as well as entomological surveillance, and disease outbreak investigation. climate change, the pattern of distribution and duration of existing disease may be changed. on the other hand, new types of illnesses might emerge. an effective surveillance system is needed to monitor all these at present, nine types of disease surveillance systems are in operation. iedcr conducts 7 of them : priority communicable disease surveillance, outbreak related emergency surveillance, institutional disease surveillance, sentinel surveillance, nipah surveillance, acute meningo - encephalitis surveillance and hospital - based influenza surveillance. two other types are conducted by other institutions. expanded program for immunisation ( epi ) conducts surveillance for epi diseases, medical information system ( mis ) conducts routine disease surveillance for disease profile. besides these formal surveillance activities, the directorate general of health services ( dghs ) and director ( disease control ) receive reports of illness having public health importance from all over the country. data are also received from existing programs, e. g., malaria eradication program, kala - azar control program, tuberculosis control program, hiv / aids surveillance program, filariasis control recently, iedcr has taken an initiative to build a coordinated mechanism for all the surveillance activities and data collection, and analysis and reporting of illnesses of public health impact of climatic change on vector - borne disease malaria : over the last 10 to 15 years, the prevalence and geographic distribution of malaria worldwide has increased slowly but steadily. its recent worldwide increase is due mainly to mosquito resistance to insecticide, breakdown of control efforts, migration of vectors and however, its spread is also related to environment. agriculture extension and road building have created better habitats for vector mosquitoes. with gradual increase in global temperature since the last ice age ( 8 - 9. 5° c ) transmission of malaria has migrated from africa to southern europe. specific experiment has been conducted on the effect of temperature on the ability of aedes aegypti to transmit den - 2 virus. the pattern of temperature and vector efficiency parallels the climatic pattern of dengue haemorrhagic fever ( dhf ) outbreak in bangkok, thailand where the case rate rise in hot season ( 80° - 30° c ) and decrease during the cool season ( 25° - 28° c ). vector - borne disease control strategies in changed climatic condition both disease and vector surveillance, and treatment and control of vectors should be part of a comprehensive public health policy that promotes co - operation among researchers, medical clinicians and government staff at local, regional


. vector - borne disease control strategies in changed climatic condition both disease and vector surveillance, and treatment and control of vectors should be part of a comprehensive public health policy that promotes co - operation among researchers, medical clinicians and government staff at local, regional and international level. policy makers should consider modern technology as a means for collecting information about vector - borne diseases, developing effective control strategies and setting appropriate priorities. four types of surveillance should be conducted to track vector - borne - recording human cases - determining the distribution and infectivity of vectors - monitoring a broad range of non - human vertebrates reservoir species the weather patterns to help predict vector distribution. monitoring climatic parameters provide sufficient information to forecast the population of key vector basic research both in the field and laboratory should be taken to examine the disease agent ' s ability to adapt to changing climatic condition to allow prediction of which pathogen might migrate and their potential destination. information about the parameters limiting vectors are equally important. measures can be targeted at several different aspects of the life cycle of vector. vaccination for animals and humans are aimed at preventing the proliferation of pathogens and pesticides, and breeding place management will reduce or eliminate the vectors. immigration policies and custom inspections may limit pathogen and vector entrance. drug treatment may limit future transmission of diseases. looking forward satellite - based remote sensing of ecologic conditions, geographic information system ( gis ) analytic techniques, inexpensive computational power, and molecular techniques to track the geographic distribution and transport of specific pathogens are some of the rapid advances in science which are used in developed countries for disease epidemiology and surveillance. they enable the public health scientists to analyse the evolution and distribution of microbes, and their relationship to different environments. it may contribute to quantify the disease impacts of climatic and environmental changes. disease control mostly relies on surveillance, followed by a rapid response. climate forecasts and environmental observations could be used to identify high - risk locations for disease outbreaks. operational early warning systems are not yet possible for our limited knowledge of climate - disease relation and limited climate forecasting capabilities. but establishing this goal will help to develop analytic, observational, and computational capacities. should be co - ordinated with meteorologic, ecologic, and epidemiologic surveillance systems. together, this information could be used to identify risky locations and could be a wake - up call as surveillance data confirm earlier projections. early warning systems of disease should also include vulnerability and risk analysis, response plans, and effective risk communication. the lack of high - quality ep


could be used to identify risky locations and could be a wake - up call as surveillance data confirm earlier projections. early warning systems of disease should also include vulnerability and risk analysis, response plans, and effective risk communication. the lack of high - quality epidemiologic data for most diseases is a serious obstacle to improve our understanding of climate and disease linkages. these data are necessary to establish a baseline against which one can detect unusual changes, and develop and validate models. a concerted effort should be made to collect long - term, area specific disease surveillance data, along with the appropriate set of meteorologic and ecologic centralised, electronic databases should be developed to facilitate rapid, standardised reporting and sharing of epidemiologic data among researchers. if an effective, modern and co - ordinated surveillance system could be built, then it will be possible to rapidly identify any outbreak of existing or emerging disease, known or unknown disease in any locality. then it will be possible to take appropriate measures for prevention and control of those illnesses of public health importance. prof. mahmudur rahman, phd is director, institute of epidemiology disease control and research ( iedcr ). dr. m. mushtuq husain phd is senior scientific officer, dept of medical social science, iedcr. nuzhat naseen bano is scientific officer, dept of medical entomology, iedcr.


icy sidewalks. slippery driveways. boots that bring melting snow onto floors. these all can cause falls. these are minor hazards for most of us, but for an elderly person, they can be devastating. a spill that gives a 20 - year - old a bruised knee could send an elderly person to the hospital. “ if you are over the age of 80 and you fall and break your hip, there is only a 50 percent chance that you will be able to return home, ever, ” says frederick frost, md, department chair of physical medicine and rehabilitation at cleveland clinic. some adults over age 65 are more at risk for falls than others, says barbara messinger - rapport, md, phd, director of geriatric medicine at cleveland clinic. danger signs to look for here are 4 danger signs according to drs. frost and messinger - rapport : - rapid weight loss could mean loss of muscle and bone mass. elderly people who lose 10 percent of their weight or more within six months may be more at risk because older people are more likely to lose muscle and bone mass than fat, says dr. messinger - rapport. “ women are more likely to have a wrist fracture if they try to break their fall with their arms, ” she says. “ and if they don ’ t get their arms out in time, they ’ re more likely to break their hips when they fall. ” - vision problems can make it hard to see. if an elderly person has impaired vision, this can cause them to trip and fall and bump into things. some eye problems, like cataracts, can be corrected. - neurodegenerative diseases can increase an older person ’ s risk. neurodegenerative diseases, like parkinson ’ s disease and dementia increase an older person ’ s risk. “ many people with early dementia may look very robust, but have difficulty with multitasking, ” says dr. messinger - rapport. “ they may be carrying a cup from the living room to the kitchen, and if there is an obstacle or an uneven surface, they may not pay sufficient attention, trip, and fall. ” - certain medications impair judgement. pain medications, muscle relaxants, or sedatives can impair an older adult ’ s judgment, says dr. messinger - rapport. “ and even though you wouldn ’ t think it, most antidepressants increase the risk of falls and fractures. ” how do you prevent falls? drs. frost and messinger - rap


, says dr. messinger - rapport. “ and even though you wouldn ’ t think it, most antidepressants increase the risk of falls and fractures. ” how do you prevent falls? drs. frost and messinger - rapport offer these suggestions for fall - proofing a home — whether elderly loved ones are visiting or you are helping an elderly person reduce risk of falls in their own home. clear a walking path make sure any pavement is shoveled and de - iced. try to discourage people from tramping through the house in wet boots, and wipe up any slippery spots quickly. you might also encourage shoes ( or slipper socks ) in the house because they have more traction than bare feet. either remove throw rugs or use double - sided tape to secure them ; they can cause people to slip. de - clutter the stairs. to help elderly visitors, make sure the steps are free of any obstructions like shoes or toys. look for unnecessary items or even pets and small children plopped down in a high - traffic area. watch alcohol intake at family get - togethers, older people may want to change their alcohol intake, says dr. frost. “ however, the interactions of that with drugs they may be taking can be unpredictable, ” she says. the limit on alcohol for older adults is one standard serving in a 24 - hour period. both doctors say if an elderly person has fallen in the past year, he or she may have a balance problem and should tell a doctor. treatment can include physical therapy sessions to improve confidence as well as strength, endurance, and balance.


leber congenital amaurosis ( lca ) is a group of autosomal recessive - inherited eye disorders which lead to blindness at birth or within the first few years of life. other manifestations of the disease may include hearing loss, mental retardation and decreased physical coordination. vision is an important and complex sense by which the qualities of an object, such as color, shape, and size, are perceived through the detection of light. for proper vision, a critical series of biological steps must occur ; if any of the steps in the process is abnormal, visual impairment or blindness may occur. the process of vision begins with light that bounces off an object and passes through the outer coverings and lens of the eye and projects onto a layer of cells at the back of the eye called the retina. the retina contains two kinds of specialized cells types, called the rods and cones, that are responsible for sensing visual stimuli. when rods and cones are stimulated by light, impulses are conducted through the optic nerve to a region in the back of the brain known as the occipital lobe. the occipital lobe contains the visual cortex, the area of the brain that processes visual stimuli and integrates signals sent by the retina to obtain a composite image of an object. leber congenital amaurosis ( lca ) is a term for a group of inherited conditions in which the rod and cone receptors in the retina are defective or missing. without the proper function of these specialized cells, light cannot be sensed normally. lca is often referred to by other names, such as : congenital absence of the rods and cones, congenital retinal blindness, congenital retinitis pigmentosa, leber congenital tapetoretinal degeneration, or leber congenital tapetoretinal dysplasia. the disorder was first described by the german ophthalmologist, theodor leber, in 1869, who subsequently showed that it was an inherited defect. although similarly named, lca should not be confused with another disorder of sight, leber optic atrophy, that was also discovered by theodor leber.


