war as philip ii of orleans ' s regency joined the war of the quadruple alliance against spain. king philip v of spain had to withdraw from the conflict confronted with the reality that spain was no longer a great power of europe. under fleury ' s administration, peace was maintained as much as possible. however, in 1733 another war broke in central europe, this time about the polish succession, and france joined the war against the austrian empire. this time there was no invasion of the netherlands, and britain remained neutral. as a consequence, austria was left alone against a franco - spanish alliance and faced a military disaster. peace was settled in the treaty of vienna ( 1738 ), according to which france would annex, through inheritance, the duchy of lorraine. two years later war broke out over the austrian succession, and france seized the opportunity to join the conflict. the war played out in north america and india as well as europe, and inconclusive terms were agreed to in the treaty of aix - la - chapelle ( 1748 ). once again, no one regarded this as a peace but rather as a mere truce. prussia was then becoming a new threat as it had gained substantial territory from austria. this led to the diplomatic revolution of 1756, in which the alliances seen during the previous war were mostly inverted. france was now allied to austria and russia while britain was now allied to prussia. in the north american theatre, france was allied with various native american peoples during the seven years ' war and, despite a temporary success at the battles of the great meadows and monongahela, french forces were defeated at the disastrous battle of the plains of abraham in quebec. in europe, russia was on the verge of crushing prussia, and the anglo - prussian alliance was saved by the miracle of the house of brandenburg, while the french suffered naval defeats against british fleets at lagos and quiberon bay. finally peace was concluded in the treaty of paris ( 1763 ), and france lost most of its north american empire. in 1768 the french kingdom bought corsica from genoa. having lost its colonial empire, france saw a good opportunity for revenge against britain in assisting insurgeant troops in the american revolutionary war. spain, allied to france by the family compact, and the netherlands also joined the war on the american side. admiral de grasse defeated a british fleet at chesapeake bay while jean - baptiste donatien de vimeur, comte de rochambeau and gilbert du motier, marquis de la fayette joined american forces in defeating the british at


american side. admiral de grasse defeated a british fleet at chesapeake bay while jean - baptiste donatien de vimeur, comte de rochambeau and gilbert du motier, marquis de la fayette joined american forces in defeating the british at yorktown. the war was concluded by the treaty of paris ( 1783 ), under which britain lost its former american colonies. while the state expanded, new ideas broke on the role of the king and the powers of the state. charles de secondat, baron de montesquieu described the separation of powers. many french other philosophers and intellectuals gained influence, such as : voltaire, denis diderot and, most importantly, jean - jacques rousseau with his the social contract, or principles of political right. science, mathematics and technology also flourished. french scientists such as antoine lavoisier worked to replace the archaic units of weights and measures by a coherent scientific system, commissioned by king louis xvi. lavoisier also formulated the law of conservation of mass and discovered oxygen and hydrogen. the early modern period in french history spans the following reigns : the immediate trigger for the revolution was louis xvi ’ s attempts to solve the government ’ s worsening financial situation. in february 1787 his finance minister, lomenie de brienne, convened an assembly of notables, a group of nobles, clergy, bourgeoisie, and bureaucrats selected in order to bypass the parlements. this group was asked to approve a new land tax that would, for the first time, include a tax on the property of nobles and clergy. the assembly did not approve the tax, instead demanding that louis xvi call the estates - general. in august 1788 the king agreed to convene the estates - general in may of 1789. while the third estate demanded and was granted " double representation " so as to balance the first and second estate, voting was to occur " by orders " - votes of the third estate were to be weighted - effectively cancelling double representation. this eventually led to the third estate breaking away from the estates - general and joined by members of the other estates, proclaiming the national assembly, an assembly not of the estates but of " the people. " in an attempt to keep control of the process and prevent the assembly from convening, louis xvi ordered the closure of the salle des etats where the assembly met. after finding the door to their chamber locked and guarded, they met nearby on a tennis court and pledged the tennis court oath on 20 june 1789, binding them " never


, louis xvi ordered the closure of the salle des etats where the assembly met. after finding the door to their chamber locked and guarded, they met nearby on a tennis court and pledged the tennis court oath on 20 june 1789, binding them " never to separate, and to meet wherever circumstances demand, until the constitution of the kingdom is established and affirmed on solid foundations ". they were joined by some members of the second and first estates. after the king fired his finance minister, jacques necker, for giving his support and guidance to the third estate, worries surfaced that the legitimacy of the newly - formed national assembly might be threatened by royalists. paris was soon consumed with riots, anarchy, and widespread looting. the mobs soon had the support of the french guard, including arms and trained soldiers, because the royal leadership essentially abandoned the city. on 14 july 1789 the insurgents set their eyes on the large weapons and ammunition cache inside the bastille fortress, which also served as a symbol of royal tyranny. insurgents seized the bastille prison, killing the governor and several of his guards. the french now celebrate july 14th each year as a symbol of the shift away from the ancien regime to a more modern democratic state. gilbert du motier, hero of american independence, took command of the national guard, and the king was forced to recognize the tricolour cockade. although peace was found, several nobles did not regard the new order as acceptable and migrated to push neighbouring kingdoms to war against the new rule. because of this new period of instability, the state was struck for several weeks in july and august of 1789 by the great fear, a period of violent class conflict. the declaration of the rights of man and citizen was adopted by the national assembly in august 1789 as a first step in their effort to write a constitution. considered to be a precursor to modern international rights instruments and using the u. s. declaration of independence as a model, it defined a set of individual rights and collective rights of all of the estates as one. influenced by the doctrine of natural rights, these rights were deemed universal and valid in all times and places, pertaining to human nature itself. the assembly also replaced france ' s historic provinces with eighty - three departements, uniformly administered and approximately equal to one another in extent and population. on 4 august 1789 the assembly abolished feudalism, in what is known as the august decrees, sweeping away both the seigneurial rights of the second estate and the tithes gathered by the first estate


