history of photography a thumbnail sketch by : andrew j. morris, copyright 1989, all rights reserved it is not our aim to describe here the complex development of the science of photography in its entirety, there are a great number of books available on that subject. it is necessary however, to have some understanding of the - basic developments in the field of photography, if we are to understand the circumstances under which historic photographs were made. this brief outline will give the general background, rather than minute details, of the chemical / mechanical aspects of picture taking. the camera existed long before the first photograph. the camera - obscura was a device that captured light and produced a focused image. initially working on the " pinhole " principal, and later incorporating lenses, these early box cameras were used by artists, who could trace the images to create drawings with accurate perspective. the first commercially successful photographic processes were based on an amazing property of silver nitrate, a chemical that turns from a light silvery gray to black when exposed to light. this strange property was observed long before the first photographs were made. some experimenters reasoned that a sheet of paper, glass, or other material, coated with silver nitrate and exposed to light and shadow would develop an image as the parts of the silver nitrate exposed to light turned black. the only problem was, when such an image was brought out into the light to look at it, the parts of the silver nitrate that had not been exposed to light soon turned black, eradicating the image. in daguerre ' s process, the product of which soon came to be called a daguerreotype, a silver plated copper plate was polished to a mirror sheen. after being treated with chemicals to produce a light sensitive surface, the plate was exposed in a camera, then further treated to fix the image. thus, a one of a kind image was created directly in the camera. although it is actually a negative image ( and hence laterally reversed ), the daguerreotype appears positive when held at the proper angle, so that the mirror - like background reflects a dark surface, leaving the silver nitrate image relatively lighter. these images are the sharpest and clearest of any old photographic method. the french government purchased the rights to this process from daguerre, and gave it freely to the world. talbot ' s process, called the talbotype or later refined as the calotype, was much more like the process we would recognize today. talbot used silver nitrate salts in a solution. a sheet of paper was soaked


gave it freely to the world. talbot ' s process, called the talbotype or later refined as the calotype, was much more like the process we would recognize today. talbot used silver nitrate salts in a solution. a sheet of paper was soaked in the solution, then exposed in the camera and treated to fix the image. this produced a negative image, which could then be reproduced indefinitely by placing the negative on top of another sensitized sheet, and shining light through the negative. the dark portions, where light had turned the silver nitrate black, blocked the light, and the lighter portions transmitted the light, creating a positive image on the copy. talbot patented his process, and sold the rights to others wishing to make pictures. because of the paper base used in the negative, the image produced by this process was much less sharp than the daguerreotype, and due to that fact, together with the additional expense created by the licensing process, this method was much less popular than the daguerreotype, especially outside of england. the next major development was the introduction of the glass plate negative, which used a coating of colloidian to hold the silver nitrate on the surface of a glass plate. the clear glass overcame the fuzziness of the calotype, and still allowed multiple copies of each picture, using the glass plate negative to make paper prints. introduced in 1847, by 1860 this was the dominant method of photography in use. the plate had to be used immediately after the colloidian was applied, before it dried, so this process was known as wet plate photography. in 1854, an offspring of the wet plate method was introduced to compete with the daguerreotype, the new form being called an ambrotype. in this process, a glass plate was again used. by mounting the negative image in a case with a black backing, it could be viewed as a positive image. this form was quite popular from 1855 to about 1870. the tintype was introduced in 1856. here, the photographic emulsion - the material carrying the unexposed silver nitrate - was spread thinly over the face of a thin plate of tinned iron that was " japped " to blacken the surface before the emulsion was applied. the practical effect was similar to the ambrotype, the black background making the negative image appear positive. the tintype could be produced very inexpensively, and was much more sturdy than the ambrotype, so this method continued to be used until about 1900. the next major development in photography was


, the black background making the negative image appear positive. the tintype could be produced very inexpensively, and was much more sturdy than the ambrotype, so this method continued to be used until about 1900. the next major development in photography was the " dry plate " negative, which made picture taking much less cumbersome. a colloidion dry plate was invented in 1855 and used commercially between 1864 and 1880, but it never became very popular. the gelatin dry plate was invented in 1871, and by 1880 supplanted not only the colloidion dry plate, but the old colloidion wet plate as well. these convenient dry plates continued in use until about 1920 when they were replaced by the plastic based films. there were through these years a number of developments in the types and characteristics of papers used to print photographs from glass plates. the salted paper, in which regular paper was impregnated with sodium nitrate and silver salts to form silver nitrate, was used from 1839 ( this was the kind of paper talbot used ) into the 1860 ' s, though with diminishing popularity. it was replaced by coated papers, where the paper served as a backing for a sensitive emulsion, much as glass served to hold similar emulsions for negatives. in albumen paper, the emulsion was made from egg whites, which were found to be a suitable medium in that it held the silver nitrate evenly dispersed, adhered to the paper well, and dried clear. invented in 1850, the albumen paper soon replaced salted paper and continued in use until about the turn of the century, when it in turn was replaced, this time by bromide paper. other papers were tried and enjoyed some limited success, but because of greater expense or difficulty of use, they were never widely used. carbon prints were developed as early as 1855, and continued in sporadic use until modern times. because of the difficulties involved in their use they are more often found among " art " photographs than in general use. instead of relying on the photosensitive characteristics of silver nitrate, carbon prints used a gelatin emulsion that hardened slightly when exposed to light. after exposure the paper is washed in running water to remove the softer gelatin, leaving the image. the gelatin was usually colored with lamp black ( carbon ) which gave rise to the name. platinum paper is similar to silver nitrate papers, except platinum replaces the silver, creating a different tone in the image and increasing greatly the expense of the paper. prior to the turn of


colored with lamp black ( carbon ) which gave rise to the name. platinum paper is similar to silver nitrate papers, except platinum replaces the silver, creating a different tone in the image and increasing greatly the expense of the paper. prior to the turn of the century the papers used in photography were generally very thin. these pictures were usually pasted onto cardboard mounts to make them more durable and to prevent curling. the size and character of these mounts offer some clues to the age of a photograph. they are important too because many photographers printed the name and address of their business on the backs, providing more clues to the provenience of the pictures attached. occasionally, thoughtful owners even wrote identifying information on the back of these. stereo photographs were introduced in 1849 and became popular in europe by 1854 and the u. s. by 1858. these consist of two photographs mounted side by side, showing the same subject from just slightly different perspectives, so that when viewed through a " stereoscope " the image appears three dimensional. there were stereo daguerreotypes, ambrotypes, etc., but these are rare, the vast majority of surviving stereoviews being card mounted prints. stereo photographs continued to be popular well into this century. the hyalotype, a glass plate positive, was developed in the 1850 ' s, but it was not until the mid 1870 ' s that they became widely available as " magic lantern slides. " these were capable of being projected onto a screen or wall from a machine called a magic lantern or stereopticon, which passed a bright beam of light through the slide and an enlarging lens. the name stereopticon is a confusing misnomer, since these had nothing to do with stereo photography, but were an early form of the slide projector, which in time was developed into the motion picture projector as well. developing mechanical means for printing photographs with a printing press or lithograph was a major concern of 19th century inventors. finally, about 1870 a practical means of photomechanical reproduction became available, but it was not very good at reproducing the gray shades. then, about 1880, the halftone method was perfected, allowing accurate reproduction of photographs at reasonable cost and giving rise to many illustrated magazines and newspapers. initially, photographs were limited in size by the size of the camera and photographic plate. one of a kind photos like daguerreotypes were of course the size of the plate used to make them. with glass plates, the print was produced by placing the


photographs were limited in size by the size of the camera and photographic plate. one of a kind photos like daguerreotypes were of course the size of the plate used to make them. with glass plates, the print was produced by placing the plate against a sheet a paper and letting light pass through the negative, producing a photo exactly the same size as the negative. a process for enlarging prints was invented in the late 1850 ' s but it was not until almost 1880 that it became widely available. the magic of photography caught the popular imagination as soon as it became known and available. by 1853 there were 86 photographic studios in new york city each churning out hundreds of portraits every sunny day. there were over 400, 000 daguerreotype plates produced in massachusetts alone in 1855. by 1873 there were an estimated 5, 250 photographers in the u. s. but it was not until the introduction of the kodak camera in 1888 that the practice of taking pictures began to reach the masses. the eastman kodak company introduced an innovation that made photography accessible to the average person - they did the developing and printing, all the user had to do was take the picture! prior to that time, all photographs were taken either by professional photographers or very dedicated amateurs who were willing to go through the entire tedious and difficult process. after 1888 almost every aspect of everyday life became subject to photographic recordation, and a boom that goes on even today was born. with the coming of the 20th century photography has advanced by leaps and bounds. the first film was developed late in the 19th century, made of a dried gelatin. this film was very fragile and did not gain widespread popularity. then in 1889 a nitrate based, plastic roll film was developed. due to a tendency to curl, this film also lacked popularity, but in 1903 a non - curling variety was developed, and began to be widely used, and in 1913 the film became available in sheet form and began to compete with the glass plate negative, which it eventually supplanted. even the new moving pictures were filmed on nitrate film. the only problem was, the nitrate film was very flammable, and when burned gave off a poisonous gas. safety film, a non flammable plastic based film was developed in 1939 and soon replaced sheet and roll nitrate film for still photographs, and in another ten years in movie film as well. the photographic papers in use in this century tend to be sturdier than those of earlier years, so the practice of pasting them to cardboard mounts


