exile from the soviet union in 1929. during trotsky ' s exile, world communism fractured into two distinct branches : marxism - leninism and trotskyism. trotsky later founded the fourth international, a trotskyist rival to the comintern, in 1938. trotskyist ideas have continually found a modest echo among political movements in some countries in latin america and asia, especially in argentina, brazil, bolivia and sri lanka. many trotskyist organizations are also active in more stable, developed countries in north america and western europe. trotsky ' s politics differed sharply from those of stalin and mao, most importantly in declaring the need for an international proletarian revolution ( rather than socialism in one country ) and unwavering support for a true dictatorship of the proletariat based on democratic principles. however, as a whole, trotsky ' s theories and attitudes were never accepted in worldwide mainstream communist circles after trotsky ' s expulsion, either within or outside of the soviet bloc. this remained the case even after the secret speech and subsequent events critics claim exposed the fallibility of stalin. maoism is the marxist - leninist trend of communism associated with mao zedong and was mostly practiced within the people ' s republic of china. khrushchev ' s reforms heightened ideological differences between the people ' s republic of china and the soviet union, which became increasingly apparent in the 1960s. as the sino - soviet split in the international communist movement turned toward open hostility, china portrayed itself as a leader of the underdeveloped world against the two superpowers, the united states and the soviet union. parties and groups that supported the communist party of china ( cpc ) in their criticism against the new soviet leadership proclaimed themselves as ' anti - revisionist ' and denounced the cpsu and the parties aligned with it as revisionist " capitalist - roaders. " the sino - soviet split resulted in divisions amongst communist parties around the world. notably, the party of labour of albania sided with the people


policies of the soviet union. the term was originally meant as a pejorative, and was labeled by moscow as a heresy during the period of tensions between the soviet union and yugoslavia known as the informbiro period from 1948 to 1955. unlike the rest of east europe, which fell under stalin ' s influence post - world war ii, yugoslavia, due to the strong leadership of marshal tito and the fact that the yugoslav partisans liberated yugoslavia with only limited help from the red army, remained independent from moscow. it became the only country in the balkans to resist pressure from moscow to join the warsaw pact and remained " socialist, but independent " right up until the collapse of soviet socialism in the late 1980s and early 1990s. throughout his time in office, tito prided himself on yugoslavia ' s independence from russia, with yugoslavia never accepting full membership of the comecon and tito ' s open rejection of many aspects of stalinism as the most obvious manifestations of this. since the early 1970s, the term eurocommunism was used to refer to moderate, reformist communist parties in western europe. these parties did not support the soviet union and denounced its policies. such parties were politically active and electorally significant in italy ( pci ), france ( pcf ), and spain ( pce ). council communism is a far - left movement originating in germany and the netherlands in the 1920s. its primary organization was the communist workers party of germany ( kapd ). council communism continues today as a theoretical and activist position within both left - wing marxism and libertarian socialism. the central argument of council communism, in contrast to those of social democracy and leninist communism, is that democratic workers ' councils arising in the factories and municipalities are the natural form of working class organisation and governmental power. this view is opposed to both the reformist and the leninist ideologies, with their stress on, respectively, parliaments and institutional government ( i. e., by applying social reforms ), on the one hand, and vanguard parties and participative democratic centralism on the other ). the core principle of council communism is that the government and the economy should be managed by workers ' councils composed of delegates elected at workplaces and recallable at any moment. as such, council communists oppose state - run authoritarian " state socialism " / " state capitalism ". they also oppose the idea of a " revolutionary party ", since council communists believe that a revolution led by a party will necessarily produce a party dictatorship. council communists support a worker ' s democracy, which