equal to one another in extent and population. on 4 august 1789 the assembly abolished feudalism, in what is known as the august decrees, sweeping away both the seigneurial rights of the second estate and the tithes gathered by the first estate. in the course of a few hours, nobles, clergy, towns, provinces, companies, and cities lost their special privileges. the assembly abolished the symbolic paraphernalia of the ancien regime, armorial bearings, liveries, etc., which alienated the more conservative nobles. amidst these intrigues, the assembly continued to work on developing a constitution. a new judicial organization made all magistracies temporary and independent of the throne. the legislators abolished hereditary offices, except for the monarchy itself. jury trials started for criminal cases. the king would have the unique power to propose war, with the legislature then deciding whether to declare war. the assembly abolished all internal trade barriers and suppressed guilds, masterships, and workers ' organizations : any individual gained the right to practice a trade through the purchase of a license ; strikes became illegal. the revolution brought about a massive shifting of powers from the roman catholic church to the state. under the ancien regime, the church had been the largest landowner in the country. legislation enacted in 1790 abolished the church ' s authority to levy a tax on crops, cancelled special privileges for the clergy, and confiscated church property. the assembly essentially addressed the financial crisis in part by having the nation take over the property of the church. the republican government also enforced the systeme international d ' unites, commissioned by louis xvi, which became known as the metric system. charles - augustin de coulomb and andre - marie ampere ' s works on electricity and electromagnetism were also recognised, and their units are integrated into the metric system. when a mob from paris attacked the royal palace at versailles in october 1789 seeking address of severe poverty conditions, the royal family was forced to move to the tuileries palace in paris. later in june 1791 the royal family secretly fled paris in disguise for varennes near france ' s northeastern border to seek royalist support the king sensed he could trust, but they were soon discovered en route. they were brought back to paris, after which they were essentially kept under house - arrest at the tuileries. factions within the assembly began to clarify. the opposition to revolution sat on the right - hand side of the assembly. the " royalist democrats " or monarchiens inclined toward organizing france along lines similar


essentially kept under house - arrest at the tuileries. factions within the assembly began to clarify. the opposition to revolution sat on the right - hand side of the assembly. the " royalist democrats " or monarchiens inclined toward organizing france along lines similar to the british constitutional model. the " national party ", representing the centre or centre - left of the assembly represented somewhat more extreme views. the increasingly middle - class national guard under lafayette also slowly emerged as a power in its own right. with most of the assembly still favoring a constitutional monarchy rather than a republic, the various groupings reached a compromise that left louis xvi little more than a figurehead. he had perforce to swear an oath to the constitution, and a decree declared that retracting the oath, heading an army for the purpose of making war upon the nation, or permitting anyone to do so in his name would amount to de facto abdication. under the constitution of 1791, france would function as a constitutional monarchy. the king had to share power with the elected legislative assembly, but he still retained his royal veto and the ability to select ministers. the legislative assembly first met on 1 october 1791, and degenerated into chaos less than a year later. the legislative assembly consisted of about 165 feuillants ( constitutional monarchists ) on the right, about 330 girondists ( liberal republicans ) and jacobins ( radical revolutionaries ) on the left, and about 250 deputies unaffiliated with either faction. early on, the king vetoed legislation that threatened the emigres with death and that decreed that every non - juring clergyman must take within eight days the civic oath mandated by the civil constitution of the clergy. over the course of a year, disagreements like this would lead to a constitutional crisis, leading the revolution to higher levels. on the foreign affairs front, in the declaration of pillnitz of august 1791 emperor leopold ii, count charles of artois and king william ii of prussia made louis xvi ' s cause theirs. these noblemen also required the assembly to be dissolved through threats of war, but, instead of cowing the french, it infuriated them. the borderlines were militarised as a consequence. under the constitution of 1791 the solution of a constitutional monarchy was adopted, and the king supported a war against austria to increase his popularity, starting the long french revolutionary wars. on the night of the 10th of august the jacobins, who had mainly opposed the war, suspended the monarchy. with the prussian army entering france, more doubts


king supported a war against austria to increase his popularity, starting the long french revolutionary wars. on the night of the 10th of august the jacobins, who had mainly opposed the war, suspended the monarchy. with the prussian army entering france, more doubts were raised against the aristocracy, and these tensions climaxed during the september massacres. after the first great victory of the french revolutionary troops at the battle of valmy on 1792 20 september, the french first republic was proclaimed the day after on 1792 21 september. the french republican calendar was enforced. when the brunswick manifesto of july 1792 threatened once more the french population from austrian ( imperial ) and prussian attacks, louis xvi was suspected of treason and taken along with his family from the tuileries palace in august 1792 by insurgents supported by a new revolutionary paris commune. the king and queen ended up prisoners, and a rump session of the legislative assembly suspended the monarchy. little more than a third of the deputies were present, almost all of them jacobins. the king was later tried and convicted and on 21 january 1793 was guillotined. marie antoinette, would follow him to the guillotine on 16 october. what remained of a national government depended on the support of the insurrectionary commune. when the commune sent gangs into prisons to try arbitrarily and butcher 1400 victims, and addressed a circular letter to the other cities of france inviting them to follow this example, the assembly could offer only feeble resistance. this situation persisted until a national convention, charged with writing a new constitution, met on 20 september 1792 and became the new de facto government of france. the next day it abolished the monarchy and declared a republic. when war went badly, prices rose and the sans - culottes ( poor labourers and radical jacobins ) rioted ; counter - revolutionary activities began in some regions. this encouraged the jacobins to seize power through a parliamentary coup, backed up by force effected by mobilising public support against the girondist faction, and by utilising the mob power of the parisian sans - culottes. an alliance of jacobin and sans - culottes elements thus became the effective centre of the new government. policy became considerably more radical. in september of 1793 a period known as the reign of terror ensued for approximately 12 months. the committee of public safety, set up by the national convention on april 6, 1793, formed the de facto executive government of france. under war conditions and with national survival seemingly at stake, the jacobins under maximilien robes