sheet and roll nitrate film for still photographs, and in another ten years in movie film as well. the photographic papers in use in this century tend to be sturdier than those of earlier years, so the practice of pasting them to cardboard mounts was mostly dropped. professional photographers still used cardboard backings, sometimes folding cards that covered the front of the photo as well and could serve as a stand, but the picture was just slipped into slots in the mount, or tacked lightly in one spot to hold it in place. other twentieth century developments have been color film, plastic transparencies ( such as slides ), and instant photography - film that develops itself just moments after the picture is taken. now moving pictures are being digitized and recorded on tape ( vcr ' s ) and almost every home has at least one camera. satellites take pictures of earth from far out in space, and every doctor ' s office is equipped with x - ray equipment to take pictures of inner space. photography has advance so far that we often take it for granted, and find it hard to imagine the wonder with which the invention was greeted 150 years ago. photographs have become so ubiquitous and little valued that they are often disposed of out of hand. we forget that these images of the past are irreplaceable - that moment is gone forever, only its image remains. let ' s see if we can ' t manage to preserve some of those captured moments for the future. this brief overview of the history of photography touches only on the mainstream trends and important contributions. photographs have been made on ivory and leather, and by methods and means not mentioned here, but this is not intended as an exhaustive compilation of every path photographic science has followed, but as a general introduction to the broad overview of photographic history. an understanding of this history can help one date and identify old pictures, and better appreciate their irreplaceable nature. for a more detailed history of photography, you should see the absolute classic work on the subject history of photography by beaumont newhall. and for an entertaining look at the world ' s greatest photographic museum, along with a comprehensive view of the history of photography from daguerreotype to modern digital technology, take a look at photography from 1839 to today : george eastman house, rochester ny edited by william s. johnson, mark rice, carla williams, and therese mulligan. and finally, for a comprehensive and up - to - date guide to pretty much all that is known about the historical development of photography, see the he


cyberbullying – a pre - teen or teen teasing, humiliating, threatening or targeting another using digital media such as facebook or texting – is a troubling social phenomenon receiving much attention in the news media lately. albert wisner public library will offer a program on cyberbullying on wednesday, november 17th from 6 : 30 - 7 : 50pm in the storytime room, off the children ' s room. the program will be led by denyse altman variano and suzan sussman, educators for cornell cooperative extension – orange county, in the area of human development & family studies. working in close coordination with orange county early childhood centers, schools, health and human service agencies, the faith community, area businesses and service organizations, denyse and suzan offer prevention - based education programs and training to individuals, families and educators. this program will be an interactive presentation, including videos designed for teens and group discussion. topics covered will include causes and consequences of cyberbullying ; how to prevent it ; how to handle it if it occurs ; teens ’ and parents ’ roles in addressing it effectively. all interested adults and teens of the warwick valley central school district are invited. please register by calling the library ’ s help desk at 986 - 1047, ext. 3, or by stopping by the help desk at the library.


( ara ) – the clean water act was established 40 years ago with the goal of protecting waterways and ensuring homes and offices receive clean drinking water. as the legislation marks its 40th anniversary, water officials and water consumers alike are looking back on the accomplishments and planning for new ways to continue water quality improvements. “ the clean water act touches every source of water and establishes a goal for protecting our waterways and systems in the cities and communities where we live and work, ” says mike musgrave, director of program development for mwh global, a water - focused engineering consulting firm that has helped organizations and municipalities meet demands of the clean water act. while the effects of the clean water act are far - reaching, do you realize its impact on your day - to - day water usage? whether trolling your favorite fishing spot, taking a dip in your local swimming hole or enjoying a glass of tap water, the environmental protection agency and cities around the country are working together to ensure the safest possible standards are applied to water sources. here are a few facts : more than half of the nation ’ s waterways now meet the standards set forth in the clean water act, despite the population doubling and increasing pressure on the systems. all states are required to establish water quality standards and pollution limits for all water sources in their jurisdiction. companies across the country are required to change their pollution habits to preserve the natural aqua - environments in their areas. as a result, those pristine environments will be sustained and kept clean for many more generations to enjoy. the clean water act resulted in many aging sewers and pipelines across the country getting a facelift. this means more efficient, sustainable water infrastructure around the country. more projects to upgrade aging infrastructure are also planned or underway today. “ working with cities to implement the clean water act water quality standards will continue to positively impact our nation ’ s water from origination to treatment to delivery, ” musgrave says. “ every person deserves clean water, and we hope the next 40 years will bring even more improvements to protect our country ’ s most irreplaceable resource. ”


legislation relating to the provision of home care services according to the maltese civil code ( book first of persons, art. 2 ), a married person who is in need of help with daily living can rely on maintenance from his / her spouse provided that they still live together. maintenance is defined in article 19, paragraph 1 as including food, clothing, health and habitation. children are bound to maintain their parents or other ascendants who are indigent. however, neither of the spouses can claim maintenance from their children if such maintenance could be provided by the other spouse ( art. 5. 3 ). no one is legally obliged to care for unmarried people or widows with no children. the state would be responsible for their care. the main legislation that governs home care in malta is the social security act ( cap. 318 ). this law deals with the provision of benefits, assistances and pensions to the poor, sick, elderly and the unemployed. a carer ' s pension is payable to “ all unmarried or widowed persons who are taking care, on their own of a parent who is bed - ridden or confined to a wheel - chair ”. a legal notice entitled state financed services rate regulations ( l. n. 259 of 2004 ) determines the amount that an elderly person residing in state financed homes shall contribute to government for his / her care and upkeep. care is classified as level 1 care, where residential care with only minimal basic care is provided and level 2 care where the residential service provided includes such level of care that goes beyond minimal basic care as certified by the interdisciplinary assessment team within the elderly and community services department. organisation and financing of home care services as malta is small ( 316 km2 with a population of 400, 000 ), all policies are promulgated and passed by the national government. there are consequently no formal regional or district tiers of health care. nevertheless, there are 68 local councils. they do not have any policy making power but many have an elected person who is responsible for monitoring the provision and quality of services for the elderly. although it is the responsibility of the national government to provide day - care centres, it is often on the initiative of local councils which in many cases also provide and furnish the actual building. the health care system is publicly financed through general taxation and is free at the point of delivery although users may have to make out - of - pocket payments. private healthcare is fairly common ( ministry of health, 2002 ). in 1987, the government set up a department for the


publicly financed through general taxation and is free at the point of delivery although users may have to make out - of - pocket payments. private healthcare is fairly common ( ministry of health, 2002 ). in 1987, the government set up a department for the care of the elderly which is responsible for taking care of the special needs of the elderly. the aim, in providing these services, is to enable elderly people and those with special needs to remain living within the community for as long as possible. community services for the elderly and for people with special needs are heavily subsidised by the state. people receiving such services pay a nominal fee based on their income ( ministry of health, 2002 ). requests for the homecare help service must be accompanied by a medical report. this is sent to the department for the elderly and community services, which then arranges for a social worker to visit the applicant in their home in order to assess their needs. the number of hours granted is dependant on each person ’ s needs. kinds of home care services available there is a wide range of home care services for the elderly in malta. there are 13 day centres mainly for people who are over 60 years of age. priority is given to elderly people living alone, those who are not involved in social activities and those who could be at risk spending long hours on their own. the centres, which are open 5 days a week, offer physical education, social and creative activities and sometimes educational talks on relevant issues e. g. health, home safety and welfare services. intergenerational activities are encouraged and outdoor activities are organised twice monthly. people attending day centres are required to pay a nominal fee ( ranging from lm 1 to lm 2. 5 a month depending on how many times they attend the centre ) with an additional 50 cent charge being made for couples. the handyman service offers a range of about 70 different repair jobs e. g. linked to plumbing, carpentry, transportation of objects, electrical work etc. the service is free of charge to senior citizens holding the pink form and special id card ( which are granted on a means tested basis and entitle holders to free medication and certain other benefits ). people who do not have such cards have to pay for the service. this usually amounts to lm 1 - lm 2 depending on the job required. in all cases, the person receiving the service must pay for any necessary materials. the homecare help service provides non nursing care, personal assistance and help with light domestic work to older people