facts & resources meet the filmmakers documentary for health & social justice " we need to help our young girls set goals. help them negotiate condom usage. help them be stronger. give them theencouragement to say, " this is my body and i have a choice. " - filmparticipant living positive is a 15 - minute film told through the words and stories of five women innew orleans who share the challenges and triumphs of living with hiv. far from stopping at individual stories, the film explores the socialforces underlying the disease - including racism, poverty, lack ofinformation about hiv, and the stigma associated with the disease. thewomen in living positive have faced many struggles, including substanceabuse, sex work, mental health issues, and sometimes even rejection bytheir families, friends and community. a number of them continue tocontend with the physical and psychological aftermath of katrina. butthese women are also survivors, and living positive highlights theirstrengths and their many accomplishments. we hear how social networksmade up of family, friends, and community - based organizations sustainthem and help them grow. we learn about the powerful role of religionand spirituality in their lives. we see how working with other hivpositive women has brought a sense of meaning and fulfillment to theirlives. ultimately, the film shows how being hiv positive has been atransformative experience for these women. use the accompanying discussion guidebelow to help you engage your family and friends, your class, or yourcommunity in a discussion about the impact of hiv on women and theunderlying reasons that hiv disproportionately affects african americanwomen. this discussion guide provides questions to help you engage your family and friends, your class, or your community in a discussion about the impact of hiv on women and the underlying reasons that hiv disproportionately affects african american women. - the lack of knowledge about hiv / aids is fueling the epidemic. - the stigmatization of hiv positive people is still pervasive and negatively affects both mental and physical health. - social support networks and self - empowerment are important factors improving the health status of hiv positive women. - although gina and the other women in the film are hiv positive, you wouldn ' t necessarily know it by looking at them. what do you think are some of the things keeping these women healthy and full of life? - cynthia, gina, and others thought they were going to die when they found out


hiv positive, you wouldn ' t necessarily know it by looking at them. what do you think are some of the things keeping these women healthy and full of life? - cynthia, gina, and others thought they were going to die when they found out they had contracted hiv, and some people still see hiv / aids as a fatal disease. however, others also now perceive it as a condition that - with the proper treatment - is chronic, manageable, and for this reason not so worrisome. does the truth lie in between these two extremes and if so can you describe where? - what some ways that you can contract hiv? what are ways that you do not contract hiv? what are some important methods of hiv prevention? - cynthia and jaivanique speak compellingly about how friends and relatives feared " catching hiv " from casual contact with them. - why do you think the misconceptions about hiv transmission are still so pervasive? - what should be done about this? - are any of the same misconceptions common in your community? - african american women have a disproportionately high risk of contracting hiv. ( according to the centers for disease control, black women experience a rate of hiv diagnoses 23 times greater than white women. ) how do you think racism might play a role in these higher rates of diagnosis? - cynthia and some of the other women in living positive have a past that includes substance abuse and / or sex work. what are some underlying reasons that might lead women in these directions? what might be some solutions? - the film discusses methods of hiv prevention - such as hiv / aids education and the use of condoms - that have to do with individual behavior. but what are some prevention methods that might address the root causes of increasing hiv rates in the african american community? try to address racism and poverty. - how might gender play a role in the fact that women of color now face a disproportionate risk of hiv infection? - jacquie talks about the importance of her church in her life, and most of the other women mention family members, friends, or organizations that have stood by them despite their hiv status. can you describe the role of such support networks in the physical and mental health of hiv positive women? back to top belle reve, new orleans ( 504 ) 942 - 2670 ; ( 504 ) 945 - 9455 camp ace, of st. john # 5 faith church centers for disease control ( 2007, june


positive women? back to top belle reve, new orleans ( 504 ) 942 - 2670 ; ( 504 ) 945 - 9455 camp ace, of st. john # 5 faith church centers for disease control ( 2007, june ). hiv / aids among african americans. retrieved 9 / 30 / 07 from www. cdc. gov / hiv / topics / aa / resources / factsheets / aa. htm centers for disease control ( 2006, april ). hiv / aids among women. retrieved 9 / 30 / 07 family advocacy, care and education services ( faces ) national aids fund - the well project www. thewellproject. org - hiv insite http : / / hivinsite. ucsf. edu / - the body : the complete hiv / aids resource www. thebody. com / living positive : meet the filmmakers deborah craig, ryan hildebrant, anthony massung & brett hickman deborahhas an eclectic background in history, writing, public health, music, and the visual arts. she received a b. a. in american history fromcolumbia university, has been a jazz drummer and photographer since herteens, and spent many years in the software industry, writing over adozen books on various software applications. she joined the masters inpublic health program at san francisco state university in the fall of2006. besides completing the required coursework, she is takingdocumentary film classes to search for ways in which the arts can beused to enhance awareness about public health issues. her film " the verde garde : growing a healthy community, " came out in the spring of 2007 and was featured in the san francisco state film finals. ryan has had a lifelong interest in all forms of media. he holds anassociates of science degree in video production and, prior to comingto san francisco state university, had two years of professional workexperience on local documentaries, educational programming, and videoproduction for the web in his home city of san diego, california. hisprimary production interests are in lighting and camera, although he isexperienced in post production and sound as well. ryan will graduatefrom san francisco state university with his bachelors of arts incinema production in may of 2008. anthonyis a narrative filmmaker and a student at san francisco stateuniversity. he has an intense passion for moviemaking and has beenworking with film and video for over five years. having gotten intofilmmaking because he wants


in may of 2008. anthonyis a narrative filmmaker and a student at san francisco stateuniversity. he has an intense passion for moviemaking and has beenworking with film and video for over five years. having gotten intofilmmaking because he wants to contribute to positive social change, anthony recently joined ryan hildebrant and deborah craig to create adocumentary about hiv positive women in new orleans. anthony will begraduating with a ba in cinema in may of 2008. when he was a young boy, it was common to see brett carrying his father ' slarge shoulder - mounted vhs camera, making small films with anyone braveenough on the cul - de - sac where he lived. eventually he attended sanfrancisco state university, with a major in cinema. there brett tookpart in several student films, including a short documentary entitled the verde garden : growing a healthy community, which was featured in the san francisco state film finals and prompteda substantial united way grant to the verde garden. brett graduatedfrom san francisco state university in may of 2007. he now lives inirvine california, where he has harnessed his newfound passion fordocumentary style filmmaking, and is currently active as a freelancecamera operator on several projects. brett was asked to accompany thenew orleans group on their production as a second camera op, and isvery honored to be a part of this new documentary, living positive. view the high - quality version of this film the information on these pages is provided by the student film makers and does not represent an endorsement or verification of statements from the health equity institute


density. for planners and urban designers helping to create transit - oriented developments ( tods ), density is the crucial factor in achieving a critical mass for ridership and a mixed - use walkable environment that will entice people out of their cars. in many cases if planners can ’ t reach that threshold of density than transit is the baby that gets thrown out with the bath water. density continues to be extremely important to the success of transit, and in looking at the largest cities in the u. s., residential and employment density correlate strongly with the percentage of transit modal share. but increasingly, physical access and the walkable environment of a tod are getting face time in the transit debate. reconnecting america, arguably the organization taking the lead in tod, highlights street design, public space design, and connectivity to transit as must - dos. even if the density threshold is met, in many cases if these urban design principles aren ’ t used in land use planning, premium transit won ’ t acquire its maximum ridership. in working on a corridor plan in southeast florida, i, along with my project team, are thinking extensively how to retrofit the land use design along a large arterial, that for the majority of its length traverses a low density suburban context. through our short - term and long - term land use recommendations, we hope that it will be retrofitted to provide better access to the public transportation it currently has, as well as be able to easily become a transit - oriented corridor ( toc ) in the near future. in preparing this corridor for its birth as a toc, we are employing four design principles that i would argue are most effective in creating an environment supportive of transit - oriented development : connectivity, enhancements to the public realm, site orientation, and ground floor design and use. connectivity is the degree of which streets, roads, and pedestrian routes are joined together. the more connected the street network through a site, the more access and circulation options are provided. if an urban fabric has a high degree of connectivity, it provides many ways for users to navigate their environment and, in the process, reduces the extent to which all travelers must rely on one route. increasing the number of multimodal routes that connect with transit - oriented corridors will have many benefits, most notably : - alleviate automobile congestion by providing more navigational choices to users to reach destinations more efficiently, - allow the corridors to maintain their current width or be narrowed through a road diet to accommodate multimodal forms of transportation