approximately 12 months. the committee of public safety, set up by the national convention on april 6, 1793, formed the de facto executive government of france. under war conditions and with national survival seemingly at stake, the jacobins under maximilien robespierre centralized denunciations, trials, and executions under the supervision of this committee of twelve members. at least 18, 000 people met their deaths under the guillotine or otherwise, after accusations of counter - revolutionary activities. in 1794 robespierre had ultra - radicals and moderate jacobins executed ; in consequence, however, his own popular support eroded markedly. on 27 july 1794, the thermidorian reaction led to the arrest and execution of robespierre. the new government was predominantly made up of girondists who had survived the terror, and after taking power, they took revenge as well by banning the jacobin club and executing many of its former members in what was known as the white terror. after the stated aim of the national convention to export revolution, the guillotining of louis xvi of france, and the french opening of the scheldt, a military coalition was formed and set up against france. spain, naples, great britain and the netherlands joined austria and prussia in the the first coalition ( 1792 – 1797 ), the first major concerted effort of multiple european powers to contain revolutionary france. it took shape after the wars had already begun. the republican government in paris was radicalised after a diplomatic coup from the jacobins and said it would be the guerre totale and called for a levee en masse. royalist invading forces were defeated at toulon in 1793, leaving the french republican forces in an offensive position and granting a young officer, napoleon bonaparte, a certain fame. following their victory at fleurus, the republicans occupied belgium and the rhineland. an invasion of the netherlands established the puppet batavian republic. finally a peace agreement was found between france, spain and prussia in 1795 at basel. the convention approved a new " constitution of the year iii " on 17 august 1795 ; a plebiscite ratified it in september ; and it took effect on 26 september 1795. the new constitution created the directory and created the first bicameral legislature in french history. the parliament consisted of 500 representatives — le conseil des cinq - cents ( the council of the five hundred ) — and 250 senators — le conseil des anciens ( the council of elders ). executive power went to five " directors, " named annually by the con


. these men were supposed to be given honourable terms by the british forces, yet admiral keith decided to attack them anyway with a mameluk force, although this force was defeated at heliopolis in march 1800. disease had hit the french troops to such a point they were forced to surrender. the rosetta stone was discovered during this campaign and champollion translated it. when napoleon came back to france, the directoire was threatened by the second coalition. royalists and their allies still dreamed of restoring the monarchy to power, while the prussian and austrian crowns did not accept their territorial losses during the previous war. the russian army expelled the french from italy in battles such as cassano while the austrian army defeated the french in switzerland at stockach and zurich. napoleon then seized power through a coup and established the consulate in 1799. the austrian army was defeated at marengo in 1800 and again at hohenlinden. while at sea admiral louis - rene levassor de latouche treville had some success at boulogne against a british fleet. the british admiral nelson would destroy an anchored danish and norwegian fleet at copenhagen because the scandinanian kingdoms were against the british blockade on france. the second coalition was beaten and peace was settled in two distinct treaties : the treaty of luneville and the treaty of amiens. in 1803 napoleon sold french louisiana to the american government, a territory he considered indefensible. on 21 march 1804 the napoleonic code was applied over all the territory under french control, and on may 18 napoleon was titled emperor by the senate, thus founding the french empire. technically napoleon ' s rule was constitutional, and although autocratic, it was much more advanced than other european monarchies of the time. the proclamation of the french empire was met by the third coalition. the french army was renamed the grande armee in 1805 and napoleon used propaganda and nationalism to control the french population. the french army achieved a resounding victory at ulm, where an entire austrian army was captured. a franco - spanish fleet was defeated at trafalgar and all plans to invade britain were then made impossible. despite this naval defeat, it was on the ground that this war would be won, napoleon inflicted the austrian and russian empires one of their greatest defeats at austerlitz, destroying the third coalition. the peace was settled in the treaty of pressburg, the austrian empire lost the title of holy roman emperor and the confederation of the rhine was created by napoleon over former austrian territories. the destruction of the holy roman empire and


, destroying the third coalition. the peace was settled in the treaty of pressburg, the austrian empire lost the title of holy roman emperor and the confederation of the rhine was created by napoleon over former austrian territories. the destruction of the holy roman empire and the dramatic austrian defeat caused prussia to join britain and russia, thus forming the fourth coalition. although the coalition was joined by other allies, the french empire was also not alone since it now had a complex network of allies and submitted states. largely outnumbered, the prussian army was crushed at jena - auerstedt in 1806, napoleon captured berlin and went as far as eastern prussia. there the russian empire was defeated at the battle of friedland. peace was dictated in the treaties of tilsit, in which russia had to join the continental system and prussia handed down half of its territories to france. the duchy of warsaw was formed over these territorial losses, and the polish troops entered the grande armee in significant numbers. freed from his obligation in the east, napoleon then went back to the west, as the french empire was still at war with britain. only two countries remained neutral in the war : sweden and portugal, and napoleon then looked toward the latter. in the treaty of fontainebleau, a franco - spanish alliance against portugal was sealed as spain eyed portuguese territories. french armies entered spain in order to attack portugal, but then seized spanish fortresses and took over the kingdom by surprise. joseph bonaparte, napoleon ' s brother, was made king of spain after charles iv ' s abdication. this occupation of the iberian peninsula fueled local nationalism, and soon the spanish and portuguese would fight the french using guerilla tactics, defeating the french forces at the battle of bailen. britain sent a short - lived ground support force to portugal, and french forces evacuated portugal as defined in the convention of sintra following the allied victory at vimeiro. france was only controlling catalonia and navarre and could have been definitely expelled from the iberian peninsula had the spanish armies attacked again, but the spanish did not. another french attack was launched on spain, led by napoleon himself, and was described as " an avalanche of fire and steel. " however, the french empire was no longer regarded as invincible by european powers. in 1808 austria formed the war of the fifth coalition in order to break down the french empire. the austrian empire defeated the french at aspern - essling, yet was beaten at wagram while the polish allies defeated the austrian empire at raszyn. although not as decisive as the previous austrian defeats,