lm 1 - lm 2 depending on the job required. in all cases, the person receiving the service must pay for any necessary materials. the homecare help service provides non nursing care, personal assistance and help with light domestic work to older people i. e. over 60. the services are adapted to each person ’ s individual needs. people over the age of 85 are given priority. other criteria include having special needs and the ability to live a relatively independent life in one ’ s own home if given assistance, being terminally ill or living alone with no formal or informal family support network. there is a nominal fee of lm 1 per week for a single person and lm 1. 50 in the case of more than one person benefiting from the service. the preparation of meals incurs an additional charge of 50 cents for a single person and 75 cents for more than one person. the incontinence service is available to people over 60 years of age or younger people with special needs. incontinence pads / diapers are heavily subsidised in order to permit people with this problem to continue living in the community. nevertheless, there is a charge which ranges from 7 cents to 11 cents each. meals - on - wheels are provided 7 days a week by the maltese cross corps ( a non - governmental organisation ) and the catholic action movement in collaboration with the department for the elderly and community services. people over 60 years of age and people with disability, who are unable to prepare their own meals, can benefit from this service. each meal costs 95 cents ( approx. eur 2. 2 ). when delivering the meals, the specially trained staff ask whether the elderly person needs anything and keep an eye on the person ’ s home environment. they are expected to report anything unusual to the organisers of the service. the social work unit provides psychological counselling, guidance and assistance to certain categories of elderly people including those with dementia and those living alone with a high level of dependency. the unit “ deals with social casework, provides advocacy for clients, facilitates self - help management and develops action plans, performs crisis intervention work, provides assessments for residential homes, home care help service and assessments of carer ’ s pension for the department of social security, and liaises with the geriatric, general and rehabilitation hospitals, the health department, police, local councils and other community organizations. ” a medical report is necessary to benefit from this service. once approved, either the social worker visits the person in their own home or


the geriatric, general and rehabilitation hospitals, the health department, police, local councils and other community organizations. ” a medical report is necessary to benefit from this service. once approved, either the social worker visits the person in their own home or the person has a meeting with the social worker at the offices of the department. the telecare service is designed to enable subscribers to call for help when needed. this gives older people, those with special needs and also their friends and relatives a feeling of security and encourages subscribers to carry on living in their own homes. the service is available to elderly couples / people living alone aged 80 and over, people over 70 suffering from a chronic illness, people of any age living alone who are afflicted by a life threatening illness and people who are afflicted by a life threatening illness whose carers would benefits from the service. in case of emergency, the elderly person just needs to press a button on the unit itself or on a pendant worn round the neck and a call is made to the control centre which has full medical details as well as the contact details of the person, the doctor and two relatives, friends or neighbours who have a key. the service costs lm 1 per month for single people and lm 1. 16 for two people living together the malta hospice movement offers a comprehensive range of services to terminally ill people, most of whom are elderly. this includes home care, day therapy, spiritual support, night and day nursing in the home, respite care, assistance with bathing and hairdressing. respite care is mainly provided at zammit clapp hospital, a specialised geriatrics assessment and rehabilitation hospital and at st. vincent de paul residence, a residential complex. both these units are state - run and free. however, places are limited and an application has to be submitted beforehand. respite can also be organised in residential homes run on a profit making basis, as well as in church - run residential homes. voluntary associations offering services for the elderly in the community include caritas malta, the catholic action movement, the legion of mary, the social action movement and the st vincent de paule society. in 1982, caritas set up the “ good neighbour scheme ”. every elderly person is visited, assessed and invited to participate in this free service. if interested, the volunteers motivate neighbours who then keep a friendly and regular watch on the elderly person. some provide direct help and some alert the necessary authorities in order to organise help. a number


assessed and invited to participate in this free service. if interested, the volunteers motivate neighbours who then keep a friendly and regular watch on the elderly person. some provide direct help and some alert the necessary authorities in order to organise help. a number of grants are available to the elderly for home adaptations or improvements. the independent living advice centre is an organisation run by volunteers which promotes the use of technical aids to enable frail and elderly people with disabilities to manage daily activities and retain their independence. - department of information ( 2004 ). legal notice 259 of 2004 : state financed services rate regulations. http : / / www. doi. gov. mt / en / legalnotices / 2004 / 05 / ln259. pdf - information provided by charles scerri and stephen abela - malta hospice movement website : http : / / www. hospicemalta. org ( accessed in november 2005 ) - ministry of health ( 2002 ), public health report : malta 2002, department of health information : http : / / www. sahha. gov. mt / showdoc. aspx? id = 41 & filesource = 4 & file = publichealthreport2002. pdf - ministry of health website ( department of the elderly and community services ) : http : / / www. gov. mt / frame. asp? l = 2 & url = http : / / www. sahha. gov. mt ( accessed in november 2005 ) - ministry of justice ( 2004 ). laws of malta : social security act. cap 318. accessed on 7th june 2006 from http : / / docs. justice. gov. mt / lom / legislation / english / leg / vol _ 7 / chapt318. pdf - troisi, j. ( 2004 ), national background report for malta, eurofamcare. http : / / www. uke. uni - hamburg. de / extern / eurofamcare / documents / nabare _ malta _ rc1 _ a4. pdf - zammit clapp hospital ( 2004 ). annual report 2004. http : / / www. sahha. gov. mt / showdoc. aspx? id = 2 & filesource = 4 & file = zchannualreport _ 2004. pdf last updated : mittwoch, 15. juli 2009


early canid domestication : the farm - fox experiment foxes bred for tamability in a 40 - year experiment exhibit remarkable transformations that suggest an interplay between behavioral genetics and development when scientists ponder how animals came to be domesticated, they almost inevitably wind up thinking about dogs. the dog was probably the first domestic animal, and it is the one in which domestication has progressed the furthest — far enough to turn canis lupus into canis familiaris. evolutionary theorists have long speculated about exactly how dogs ' association with human beings may have been linked to their divergence from their wild wolf forebears, a topic that anthropologist darcy morey has discussed in some detail in the pages of this magazine ( july – august 1994 ). as morey pointed out, debates about the origins of animal domestication tend to focus on " the issue of intentionality " — the extent to which domestication was the result of deliberate human choice. was domestication actually " self - domestication, " the colonization of new ecological niches by animals such as wolves? or did it result from intentional decisions by human beings? how you answer those questions will determine how you understand the morphological and physiological changes that domestication has brought about — whether as the results of the pressure of natural selection in a new niche, or as deliberately cultivated advantageous traits. in many ways, though, the question of intentionality is beside the point. domestication was not a single event but rather a long, complex process. natural selection and artificial selection may both have operated at different times or even at the same time. for example, even if prehistoric people deliberately set out to domesticate wolves, natural selection would still have been at work. the selective regime may have changed drastically when wolves started living with people, but selective pressure continued regardless of anything homo sapiens chose to do. another problem with the debate over intentionality is that it can overshadow other important questions. for example, in becoming domesticated, animals have undergone a host of changes in morphology, physiology and behavior. what do those changes have in common? do they stem from a single cause, and if so, what is it? in the case of the dog, morey identifies one common factor as pedomorphosis, the retention of juvenile traits by adults. those traits include both morphological ones, such as skulls that are unusually broad for their length, and behavioral ones, such as whining, barking and submissiveness — all characteristics that wolves outgrow but that dogs do not. morey


. those traits include both morphological ones, such as skulls that are unusually broad for their length, and behavioral ones, such as whining, barking and submissiveness — all characteristics that wolves outgrow but that dogs do not. morey considers pedomorphosis in dogs a by - product of natural selection for earlier sexual maturity and smaller body size, features that, according to evolutionary theory, ought to increase the fitness of animals engaged in colonizing a new ecological niche. the common patterns are not confined to a single species. in a wide range of mammals — herbivores and predators, large and small — domestication seems to have brought with it strikingly similar changes in appearance and behavior : changes in size, changes in coat color, even changes in the animals ' reproductive cycles. our research group at the institute of cytology and genetics in novosibirsk, siberia, has spent decades investigating such patterns and other questions of the early evolution of domestic animals. our work grew out of the interests and ideas of the late director of our institute, the geneticist dmitry k. belyaev. like morey, belyaev believed that the patterns of changes observed in domesticated animals resulted from genetic changes that occurred in the course of selection. belyaev, however, believed that the key factor selected for was not size or reproduction, but behavior — specifically amenability to domestication, or tamability. more than any other quality, belyaev believed, tamability must have determined how well an animal would adapt to life among human beings. because behavior is rooted in biology, selecting for tameness and against aggression means selecting for physiological changes in the systems that govern the body ' s hormones and neurochemicals. those changes, in turn, could have had far - reaching effects on the development of the animals themselves, effects that might well explain why different animals would respond in similar ways when subjected to the same kinds of selective pressures. to test his hypothesis, belyaev decided to turn back the clock to the point at which animals received the first challenge of domestication. by replaying the process, he would be able to see how changes in behavior, physiology and morphology first came about. of course, reproducing the ways and means of those ancient transformations, even in the roughest outlines, would be a formidable task. to keep things as clear and simple as possible, belyaev designed a selective - breeding program to reproduce a single major factor, strong selection pressure for tamability. he chose as