will have many benefits, most notably : - alleviate automobile congestion by providing more navigational choices to users to reach destinations more efficiently, - allow the corridors to maintain their current width or be narrowed through a road diet to accommodate multimodal forms of transportation, and - create a physical environment that is conducive to mixed - use development and increase transit ridership. public realm enhancements the “ public realm ” refers to space that is publicly owned, accessible, and maintained. design enhancements to the public realm along major corridors provide more appropriate facilities for transit, transit - users, and the mixed - uses supportive of transit. alterations to the public realm along transit - oriented corridors can include improvements to buffers such as landscaping and lighting, enhancement of pedestrian - dedicated space such as sidewalks, and allowance of space for outdoor commercial activities. enhancing the public realm along transit - oriented corridors will have many benefits, most notably : - encouraging uses to access transit through direct and efficient routes to station facilities, - providing space for station facilities and supporting public space required of premium transit, - creating a comfortable environment along the corridor for transit users in between transfers, and - creating the active public space required for a healthy mixed - use environment site orientation is how buildings are located on a site in relationship to the public realm. in the past few decades, especially along commercial corridors that are designed - oriented for the automobile, parking lots have taken precedence over the building ’ s relationship to the street. in more urban environments that were developed before mainstream use of the automobile, buildings are located adjacent to the street and parking is accommodated on the street or by more modest lots the rear of the building. traditional site orientation along transit - oriented corridors has many benefits, most notably : - creating a sense of enclosure along the street that helps contributes to a comfortable environment for pedestrians, - achieving a building height - to - street ratio of at least 6 : 1 to achieve an urban character along the corridor, - allowing the overlooking of public space, which is instrumental in creating safe environments for people, and - creating an efficiency in travel for transit users and pedestrians between destinations ground floor design and use instrumental in creating an urban environment that is conducive to transit - oriented development is an active public realm. regulating the design and use of the ground floor of buildings adjacent to pedestrian space and transit facilities can have an enormous effect or the safety, comfort ability, and commercial success of the corridor. active ground floor spaces can have many benefits, most notably : - an overlooked a safe environment for pedestrians and transit


of buildings adjacent to pedestrian space and transit facilities can have an enormous effect or the safety, comfort ability, and commercial success of the corridor. active ground floor spaces can have many benefits, most notably : - an overlooked a safe environment for pedestrians and transit users - creating an appealing space with a strong identity that attracts people and business, ie : “ placemaking ” a co - worker made the observation that many of the sites that host the low density retail product that we were charged with retrofitting along this corridor often shared the same context, plot size, and density. in our research of the design alternatives for traditional big box sites locally we stumbled across two targets, one in tampa and one in orlando, that illustrate the importance of design principles in development along future transit - oriented corridors. the target located on dale mabry highway and i - 275 in tampa was welcomed by many when it was built in 2005. by building stores adjacent to a multi - story parking deck, the design included three times the amount of parking and stores located on the same site. a higher density of development was certainly achieved. it was a different alternative to the typical suburban development that had been seen for the past 4 decades. in this case, i believe “ different ” might have been substituted with “ good, ” and for lack of a better example, even considered “ urban. ” - connectivity : the site design does not include any streets through the site and therefore the one access road to the north of the shopping center is congested, contributing to traffic along the corridor - public realm enhancements : there is no public realm dedicated to pedestrians or cyclists at all in the development, which encourages car usage - site orientation : instead of orienting the buildings on the site so that the liner building in front of the parking garage fronted the corridor, a surface parking lot and out parcel buildings were placed along the road. the result is a poor quality pedestrian environment with no clear connections to transit - ground floor design and use : solid walls bordering circulation space and inactive uses like a parking garage contribute no activity to the public realm and creates an inhospitable walking environment the target located on orange avenue in orlando however, achieved the same program and density ( even more actually ) while addressing its urban context and properly employing the four design principles. the difference in the quality of place and access to the urban corridor is absolutely staggering. - connectivity : the site design includes two north - south and one east - west through - roads that disperse circulation throughout the site and alleviates congestion on the corridor. this also


in the quality of place and access to the urban corridor is absolutely staggering. - connectivity : the site design includes two north - south and one east - west through - roads that disperse circulation throughout the site and alleviates congestion on the corridor. this also makes the mixed - uses included in the development more accessible to bordering neighborhoods - public realm enhancements : sidewalks in the development and adjacent to neighborhoods are comfortable for pedestrians. proper buffering is provided by vegetation and on - street parking - site orientation : instead of placing suburban outparcels along the corridor, buildings are placed directly fronting the sidewalk. while they do not achieve a density desired on a tod corridor they do create a more urban and walkable character. - ground floor design and use : solid walls are avoided where possible. facades that face the public realm are majority fenestration and provide active uses adjacent to open space. these two development examples illustrate how important required design standards are in achieving a land use and pattern required of transit - oriented design. while many design principles could be put in place along designated transit - oriented corridors, requiring connectivity, a well - designed public realm, active ground floor uses, and site orientation will achieve a high - quality level of development. the below picture shows from a site planning perspective how easily the higher quality development in orlando could be achieved on the same site in tampa. in fact, we realized that this is the case among many targets, including the one on our corridor in hollywood, fl. and the target in my home town of charlotte. we need to remember that “ different ” doesn ’ t always mean better. and while we are making progress in achieving a higher density and more program on a site, we could make even a bigger difference on many of our future transit - oriented corridors if we are just aware of how cities as close as an hour away are integrating the same big box products. while density certainly lays the foundation for a rich tod, its optimal success is dependent on the quality of place achieved by traditional urban design.


leads to : traditionalism and the mind of society in 19th century south africa, the xhosa people destroyed all their own crops and cattle. the result was a horrible famine that reduced their population to a fraction of what it had been. the cause : a prophecy proclaiming that the british would be driven out if only they sacrificed everything. enlightened western thought has long equated irrational beliefs and superstition with nothing less than darkness. superstition is regarded as the hallmark of primitives ; society has progressed and grown beyond such nonsense. holding such irrational beliefs is regarded as maladaptive and self - defeating. that ’ s why modern societies have won! yet the idea of technology and rationalism being ‘ progress ’ and evidence of superiority is itself an irrational belief, a superstition, a dogmatic doctrine. having jet fighters amounts to little if a society falls behind in the reproductive race and is unwilling / unable to use the jet fighters to wipe out their more fecund competitors. if the modernized civilization can ’ t even keep its population isolated from the more fecund populations, displacement and replacement is just a matter of time. in a society founded on rationalism and science, we fail to understand : actions and ideas that are irrationally justified at the level of individuals can have a perfectly rational outcome when implemented across an entire society. the evolution of a highly social species doesn ’ t select for individual fitness by itself. it selects for the most successful social models and the individuals that can function within them. clever individuals amount to nothing if the result of their collaboration is a stupid society. a society has a ‘ mind ’ of its own looking after its own interests and the evolutionarily successful individual serves as an effective neuron before looking after its own interests. of our destinies and autonomy, the mind of society takes the first cut in exchange for handling the larger scale — not unlike like the system of taxation that underpins a government. members of successful societies either believe in the ‘ right ’ things for the wrong reasons or, more likely : their intended courses of action and ostensibly held beliefs inadvertently result in a favorable outcome for reasons they cannot begin to fathom. like birds that distribute the seeds of berries they ’ ve eaten in their feces without ever understanding why more berries appear, they fulfill their function without knowing what they do. the individuals in these societies accept irrational, customary behaviors because it ’ s what they ’ ve always been told by their society, because they have to belong to their society in order to survive.


appear, they fulfill their function without knowing what they do. the individuals in these societies accept irrational, customary behaviors because it ’ s what they ’ ve always been told by their society, because they have to belong to their society in order to survive. because the less cooperative, less malleable, more critically minded individuals are culled from each generation ( or were never allowed to come into being to begin with ). thus : we are bred for susceptibility to irrationally founded social norms and belief in the inherent correctness of collectively endorsed action. seen in this way, the disastrous cattle slaughters of the xhosa no longer seem so surprising or extraordinary. the same social traits of group unity and faith in authority that had previously resulted in evolutionary success simply malfunctioned under changed circumstances. the clear weakness of social evolution as with natural evolution is its lack of flexibility in the face of sudden change. taxing individuals of their capacity for autonomy also limits their ability to respond to new environmental stresses. as with species, the social minds that adapt to change and survive malfunction continue onward. however, with the human population flirting as ever with malthusian disaster and resource depletion, we should ask : can we afford to leave the social mind as a monarch that does not answer to its subjects? could the xhosa have prevented their self - destruction by understanding and collaborating with their social mind?


the lao people originally occupied parts of southern china. they were gradually driven southward into the indochinese peninsula by the chinese. about the 12th century, the lao moved into the area that is now laos, peacefully settling among the inhabitants. these native peoples included the descendants of dark - skinned aborigines and of malay - indonesians, who had arrived there between 500 b. c. and 500 a. d. in 1353 fa ngoun united a number of small principalities along the mekong river into the kingdom of lan xang. its capital was louangphrabang. at about this time, theravada buddhism was made the state religion. lan xang prospered during the late 14th and early 15th centuries, but then was wracked successively by internal dissension and wars with neighboring countries. early in the 18th century, it split into the kingdoms of louangphrabang in the north, vientiane in the center, and champassak in the south. wars against siam, burma, annam, and china followed. in 1828 vientiane was conquered by the siamese, and louangphrabang and champassak soon fell under the influence of their neighbors. france began to penetrate indochina in 1858. in 1893 the french expelled the siamese from laotian territory. by 1904 france had reunited the region, given it the name laos, and made it a french protectorate. france ruled the country until indochina was overrun by the japanese in 1941. in 1946 french control was reestablished. the head of the ruling family of louangphrabang, which had been allowed to retain its royal prerogatives under the french, was made king of laos. laos became independent within the french union in 1949 and the country achieved complete independence in 1953. communist north vietnamese invaded northern laos in 1953 but withdrew the next year as a result of an agreement reached at the 1954 geneva conference. fighting in the north between government forces and laotian communist rebels, called pathet lao, followed. the head of the pathet lao was prince souphanouvong. his half - brother, prince souvanna phouma — who was premier 1951 – 54, 1956 – 58, 1960, and 1962 – 75 — made many attempts to establish a coalition government with the pathet lao while waging almost continuous war against them. the united states, fearing a communist takeover of the country, supplied much military and economic aid. a cease - fire was arranged in 1961. the united states and


establish a coalition government with the pathet lao while waging almost continuous war against them. the united states, fearing a communist takeover of the country, supplied much military and economic aid. a cease - fire was arranged in 1961. the united states and other world powers met in geneva, switzerland, and in 1962 agreed to guarantee laotian neutrality. a coalition government composed of the rival rightist, neutralist, and communist factions was formed. the pathet lao soon withdrew from the coalition. with the help of the north vietnamese, the pathet lao seized large portions of the country. the united states organized and supported private tribal and thai armies to resist the communists. during the vietnamese war ( 1957 – 75 ), fighting between the vietnamese communists and the allied forces often spread into laos. in 1973 a peace agreement was signed between the laotian government and the pathet lao. a coalition of rightists, neutralists, and communists was formed in 1974 with souvanna phouma remaining as premier. however, in 1975, after neighboring cambodia and south vietnam fell to the communists, the pathet lao expelled all rightists and neutralists from the government and seized control of the entire country. the monarchy was abolished and a communist regime established in its place. souphanouvong became the country ' s first president ; he held the post until 1986. laos made economic reforms in the early 1990 ' s, allowing the creation of a very limited free market. it was admitted to the association of southeast asian nations in 1997.