order to break down the french empire. the austrian empire defeated the french at aspern - essling, yet was beaten at wagram while the polish allies defeated the austrian empire at raszyn. although not as decisive as the previous austrian defeats, the peace treaty caused austria to lose a large amount of territories, reducing it even more. in 1812 war broke out with russia, engaging napoleon in the disastrous patriotic war. napoleon assembled the largest army europe had ever seen, including troops from all submitted states, to invade russia, which had just left the continental system and was gathering an army on the polish frontier. following an exhausting march and the bloody but inconclusive battle of borodino, near moscow, the grande armee entered and captured moscow, just to find it burning, as part of the russian scorched earth tactics. although there still were battles such as maloyaroslavets the napoleonic army left russia decimated most of all by the russian winter, exhaustion and scorched earth warfare. on the spanish front the french troops were defeated at vitoria and then at the battle of the pyrenees. since the spanish guerrillas seemed to be uncontrollable, the french troops eventually evacuated spain. france having been defeated on these two fronts, the states controlled and previously conquered by napoleon saw a good opportunity to strike back. the sixth coalition was formed and the german states of the confederation of the rhine switched sides, finally opposing napoleon. napoleon was largely defeated in the battle of the nations and was overwhelmed by much larger armies during the six days campaign, although, because of the much larger amount of casualties suffered by the allies, the six days campaign is often considered a tactical masterpiece. napoleon abdicated on 6 april 1814, and was exiled to elba. the conservative congress of vienna reversed the political changes that had occurred during the wars. napoleon ' s attempted restoration, a period known as the hundred days, ended with his final defeat at waterloo in 1815. the monarchy was subsequently restored and louis xviii became king. this period of time is called the bourbon restoration and was marked by conflicts between reactionary ultra - royalists and more liberal movements. on 12 june 1830 polignac, king charles x ' s minister, exploited the weakness of the algerian dey by invading algeria and establishing french rule in algeria. the news of the fall of algiers had barely reached paris when charles x was deposed and replaced by king louis - philippe during the july revolution. louis - philippe ' s " july monarchy " ( 1830 – 1848 ) is generally seen


french rule in algeria. the news of the fall of algiers had barely reached paris when charles x was deposed and replaced by king louis - philippe during the july revolution. louis - philippe ' s " july monarchy " ( 1830 – 1848 ) is generally seen as a period during which the haute bourgeoisie was dominant. anarchism, as formulated by pierre - joseph proudhon, began to take root in france. to honour the victims of the july revolution, hector berlioz composed a requiem ; he also worked on what would become the french national anthem, la marseillaise. in 1838 the french government declared war on mexico after a french pastry cook in mexico accused mexican officers of looting his shop. the mexican government was defeated in the short pastry war. finally, the last king of france abdicated, and the french second republic was proclaimed. louis napoleon bonaparte was elected president and proclaimed himself president for life following a coup that was confirmed and accepted in a dubious referendum. napoleon iii of france took the imperial title in 1852 and held it until his downfall in 1870. the era saw great industrialization, urbanization ( including the massive rebuilding of paris by baron haussmann ) and economic growth, but napoleon iii ' s foreign policies were not so successful. in 1854, the second empire joined the crimean war, which saw france and britain opposed to the russian empire, who were decisively defeated at sevastopol in 1855 and at inkerman. in 1856 france joined the second opium war on the british side against china ; a missionary ' s murder was used as a pretext to take interests in southwest asia in the treaty of tientsin. in 1859 the second italian war of independence broke out between italian states and austria. the second french empire joined the war on the italian side, which was concluded by an austrian defeat at solferino. in return for this intervention, the french government acquired the city of nice, while in march 1860 savoy was annexed by similar means. in 1861 napoleon iii largely supported maximilian in his claim to mexico, a move that was also supported by britain and spain but condemned by the u. s. this led to the french intervention in mexico, which turned out to be a failure. when france was negotiating with the netherlands about purchasing luxembourg, the prussian kingdom threatened the french government with war. this came as a shock to french diplomats as there previously was an agreement between the prussian and french governments about luxembourg. napoleon iii suffered stronger and stronger criticism from republicans like jules favre, and his position seemed more fragile with the passage