" state socialism " / " state capitalism ". they also oppose the idea of a " revolutionary party ", since council communists believe that a revolution led by a party will necessarily produce a party dictatorship. council communists support a worker ' s democracy, which they want to produce through a federation of workers ' councils. council communism ( and other types of " anti - authoritarian and anti - leninist marxism " such as autonomism ) are often viewed as being similar to anarchism because they criticize leninist ideologies for being authoritarian and reject the idea of a vanguard party. luxemburgism, based on the writing of rosa luxemburg, is an interpretation of marxism which, while supporting the russian revolution, as luxemburg did, agrees with her criticisms of the politics of lenin and trotsky ; she did not see their concept of " democratic centralism " as democracy. the chief tenets of luxemburgism are commitment to democracy and the necessity of the revolution taking place as soon as possible. in this regard, it is similar to council communism, but differs in that, for example, luxemburgists don ' t reject elections by principle. it resembles anarchism in its insistence that only relying on the people themselves as opposed to their leaders can avoid an authoritarian society, but differs in that it sees the importance of a revolutionary party, and mainly the centrality of the working class in the revolutionary struggle. it resembles trotskyism in its opposition to the totalitarianism of stalinist government while simultaneously avoiding the reformist politics of modern social democracy, but differs from trotskyism in arguing that lenin and trotsky also made undemocratic errors. luxemburg ' s idea of democracy, which stanley aronowitz calls " generalized democracy in an unarticulated form ", represents luxemburgism ' s greatest break with " mainstream communism ", since it effectively diminishes the role of the communist party, but is in fact very similar to the views of karl marx ( " the emancipation of the working classes must be conquered by the working classes themselves " ). according to aronowitz, the vagueness of luxembourgian democracy is one reason for its initial difficulty in gaining widespread support. however, since the fall of the soviet union, luxemburgism has been seen by some socialist thinkers as a way to avoid the totalitarianism of stalinism. early on, luxemburg attacked undemocratic tendencies present in the russian revolution. | this section does not


soviet union, luxemburgism has been seen by some socialist thinkers as a way to avoid the totalitarianism of stalinism. early on, luxemburg attacked undemocratic tendencies present in the russian revolution. | this section does not cite any references or sources. | please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. unsourced material may be challenged and removed. ( november 2008 ) in 1992, juche replaced marxism - leninism in the revised north korean constitution as the official state ideology, this being a response to the sino - soviet split. juche was originally defined as a creative application of marxism - leninism, but after the 1991 collapse of the soviet union ( north korea ’ s greatest economic benefactor ), all reference to marxism - leninism was dropped in the revised 1998 constitution. the establishment of the songun doctrine in the mid - 1990s has formally designated the military, not the proletariat or working class, as the main revolutionary force in north korea. all reference to communism had been dropped in the 2009 revised constitution. according to kim jong - il ' s on the juche idea, the application of juche in state policy entails the following : - the people must have independence ( chajusong ) in thought and politics, economic self - sufficiency, and self - reliance in defense. - policy must reflect the will and aspirations of the masses and employ them fully in revolution and construction. - methods of revolution and construction must be suitable to the situation of the country. - the most important work of revolution and construction is molding people ideologically as communists and mobilizing them to constructive action. prachanda path refers to the ideological line of the communist party of nepal ( maoist ). this thought doesn ' t make an ideological break with marxism, leninism and maoism but it is an extension of these ideologies totally based on home - ground politics of nepal. the doctrine came into existence after it was realized that the ideology of marxism, leninism and maoism couldn ' t be practiced completely as it were done in the past. and an ideology suitable, based on the ground reality of nepalese politics was adopted by the party. after five years of armed struggle, the party realized that none of the proletarian revolutions of the past could be carried out on nepal ’ s context. so moving further ahead than marxism, leninism and maoism, the party determined its own ideology, prachanda path. having analyzed the serious challenges and growing changes in


became one of the dominant forms of anarchist organization, arguing that labor unions, as opposed to communist parties, are the organizations that can change society. consequently, many anarchists have been in opposition to marxist communism to this day. anarchist communists propose that the freest form of social organisation would be a society composed of self - governing communes with collective use of the means of production, organized by direct democracy, and related to other communes through federation. however, some anarchist communists oppose the majoritarian nature of direct democracy, feeling that it can impede individual liberty and favor consensus democracy. christian communism is a form of religious communism centered on christianity. it is a theological and political theory based upon the view that the teachings of jesus christ urge christians to support communism as the ideal social system. christian communists trace the origins of their practice to teachings in the new testament, such as this one from acts of the apostles at chapter 2 and verses 42, 44, and 45 : 42 and they continued steadfastly in the apostles ' doctrine and in fellowship [... ] 44 and all that believed were together, and had all things in common ; 45 and sold their possessions and goods, and parted them to all men, as every man had need. ( king james version ) christian communism can be seen as a radical form of christian socialism. also, due to the fact that many christian communists have formed independent stateless communes in the past, there is also a link between christian communism and christian anarchism. christian communists may or may not agree with various parts of marxism. christian communists also share some of the political goals of marxists, for example replacing capitalism with socialism, which should in turn be followed by communism at a later point in the future. however, christian communists sometimes disagree with marxists ( and particularly with leninists ) on the way a socialist or communist society should be organized. karl heinrich marx saw primitive communism as the original, hunter - gatherer state of humankind from which it arose. for marx, only after humanity was capable of producing surplus, did private property develop. in the history of western thought, certain elements of the idea of a society based on common ownership of property can be traced back to ancient times. examples include the spartacus slave revolt in rome. the fifth century mazdak movement in what is now iran has been described as " communistic " for challenging the enormous privileges of the noble classes and the clergy, criticizing the institution of private property and for striving for an egalitarian society. at one time or another,