password policy guidelines this document introduces the basic concepts of network authentication. in particular, it focuses on the use of login ids and passwords to verify the identity of users. various strategies for selecting strong, hard - to - guess passwords are then discussed. the role of passwords in authentication most shared computer systems limit access to data and resources, based on the identity of users who request that access. access control is therefore dependent on reliable user identification. authentication is the process of identifying users in a manner which makes it difficult for one user to impersonate another. a number of technologies are available for user authentication. the most popular authentication systems are : - secret passwords. - cryptographic certificates. - smart cards. - biometric devices ( fingerprints, retina scans, head scans, etc. ). since they are the least expensive to implement, most systems rely on passwords to authenticate users. as well, passwords are often used in addition to physical or cryptographic proofs of identity to further strengthen security. threats to password security a typical case involves a malicious user ( m ) trying to access a network resource for which m is not authorized. one of the easiest ways for m to access that network resource is to guess the password of a valid user ( v ). there are several methods that m could use to guess v ' s password. first, m could use a computer program to try out possible values for v ' s password very quickly. m could also acquire v ' s password by watching as v enters it. m could literally watch v typing, or could use electronic means, such as installing software on v ' s computer to record his keystrokes, or installing a network analyzer to monitor v ' s keystrokes as they are transmitted over the network. making passwords hard to guess the responsibility of selecting a password that is hard to guess generally falls to users, like v. if users choose a one - character password, and that character could be any uppercase letter, lowercase letter or digit, then there would be 62 possible passwords. clearly, m could try all 62 possibilities very quickly. v could make his / her password harder to guess by using more characters. using the same possible characters, there are 3844 possible two - character passwords, and 218340105584896 ( about 218 trillion ) 8 - character passwords. even if m could try out 5000 eight - character passwords per second, it would take, on average, 700 years for m to


( by a packet sniffer program ), or on the server he is accessing ( by a trojan horse program ). to protect the user ' s workstation, a strong operating system must be installed, such as unix or windows nt. furthermore, the workstation must be physically secured against tampering. if an operating system without security features is used ( such as dos, windows or macos ), then an intruder only needs temporary physical access to the console to insert a keyboard monitor program. if the workstation is not physically secured, then an intruder can reboot even a secure operating system, restart the workstation from his own media, and insert the offending program. to protect against network analysis attacks, both the workstation and server should be cryptographically secured. examples of strong protocols are the encrypted netware login and kerberos. some systems ( like the windows nt file server protocol - - smb or cifs ) make an attempt at cryptography, but are easily defeated by cryptanalysis. systems that make no effort to encrypt remote access sessions, such as mainframes and unix hosts, can be trivially compromised by a network analyzer. finally, to protect against trojan horse login programs, the server should be physically secured, closely monitored, and should automatically log off unattended sessions.


a major problem for improving english spelling is that hundreds of amateurs have invented schemes to make their own sound - symbol correspondences regardless of the fact that present english spelling holds a tremendous amount of the world ' s print, past and present. these schemes scare off everybody else, to think that spelling reform must be hare - brained and impossible. any reform to be practicable must be a simple modification of what we have already - until there is some breakthru to a writing system that can cross languages - like chinese but without its problems. here are some criteria for practicable reform. practical improvement of english spelling the ideal writing system would cross languages and meet all needs for reading, writing and learning. this breakthrough has not yet been invented. what is possible now our present spelling can be made more user - frendly and efficient internationally than it is now. learners could then ' teach themselves to read ' using audiovisual tecnology - which is not fully feasible with present spelling as it is. in the present fluid state of language and the internet, spelling improvements can be introduced in the same way as changes in the spoken language, by changes in common practice. these can also be tested on the internet, so that no proposal is taken up simply because it seems fine in theory. then an international english language commission can standardise and authorise the most new characters are not yet posibl for everyday use that would allow one - sound - one - symbol correspondence for the 40 + sounds in english speech. this probably has to wait until the querty querty keyboard is overtaken by progress. however it is posibl to hav a practicabl spelling reform would meet all the common objections to improving english spelling - the status quo is the underlying reason for all opposition to all modifications of a writing system. english spelling is still regarded as a totem rather than as an instrument for comunication. yet spelling is not the english language - it is a means to communicate the language. however, once a change is made and found to be better, the new status quo is preferred - as with other reforms around the world that were originally resisted - such as the recent official reforms in germany. - it is not true that the interests of readers, writers, learners and computers are so conflicting that any reform that helps one group must hurt another. challengeable arguments and assumptions underlie these claims ( see part 2 ). an improved spelling can be designed to meet their different interests and their common interests too. communication. a


computers are so conflicting that any reform that helps one group must hurt another. challengeable arguments and assumptions underlie these claims ( see part 2 ). an improved spelling can be designed to meet their different interests and their common interests too. communication. a standardised updated english spelling would be internationally more efficient for communication rather than more divisive - unlike ' spelling as you speak ' reform. - access to our heritage of print can be maintained. ' fastr spelling ' is backward compatibl with present spelling, and is even often closer to the spelling of chaucer than the present. it can be read on first sight. it keeps a close visual resemblance to present english spelling and up to 95 % of letters in text remain unchanged - present readers need no extra training to read or spell. transitions would be phased in as alternatives for present spelling, accepted in dictionaries, as many changes are already being accepted. - ' fastr spelling ' is not ' spelling as you speak ' which would lead to a confusion of idiosyncratic spellings and dialects. most people, including most spelling reformers, assume that any spelling reform must be ' spelling as you speak ', regardless of other overseas models of writing systems. ' fastr spelling ' transcends the problems of dialects, because it makes a standardised broad - band ' diafonic ' representation of speech. spelling conventions are like conventionalised drawings which are universally recognised, for example, a stick - figure man which is unlike a photograph of a specific man. one broad sound category can ' embrace all those different phonemes ( speech sounds ) from which a listener is able to identify and comprehend a word, in however many regional and individual pronunciations it may be spoken. ' ( pitman & st. john 1969. ) the principles of ' fastr spelling ' are consistent, clear and simple, as with italian and spanish spelling. an example of this in practice is how english words are respelt in pidgin englishes - uncluttered and ' broad - band ' to facilitate fast learning and easy comunication by the masses. another example is how anyone can read or spell banana, regardless of their own dialect, although the one simpl spelling ' a ' is used for three speech sounds. to respell it with closer phonics such as bannaana would advantage noone except - ' chomsky principles ' for optimum spelling are extended, not disregarded. visual relationships of word families ( morphemes ) and grammatical markers are


than what is obsolete etymology is retained in fastr spelling when it gives clues to meanin, but not when it is a mere antiquarian interest better catered for in dictionaries, as other languages use dictionaries. nobody wants to have the history of their cars, computers or space rockets built into their dashboards and keyboards permanently - but they like reading about them ' i worked hard to spell, so everyone difficult english spelling has been valued as a social screening test that sorts out people, and keeps off competition on the ladder to success. but today we need efficiency, mass literacy and cutting waste more than we need an elite. english spelling snobbery was given by the swedish sociologist veblen as a conspicuous example of wasteful ' conspicuous consumption '. ' not in my time, o do not worry. the spelling changes recommended here can co - exist and mix with present spelling. traditionalists can continue to read and write in present spelling. they can read fastr spelling with ease, but need never write it themselves. quibbles such as how to re - spell mauve or calf do not justify mothballing reform yet again, for a ha ' porth of tar. some posers are soluble by pronouncing them as they are spelt - as happens already among those ' not in the know '. until a finalised reform, a few minor ' exception ' spellings can remain as temporary concessions for current readers and no major problem for new back to spelling index page back to ozideas home page


back : amanda v. ( rose ) inabnit, ernest o. betterley, mary p. ( bishop ) blair, alfred h. betterley, lucy e. longsdorf, elmer g. betterley, benjamin j. betterley front : frank s. betterley, lucy m. ( green ) betterley, frank o. betterley, otis v. betterley [ photo courtesy of geneva thoner ] betterley or betterly? the dictionary of american family names from oxford university press defines betterley as " english : probably a variant of betteley, from a place called betley, of which there is one in staffordshire and another in sussex, the former being named from an old english female personal name bette + leah ‘ woodland clearing ’. " an entry in the new dictionary of american family names by elsdon c. smith defines it as " one who comes from bitterley ( glade where butter was made ), in shropshire ". ric betterly told me that the betterleys came from the village of betters that was located on the outskirts of london. the name betters ley would mean the village of betters. betterley or betterly? take your pick. early american references used both spellings, and subsequent generations appear to sometimes have used the spelling alternate to that used by their forebears. a grave marker might have the spelling alternate to that used by the person in life. documents written in one ' s own hand can show how that person spelled his / her own name, but documents written by scribes or officials may use their own spelling choice. one rule genealogists should get used to is that there is no " correct " spelling. however, both spelling and pronunciation become very personal issues. for example, when a road near the betterley homestead in vermont is named betterly road, even though that family used the " betterley " spelling for many generations. occurrences of the name in england world family tree by brøderbund shows richard betterley being married to cecilia seymour, who was born about 1337 and died in 1369 at burford, shropshire. the agincourt honor roll shows that john bitterlee and two men named richard bytterley fought for the english as they defeated the french at the battle of agincourt in france in 1415. this was during the hundred years ' war, some fourteen years before the rise of joan of arc. there are several entries for the name in the british isles igi. there is also a bible