government with war. this came as a shock to french diplomats as there previously was an agreement between the prussian and french governments about luxembourg. napoleon iii suffered stronger and stronger criticism from republicans like jules favre, and his position seemed more fragile with the passage of time. france was looking for more interests in asia and interfered in korea in 1866 taking, once again, missionaries ' murders as a pretext. the french finally withdrew from the war with little gain but war ' s booty. the next year a french expedition to japan was formed to help the tokugawa shogunate to modernise its army. however, tokugawa was defeated during the boshin war at the battle of toba - fushimi by large imperial armies. rising tensions about a possible prussian succession in spain raised the scale of animosity between the two states, and finally the franco - prussian war ( 1870 – 1871 ) broke out. german nationalism united the german states, with the exception of austria, against napoleon iii. the french empire was defeated decisively at metz and sedan. the last straw was the siege of paris. the newly - formed german empire subsequently annexed alsace - lorraine in the treaty of frankfurt. besides this defeat, the republican movement also had to confront counterrevolutionaries who rejected the legacy of the 1789 revolution. both the legitimist and the orleanist royalists rejected republicanism, which they saw as an extension of modernity and atheism, breaking with france ' s traditions. this lasted until at least the 16 may 1877 crisis, which finally led to the resignation of royalist marshal macmahon in january 1879. the death of henri, comte de chambord in 1883, who, as the grandson of charles x, had refused to abandon the fleur - de - lys and the white flag, thus jeopardizing the alliance between legitimists and orleanists, convinced many of the remaining orleanists to rally themselves to the republic, as adolphe thiers had already done. the vast majority of the legitimists abandoned the political arena or became marginalised. some of them founded action francaise in 1898, during the dreyfus affair, which became an influent movement throughout the 1930s, in particular among the intellectuals of paris ' quartier latin. in 1891, pope leo xiii ' s encyclic rerum novarum brought legitimacy to the social catholic movement, which in france could be traced back to hughes felicite robert de lamennais ' efforts under the july monarchy


iwakura tomomi asked for french assistance in reforming japan. french military missions were sent to japan in 1872 – 1880, in 1884 – 1889 and the last one much later in 1918 – 1919 to help modernize the japanese army. distrust of germany, faith in the army and native french anti - semitism combined to make the dreyfus affair ( the unjust trial and condemnation of a jewish military officer for treason ) a political scandal of the utmost gravity. the nation was divided between " dreyfusards " and " anti - dreyfusards, " and far - right catholic agitators inflamed the situation even when proofs of dreyfus ' innocence came to light. the writer emile zola published an impassioned editorial on the injustice, and was himself condemned by the government for libel. once dreyfus was finally pardoned, the progressive legislature enacted the 1905 laws on laicite, which created a complete separation of church and state and stripped churches of most of their property rights. the period at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century is often termed the belle epoque. although associated with cultural innovations and popular amusements ( cabaret, can - can, the cinema, new art forms such as impressionism and art nouveau ), france was nevertheless a nation divided internally on notions of religion, class, regionalisms and money, and on the international front france came repeatedly to the brink of war with the other imperial powers, including great britain ( the fashoda incident ). world war i was inevitable, but its human and financial costs would be catastrophic for the french. in 1889 the exposition universelle took place in paris, and the eiffel tower was built as a temporary gate to the fair. meant to last only a few decades, the tower was never removed and became france ' s most iconic landmark. the war on the western front was fought largely in france and characterized by extremely violent battles, often with new and more destructive military technology. famous battles in france include first battle of the marne, battle of verdun, battle of the somme and the second battle of the marne. germany ' s plan ( see schlieffen plan ) was to defeat the french quickly and then shift from defense to offense against russia on the eastern front. the germans captured brussels by august 20th and soon had taken over a large portion of northern france. the original plan was to continue southwest and attack paris from the west. by early september they were within 40 miles of paris, and the


the eastern front. the germans captured brussels by august 20th and soon had taken over a large portion of northern france. the original plan was to continue southwest and attack paris from the west. by early september they were within 40 miles of paris, and the french government had relocated to bordeaux. the allies finally stopped the advance northeast of paris at the marne river. this was the farthest push west by the germans during the entire war. on the western front the small improvised trenches of the first few months rapidly grew deeper and more complex, gradually becoming vast areas of interlocking defensive works. the land war quickly became dominated by the muddy, bloody stalemate of trench warfare, a form of war in which both opposing armies had static lines of defense. the war of movement quickly turned into a war of position. attack followed counterattack after counterattack. neither side advanced much, but both sides suffered hundreds of thousands of casualties. german and allied armies produced essentially a matched pair of trench lines from the swiss border in the south to the north sea coast of belgium. trench warfare prevailed on the western front from september 1914 until the germans launched their " spring offensive ", operation michael, in march 1918. the space between the opposing trenches was referred to as " no man ' s land " ( for its lethal uncrossability ) and varied in width depending on the battlefield. on the western front it was typically between 100 and 300 yards ( 90 – 275 m ), though sometimes much less. the common infantry soldier had four weapons to use in the trenches : the rifle, bayonet, shotgun, and hand grenade. britain introduced the first tanks to the war, while renault enhanced the concept by adding a turret. the use in large quantity of these light tanks by jean - baptiste estienne can be considered a decisive evolution in world war i ' s strategies. when russia exited the war in 1917 due to revolution, the central powers controlled all of the balkans and could now shift military efforts to the western front. the u. s. had entered the war also in 1917, so the central powers hoped this could be achieved mostly prior to america ' s delivery of military support. in march 1918 germany launched the last major offensive on the western front. by may germany had reached the marne again, as in september 1914, and was again close to paris. in second battle of the marne, however, the allies were able to defend and then shift to offense due in part to the fatigue of the germans and the arrival of more americans. the germans were ultimately pushed back toward the german