in what is now iran has been described as " communistic " for challenging the enormous privileges of the noble classes and the clergy, criticizing the institution of private property and for striving for an egalitarian society. at one time or another, various small communist communities existed, generally under the inspiration of scripture. in the medieval christian church, for example, some monastic communities and religious orders shared their land and other property ( see religious communism and christian communism ). these groups often believed that concern with private property was a distraction from religious service to god and neighbor. communist thought has also been traced back to the work of 16th century english writer thomas more. in his treatise utopia ( 1516 ), more portrayed a society based on common ownership of property, whose rulers administered it through the application of reason. in the 17th century, communist thought arguably surfaced again in england. in 17th century england, a puritan religious group known as the diggers advocated the abolition of private ownership of land. eduard bernstein, in his 1895 cromwell and communism argued that several groupings in the english civil war, especially the diggers espoused clear communistic, agrarian ideals, and that oliver cromwell ' s attitude to these groups was at best ambivalent and often hostile. criticism of the idea of private property continued into the age of enlightenment of the 18th century, through such thinkers as jean jacques rousseau in france. later, following the upheaval of the french revolution, communism emerged as a political doctrine. francois noel babeuf, in particular, espoused the goals of common ownership of land and total economic and political equality among citizens. various social reformers in the early 19th century founded communities based on common ownership. but unlike many previous communist communities, they replaced the religious emphasis with a rational and philanthropic basis. notable among them were robert owen, who founded new harmony in indiana ( 1825 ), and charles fourier, whose followers organized other settlements in the united states such as brook farm ( 1841 – 47 ). later in the 19th century, karl marx described these social reformers as " utopian socialists " to contrast them with his program of " scientific socialism " ( a term coined by friedrich engels ). other writers described by marx as " utopian socialists " included saint - simon. in its modern form, communism grew out of the socialist movement of 19th century europe. as the industrial revolution advanced, socialist critics blamed capitalism for the misery of the proletariat — a new class of urban factory workers who labored under often - hazardous conditions. foremost among


communism grew out of the socialist movement of 19th century europe. as the industrial revolution advanced, socialist critics blamed capitalism for the misery of the proletariat — a new class of urban factory workers who labored under often - hazardous conditions. foremost among these critics were the german philosopher karl marx and his associate friedrich engels. in 1848, marx and engels offered a new definition of communism and popularized the term in their famous pamphlet the communist manifesto. engels, who lived in manchester, observed the organization of the chartist movement ( see history of british socialism ), while marx departed from his university comrades to meet the proletariat in france and germany. growth of modern communism in the late 19th century, russian marxism developed a distinct character. the first major figure of russian marxism was georgi plekhanov. underlying the work of plekhanov was the assumption that russia, less urbanized and industrialized than western europe, had many years to go before society would be ready for proletarian revolution to occur, and a transitional period of a bourgeois democratic regime would be required to replace tsarism with a socialist and later communist society. ( eb ) in russia, the 1917 october revolution was the first time any party with an avowedly marxist orientation, in this case the bolshevik party, seized state power. the assumption of state power by the bolsheviks generated a great deal of practical and theoretical debate within the marxist movement. marx predicted that socialism and communism would be built upon foundations laid by the most advanced capitalist development. russia, however, was one of the poorest countries in europe with an enormous, largely illiterate peasantry and a minority of industrial workers. marx had explicitly stated that russia might be able to skip the stage of bourgeoisie capitalism. other socialists also believed that a russian revolution could be the precursor of workers ' revolutions in the west. the moderate mensheviks opposed lenin ' s bolshevik plan for socialist revolution before capitalism was more fully developed. the bolsheviks ' successful rise to power was based upon the slogans " peace, bread, and land " and " all power to the soviets ", slogans which tapped the massive public desire for an end to russian involvement in the first world war, the peasants ' demand for land reform, and popular support for the soviets. the usage of the terms " communism " and " socialism " shifted after 1917, when the bolsheviks changed their name to the communist party and installed a single party regime devoted to the implementation of socialist policies under leninism. the second international had dissolved