, even in the roughest outlines, would be a formidable task. to keep things as clear and simple as possible, belyaev designed a selective - breeding program to reproduce a single major factor, strong selection pressure for tamability. he chose as his experimental model a species taxonomically close to the dog but never before domesticated : vulpes vulpes, the silver fox. belyaev ' s fox - breeding experiment occupied the last 26 years of his life. today, 14 years after his death, it is still in progress. through genetic selection alone, our research group has created a population of tame foxes fundamentally different in temperament and behavior from their wild forebears. in the process we have observed some striking changes in physiology, morphology and behavior, which mirror the changes known in other domestic animals and bear out many of belyaev ' s ideas. belyaev began his experiment in 1959, a time when soviet genetics was starting to recover from the anti - darwinian ideology of trofim lysenko. belyaev ' s own career had suffered. in 1948 his commitment to orthodox genetics had cost him his job as head of the department of fur animal breeding at the central research laboratory of fur breeding in moscow. during the 1950s he continued to conduct genetic research under the guise of studying animal physiology. he moved to novosibirsk, where he helped found the siberian department of the soviet ( now russian ) academy of sciences and became the director of the department ' s institute of cytology and genetics, a post he held from 1959 until his death in 1985. under his leadership the institute became a center of basic and applied research in both classical genetics and modern molecular genetics. his own work included ground - breaking investigations of evolutionary change in animals under extreme conditions ( including domestication ) and of the evolutionary roles of factors such as stress, selection for behavioral traits and the environmental photoperiod, or duration of natural daylight. animal domestication was his lifelong project, and fur bearers were his favorite subjects. early in the process of domestication, belyaev noted, most domestic animals had undergone the same basic morphological and physiological changes. their bodies changed in size and proportions, leading to the appearance of dwarf and giant breeds. the normal pattern of coat color that had evolved as camouflage in the wild altered as well. many domesticated animals are piebald, completely lacking pigmentation in specific body areas. hair turned wavy or curly, as it has done in astrakhan sheep, poodles, domestic donkeys


as camouflage in the wild altered as well. many domesticated animals are piebald, completely lacking pigmentation in specific body areas. hair turned wavy or curly, as it has done in astrakhan sheep, poodles, domestic donkeys, horses, pigs, goats and even laboratory mice and guinea pigs. some animals ' hair also became longer ( angora type ) or shorter ( rex type ). tails changed, too. many breeds of dogs and pigs carry their tails curled up in a circle or semicircle. some dogs, cats and sheep have short tails resulting from a decrease in the number of tail vertebrae. ears became floppy. as darwin noted in chapter 1 of on the origin of species, " not a single domestic animal can be named which has not in some country drooping ears " — a feature not found in any wild animal except the elephant. another major evolutionary consequence of domestication is loss of the seasonal rhythm of reproduction. most wild animals in middle latitudes are genetically programmed to mate once a year, during mating seasons cued by changes in daylight. domestic animals at the same latitudes, however, now can mate and bear young more than once a year and in any season. belyaev believed that similarity in the patterns of these traits was the result of selection for amenability to domestication. behavioral responses, he reasoned, are regulated by a fine balance between neurotransmitters and hormones at the level of the whole organism. the genes that control that balance occupy a high level in the hierarchical system of the genome. even slight alterations in those regulatory genes can give rise to a wide network of changes in the developmental processes they govern. thus, selecting animals for behavior may lead to other, far - reaching changes in the animals ' development. because mammals from widely different taxonomic groups share similar regulatory mechanisms for hormones and neurochemistry, it is reasonable to believe that selecting them for similar behavior — tameness — should alter those mechanisms, and the developmental pathways they govern, in similar ways. for belyaev ' s hypothesis to make evolutionary sense, two more things must be true. variations in tamability must be determined at least partly by an animal ' s genes, and domestication must place that animal under strong selective pressure. we have looked into both questions. in the early 1960s our team studied the patterns and nature of tamability in populations of farm foxes. we cross - bred foxes of different behavior, cross - fostered newborns and even transplanted embryos between donor and host mothers known


both questions. in the early 1960s our team studied the patterns and nature of tamability in populations of farm foxes. we cross - bred foxes of different behavior, cross - fostered newborns and even transplanted embryos between donor and host mothers known to react differently to human beings. our studies showed that about 35 percent of the variations in the foxes ' defense response to the experimenter are genetically determined. to get some idea of how powerful the selective pressures on those genes might have been, our group has domesticated other animals, including river otters ( lutra lutra ) and gray rats ( rattus norvegicus ) caught in the wild. out of 50 otters caught during recent years, only eight of them ( 16 percent ) showing weak defensive behavior made a genetic contribution to the next generation. among the gray rats, only 14 percent of the wild - caught yielded offspring living to adulthood. if our numbers are typical, it is clear that domestication must place wild animals under extreme stress and severe selective pressure. in setting up our breeding experiment, belyaev bypassed that initial trauma. he began with 30 male foxes and 100 vixens, most of them from a commercial fur farm in estonia. the founding foxes were already tamer than their wild relatives. foxes had been farmed since the beginning of this century, so the earliest steps of domestication — capture, caging and isolation from other wild foxes — had already left their marks on our foxes ' genes and behavior. from the outset, belyaev selected foxes for tameness and tameness alone, a criterion we have scrupulously followed. selection is strict ; in recent years, typically not more than 4 or 5 percent of male offspring and about 20 percent of female offspring have been allowed to breed. to ensure that their tameness results from genetic selection, we do not train the foxes. most of them spend their lives in cages and are allowed only brief " time dosed " contacts with human beings. pups are caged with their mothers until they are 11 / 2 to 2 months old. then they are caged with their litter mates but without their mothers. at three months, each pup is moved to its own cage. to evaluate the foxes for tameness, we give them a series of tests. when a pup is one month old, an experimenter offers it food from his hand while trying to stroke and handle the pup. the pups are tested twice, once in a cage and once while moving freely with other pups in an enclosure, where


a pup is one month old, an experimenter offers it food from his hand while trying to stroke and handle the pup. the pups are tested twice, once in a cage and once while moving freely with other pups in an enclosure, where they can choose to make contact either with the human experimenter or with another pup. the test is repeated monthly until the pups are six or seven months old. at seven or eight months, when the foxes reach sexual maturity, they are scored for tameness and assigned to one of three classes. the least domesticated foxes, those that flee from experimenters or bite when stroked or handled, are assigned to class iii. ( even class iii foxes are tamer than the calmest farm - bred foxes. among other things, they allow themselves to be hand fed. ) foxes in class ii let themselves be petted and handled but show no emotionally friendly response to experimenters. foxes in class i are friendly toward experimenters, wagging their tails and whining. in the sixth generation bred for tameness we had to add an even higher - scoring category. members of class ie, the " domesticated elite, " are eager to establish human contact, whimpering to attract attention and sniffing and licking experimenters like dogs. they start displaying this kind of behavior before they are one month old. by the tenth generation, 18 percent of fox pups were elite ; by the 20th, the figure had reached 35 percent. today elite foxes make up 70 to 80 percent of our experimentally selected population. now, 40 years and 45, 000 foxes after belyaev began, our experiment has achieved an array of concrete results. the most obvious of them is a unique population of 100 foxes ( at latest count ), each of them the product of between 30 and 35 generations of selection. they are unusual animals, docile, eager to please and unmistakably domesticated. when tested in groups in an enclosure, pups compete for attention, snarling fiercely at one another as they seek the favor of their human handler. over the years several of our domesticated foxes have escaped from the fur farm for days. all of them eventually returned. probably they would have been unable to survive in the wild. physically, the foxes differ markedly from their wild relatives. some of the differences have obvious links to the changes in their social behavior. in dogs, for example, it is well known that the first weeks of life are crucial for forming primary social bonds with human beings. the " window " of


wild relatives. some of the differences have obvious links to the changes in their social behavior. in dogs, for example, it is well known that the first weeks of life are crucial for forming primary social bonds with human beings. the " window " of bonding opens when a puppy becomes able to sense and explore its surroundings, and it closes when the pup starts to fear unknown stimuli. according to our studies, nondomesticated fox pups start responding to auditory stimuli on day 16 after birth, and their eyes are completely open by day 18 or 19. on average, our domesticated fox pups respond to sounds two days earlier and open their eyes a day earlier than their nondomesticated cousins. nondomesticated foxes first show the fear response at 6 weeks of age ; domesticated ones show it after 9 weeks or even later. ( dogs show it at 8 to 12 weeks, depending on the breed. ) as a result, domesticated pups have more time to become incorporated into a human social environment. moreover, we have found that the delayed development of the fear response is linked to changes in plasma levels of corticosteroids, hormones concerned with an animal ' s adaptation to stress. in foxes, the level of corticosteroids rises sharply between the ages of 2 to 4 months and reach adult levels by the age of 8 months. one of our studies found that the more advanced an animal ' s selection for domesticated behavior was, the later it showed the fear response and the later came the surge in its plasma corticosteroids. thus, selection for domestication gives rises to changes in the timing of the postnatal development of certain physiological and hormonal mechanisms underlying the formation of social behavior. other physical changes mirror those in dogs and other domesticated animals. in our foxes, novel traits began to appear in the eighth to tenth selected generations. the first ones we noted were changes in the foxes ' coat color, chiefly a loss of pigment in certain areas of the body, leading in some cases to a star - shaped pattern on the face similar to that seen in some breeds of dog. next came traits such as floppy ears and rolled tails similar to those in some breeds of dog. after 15 to 20 generations we noted the appearance of foxes with shorter tails and legs and with underbites or overbites. the novel traits are still fairly rare. most of them show up in no more than a few animals per 100 to a few per 10, 000. some have been seen in commercial populations