again close to paris. in second battle of the marne, however, the allies were able to defend and then shift to offense due in part to the fatigue of the germans and the arrival of more americans. the germans were ultimately pushed back toward the german border. other central power strongholds in europe had fallen, and in early october, when a new government assumed power in germany, it asked for an armistice. peace terms were agreed upon in the treaty of versailles on november 11th, largely negotiated by georges clemenceau for french matters. germany was required to take full responsibility for the war and to pay war reparations ; and the german industrial saarland, a coal and steel region, was occupied by france. the german african colonies were partitioned between france and britain such as cameroons. alsace - lorraine was returned to france, and the german empire lost eastern territories such as the danzig corridor. ferdinand foch wanted a peace that would never allow germany to be a threat to france again. after the peace was signed he said, this is not a peace. it is an armistice for 20 years. the war brought great losses of troops and resources. fought in large part on french soil, the war led to approximately 1. 4 million french dead including civilians ( see world war i casualties ), and four times as many casualties. from the remains of the ottoman empire, france acquired the mandate of syria and the mandate of lebanon. the invasion of poland finally caused france and britain to declare war against germany. but the allies did not launch massive assaults and kept a defensive stance : this was called the phoney war in britain or drole de guerre — the funny sort of war — in france. it did not prevent the german army from conquering poland in a matter of weeks with its innovative blitzkrieg tactics. when germany had its hands free for an attack in the west, the battle of france began in may 1940, and the same tactics proved just as devastating there. the wehrmacht bypassed the maginot line by marching through the ardennes forest. a second german force was sent into belgium and the netherlands to act as a diversion to this main thrust. in six weeks of savage fighting the french lost 90, 000 men. many civilians sought refuge by taking to the roads of france : some two million refugees from belgium and holland were joined by between eight and ten million french civilians, representing a quarter of the french population, all heading south and west. this movement may well have been the largest single movement of civilians in history prior to 1947.


two million refugees from belgium and holland were joined by between eight and ten million french civilians, representing a quarter of the french population, all heading south and west. this movement may well have been the largest single movement of civilians in history prior to 1947. french leaders surrendered to nazi germany on 24 june 1940, after the british expeditionary force was evacuated from dunkirk. nazi germany occupied three fifths of france ' s territory, leaving the rest in the south east to the new vichy government. this regime sought to collaborate with germany. it was established on 10 july 1940. the vichy regime was led by philippe petain, the aging war hero of first world war. it was originally intended to be a temporary, care - taker regime, to supervise french administration before the soon - expected defeat of britain. instead, it lasted four years and imposed a tyrannical regime on the french people. it was unique among the various collaborating regimes of wartime europe in that it was established constitutionally, through the french parliament, and not imposed by the nazis. however, charles de gaulle declared himself by radio from london the head of a rival government in exile, gathering the free french forces around him, finding support in some french colonies and recognition from britain and the usa. the vichy regime adopted violent, repressive anti - semitic policies on its own initiative, without direction from nazi germany, as has been highlighted by the historian robert paxton. during the german occupation 76, 000 jews would be deported, often with the help of the vichy french authorities, and murdered in the nazis ' extermination camps. after the attack on mers - el - kebir in 1940, where the british fleet destroyed a large part of the french navy, still under command of vichy france, that killed about 1, 100 sailors, there was nationwide indignation and a feeling of distrust in the french forces, leading to the events of the battle of dakar. eventually, several important french ships such as the richelieu and the surcouf joined the free french forces. on the eastern front the ussr was lacking pilots and several french pilots joined the soviet union and fought the luftwaffe in the normandie - niemen squadron. within france proper, very few people organised themselves against the german occupation in the summer of 1940. however, their numbers grew as vichy ' s true nature became more apparent and the decline of nazi germany more obvious. isolated opposers eventually formed a real movement : the resistants. the most famous figure of the french resistance was jean moulin. he was tortured


their numbers grew as vichy ' s true nature became more apparent and the decline of nazi germany more obvious. isolated opposers eventually formed a real movement : the resistants. the most famous figure of the french resistance was jean moulin. he was tortured by klaus barbie ( the butcher of lyon ). increasing repression culminated in the complete destruction and extermination of the village of oradour - sur - glane, at the height of the battle of normandy. there were also frenchmen that joined the ss, they were known as the charlemagne division ; knowing they would not survive should germany be defeated, they were among the last ones to surrender at berlin. whilst recognising this extensive collaboration, the british historian simon kitson has shown that the vichy regime engaged in an extensive programme of arresting german intelligence agents in the unoccupied zone. around 2000 were arrested and some were subsequently executed. vichy ' s purpose in this respect was to preserve its sovereignty and to centralise collaboration. in november 1942 vichy france was finally occupied by german forces, because the war in north africa was coming to an end ; the germans foresaw a threat in southern europe by the allied forces. on 6 june 1944 the allied landed on normandy while on 15 august they landed on provence ( including the 260, 000 men of the french army b ). general leclerc freed paris and strasbourg and later, along with the battleship richelieu, represented france at tokyo during the japanese surrender. the vichy regime fled to germany. the 1sr french army recruited ffi fighters to continue the war until the final defeat of germany. this army numbered 300, 000 men by september 1944 and 370, 000 by spring in 1945 ( the 2nd db wasn ' t in it ). france was liberated by allied forces in 1944. after the war ended, the west german government had to pay reparations ( large sums of money ) to france as compensation for invading and occupying france and to any civilians killed, being starved, sent into forced labour, or left homeless by the war. the day germany surrendered french forces were involved in the setif massacre in algeria. israel was established in 1948, and france was one of the fiercest supporters of the jewish state, supplying it with extensive weaponry it used during 1948 arab - israeli war. the french republic needed an alliance with israel to secure the suez canal from potential threats in a context of decolonisation. in indochina the french government was facing the viet minh communist rebels and lost its indochinese colonies during the first indochina war