battle of agincourt in france in 1415. this was during the hundred years ' war, some fourteen years before the rise of joan of arc. there are several entries for the name in the british isles igi. there is also a bible transcription that was apparently found for an 18th century english family. we have not yet determined where our immigrant forefather came from in england, or even exactly who our immigrant forefather was. in early america there are numerous theories as to the arrival of the family in america. i have no proof to enhance any of them : the history of brookline, new hampshire indicates that the early betterley family history is sketchy but states that " three brothers arrived in america in the early 18th century ". [ the " three brothers " story is one of the most common themes in genealogy and is most probably a myth. ] jack betterly of troy, ny heard that " thomas betterley arrived at about the age of eighteen months with his mother, elizabeth. " this could very well have been before 1700. [ this is the version least contradicted by my research. ] ric betterly ' s grandparents and the plain speaker of hazleton, pa say that " there were two brothers who were advisors to the king and left his service to emigrate to america. where they landed is not recorded. eventually one brother settled in the area of cartersville ( st. john ' s ), pa. the other settled in the michigan area. " [ i ' m guessing that these brothers were actually a later generation descended from william betterley of pennsylvania, though there could very well have been two earlier brothers that emigrated. ] elizabeth betterley heard this more detailed version of the above after it was passed down from her great - granduncle. " thomas betterley, born 17 nov 1723 died 28 jul 1775 in boston, and his brother william, who went to pennsylvania and settled there, came over from england in 1772 on a cattle ship. on the way the ship began to leak and for fear it might sink they killed some of the cattle and these boys then about 16 years old tried? out the ( tallow? ) for 1 / 2 of its value and threw the meat overboard, but not a ( divil? ) of a bit did they get. " [ i believe this thomas to actually have been the father of this william. there were also sons thomas in vermont and george in new hampshire. ] there ' s a thomas betterley that appears in chowan co, nc colonial census


they get. " [ i believe this thomas to actually have been the father of this william. there were also sons thomas in vermont and george in new hampshire. ] there ' s a thomas betterley that appears in chowan co, nc colonial census records in 1717 and 1721. north carolina historical and genealogical review volume 1 shows john ballard, with the consent of his former master, henry whittens of boston in new england, agreeing to serve thomas betterley for 5 years and one month from the date 3 jan 1717. this led betterley researcher esther mott to search the north carolina colonial court records. they showed that thomas betterley, as justice of the peace for chowan precinct, was assaulted and had his life threatened by a thomas bray on 16 mar 1720. these records also indicate that thomas betterley was among those rioting at the house of the governor on 2 jul 1728, when the crowd attacked a servant of the governor and " broke his head ". there were many other references as well to him in land and court records from 1716 until he died in june of 1729. his will was found, as were proceedings concerning a land dispute between his estate and the alden family. we knew that this was our thomas betterley, listed as both feltmaker and haberdasher in edenton, chowan county, north carolina. cavaliers and pioneers : abstracts of virginia land patents and grants volume three 1695 - 1732 by neil marion nugent shows fran betterly mentioned in virginia in 1698. esther mott uncovered a link to the document. " ffran betterly " is written way at the bottom. i guess that ' s how they wrote a capital " f ". we assume there is a link to thomas betterley in nearby north carolina. we are very interested in learning what that link is. the marriage index : massachusetts, 1633 - 1850 ( ftm cd 231 ) shows that this first thomas betterley married elizabeth alden ( great granddaughter of john and priscilla alden ) on 26 jul 1720 at king ' s chapel in boston, ma. mayflower deeds and probates shows an elizabeth betterley as heir and descendant of john alden, jr. i ' ve found thus far that all betterleys that can trace their family to colonial america can trace it to thomas betterley and elizabeth alden. we don ' t know if elizabeth ever left boston, or if perhaps she returned to boston to have her son and then for good after thomas died. we assume that thomas was buried in edenton, nc


to thomas betterley and elizabeth alden. we don ' t know if elizabeth ever left boston, or if perhaps she returned to boston to have her son and then for good after thomas died. we assume that thomas was buried in edenton, nc. mayflower births and deaths, vol. 1 shows thomas betterly, b. 17 nov 1723 in boston, ma, as the son of thomas and elizabeth betterly. the suffolk vr cd - rom from search and research lists his marriage to elizabeth carson on 6 apr 1749 in boston, ma. the published inscription from the thomas betterley bible in vermont indicates that the father of thomas was really named william, but that might be a mistake due to thomas being only five years old when his father died in north carolina. thomas is said to have died on 28 jul 1775, followed by his wife on 7 aug 1775, both being buried the same day. one is, of course, struck with the unlikeliness of a delay of over eleven days from death to burial in the height of summer before the days of embalming or a refrigerated morgue. the thomas betterley bible transcription does seem to indicate that the year of thomas ' death was hard to read and seemed to actually be 1774. thomas was the father of two daughters named elizabeth. the first that died young was perhaps by an earlier woman named elizabeth mecaslan that some speculate was his betrothed but not his wife. i have seen birth years of 1749 and 1750 for this daughter. thomas then married elizabeth carson from scotland in 1749, indicating that she was instead the mother of the first daughter. two sons served from worcester, ma during the revolutionary war. they were thomas, who moved to newfane twp, windham co, vt, and william, who moved to sugarloaf / butler twp, luzerne co, pa. another son, george, moved to woodstock, vt and then brookline, nh. these children are documented in family bibles owned by mrs. robert dunklee, late of brattleboro, vt. geoffrey and patrick dahling at graves of 6th gr - grandparents, thomas betterley 1751 - 1836 and lydia ( warren ) betterley 1752 - 1839. betterley cemetery near newfane, vermont. [ photo by loren dahling ] see who is buried at the betterley cemetery on lost mile rd in newfane twp, windham co, vt. see the betterleys and relatives buried at porcupine cemetery, frank


. [ photo by loren dahling ] see who is buried at the betterley cemetery on lost mile rd in newfane twp, windham co, vt. see the betterleys and relatives buried at porcupine cemetery, frankfort twp, pepin co, wi. read about revolutionary war wagoner thomas betterley and his vermont family. take a look at our photos of the betterley homestead. are you interested in seeing a video about it? the robb family farm is still owned by descendants of their grandson. did william carson betterley, later of pennsylvania, serve under george washington at valley forge, or did he again serve during the war of 1812? was his wife also an " enlisted man ", and did she cook for general washington? pension records make no mention of these things. do you know? george betterley was too young to serve during the revolution, but he later moved to vermont and then new hampshire. read about the three wives of alfred w. betterley of new york, and later of minnesota and wisconsin. he was a grandson of revolutionary war soldier thomas betterley. the obituary of charles c. betterly, witness to the murder of abraham lincoln and member of his honor guard. he was a great grandson of revolutionary war soldier william carson betterley. in memory of... timothy d. betterly lost his life when terrorists destroyed the world trade center in new york on 11 sep 2001. a resident of little silver, nj and a bond trader for cantor fitzgerald, he was 42 years old and the son of donald a. betterly. he is survived by wife joanne and daughters samantha and christine. back in high school, timothy invited a mentally handicapped girl who always ate alone to eat with the football players, something she did for the next two years. this is only one of many tributes to this fine man. we are proud that he bore the betterly name. was a fictional betterley ever the subject of a tv program? i don ' t know if any of you remember the 1959 crime drama, lock - up, starring macdonald carey and featuring the talents of guests like mary tyler moore, lon chaney, leonard nimoy, and burt reynolds. one episode was called the case of willie betterly. i was surprised to find this video advertised on the internet. view the gedcom. got a betterley question? visit the betterley surname board. fact or fiction? can you disprove these assumptions? marge howe found a list of the children


was surprised to find this video advertised on the internet. view the gedcom. got a betterley question? visit the betterley surname board. fact or fiction? can you disprove these assumptions? marge howe found a list of the children of thomas and lydia ( warren ) betterley of newfane, vt at the brooks memorial library in brattleboro. it stated that daughter lucy married rhodes gardner and that daughter betsey married his brother, philip gardner. i found son george betterley in the otsego co, ny census living in laurens in 1840 and milford in 1850. i then found what seems to indicate that lucy, betsey, and their husbands also lived in otsego county. the 1850 census for laurens lists philip ( born about 1777 in rhode island ) and elizabeth ( born about 1780 in massachusetts ) gardner. the betterley family moved from massachusetts to vermont in about 1780, so this could be our betsey who fills in a gap in the betterley children birth years. the 1860 census for new lisbon lists rhodes ( born about 1784 in vermont ) and lucy ( born about 1785 in new york ) gardner. perhaps the birth place for lucy is listed incorrectly. she also fills in a gap in the betterley children birth years. also, several of the children i later discovered have names found amongst the children of thomas and lydia betterley. joan emery then informed me that rhodes gardner of otsego county was married to lucy butterley. sounds interesting, doesn ' t it? i then found rhodes ( died 1866 age 81 ), lucy ( died 1869 age 84 ), philip ( died 1858 age 80 ), and betsey ( died 1860 age 81 ) gardner listed on nygenweb as being buried in mt. vision cemetery of laurens twp. phillip ( 28 may 1777 ) and rhoads ( 2 apr 1784 ) are listed in the igi as sons of joseph and judith gardner of pownal twp, bennington co, vt. that is very close to newfane twp, windham co, vt. there is also a rhodes gardner of seneca, ny listed in the igi as born 12 mar 1784 and married to lucy abt 1807. it appears to be the same rhodes, so there is some confusion about his birth date. i am convinced that i have found my betterley / gardner connection, though you should rightfully consider these as very strong clues rather than hard fact. the name combinations, birth years, and birth places seem more than