tails and legs and with underbites or overbites. the novel traits are still fairly rare. most of them show up in no more than a few animals per 100 to a few per 10, 000. some have been seen in commercial populations, though at levels at least a magnitude lower than we recorded in our domesticated foxes. what might have caused these changes in the fox population? before discussing belyaev ' s explanation, we should consider other possibilities. might rates and patterns of changes observed in foxes be due, for example, to inbreeding? that could be true if enough foxes in belyaev ' s founding population carried a recessive mutant gene from the trait along with a dominant normal gene that masked its effects. such mixed - gene, or heterozygous, foxes would have been hidden carriers, unaffected by the mutation themselves but capable of passing it on to later generations. as morey pointed out, inbreeding might well have been rampant during the early steps of dog domestication. but it certainly cannot explain the novel traits we have observed in our foxes, for two reasons. first, we designed the mating system for our experimental fox population to prevent it. through outbreeding with foxes from commercial fox farms and other standard methods, we have kept the inbreeding coefficients for our fox population between 0. 02 and 0. 07. that means that whenever a fox pup with a novel trait has been born into the herd, the probability that it acquired the trait through inbreeding ( that is, by inheriting both of its mutant genes from the same ancestor ) has varied between only 2 and 7 percent. second, some of the new traits are not recessive : they are controlled by dominant or incompletely dominant genes. any fox with one of those genes would have shown its effects ; there could have been no " hidden carriers " in the original population. another, subtler possibility is that the novelties in our domesticated population are classic by - products of strong selection for a quantitative trait. in genetics, quantitative traits are characteristics that can vary over a range of possibilities ; unlike gregor mendel ' s peas, which were either smooth or wrinkly with no middle ground, quantitative traits such as an animal ' s size, the amount of milk it produces or its overall friendliness toward human beings can be high, low or anywhere in between. what makes selecting for quantitative traits so perilous is that they ( or at least the part of them that is genetic ) tend to be controlled not by


produces or its overall friendliness toward human beings can be high, low or anywhere in between. what makes selecting for quantitative traits so perilous is that they ( or at least the part of them that is genetic ) tend to be controlled not by single genes but by complex systems of genes, known as polygenes. because polygenes are so intricate, anything that tampers with them runs the risk of upsetting other parts of an organism ' s genetic machinery. in the case of our foxes, a breeding program that alters a polygene might upset the genetic balance in some animals, causing them to show unusual new traits, most of them harmful to the fox. note that in this argument, it does not matter whether the trait being selected for is tameness or some other quantitative trait. any breeding program that affects a polygene might have similar effects. the problem with that explanation is that it does not explain why we see the particular mutations we do see. if disrupted polygenes are responsible, then the effects of a selection experiment ought to depend strongly on which mutations already existed in the population. if belyaev had started with 130 foxes from, say, north america, then their descendants today would have ended up with a completely different set of novelties. domesticating a population of wolves, or pigs, or cattle ought to produce novel traits more different still. yet as belyaev pointed out, when we look at the changes in other domesticated animals, the most striking things about them are not how diverse they are, but how similar. different animals, domesticated by different people at different times in different parts of the world, appear to have passed through the same morphological and physiological evolutionary pathways. how can that be? according to belyaev, the answer is not that domestication selects for a quantitative trait but that it selects for a behavioral one. he considered genetic transformations of behavior to be the key factor entraining other genetic events. many of the polygenes determining behavior may be regulatory, engaged in stabilizing an organism ' s early development, or ontogenesis. ontogenesis is an extremely delicate process. in principle, even slight shifts in the sequence of events could throw it into chaos. thus the genes that orchestrate those events and keep them on track have a powerful role to play. which genes are they? although numerous genes interact to stabilize an organism ' s development, the lead role belongs to the genes that control the functioning of the neural and endocrine systems. yet those same genes also


track have a powerful role to play. which genes are they? although numerous genes interact to stabilize an organism ' s development, the lead role belongs to the genes that control the functioning of the neural and endocrine systems. yet those same genes also govern the systems that control an animal ' s behavior, including its friendliness or hostility toward human beings. so, in principle, selecting animals for behavioral traits can fundamentally alter the development of an organism. as our breeding program has progressed, we have indeed observed changes in some of the animals ' neurochemical and neurohormonal mechanisms. for example, we have measured a steady drop in the hormone - producing activity of the foxes ' adrenal glands. among several other roles in the body, the adrenal cortex comes into play when an animal has to adapt to stress. it releases hormones such as corticosteroids, which stimulate the body to extract energy from its reserves of fats and proteins. after 12 generations of selective breeding, the basal levels of corticosteroids in the blood plasma of our domesticated foxes had dropped to slightly more than half the level in a control group. after 28 to 30 generations of selection, the level had halved again. the adrenal cortex in our foxes also responds less sharply when the foxes are subjected to emotional stress. selection has even affected the neurochemistry of our foxes ' brains. changes have taken place in the serotonin system, thought to be the leading mediator inhibiting animals ' aggressive behavior. compared with a control group, the brains of our domesticated foxes contain higher levels of serotonin ; of its major metabolite, 5 - oxyindolacetic acid ; and of tryptophan hydroxylase, the key enzyme of serotonin synthesis. serotonin, like other neurotransmitters, is critically involved in shaping an animal ' s development from its earliest stages. selection and development evidently, then, selecting foxes for domestication may have triggered profound changes in the mechanisms that regulate their development. in particular, most of the novel traits and other changes in the foxes seem to result from shifts in the rates of certain ontogenetic processes — in other words, from changes in timing. this fact is clear enough for some of the novelties mentioned above, such as the earlier eye opening and response to noises and the delayed onset of the fear response to unknown stimuli. but it also can explain some of the less obvious ones. floppy ears, for example, are


for some of the novelties mentioned above, such as the earlier eye opening and response to noises and the delayed onset of the fear response to unknown stimuli. but it also can explain some of the less obvious ones. floppy ears, for example, are characteristic of newborn fox pups but may get carried over to adulthood. even novel coat colors may be attributable to changes in the timing of embryonic development. one of the earliest novel traits we observed in our domesticated foxes was a loss of pigment in parts of the head and body. belyaev determined that this piebald pattern is governed by a gene that he named star. later my colleague lyudmila prasolova and i discovered that the star gene affects the migration rate of melanoblasts, the embryonic precursors of the pigment cells ( melanocytes ) that give color to an animal ' s fur. melanocytes form in the embryonic fox ' s neural crest and later move to various parts of the embryo ' s epidermis. normally this migration starts around days 28 to 31 of the embryo ' s development. in foxes that carry even a single copy of the star gene, however, melanoblasts pass into the potentially depigmented areas of the epidermis two days later, on average. that delay may lead to the death of the tardy melanoblasts, thus altering the pigmentation in ways that give rise to the distinctive star pattern. one developmental trend to which we have devoted particular attention has to do with the growth of the skull. in 1990 and 1991, after noticing abnormal developments in the skulls and jaws of some of our foxes, we decided to study variations in the animals ' cranial traits. of course, changes in the shape of the skull are among the most obvious ways in which dogs differ from wolves. as i mentioned earlier, morey believes that they are a result of selection ( either natural or artificial ) for reproductive timing and smaller body size. in our breeding experiment, we have selected foxes only for behavior, not size ; if anything, our foxes may be slightly longer, on average, than the ones belyaev started with 40 years ago. nevertheless, we found that their skulls have been changing. in our domesticated foxes of both sexes, cranial height and width tended to be smaller, and snouts tended to be shorter and wider, than those of a control group of farmed foxes. another interesting change is that the cranial morphology of domesticated adult males became somewhat "


sexes, cranial height and width tended to be smaller, and snouts tended to be shorter and wider, than those of a control group of farmed foxes. another interesting change is that the cranial morphology of domesticated adult males became somewhat " feminized. " in farmed foxes, the crania of males tended to be larger in volume than those of females, and various other proportions differed sharply between the sexes. in the domesticated foxes the sexual dimorphism decreased. the differences in volume remained, but in other respects the skulls of males became more like those of females. analysis of cranial allometry showed that the changes in skull proportions result either from changes in the timing of the first appearance of particular structures or from changes in their growth rates. because we studied the skulls only of adult foxes, however, we cannot judge whether any of these changes are pedomorphic, as morey believes they are in dogs. the most significant changes in developmental timing in our foxes may be the smallest ones : those that have to do with reproduction. in the wild, foxes reach sexual maturity when they are about 8 months old. they are strict seasonal breeders, mating once a year in response to changes in the length of the day ( in siberia the mating season runs from late january to late march ) and giving birth to litters ranging from one to thirteen pups, with an average of four or five. natural selection has hard - wired these traits into foxes with little or no genetic variation. fur farmers have tried for decades to breed foxes that would reproduce more often than annually, but all their attempts have failed. in our experimental fox population, however, some reproductive traits have changed in a correlated manner. the domesticated foxes reach sexual maturity about a month earlier than nondomesticated foxes do, and they give birth to litters that are, on average, one pup larger. the mating season has lengthened. some females breed out of season, in november – december or april – may, and a few of them have mated twice a year. only a very small number of our vixens have shown such unusual behavior, and in 40 years, no offspring of an extraseasonal mating has survived to adulthood. nevertheless, the striking fact is that, to our knowledge, out - of - season mating has never been previously observed in foxes experiencing a natural photoperiod. forty years into our unique lifelong experiment, we believe that dmitry belyaev would be pleased with its progress. by intense selective breeding, we