war. the french republic needed an alliance with israel to secure the suez canal from potential threats in a context of decolonisation. in indochina the french government was facing the viet minh communist rebels and lost its indochinese colonies during the first indochina war in 1954 after the battle of dien bien phu. vietnam was divided in two states while cambodia and laos were made independent. france left indochina only to be replaced there by the united states, which would soon be engaged in the long vietnam war. in 1956 another crisis struck french colonies, this time in egypt. the suez canal had been built by the french government, belonged at 56 % to the french republic and was operated by the compagnie universelle du canal maritime de suez. great britain had bought the egyptian share from isma ' il pasha and was the second largest owner of the canal before the crisis. the egyptian president gamal abdel nasser nationalised the canal despite french and british opposition ; he estimated a european answer was most unlikely to happen. great britain and france attacked egypt and built an alliance with israel against nasser. israel attacked from the east, britain from cyprus and france from algeria. egypt, the most powerful arab state of the time, was defeated in a mere few days. this caused an outcry of indignation in the entire arab world and saudi arabia set an embargo on oil on france and britain. the us president dwight d. eisenhower forced a ceasefire when he threatened to sell all american shares of british pounds and to crash the british economy. the british forces were retired from the conflict and israel, having seized interests in the sinai region, withdrew soon leaving france alone in egypt. under stronger political pressures the french government ultimately evacuated its troops from suez. this was a major political defeat for france and the american threats during the war were received with indignation by the french popular opinion. this led directly, and was used as a point, to the french withdrawal from the integrated military command of nato in 1966. another consequence of this was the french loss of geopolitical interests in the region ; this meant an alliance with israel was no longer of any use for french diplomacy. general de gaulle was elected president in 1958 and made the french force de frappe, the nuclear power, a priority of the french defence. france then adopted the dissuasion du faible au fort doctrine which meant a soviet attack on france would only bring total destruction to both sides. within ten years, we shall have the means to kill 80 million russians. i truly believe


defence. france then adopted the dissuasion du faible au fort doctrine which meant a soviet attack on france would only bring total destruction to both sides. within ten years, we shall have the means to kill 80 million russians. i truly believe that one does not light - heartedly attack people who are able to kill 80 million russians, even if one can kill 800 million french, that is if there were 800 million french. the may 1958 seizure of power in algiers by french army units and french settlers opposed to concessions in the face of arab nationalist insurrection led to the fall of the french government and a presidential invitation to de gaulle to form an emergency government to forestall the threat of civil war. in may 1968 students revolted, with a variety of demands including educational, labor and governmental reforms, sexual and artistic freedom, and the end of the vietnam war. the student protest movement quickly joined with labor and mass strikes erupted. after the fall of the ussr and the end of the cold war potential menaces to mainland france appeared considerably reduced. france began reducing its nuclear capacities and conscription was abolished in 2001. in 1990 france, led by francois mitterrand, joined the short lived gulf war against iraq, the french participation to this war would be called the operation daguet. however, despite the end of the cold war and the fact future conflicts would be fought away from home, there were still menaces against mainland france in the form of terrorism. in 1994 air france flight 8969 was hijacked by islamic terrorists with the suspected intent to crash the plane over paris. the hijacking was a failure for the terrorist group, known as the gia after an intervention from the gign in marseille, where the plane was grounded. more terrorist attacks would happen and these culminated into the 1995 paris metro bombing. important leaders of the gia in france fell afterward : khaled kelkal was killed in lyon by the epign and rachid ramda was arrested in london although it took ten years for the french justice to have him extradited. jacques chirac assumed office as president on 17 may 1995, after a campaign focused on the need to combat france ' s stubbornly high unemployment rate. while france continues to revere its rich history and independence, french leaders increasingly tie the future of france to the continued development of the european union. in 1992 france ratified the maastricht treaty establishing the european union. in 1999, the euro was introduced to replace the french franc. beyond membership in the european union, france


the future of france to the continued development of the european union. in 1992 france ratified the maastricht treaty establishing the european union. in 1999, the euro was introduced to replace the french franc. beyond membership in the european union, france is also involved in many joint european projects such as airbus, the galileo positioning system and the eurocorps. the french have stood among the strongest supporters of nato and eu policy in the balkans to prevent genocide in yugoslavia. french troops joined the 1999 nato bombing of the federal republic of yugoslavia. france has also been actively involved against international terrorism. in 2002 alliance base, an international counterterrorist intelligence center, was secretly established in paris. the same year france contributed to the toppling of the taliban regime in afghanistan, but it strongly rejected the 2003 invasion of iraq, even threatening to veto the us proposed resolution. jacques chirac was reelected in 2002, mainly because his socialist rival lionel jospin was defeated by the extreme right wing candidate jean - marie le pen. france was struck by a long period of civil unrest in 2005 after the death of two teenagers. at the end of his second term jacques chirac chose not to run again at the age of 74. the cabinet minister and rival nicolas sarkozy was elected and took office on 16 may 2007. the problem of high unemployment has yet to be resolved. in 2008, france was one of the first states to recognise kosovo as an independent nation. 20th century france


the risks of gender - based violence increase in crisis affected settings click here to return to main statistics & key messages page. click here for more resources on gender - based violence. doing " bad things to women ” in sudan mura is a 65 - year - old woman who fled her village in sudan and arrived in bahai, chad, with her husband, daughter, son - in - law and six grandchildren. she explained in a quiet voice how the janjaweed stole all their livestock and that the sudanese government soldiers shot at her and her neighbors and burned their village. her sister was killed and the family lost five other children during the chaos of flight. she estimated that 25 young women around 20 years old were taken by the janjaweed. " the janjaweed always do bad things to the women, " she said. overcoming rape through counseling and support dominique, a 40 - year - old woman from the democratic republic of congo, was raped by a soldier when her village was invaded by rwandan military forces. she fled with her three children to zambia for safety. upon arrival she discovered she was pregnant. she also found her husband who had left her alone to care for their children three years earlier. they had become separated when he encountered rebel forces while traveling and then fled to zambia. he was already remarried and would not speak to her seeing that she was pregnant. when she encountered the counseling services of hodi, a local ngo committed to improving the life of poor communities, she was despondent with grief and did not want the baby. through counseling, however, she accepted the situation and decided to use antenatal services. she has started to focus on her baby and is now rebuilding her life. addressing domestic violence among palestinian refugees huda is a young palestinian refugee woman who lives with her husband and five children in rashidyeh camp in tyre ( southern region of lebanon ). her husband is unemployed and drinks alcohol excessively. he treats huda badly, hitting and beating her and the children on a daily basis. whenever things get out of hand, huda leaves home and takes refuge at her parents ’ house. her husband had forbidden the children to leave with their mother as a way to pressure huda and punish her for leaving the house. huda always goes back to him for the sake of the children. every time she reconciles with him, he forces her to have sex without protection, often resulting in a new pregnancy. although the family needs the money, the husband forbids her from working whenever they fight because of the