some confusion about his birth date. i am convinced that i have found my betterley / gardner connection, though you should rightfully consider these as very strong clues rather than hard fact. the name combinations, birth years, and birth places seem more than coincidental. so does the fact that george betterley moved to the same county. perhaps the betterley girls married the gardner boys in vermont before moving to new york. younger brother george later followed them to new york after his marriage in vermont. another investigation revealed that george betterley ( 1790 - 1858 ) and dimmis whipple ( 1792 - 1864 ) of windham co, vt and then otsego co, ny had at least ten children if census records are to be believed : - george warren betterley ( abt1815 - 1886 ) - john whipple betterley ( abt1818 - bef1857 ) - son betterley ( b. 1816 - 1820 - samuel in ontario? see below. ) - daughter betterley ( b. 1816 - 1820, d. unk ) - alfred w. betterley ( 1824 - 1880 ) - son betterley ( b. 1821 - 1825, d. unk ) - laura c. betterley ( 1827 - 1860 ) married timothy crandall - lydia rozetta betterley ( abt1828 - 1867 ) married william oles - lucy m. betterley ( abt1833 - unk ) married john youmans - william ward betterley ( 1835 - bef1899 ) george warren betterley is listed in cemetery records as a son of george and dimmis. he was living near his father in laurens in 1840. his third child was listed as being born in stockbridge, ny in 1842. by 1850 he was living with his uncle, thomas betterley, in vermont. john whipple betterley was farming in otsego in 1850. by 1857 his wife, matilda, was listed alone in land records. alfred has long been considered a son. he was farming in milford in 1850 and named his first two children george and dimmis. the two unnamed sons are indicated in pre - 1850 census records. a crandall history lists laura as having married timothy crandall, brother of the first two wives of alfred betterley. they were farming in milford in 1850. i assume she is a daughter, because dimmis betterley was living with them in 1860 after george died. the igi lists lydia rozetta betterley as a relative of emeline whipple


. they were farming in milford in 1850. i assume she is a daughter, because dimmis betterley was living with them in 1860 after george died. the igi lists lydia rozetta betterley as a relative of emeline whipple, youngest sister of dimmis whipple. i assume she was a daughter and married william oles. myron, a son of william and lydia oles, is buried right next to mary ( crandall ) betterley, first wife of alfred, and very near george betterley in the milford, ny churchyard. william and lydia oles and their family moved to wisconsin, and lydia died in 1868 and is buried at the first belmont ( or kent ) cemetery in belmont twp, portage co, wi on county - d about two miles south of blaine corners. lucy and william were children living with george and dimmis betterley in 1850. i assume lucy married john youmans. first, george betterley was owed money by alfred betterley and john youmans when he died. there was a john youmans of about the right age in the 1850 census. lucy youmans was living with dimmis betterley and timothy and laura crandall in 1860, so her husband may have died by then. i ' ve been working on a canadian connection, and my canadian sources have been limited to what i can find online. there is a betterley presence in elgin, ontario, canada. i speculate that the first betterley there was the 3rd son of george and dimmis betterley of newfane, born about 1821. the lds site indicates a samuel betterley born about 1818 newfane, windham, vt. at least the oldest son above was born in newfane before the move to new york, and we can disregard a couple of other well - documented people in newfane named samuel betterley. they were george ' s uncle and cousin. there was a samuel betterley in the 1850 census, age 29 and living with a robinson family, in hardwick, worcester, ma. then the following samuel in the 1860 census for ashtabula, ashtabula, oh : - betterly, samuel 40 m mason b. vt - christianna 27 f ny - fanny j. 7 f ny - william 5 m ny - mary 1 f ny the age for the 1860 oh entry coincides with the age for the 1850 ma entry. i found no us census entries after that for a samuel of the right age. phylicia salisbury found this entry


william 5 m ny - mary 1 f ny the age for the 1860 oh entry coincides with the age for the 1850 ma entry. i found no us census entries after that for a samuel of the right age. phylicia salisbury found this entry : - convicted at elgin co, on of receiving surgeon ' s report facts - betterley samuel - died 6 dec 1882 of dysentery at age 70 - birth place : can i believe that his birthplace of canada is suspect. this is what got me going on the canadian link, and i did verify samuel ' s death record online. i found this 1871 census for malahide, east elgin, ontario. all were born in the us, and their origin is german : - betterly, samuell 44 m carpenter - hannah 38 f - fanny 18 f - willie 16 m - mary 14 f - john 11 m - simeon 6 m - george 2 m - sarah 7m f this is the family from ohio. this time the mistake is with the family being of german origin as well as with samuel ' s age. we will see later why christianne could be hannah. then an 1881 canadian census entry for yarmouth, elgin east, ontario. this indicates the same age as the 1860 ohio census, and this time the family is of english origin. all were born in the us except children george and laura in ontario : - samuel betterley 60 m farm labourer married - hannah betterley 49 f married - simeon betterley 16 m - george betterley 14 m - laura betterley 8 f this would be one year before the death of samuel betterley at kingston penetentiary. hannah was living with just daughter laura in malahide in 1891 and then in windsor with daughter fanny and husband in 1901. here is the complete list of children that i ' ve found for samuel and hannah : - fanny j. betterley b. abt 1853 mar. jacob henry wismer ( mar. to peter mettler by 1901 ) - william betterley b. abt 1855 mar. mary caswell - mary betterley b. abt 1859 mar. melvin matthews - john betterley b. abt 1860 mar. augusta a. strong - simeon betterley b. abt 1865 - george betterley b. abt 1869 mar. annie taylor - sarah betterley b. abt 1871 ( died by 1881? ) - laura betterley b. abt 1873 ( died after 1891 ) fanny ' s marriage record shows parents as samuel james betterley and hannah betterley. george ' s


taylor - sarah betterley b. abt 1871 ( died by 1881? ) - laura betterley b. abt 1873 ( died after 1891 ) fanny ' s marriage record shows parents as samuel james betterley and hannah betterley. george ' s shows nathaniel and hannah, so that was wrong. john ' s shows samuel j. batterley and hannah j. richmond. i did find hannah richmond in maryland twp, otsego co, ny in 1850 : - richmond, ethan 67 m pauper - nancy 55 f - hannah c. 17 f i found a family tree that points to this being ethan allen richmond b. 1786 and second wife nancy ross wright. his first wife was martha catlin. ethan was the son of sylvester richmond and harriet covell / covill. those trees that list his second marriage list the daughter born in 1833 as christina. finding hannah c. in 1850, christianne in 1860, and then hannah from then on makes a lot of sense. d. wakeling, whom i ' ve been unable to contact, wrote : " we have betterley ' s in our tree. came to canada late 1800. settled in elgin county, ontario. we have a george who married a anna taylor. george ' s parents were sam betterley married to hannah adams. the above info was in my grandmotbhers bible. sam died in kingston penetury have not found why he was there. it seems like geo disowned his father if that is who he was. any info appreciated " i think " late 1800s " is what was meant. i had seen this early on, and " adams " threw me off for a while until i later ran across richmond. i could find no hannah adams b. abt 1833 in otsego co, ny. lots of interesting clues, and you may agree that my speculation is logical. i think i am on the right track. is there anything more anybody can add? i ' d love to hear from any descendants of this family that read this. there are actually two descendants of the canadian betterley family that i have found on the internet and been unable to contact. one more mystery for now. who was abijah w. betterley? he was a single laborer from newfane that was listed in the census for the vermont asylum for the insane ( aka brattleboro retreat ) in brattleboro from 1850 until his death there 29 sep 1892 at age 82. the asylum had been started in 1834 and instituted a more humane program


that was listed in the census for the vermont asylum for the insane ( aka brattleboro retreat ) in brattleboro from 1850 until his death there 29 sep 1892 at age 82. the asylum had been started in 1834 and instituted a more humane program than what was predominant in those days. abijah is buried in the asylum cemetery. rumor has it that a great many of the deceased residents were buried together in single graves without markers. there is also a hannah betterley that was at the asylum in the 1850 census, a year younger than abijah. i am guessing that abijah was perhaps a child of thomas betterley, jr. and hannah rogers. perhaps the same for hannah. have you seen anything that can pinpoint their parents? i am always looking for corrections and new betterley info. if you ' re a betterley or betterly without an ancestor in my database, please send me your info to keep on file. chances are we ' ll work it out sooner or later. the alsace emigration book vol 1 by cornelia schrader - muggenthaler shows joseph betterly, wife, and family in texas in 1854. does anybody know who this is? e - mail loren dahling sources of my betterley data are available upon request copyright © 1999 - 2010 loren p. dahling. all rights reserved.