, out - of - season mating has never been previously observed in foxes experiencing a natural photoperiod. forty years into our unique lifelong experiment, we believe that dmitry belyaev would be pleased with its progress. by intense selective breeding, we have compressed into a few decades an ancient process that originally unfolded over thousands of years. before our eyes, " the beast " has turned into " beauty, " as the aggressive behavior of our herd ' s wild progenitors entirely disappeared. we have watched new morphological traits emerge, a process previously known only from archaeological evidence. now we know that these changes can burst into a population early in domestication, triggered by the stresses of captivity, and that many of them result from changes in the timing of developmental processes. in some cases the changes in timing, such as earlier sexual maturity or retarded growth of somatic characters, resemble pedomorphosis. some long - standing puzzles remain. we believed at the start that foxes could be made to reproduce twice a year and all year round, like dogs. we would like to understand why this has turned out not to be quite so. we are also curious about how the vocal repertoire of foxes changes under domestication. some of the calls of our adult foxes resemble those of dogs and, like those of dogs, appear to be holdovers from puppyhood, but only further study will reveal the details. the biggest unanswered question is just how much further our selective - breeding experiment can go. the domestic fox is not a domestic dog, but we believe that it has the genetic potential to become more and more doglike. we can continue to increase that potential through further breeding, but the foxes will realize it fully only through close contact with human beings. over the years, other investigators and i have raised several fox pups in domestic conditions, either in the laboratory or at home as pets. they have shown themselves to be good - tempered creatures, as devoted as dogs but as independent as cats, capable of forming deep - rooted pair bonds with human beings — mutual bonds, as those of us who work with them know. if our experiment should continue, and if fox pups could be raised and trained the way dog puppies are now, there is no telling what sort of animal they might one day become. whether that will happen remains to be seen. for the first time in 40 years, the future of our domestication experiment is in doubt, jeopardized by the continuing crisis of the russian economy. in 1996 the population of


one day become. whether that will happen remains to be seen. for the first time in 40 years, the future of our domestication experiment is in doubt, jeopardized by the continuing crisis of the russian economy. in 1996 the population of our breeding herd stood at 700. last year, with no funds to feed the foxes or to pay the salaries of our staff, we had to cut the number to 100. earlier we were able to cover most of our expenses by selling the pelts of the foxes culled from the breeding herd. now that source of revenue has all but dried up, leaving us increasingly dependent on outside funding at a time when shrinking budgets and changes in the grant - awarding system in russia are making long - term experiments such as ours harder and harder to sustain. like many other enterprises in our country, we are becoming more entrepreneurial. recently we have sold some of our foxes to scandinavian fur breeders, who have been pressured by animal - rights groups to develop animals that do not suffer stress in captivity. we also plan to market pups as house pets, a commercial venture that should lead to some interesting, if informal, experiments in its own right. many avenues of both applied and basic research remain for us to pursue, provided we save our unique fox population. this article is dedicated to the memory of dmitry k. belyaev. the research was supported by grants rbd000 and rbd300 from the international scientific funds, grants 93 - 04 - 06936 and 96 - 04 - 49972 from the russian fund of fundamental research, and grant 1757 of the russian university fund. the author expresses her gratitude to anna fadeeva for translation of the manuscript from russian into english. she is also grateful to irina plysnina for help during preparation of the manuscript and to yekaterina omelchenko for technical assistance. - belyaev, d. k. 1969. domestication of animals. science journal ( u. k. ) 5 : 47 – 52. - belyaev, d. k. 1979. destabilizing selection as a factor in domestication. the journal of heredity 70 : 301 – 308. - belyaev, d. k., a. o. ruvinsky and l. n. trut. 1981. inherited activation - inactivation of the star gene in foxes. the journal of heredity 72 : 264 – 274. - belyaev, d. k., and l. n. trut. 1982. accelerating


trut. 1981. inherited activation - inactivation of the star gene in foxes. the journal of heredity 72 : 264 – 274. - belyaev, d. k., and l. n. trut. 1982. accelerating evolution. science in the ussr 5 : 24 – 29, 60? 64. - falconer, d. s. 1981. introduction to quantitative genetics. new york : longman. - logvinenko, n. s., p. m. krass, l. n. trut, l. n. ivanova and d. k. belyaev. 1979. genetics and phenogenetics of hormonal characteristics of animals. v. influence of domestication on ontogenesis of estrogen - and progesterone - secreting functions of ovaries and adrenals in silver fox females. genetica 15 : 320 – 326 ( in russian ). - morey, d. f. 1994. the early evolution of the domestic dog. american scientist 82 : 336 – 347. - raff, r. a., and t. c. kaufman. 1983. embryos, genes and evolution. new york : macmillan publishing company. - scott, j. p., and j. l. fuller. 1965. genetics and the social behavior of the dog. chicago : university of chicago press. - trut, l. n. 1988. the variable rates of evolution transformations and their parallelism in terms of destabilizing selection. journal of animal breeding and genetics 105 : 81 – 90. - trut, l. n. 1996. sex ratio in silver foxes : effects of domestication and the star gene. theoretical and applied genetics 92 : 109 – 115. - wayne, r. k. 1993. molecular evolution of the dog family. trends in genetics 9 : 218 – 224. [ crossref ] - zeuner, f. t. 1954. domestication of animals. in a history of technology, volume i, ed. c. singer, e. j. holmyard, a. r. hall and t. i. williams. oxford : oxford university press.


the world has always been full of diseases. with the world becoming a global village, competition between different people, races and countries have also increased. the fast paced life and the hardcore competition has been taking a toll on human lives and minds. people are catching various types of diseases easily. the modern studies in the field of medicine has also attributed to the discovery of various diseases which till now remained a mystery for the human race. modern researches have led to the discovery of a wide number of diseases which were unheard of in the last century. the information about the various diseases are also reaching people faster. along with the discovery of diseases, the various processes of treating those diseases have also developed drastically. scientists and doctors have been working effortlessly to come out with treatment procedures and medicines for those diseases which remained untreated earlier. a large number of people used to die to diseases as there were no treatment methods for them. however, nowadays such incidences have decreased massively. previously cholera and tuberculosis were dreaded diseases which remained untreated in most of the cases. today they are just like any other diseases and are easily curable. surgical as well as medicinal procedures have improved by leaps and bounds. nowadays, most of the diseases of the world are treatable. modern means of curing those diseases and making the procedures less painful are some of the fine steps which have been augmented in the field. people are now less scared of various diseases as they know that there are fine means of treating and curing those diseases. the drastic developments in the field of medical science have decreased the mortality rate across the world and people are now living for a much longer time than the previous era. would you agree?


morgan county, alabama from ancestry. com wiki | this article is a stub. help us to expand it by contributing your knowledge. for county page guidelines, visit u. s. county page content suggestions. | morgan is a county in alabama. it was formed in 1818 from the following county / ies : ( as cotaco ; renamed, 1821 ) cherokee cession. morgan began keeping birth records in 1983, marriage records in 1821, and death records in 1893. it began keeping land records in 1818, probate records in 1818, and court records in?. for more information, contact the county at 302 lee street ne / po box 848 decatur 35602. on the attached map, morgan is located at a4. for information about the state of alabama see alabama family history research. | counties of alabama autauga, baldwin, barbour, bibb, blount, bullock, butler, calhoun, chambers, cherokee, chilton, choctaw, clarke, clay, cleburne, coffee, colbert, conecuh, coosa, covington, crenshaw, cullman, dale, dallas, dekalb, elmore, escambia, etowah, fayette, franklin, geneva, greene, hale, henry, houston, jackson, jefferson, lamar, lauderdale, lawrence, lee, limestone, lowndes, macon, madison, marengo, marion, marshall, mobile, monroe, montgomery, morgan, perry, pickens, pike, randolph, russell, st. clair, shelby, sumter, talladega, tallapoosa, tuscaloosa, walker, washington, wilcox, winston


mateljan family history mateljan surname history there is a mateljan family story that the mateljan family originated in holland but moved into croatia about 1300 years ago. from croatia, branches of the family moved to the united states and australia. this mateljan research page contains the accumulated history of the mateljan last name made up of user - contributed content from other ancientfaces users. the mateljan family is an old family line that has spread all across the world over time, and as the mateljan family has migrated it has changed, making it ' s history challenging to uncover. according to one mateljan family story, the mateljan crest originated in holland. around 1300 years ago, the family migrated to croatia and hundreds of years later, one branch went to america ( after world war ii ) and one branch went to australia ( see " fun facts " below for information on the australian branch. ) mateljan country of origin no content has been submitted about the mateljan country of origin. the following is speculative information about mateljan. you can submit your information by clicking edit. the nationality of mateljan may be very difficult to determine because country boundaries change over time, leaving the original nationality a mystery. the original ethnicity of mateljan may be difficult to determine based on whether the surname originated organically and independently in multiple locales ; e. g. in the case of names that are based on a professional trade, which can crop up in multiple countries independently ( such as the name " brewster " which refers to a female brewer ). meaning of the last name mateljan no content has been submitted about the meaning of mateljan. the following is speculative information about mateljan. you can submit your information by clicking edit. the meaning of mateljan come may come from a trade, such as the name " dean " which may have been adopted by members of the clergy. some of these trade - based last names might be a profession in a different language. because of this it is essential to know the nationality of a name, and the languages used by its early ancestors. many modern names like mateljan come from religious texts such as the quran, the bhagavadgita, the bible, and so forth. often these surnames relate to a religious sentiment such as " worthy of praise ". - george mateljan 1888 - 1978 - elizabeth mateljan 1914 - 2003 - dan z mateljan 1935 - 2004 - m l mate