soviets. the usage of the terms " communism " and " socialism " shifted after 1917, when the bolsheviks changed their name to the communist party and installed a single party regime devoted to the implementation of socialist policies under leninism. the second international had dissolved in 1916 over national divisions, as the separate national parties that composed it did not maintain a unified front against the war, instead generally supporting their respective nation ' s role. lenin thus created the third international ( comintern ) in 1919 and sent the twenty - one conditions, which included democratic centralism, to all european socialist parties willing to adhere. in france, for example, the majority of the french section of the workers ' international ( sfio ) party split in 1921 to form the french section of the communist international ( sfic ). henceforth, the term " communism " was applied to the objective of the parties founded under the umbrella of the comintern. their program called for the uniting of workers of the world for revolution, which would be followed by the establishment of a dictatorship of the proletariat as well as the development of a socialist economy. ultimately, if their program held, there would develop a harmonious classless society, with the withering away of the state. during the russian civil war ( 1918 – 1922 ), the bolsheviks nationalized all productive property and imposed a policy of war communism, which put factories and railroads under strict government control, collected and rationed food, and introduced some bourgeois management of industry. after three years of war and the 1921 kronstadt rebellion, lenin declared the new economic policy ( nep ) in 1921, which was to give a " limited place for a limited time to capitalism. " the nep lasted until 1928, when joseph stalin achieved party leadership, and the introduction of the first five year plan spelled the end of it. following the russian civil war, the bolsheviks formed in 1922 the union of soviet socialist republics ( ussr ), or soviet union, from the former russian empire. following lenin ' s democratic centralism, the communist parties were organized on a hierarchical basis, with active cells of members as the broad base ; they were made up only of elite cadres approved by higher members of the party as being reliable and completely subject to party discipline. after world war ii, communists consolidated power in eastern europe, and in 1949, the communist party of china ( cpc ) led by mao zedong established the people ' s republic of china, which would later follow its own ideological path of communist development. cuba, north korea,


communists consolidated power in eastern europe, and in 1949, the communist party of china ( cpc ) led by mao zedong established the people ' s republic of china, which would later follow its own ideological path of communist development. cuba, north korea, vietnam, laos, cambodia, angola, and mozambique were among the other countries in the third world that adopted or imposed a pro - communist government at some point. although never formally unified as a single political entity, by the early 1980s almost one - third of the world ' s population lived in communist states, including the former soviet union and people ' s republic of china. by comparison, the british empire had ruled up to one - quarter of the world ' s population at its greatest extent. communist states such as the soviet union and china succeeded in becoming industrial and technological powers, challenging the capitalists ' powers in the arms race and space race and military conflicts. cold war years by virtue of the soviet union ' s victory in the second world war in 1945, the soviet army had occupied nations in both eastern europe and east asia ; as a result, communism as a movement spread to many new countries. this expansion of communism both in europe and asia gave rise to a few different branches of its own, such as maoism. communism had been vastly strengthened by the winning of many new nations into the sphere of soviet influence and strength in eastern europe. governments modeled on soviet communism took power with soviet assistance in bulgaria, czechoslovakia, east germany, poland, hungary and romania. a communist government was also created under marshal tito in yugoslavia, but tito ' s independent policies led to the expulsion of yugoslavia from the cominform, which had replaced the comintern. titoism, a new branch in the world communist movement, was labeled deviationist. albania also became an independent communist nation after world war ii. by 1950, the chinese communists held all of mainland china, thus controlling the most populous nation in the world. other areas where rising communist strength provoked dissension and in some cases led to actual fighting through conventional and guerrilla warfare include the korean war, laos, many nations of the middle east and africa, and notably succeeded in the case of the vietnam war against the military power of the united states and its allies. with varying degrees of success, communists attempted to unite with nationalist and socialist forces against what they saw as western imperialism in these poor countries. fear of communism with the exception of the soviet union ' s, china ' s and the italian resistance movement ' s great contribution in world war ii, communism was