go to http : / / www. grc. nasa. gov / www / k - 12 / airplane / vel. html and use the simulator to determine the effect of airspeed on lift. when you double the airspeed, what happens to lift. the velocity used in the lift and drag equations is the relative velocity between an object and the flow. since the aerodynamic force depends on the square of the velocity, doubling the velocity will quadruple the lift and drag. go to http : / / www. grc. nasa. gov / www / k - 12 / airplane / incline. html and use the simulator to determine the effect of angle of attack on lift. when you increase the angle of attack, what happens to lift. lift increases as the angle of attack increases up to a point when the boundary layer separates from the aircraft and the airfoil stalls. go to http : / / www. grc. nasa. gov / www / k - 12 / airplane / factord. html briefely state the effect of angle of attack on induced drag. when you increase the angle of attack, what happens to induced drag. like lift, drag actually varies with the square of the relative velocity between the object and the air. the inclination of the object to the flow also affects the amount of drag generated by a given shaped object. go to http : / / www. grc. nasa. gov / www / k - 12 / / airplane / atmosi. html and use the simulator to determine the effect of altitude and combined factors on lift. when you increase the altitude, what happens to lift. as we increase altitude, the air becomes less dense and the lift decreases for a given airspeed and angle of attack. landing gear lowered and flaps deployed to augment lift. the aircraft reaches mach 1, shock induced drag adds to sum total of drag, and the minimum keas is increased. the pilot must reduce power to slow the aircraft to a speed allowing the bank of up to 35°.


april 23, 1998 a weekly feature provided by scientists at the hawaiian volcano observatory. shhh! don ' t tell there is an eruption - eruption of 1942 the eruption of 1942 was noteworthy for several reasons. ( 1 ) it was declared a secret so the press was not allowed to publicize the event. ( 2 ) this was the second time lava diversion was tried on an eruption of mauna loa. ( 3 ) the volcanologists were able to predict the timing and place of the eruption. world war ii was four months old when the eruption began. hawai ` i was observing war - time restrictions that imposed a night - time blackout. pele was having none of this, and the eruptions began on april 26, 1942, at 5 : 05 p. m. government officials felt that advertising the eruption would permit the japanese military to use the bright glow as a means to guide their warplanes under cover of darkness to wreak havoc upon hawai ` i. the eruption, heralded by three months of elevated seismic activity, started when fissures opened along the western rim of moku ` aweoweo, and lava cascaded into the caldera. by early morning april 27, the summit activity began to wane. eventually, seismic activity migrated toward the northeast rift zone. new fissures then opened at the junction between the summit caldera and northeast rift on april 27. here the dike stopped advancing at the 3, 658 - m ( 12, 000 ft ) level. a line of spatter ramparts issued an ` a ` a flow that traveled in a north - northeasterly direction 7 km ( 4 mi ) away from the rift. all this activity had ended by the early morning of april 28. however on april 28, activity jumped far down the northeast rift zone. this new vent system opened at 4 : 40 a. m., creating a 1 - km - long ( 0. 6 mi ) fissure at an elevation of 2, 850 m ( 9, 350 ft ), 14. 5 km ( 9 mi ) from mauna loa ' s summit. lava fountains propelled 70 to 90 meters ( 230 to 295 ft ) high, producing small flows. meanwhile the summit activity continued to fade as the flank activity expanded. eventually, the summit activity ceased altogether. by 3 p. m., the 1 - km - long ( 0. 6 mi ) fissure lengthened an additional 0. 5 km ( 0. 3 mi ). fountains then were visible only from the distal ends of


activity ceased altogether. by 3 p. m., the 1 - km - long ( 0. 6 mi ) fissure lengthened an additional 0. 5 km ( 0. 3 mi ). fountains then were visible only from the distal ends of the fissure system ; the central vents were drowned by lava moving in from the margins. at 8 p. m., the eruption appeared to have begun in earnest as lava fountains reached heights of 150 m ( 500 ft ). the fountains fed a rapidly moving ` a ` a lava flow headed in the general direction of waiakea uka. gradually, eruptive activity condensed to a few spatter ramparts at the center of this fissure system. these vents were responsible for the bulk of the lava production. a few hours later, the dike propagated another 4. 6 km ( 2. 9 mi ) northeast. here the dike changed orientation from northeast to north. lava issuing from these lower elevation vents appeared to be gas - poor and more dense in character. the character of the lava caused scientists to speculate that these " new vents " were really sites where upslope lava entered an old tube or fracture system, only to reemerge at this lower elevation. on may 1, the flow front was moving at 100 to 150 m ( 328 to 492 ft ) per hour in the direction of waiakea uka. the advancing flow threatened the ` ola ` a flume, mountain view ' s water source, and would ultimately endanger the circum - island road. it was at this time that the decision was made to utilize aerial bombing to influence the course of the lava flows. aerial bombing was selected as the most efficient means of emplacing explosives at the optimal sites. the points of contact were lava tubes and channels that fed the flow front. the army air force conducted the bombing missions and selected the sites. in all, 16 bombs weighing between 300 to 600 pounds each were dropped. though most appeared to hit their mark, the bombs had little or no impact on the eruption or on the flow ' s direction. on may 4, mauka activity became more restricted to a single, large cone edifice with vents producing lava at its center. the cone grew to a height of 30 meters ( 100 ft ) and lava fountains stretched to heights of 200 m ( 650 ft ). later in the day, lava flows accomplished what bombs could not. these lava flows caused the central cone to collapse, resulting in the creation of secondary flows.


meters ( 100 ft ) and lava fountains stretched to heights of 200 m ( 650 ft ). later in the day, lava flows accomplished what bombs could not. these lava flows caused the central cone to collapse, resulting in the creation of secondary flows. these secondary flows diverted the lava from the flow front, slowing its advance, and resulted in the stagnation of the main flow on may 7. when the eruption ended on may 9, the lava flow extended 26 km from the main vents at 2, 850 m ( 9, 350 ft ) and came within 11 km ( 6. 8 mi ) of upper waiakea uka. eruption and earthquake update activity within pu ` u ` o ` o increased during the past week, and lava covered the floor of the crater. the light from the lava cast a bright glow onto the fume clouds. lava continued to flow through a network of tubes down to the seacoast, where it entered the ocean at two locations - waha ` ula and kamokuna. the public is reminded that the ocean entry areas are extremely hazardous, with explosions accompanying frequent collapses of the lava delta. the steam cloud is highly acidic and laced with glass particles. there were no earthquakes reported felt during the past week. the url of this page is http : / / hvo. wr. usgs. gov / volcanowatch / current _ issue. html updated : 27 april 1998


advanced camera for surveys one of the hubble space telescope ' s advanced instruments is referred to as the acs. hubble ' s newest science instrument - the advanced camera for surveys - brought the telescope into the 21st century. with its wider field of view, sharper image quality, and enhanced sensitivity, the new camera doubles hubble ' s field of view and expands its capabilities significantly. upgrading the telescope with acs ' s cutting - edge technology made it ten times more effective and prolonged its useful life. acs is actually a team of three different cameras : the wide field camera, the high - resolution camera, and the solar blind camera. it outperforms all previous instruments flown aboard the hubble space telescope, primarily because of its expanded wavelength range. designed to study some of the earliest activity in the universe, acs sees in wavelengths ranging from far ultraviolet to infrared. acs maps the distribution of dark matter, detects the most distant objects in the universe, searches for massive planets, and studies the evolution of clusters of galaxies. to accommodate these science goals, each of acs ' s three cameras was designed to perform a specific function. with a field of view twice that of wfpc2, acs ' s wide field camera conducts broad surveys of the universe. astronomers use it to study the nature and distribution of galaxies, which reveal clues about how our universe evolved. the high - resolution camera takes extremely detailed pictures of the inner regions of galaxies. it searches neighboring stars for planets and planets - to be, and takes close - up images of the planets in our own solar system. the solar blind camera, which blocks visible light to enhance ultraviolet sensitivity, focuses on hot stars radiating in ultraviolet wavelengths. acs was installed during servicing mission 3b in march 2002. the new instrument was built between 1996 and 1999 by scientists and engineers at the johns hopkins university, ball aerospace, the space telescope science institute, and nasa ' s goddard space flight center. ( text adapted from nasa description. )


most cyberbullying happens outside school hours. parents can feel helpless with nowhere to turn. students can feel scared – if they tell parents or teachers they might be more exposed. or worse still they will be taken off line. mobile phones and facebook are their connections to their world. we used to watch tv shows so that we had something to talk about the next day at school ; countdown, neighbours, the footy, children nowadays talk about conversations that happened on msn or pictures someone uploaded, or who said what to whom on facebook. sometimes as strange as it might sound children prefer to endure the bullying than risk being cut off from their peers. so often nothing is done and the bully is free to continue or attack someone else. we suggest the following : - never threaten to cut off their connection. - read the school policy on cyberbullying and discuss it with your child. this helps children understand that it is unacceptable and that they do not have to put up with it. - establish how long it has been happening, how often, and how much it is effecting your child. see what are the signs? - save all conversations, pages, images that can be used in evidence. - call the school, and discuss it with your child ’ s level manager or head of house. send or email in the page. what can the school do? if the abuse occurs outside of school hours and off the school network the school will speak to the children involved in the abuse and make contact with the parents of those children involved. evidence such as print outs or emails of the abuse or offensive comment or image is helpful to the discussion. the school will protect your child by attributing the finding of the material to an anonymous child or parent. in our experience, this is often this is enough to stop the activity immediately. the school may also suggest strategies such as, ‘ blocking ’ or ‘ deleting ’ the offender, changing their password, resetting their privacy settings, changing their mobile phone number and so on. if the abuse occurs at school and / or on the school network the school will disable the child ’ s account and an appropriate disciplinary consequence will be applied. parents of the child will be informed and the child counselled on the expectati0ns of the school ’ s internet use policy. if it were to continue the school may encourage you to make contact with the police. staff to contact : at buckley house head of campus : mr russell feben at plenty campus deputy head of campus / head of secondary