and so forth. often these surnames relate to a religious sentiment such as " worthy of praise ". - george mateljan 1888 - 1978 - elizabeth mateljan 1914 - 2003 - dan z mateljan 1935 - 2004 - m l mateljan 1935 - 1989 - charles james mateljan 1937 - 2006 - frank mateljan 1910 - 1982 - steve mateljan 1891 - 1973 - joseph mateljan 1928 - 2005 - lucy mateljan 1892 - 1979 - william a mateljan 1921 - 1988 - stephanie mateljan 1908 - 1996 - caroline mateljan 1913 - 1974 - nicholas mateljan 1895 - 1968 - joseph mateljan 1909 - 1961 - john mateljan 1908 - 1978 - bartholome v mateljan 1918 - 1994 - mary a mateljan 1915 - 2000 - mike mateljan 1907 - 1964 - jennie mateljan 1914 - 1994 - bernard mateljan 1914 - 1990 mateljan family tree famous people named mateljan no famous people named mateljan have been submitted. you can submit your information by clicking edit. nationality and ethnicity of mateljan no content has been submitted about the ethnicity of mateljan. the following is speculative information about mateljan. you can submit your information by clicking edit. we do not have a record of the primary ethnicity of the name mateljan. many surnames travel around the world throughout the ages, making their original nationality and ethnicity difficult to trace. more about the name mateljan fun facts about the mateljan family - if your grandfather was tony mateljan ( son of ante ) who was born in grohote on the island of sholta on the dalmation coast of croatia, contact me as you are step - family. tony had 3 wives and his 3rd wife was my grandmother jozitsa. tony fathered 2 other children - beppie ( rip ) and terry ( rip ). email me firstname. lastname @ example. org mateljan spelling variations no content has been submitted about alternate spellings of mateljan. the following is speculative information about mateljan. you can submit your information by clicking edit. understanding misspellings and alternate spellings of the mateljan family name are important to understanding the etymology of the name. in early history when few people could write, names such as mateljan were written down based on how they were heard by a scribe when people ' s names were recorded in court, church, and government records. this could have given


a tale of stage loot april 1993 issue lost treasure one of the most robbed areas of colorado was around colorado springs during the 1850s - 1860s. at least twenty - five robberies of stagecoaches took place during this period. this is a short story of $ 20, 000 in gold which was buried by 2 outlaws of this time period. in 1862, colorado springs was known as colorado city. manny preston, sy samuels and six other outlaws rode into the village on an august afternoon an hour before the stage was to depart, then rode north out of town and set up an ambush. after the shotgun guard was killed, the driver wounded, and the strongbox taken, the gang rode on north the outlaws thought they had plenty of time. that was a mistake. a patrol of volunteer cavalry came upon the stage a few minutes after the robbery. they overtook the outlaws and after two hours of fighting, six were killed. preston and samuels escaped with the gold they found an abandoned prospector ' s shack in the timber later that night. on a flat stone they carved manny preston ' s name and the date, 1862, and placed it at the head of a grave so it would look like the real thing and go untouched. the gold was put inside the grave. this site was on the left side of kiowa creek, about three miles south of what is now elbert county. preston and samuels made their way to kansas and obtained work in wichita. samuels died from injuries recieved in a runaway team accident. in 1868, preston returned to colorado to get the gold but he could not find the mock grave or cabin. after telling his story to a local rancher preston left. an interested treasure hunter should check out the area along the left side of kiowa creek, three miles south of elbert, for any evidence of a miner ' s cabin. somewhere nearby is a cache of gold. early records of stage companies in colorado springs could help on this site.


more about... the sorraia is nearly extinct. a few herds are maintained in a half dozen places in spain and a few in germany. the sorraia horse has no history as a domestic breed, but old documents show that these horses were brought to the americas by the spanish conquistadors. the sorraia coloring is always dun or grullo with a dark muzzle area, black dorsal stripe, black - tipped ears, usually zebra stripes on the legs, and occasionally a stripe across the shoulders, neck and back. the black mane and tail are fringed by lighter - colored hair. sorraia foals are born with a zebra - like pattern all over. sorraia blood in the americas is evident, as several breeds in both north and south america bear the dun and grullo coloration and other physical characteristics of this ancient horse. the sorraia generally stands at about14 hands high. domesticated sorraias have been broken to ride and used for herding livestock. the sorraia is noted for its ability to withstand extremes of climate, particularly dry, hot climates, and to survive on very little forage while at the same time maintaining its health. the sorraia is too long - legged to be seriously considered a pony type. their head is somewhat long, with an outcurved profile. the ears are long, the eyes are set high. the neck is long and slim, the withers are prominent and noticeably well defined ; the back is of medium length and straight ; the croup is sloping, but not steeply dropping. the legs are straight with rather long, round cannon bones, well defined tendons, long, sloped pasterns, and hard hooves of dark color. the sorraia is found portrayed faithfully in prehistoric cave art, displaying the classic iberian convex profile, also found in the old - time north african barb. when the portuguese scientist, ruy d ’ andrade, discovered these horses in 1920 in the lowlands of the portuguese river sorraia, few could believe that a wild horse subspecies could have survived that long in europe. scientist ruy d ’ andrade tried in vain to relocate the herd, but found horses of the same phenotype in several places in the general area of the sorraia river. as a zoologist and paleontologist, he finally decided he had stumbled on an ancestral type of horse, and that it needed to be preserved. he acquired seven mares that possessed the characteristics he


the general area of the sorraia river. as a zoologist and paleontologist, he finally decided he had stumbled on an ancestral type of horse, and that it needed to be preserved. he acquired seven mares that possessed the characteristics he considered typical according to his studies, and left them to fend for themselves on his property, which fortunately was large enough for such a project. he tried four different stallions on them. his theory was that living wild, without the help of man, in their own habitat, would result in mother nature ' s purifying the small population, and bringing out and consolidating their original characteristics and abilities. why is the sorraia threatened to become extinct? a population that numbers around 200 is extremely threatened by any biologist ' s standard. at least half of these are non - breeding animals - older horses, stallions that aren ' t being used as studs, or youngsters. the population in portugal is divided basically into a few groups : four d ' andrade family members ( grandchildren of the late ruy d ' andrade ), each has a band of sorraias ; the portuguese national stud ; and a few private breeders with just one or two mares. all these horses stem from d ' andrade ’ s herd. none of these breeders seem to invest a lot in the preservation of the horses. the horse - related public is slowly becoming aware of the sorraia. in germany, there are a small number of parties now that own breeding stock, including a zoological garden with a small breeding group. some feel the sorraia ' s chance for survival lies in promoting them as mounts and carriage horses. this entails risks, however, as it could become counterproductive in the long run. people who are using them in the way other horses are being used will inevitably change them in type and disposition, while mother nature selects strictly, and differently. a wild horse doesn ' t have to be pretty, it doesn ' t have to be cooperative, and it doesn ' t have to possess a comfortable. all it needs to be able to do is survive : find food, recognize and avoid potential danger, withstand heat, cold, and bad weather. it needs to have qualities different from what humans perceive as desirable in a horse. wild horses are admired for their soundness and surefootedness. whenever man intervenes and starts breeding for his goals, the soundness and other qualities which enable wild horses to survive tend to disappear. in an ideal situation


icon of the mother of god “ chukhloma ” the chukhloma icon of the mother of god of galich appeared in 1350 to st. abraham of galich, who came from the north to live an ascetic life with the blessing of st. sergius of radonezh. on the shores of galich lake which was hidden in a dense forest, he turned with prayer to the mother of god, asking her blessing. after finishing his prayers, he sat down to rest, but suddenly a bright light appeared on a nearby mountain and a voice said, “ abraham, come up the mountain, where there is an icon of my mother. ” the monk went up the mountain where the light shone, and indeed found an icon of the mother of god with the infant on a tree. with tenderness and in gratitude to god, he took the icon and, strengthened by prayers to the most holy theotokos, built a chapel there in which he placed the icon. galich prince demetrius feodorovich learned about st. abraham ’ s trip, and asked him to bring the icon to him. st. abraham journeyed across galich lake in a boat and, accompanied by clergy and a throng of people, took the wonderworking icon to the cathedral church in the city of galich. a large number of sick were healed by this icon. when st. abraham told prince demetrius about the appearance of the icon, the prince gave st. abraham money to build a monastery. soon, a church was built in honor of the dormition of the most holy theotokos, around which a monastery grew. st. abraham founded several more monasteries, the last being the chukhloma, not far from the city of chukhloma. from the name of this monastery, the wonderworking icon became known as the chukhloma icon of galich. the icon is also commemorated on may 28, july 4, and august 15. by permission of the orthodox church in america ( www. oca. org )