unite with nationalist and socialist forces against what they saw as western imperialism in these poor countries. fear of communism with the exception of the soviet union ' s, china ' s and the italian resistance movement ' s great contribution in world war ii, communism was seen as a rival, and a threat to western democracies and capitalism for most of the twentieth century. this rivalry peaked during the cold war, as the world ' s two remaining superpowers, the united states and the soviet union, polarized most of the world into two camps of nations ( characterized in the west as " the free world " vs. " behind the iron curtain " ) ; supported the spread of their economic and political systems ( capitalism and democracy vs. communism ) ; strengthened their military power, developed new weapon systems and stockpiled nuclear weapons ; competed with each other in space exploration ; and even fought each other through proxy client nations. near the beginning of the cold war, on february 9, 1950, senator joseph mccarthy from wisconsin accused 205 americans working in the state department of being " card - carrying communists ". the fear of communism in the u. s. spurred aggressive investigations and the red - baiting, blacklisting, jailing and deportation of people suspected of following communist or other left - wing ideology. many famous actors and writers were put on a " blacklist " from 1950 to 1954, which meant they would not be hired and would be subject to public disdain. after the collapse of the soviet union in 1985, mikhail gorbachev became leader of the soviet union and relaxed central control, in accordance with reform policies of glasnost ( openness ) and perestroika ( restructuring ). the soviet union did not intervene as poland, east germany, czechoslovakia, bulgaria, romania, and hungary all abandoned communist rule by 1990. in 1991, the soviet union itself dissolved. by the beginning of the 21st century, states controlled by communist parties under a single - party system include the people ' s republic of china, cuba, laos, vietnam, and informally north korea. communist parties, or their descendant parties, remain politically important in many countries. president dimitris christofias of cyprus is a member of the progressive party of working people, but the country is not run under single - party rule. in south africa, the communist party is a partner in the anc - led government. in india, communists lead the governments of three states, with a combined population of more than 115 million. in nepal, communists hold a majority in the parliament.


in south africa, the communist party is a partner in the anc - led government. in india, communists lead the governments of three states, with a combined population of more than 115 million. in nepal, communists hold a majority in the parliament. the people ' s republic of china has reassessed many aspects of the maoist legacy ; and the people ' s republic of china, laos, vietnam, and, to a far lesser degree, cuba have reduced state control of the economy in order to stimulate growth. the people ' s republic of china runs special economic zones dedicated to market - oriented enterprise, free from central government control. several other communist states have also attempted to implement market - based reforms, including vietnam. theories within marxism as to why communism in eastern europe was not achieved after socialist revolutions pointed to such elements as the pressure of external capitalist states, the relative backwardness of the societies in which the revolutions occurred, and the emergence of a bureaucratic stratum or class that arrested or diverted the transition press in its own interests. ( scott and marshall, 2005 ) marxist critics of the soviet union, most notably trotsky, referred to the soviet system, along with other communist states, as " degenerated " or " deformed workers ' states ", arguing that the soviet system fell far short of marx ' s communist ideal and he claimed the working class was politically dispossessed. the ruling stratum of the soviet union was held to be a bureaucratic caste, but not a new ruling class, despite their political control. anarchists who adhere to participatory economics claim that the soviet union became dominated by powerful intellectual elites who in a capitalist system crown the proletariat ’ s labor on behalf of the bourgeoisie. non - marxists, in contrast, have often applied the term to any society ruled by a communist party and to any party aspiring to create a society similar to such existing nation - states. in the social sciences, societies ruled by communist parties are distinct for their single party control and their socialist economic bases. while some social and political scientists applied the concept of " totalitarianism " to these societies, others identified possibilities for independent political activity within them, and stressed their continued evolution up to the point of the dissolution of the soviet union and its allies in eastern europe during the late 1980s and early 1990s. a diverse array of writers and political activists have published criticism of communism, such as : - soviet bloc dissidents lech wałesa, aleksandr solzhenitsyn