book discussion guide questions to take to your class or book group - choose a topic on which two of you disagree. one of you should try to win the argument by agreeing with every one of his opponent ’ s points — twisting them slightly or adding to them. did it work? - talk about your own relationships. what are the worst fights you had? how could you have turned them into productive arguments? what tense did you use in your fights — past, present, or future? - invent new words using the anthimeria. change a noun to an adjective ( “ she was a wonderful greeter ; very doorsome ” ), an adjective to a noun ( “ i call a difficult chore a hard ” ), a noun to a verb ( “ all he does is barcalounge ” ), and so on. you ’ re shakespearicating! - the three basic issues — blame, values, and choice, are critical to the success or failure of an argument. experiment : take two tempting food items. one of you should try to persuade another to choose item a over item b, speaking in forensic rhetoric — accusing someone of something. ( if this seems absurd, consider how members of congress debate national decisions. ) now pick two more people for your food debate. this time, speak only in demonstrative rhetoric. talk about values, good and bad, right and wrong, and speak only in the present tense. finally, repeat the same experiment using deliberative rhetoric. speak in terms of what ’ s to the other person ’ s advantage, and use only the future tense. what did you learn from this exercise? - choose a topic that entails a decision — a personal choice, a national policy, whatever. start the argument with one person attacking the other ’ s character. in reply, the victim should begin, “ so … ” and repeat what the attacker said. now add : “ but how is this going to … ” and talk about the future decision. have you had someone attack you personally during a similar argument? would the “ so … ” strategy work? - have you ever been caught doing something you weren ’ t supposed to be doing? re - enact that scene, but this time use the stance strategy : if the facts don ’ t favor you ( and they certainly don ’ t! ), redefine the terms ( “ it ’ s not stealing, it ’ s borrowing ” ). if redefining won ’ t work, argue why it ’ s not such


in 1861, thomas graham ’ s investigations on diffusion led him to classify substances as crystalloids or colloids based on their ability to diffuse through a parchment membrane. crystalloids passed readily through the membrane, whereas colloids ( from the greek word for glue ) did not. intravenous fluids are similarly classified based on their ability to pass through barriers separating body fluid compartments, particularly the one between intravascular and extravascular ( interstitial ) fluid compartments. this chapter describes the salient features of crystalloid and colloid fluids, both individually and as a group. this is a must - know topic in the care of hospitalized patients, and several reviews are included at the end of the chapter to supplement the text. the principal component of crystalloid fluids is the inorganic salt sodium chloride ( nacl ). sodium is the most abundant solute in the extracellular fluids, and it is distributed uniformly throughout the extracellular space. because 75 to 80 % of the extracellular fluids are located in the extravascular ( interstitial ) space, a similar proportion of the total body sodium is in the interstitial fluids. exogenously administered sodium follows the same distribution, so 75 to 80 % of the volume of sodium - based intravenous fluids are distributed in the interstitial space. this means that the predominant effect of volume resuscitation with crystalloid fluids is to expand the interstitial volume rather than the plasma volume. as indicated by the horizontal bar that is second from the top, infusion of 1 l of 0. 9 % sodium chloride ( isotonic saline ) adds 275 ml to the plasma volume and 825 ml to the interstitial volume. note that the total volume expansion ( 1100 ml ) is slightly greater than the infused volume. this is the result of a fluid shift from the intracellular to extracellular space, which occurs because isotonic saline is actually hypertonic to the extracellular fluids. the prototype crystalloid fluid is 0. 9 % sodium chloride ( nacl ), also called isotonic saline or normal saline. the latter term is inappropriate because a one normal ( 1 n ) nacl solution contains 58 g nacl per liter ( the combined molecular weights of sodium and chloride ), whereas isotonic ( 0. 9 % ) nacl contains only 9 g nacl per liter. the ph of isotonic saline is also considerably lower than the plasma ph. these differences are rarely of any clinical significance. the chloride content of isotonic saline is particularly high relative to plasma


% ) nacl contains only 9 g nacl per liter. the ph of isotonic saline is also considerably lower than the plasma ph. these differences are rarely of any clinical significance. the chloride content of isotonic saline is particularly high relative to plasma ( 154 meq / l versus 103 meq / l, respectively ), so hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis is a potential risk with large - volume isotonic saline resuscitation. hyperchloremia has been reported, but acidosis is rare. ringer ’ s solution was introduced in 1880 by sydney ringer, a british physician and research investigator who studied mechanisms of cardiac contraction. the solution was designed to promote the contraction of isolated frog hearts, and contained calcium and potassium in a sodium chloride diluent. in the 1930s, an american pediatrician named alexis hartmann proposed the addition of sodium lactate buffer to ringer ’ s solution for the treatment of metabolic acidoses. the lactated ringer ’ s solution, also known as hartmann ’ s solution, gradually gained in popularity and eventually replaced the standard ringer ’ s solution for routine intravenous therapy. lactated ringer ’ s solution contains potassium and calcium in concentrations that approximate the free ( ionic ) concentrations in plasma. the addition of these cations requires a reduction in sodium concentration for electrical neutrality, so lactated ringer ’ s solution has less sodium than isotonic saline. the addition of lactate ( 28 meq / l ) similarly requires a reduction in chloride concentration, and the chloride in lactated ringer ’ s more closely approximates plasma chloride levels than does isotonic saline. despite the differences in composition, there is no evidence that lactated ringer ’ s provides any benefit over isotonic saline. furthermore, there is no evidence that the lactate in ringer ’ s solution provides any buffer effect. the calcium in lactated ringer ’ s can bind to certain drugs and reduce their bioavailability and efficacy. of particular note is calcium binding to the citrated anticoagulant in blood products. this can inactivate the anticoagulant and promote the formation of clots in donor blood. for this reason, lactated ringer ’ s solution is contraindicated as a diluent for blood transfusions. normosol or plasma - lyte the major feature of these solutions is the added buffer capacity, which gives them a ph that is equivalent to that of plasma. an additional feature is the addition of magnesium, which may provide


blood transfusions. normosol or plasma - lyte the major feature of these solutions is the added buffer capacity, which gives them a ph that is equivalent to that of plasma. an additional feature is the addition of magnesium, which may provide some benefit in light of the high incidence of magnesium depletion in hospitalized patients. magnesium administration can promote hypermagnesemia in renal insufficiency and can counteract compensatory vasoconstriction and promote hypotension in low flow states. dextrose is a common additive in intravenous solutions, for reasons that are unclear. a 5 % dextrose - in - water solution is not an effective volume expander. the use of 5 % dextrose solutions was originally intended to supply nonprotein calories and thus provide a protein - sparing effect. however, total enteral and parenteral nutrition is now the standard of care for providing daily energy requirements, and the use of 5 % dextrose solutions to provide calories is obsolete. a 5 % dextrose solution ( 50 g dextrose per liter ) provides 170 kcal per liter ( 3. 4 kcal / g dextrose ). the addition of dextrose to intravenous fluids increases osmolarity ( 50 g of dextrose adds 278 mosm to an intravenous fluid ) and creates a hypertonic infusion when 5 % dextrose is added to lactated ringer ’ s solution ( 525 mosm / l ) or isotonic saline ( 560 mosm / l ). if glucose use is impaired ( as is common in critically ill patients ), the infused glucose accumulates and creates an undesirable osmotic force that can promote cell dehydration. other undesirable effects of glucose infusions in critically ill patients include enhanced co2 production ( which can be a burden in ventilator - dependent patients ), enhanced lactate production, and aggravation of ischemic brain injury. the proportion of a glucose load that contributes to lactate formation can increase from 5 % in healthy subjects to 85 % in critically ill patients. this can produce an increase in circulating lactate levels, even when infusing 5 % dextrose solutions. patients undergoing abdominal aortic aneurysm surgery were given either a ringer ’ s solution or a 5 % dextrose solution intraoperatively to maintain normal cardiac filling pressures. as shown, the 5 % dex


hg and a plasma volume expansion that is 4 to 5 times the infused volume. albumin is a transport protein that is responsible for 75 % of the oncotic pressure of plasma. heat - treated preparations of human serum albumin are commercially available in a 5 % solution ( 50 g / l ) and a 25 % solution ( 250 g / l ) in an isotonic saline diluent. the 25 % solution is given in small volumes ( 50 to 100 ml ) and because the accompanying sodium load is small, 25 % albumin is also called salt - poor albumin. a 5 % albumin solution ( 50 g / l or 5 g / dl ) has a cop of 20 mm hg and thus is similar in oncotic activity to plasma. approximately half of the infused volume of 5 % albumin stays in the vascular space. the oncotic effects of albumin last 12 to 18 hours. the 25 % albumin solution has a cop of 70 mm hg and expands the plasma volume by 4 to 5 times the volume infused. thus, infusion of 100 ml of 25 % albumin can increase the plasma volume 400 to 500 ml. this plasma volume expansion occurs at the expense of the interstitial fluid volume, so 25 % albumin should not be used for volume resuscitation in hypovolemia. it is intended for shifting fluid from the interstitial space to the vascular space in hypoproteinemic conditions, although the wisdom of this application is questionable. because albumin preparations are heat - treated, there is no risk of viral transmission ( including human immunodeficiency virus ). allergic reactions are rare, and although coagulopathies can occur, most are dilutional and not accompanied by bleeding. hetastarch is a synthetic colloid available as a 6 % solution in isotonic saline. it contains amylopectin molecules that vary in size from a few hundred to over a million daltons. the average molecular weight of the starch molecules is equivalent to that of albumin, and the colloid effects are equivalent to those of 5 % albumin. the main advantage of hetastarch over albumin is its lower cost. hetastarch is slightly more potent than 5 % albumin as a colloid. it has a higher cop than 5 % albumin ( 30 versus 20 mm hg, respectively ) and causes a greater plasma volume expansion ( up to 30 % greater than the infused volume ). it also