overview of content related to ' xml ' this page provides an overview of 1 article related to ' sql '. note that filters may be applied to display a sub - set of articles in this category ( see faqs on filtering for usage tips ). select this link to remove all filters. sql often referred to as structured query language, is a database computer language designed for managing data in relational database management systems ( rdbms ), and originally based upon relational algebra and calculus. its scope includes data insert, query, update and delete, schema creation and modification, and data access control. sql was one of the first commercial languages for edgar f. codd ' s relational model, as described in his influential 1970 paper, " a relational model of data for large shared data banks ". despite not adhering to the relational model as described by codd, it became the most widely used database language. ( excerpt from wikipedia article : sql ) see our ' sql ' overview for more data and comparisons with other tags. for visualisations of metadata related to timelines, bands of recency, top authors, and and overall distribution of authors using this term, see our ' sql ' usage charts. ariadne contributors most frequently referring to ' sql ' :


friday 24 may striped hyaena ( hyaena hyaena ) what ’ s the world ’ s favourite species? find out here. striped hyaena fact file - find out more - print factsheet striped hyaena description like other hyaenas, the striped hyaena is dog - like in appearance, with powerful forequarters and a back that slopes down towards the tail. it gets its name from the black stripes on the sides of the pale grey or beige coat ( 2 ) ( 3 ), which is long and shaggy except for on the face and limbs ( 2 ). a crest of particularly long hair, running from the head to the tail, is erected in situations of conflict to make the hyaena look larger and more intimidating ( 2 ) ( 4 ). the striped hyaena has a long, thick neck, which along with the strong skull and jaw bones enables the hyaena to break up dry bones ( 2 ). the black and white tail is long and bushy and the feet bear short, blunt claws ( 3 ). - also known as - striped hyena. - hyene rayee. top iucn hyaena specialist group : mohamed bin zayed species conservation fund - the flesh of a dead animal. - the state of being pregnant ; the period from conception to birth. - feeding on both plants and animals. - an area occupied and defended by an animal, a pair of animals or a colony. iucn red list ( june, 2009 ) - kingdon, j. ( 1997 ) the kingdon field guide to african mammals. academic press ltd, london. - mills, m. g. l. and hofer, h. ( 1998 ) hyaenas. status survey and conservation action plan. iucn / ssc hyaena specialist group, iucn, gland, switzerland and cambridge, uk. - mills, m. g. m. and bearder, s. k. ( 2006 ) hyena family. in : macdonald, d. w. ( ed ) the encyclopedia of mammals. oxford university press, oxford. - wagner, a. p. ( 2008 ) pers. comm. - stuart, c. and stuart, t. ( 1997 ) field guide to the larger mammals of africa. struik publishers, cape town. - leakey, l. n., milledge, s. a. h., leakey, s. m., edung, j., haynes, p.,


mammals of africa. struik publishers, cape town. - leakey, l. n., milledge, s. a. h., leakey, s. m., edung, j., haynes, p., kiptoo, d. k. and mcgeorge, a. ( 1999 ) diet of striped hyaena in northern kenya. african journal of ecology, 37 ( 3 ) : 314 - 326. unep - wcmc : ranthambore national park ( december, 2007 ) unep - wcmc : serengeti national park ( december, 2007 ) - view the contents of, and material on, the website ; - download and retain copies of the material on their personal systems in digital form in low resolution for their own personal use ; - teachers, lecturers and students may incorporate the material in their educational material ( including, but not limited to, their lesson plans, presentations, worksheets and projects ) in hard copy and digital format for use within a registered educational establishment, provided that the integrity of the material is maintained and that copyright ownership and authorship is appropriately acknowledged by the end user. striped hyaena biology the striped hyaena is a well - studied animal ; however, what is understood about the behaviour and ecology of the striped hyaena is largely limited to studies undertaken in kenya, tanzania and israel. there are anecdotal reports that elsewhere, such as east of israel, their ecology could be substantially different ( 5 ). the striped hyaena is most frequently seen singly or in pairs, although groups of up to seven can occur ( 3 ). social contact is limited by the need to forage alone over very large ranges, which they do so under the cover of night ( 2 ) ( 6 ). when moving around regularly used paths within their territory, grass stalks are marked with a secretion from the anal pouch ( 2 ) ( 4 ), leaving a clear sign to any intruders of the owner ’ s presence ( 4 ). if neighbouring hyaenas do happen to meet, they fluff out their fur and erect their crest in an attempt to look intimidating and fights may erupt in which they nip at each others thick necks ( 2 ). the striped hyaena is omnivorous and will feed opportunistically on almost anything it comes across as it roams great distances at night ( 2 ) ( 6 ). this includes seeds, leaves, fruits, insects, birds, fish, and many species


and striped hyaenas in places where carnivores are thought to be responsible for child disappearances. even when not deliberately persecuted, striped hyaenas are often poisoned by bait laid out for other carnivores, captured in traps set by fur trappers for other species, and killed in traffic accidents ( 3 ). the once very abundant striped hyaena has now declined over most of its range and is extinct in many localities ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ; a result of not only those threats listed above, but also caused by a decline in carrion due to decreasing populations of other large carnivores ( such as wolves, leopards and tigers ) and their prey ( 3 ). top striped hyaena conservation the striped hyaena occurs in several protected areas throughout its range including ranthambore national park in india ( 8 ), and serengeti national park in tanzania, a world heritage site ( 9 ). in 1998, the hyaena specialist group published a conservation action plan which outlines actions required to improve the conservation status of all hyaena species ( 3 ). the actions detailed for the striped hyaena include campaigning for increased protection of the species throughout its range, and undertaking further studies of its behaviour, ecology and biology. it is also recognised that one of the most important, and possibly difficult, challenges, is to alter people ’ s negative perception of hyaenas. before the striped hyaena and its relatives are viewed in a more positive light, it will be difficult to improve the status of these fascinating animals ( 3 ). top find out more for further information on the striped hyaena see : to find out more about striped hyaena conservation projects, see : authenticated ( 30 / 01 / 08 ) by dr aaron p. wagner, department of zoology, michigan state university. more » related species play the team wild game myarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members, allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends. terms and conditions of use of materials copyright in this website and materials contained on this website ( material ) belongs to wildscreen or its licensors. visitors to this website ( end users ) are entitled to : end users shall not copy or otherwise extract, alter or manipulate material other than as permitted in these terms and conditions of use of materials. additional use of flagged material green flagged material certain material on this website ( licence 4 material ) displays a green flag next to the material and


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significance and use when evaluating the particle size information, if the procedures of the data processing are not available, the user of the data must make assumptions concerning the reported data in the event of analytical inconsistencies. in order for different data sets to be compared it is crucial that the parties report the analytical techniques and methods or procedures for evaluating, calculating, compiling or otherwise processing the data to be reported. particle size characterization information can be reported in three levels of detail in order to satisfy user ' s needs. level 1 applies when only basic information about the material is required, and shall be provided with each shipment. this level represents the minimum information that shall be reported. level 1 information may be sufficient in such cases as identifying a certain grade of a material or when detailed knowledge of analytical methodology is not needed. level 2 presumes the need for knowledge of methodology on the user ' s part and allows the user to make a more informed judgment about the information provided in level 1. level 3 provides detailed written procedures to allow duplication of the measurement. information provided through levels 2 and 3 will allow users to perform comparative material evaluations between several suppliers, set specifications or define a purchase agreement, perform inter - laboratory studies and most importantly resolve disputes between supplier and users. reported particle size measurement is a function of both the actual particle dimension and shape factor as well as the particular physical or chemical properties of the particle being measured. caution is required when comparing data from instruments operating on different physical or chemical parameters or with different particle size measurement ranges. sample acquisition, handling and preparation can also affect the reported particle size results. 1. 1 this practice covers reporting particle size measurement data. 1. 2 this practice applies to particle size measurement methods, devices, detail levels, and data formats for dry powders, and wet suspensions of solids, gels, or emulsion droplets. this practice does not pertain to liquid particles. note 1 — for information on reporting liquid particle measurement data, refer to practice e 799. 1. 3 this practice does not concern particle concentration information. 1. 4 this practice uses si ( systeme international ) units as standard. state all numerical values in terms of si units unless specific instrumentation software reports particle size information, including percentiles, indices, and distributions as tabulations and graphs using alternate units. in this case, present both reported and equivalent si units in the final written report. refer to practice e 380 for proper usage of si units. 1. 5 this standard does not purport to address all of


##s and graphs using alternate units. in this case, present both reported and equivalent si units in the final written report. refer to practice e 380 for proper usage of si units. 1. 5 this standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. it is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use. 2. referenced documents ( purchase separately ) the documents listed below are referenced within the subject standard but are not provided as part of the standard. e177 practice for use of the terms precision and bias in astm test methods e456 terminology relating to quality and statistics e691 practice for conducting an interlaboratory study to determine the precision of a test method e799 practice for determining data criteria and processing for liquid drop size analysis particle characterization ; particle size ; particle size analysis ; particle size characterization ; particle size distribution ; and particle size report, comparison techniques ; particle analysis ; particle characterization ; particle size characterization ; particle size distribution ; ics number code 19. 120 ( particle size analysis. sieving ) astm international is a member of crossref. citing astm standards [ back to top ]