the sake of the children. every time she reconciles with him, he forces her to have sex without protection, often resulting in a new pregnancy. although the family needs the money, the husband forbids her from working whenever they fight because of the evident signs of beating on her body and his fear of her talking to other people and exposing his behavior. after hearing a lecture on sexual and reproductive health sponsored by a local ngo working with palestinian refugees, huda started talking about her domestic problem to the ngo ’ s staff and asking for support and advice. the last time she left home, her husband had forced their eldest daughter to quit school in order to take care of her siblings and other domestic matters. the ngo ’ s social worker intervened, convincing the husband to allow the daughter to return to school. the social worker then persuaded huda to return home under a set of conditions established to ensure her security. the social worker discussed the possibility that the father may behave aggressively toward his daughter, and attempt to sexually assault her while he is under the influence of alcohol. the mother ’ s presence at home could help deter such behavior. the social worker also spoke to huda ’ s relatives, charging them to monitor the situation daily and intervene to provide security for huda and her children. a pioneering program helps survivors of gbv during the influx of burundian refugees to tanzania in 1993, many women and girls were raped or otherwise abused. due to the breakdown in the traditional system that ensured their protection, the women were suffering in silence and were not reporting these cases to anyone for fear of being further victimized or isolated. in 1996, the international rescue committee ( irc ) carried out a survey to determine the extent of gbv in the camps. this led to the establishment of a gbv program to protect women and girls by community awareness - raising and involving the community in the prevention of gbv. in addition, the program provided a forum in which women and girls could discuss their problems and provide each other with support and advice. as a pioneer in this area, irc met with great resistance from some members of the community. nevertheless, raising awareness and involving both men and women to prevent gbv increased support for the program over time. many other organizations have now followed in irc ' s footsteps by establishing similar programs in other refugee camps. irc tanzania has since increased the scope of its gbv projects by training ngo staff, the police, tanzanian government leaders and officials and community - based leaders. in 1999, the bureau of population, refugees


establishing similar programs in other refugee camps. irc tanzania has since increased the scope of its gbv projects by training ngo staff, the police, tanzanian government leaders and officials and community - based leaders. in 1999, the bureau of population, refugees and migration and the united nations high commissioner for refugees ( unhcr ) recognized the contribution the gbv program was making to prevent gbv in the camps and provided additional funding for the program. with this funding, irc tanzania was able to continue conducting awareness meetings and community trainings, greatly improving the community ' s role in preventing gbv in the camps. in 2001, upon the request of irc, unhcr and local authorities of the tanzanian legal system established mobile court services in all camps. the community support groups now offer awareness training, a reporting and referral system, counseling and health services, and a drop - in center that is open 24 hours a day. this program has now become a community concern and has given confidence to women to " raise their voices " and be proactive regarding issues very important to them. in this environment, success in fighting gbv depends on how well both men and women are involved in the design and implementation of the programs and that a woman - only focus will limit the success of the program. idps in burma taken from the women ’ s refugee commission thai - burma border reproductive health assessment, april 2006. gender - based violence has a long and horrible history for burma ’ s ethnic minority women. rape and other forms of sexual violence are well documented as widespread weapons of war viciously used by the burmese army against women. 128 women flee burma because they have been raped or to escape being raped and women in flight are often survivors of rape. rape and other forms of sexual violence have been used as a method of war by the burmese army against burma ’ s ethnic minority women for more than 50 years and have been integral parts of the spdc ’ s campaign to “ burmanize ” and subjugate the ethnic minority population. women tell of rape during flight, in the course of incarceration in military camps, during forced labor and while farming. the shan human rights foundation and swan documented 173 incidents of rape and other forms of sexual violence, involving 625 girls and women, perpetrated by soldiers from 52 different battalions of the burmese army in the shan state from 1996 to 2001. rape survivors are often shunned by their families and communities or flee to thailand where, due to their illegal status, they have no access to humanitarian aid


by soldiers from 52 different battalions of the burmese army in the shan state from 1996 to 2001. rape survivors are often shunned by their families and communities or flee to thailand where, due to their illegal status, they have no access to humanitarian aid, may be deported or are often further victimized by trafficking or other forms of exploitation. 129 the report on abuses against shan women led to a fact - finding mission by refugees international ( ri ) to broaden the scope of the research to other ethnic minority groups and to support and build upon the activities of the shan groups. from 26 interviews, ri documented 43 cases of rape or attempted rape against women from five different ethnic groups, with 23 confirmed by eyewitness testimony or physical evidence. 130 ri was unable to verify any case of rape being prosecuted. most survivors were afraid to report abuses for fear of retaliation and some who did step forward were indeed killed. the issue is taboo among the burmese people : women who have been raped are seen as “ unclean, ” men feel impotent to protect their families, and communities are reminded they are oppressed by their country ’ s own military. the spdc has refuted the reports of rape against ethnic women and despite the number of international human rights instruments to which it is obligated to comply, no action is expected to be taken to end the widespread violence against women. gbv in kosovo taken from : unfpa, gender based violence in kosovo : a case study, july 2005. official state propaganda in yugoslavia in the decade preceding the war served to dehumanize and stereotype kosovar albanian women. albanian women, nicknamed “ washing machines ” and portrayed as “ stupid, uneducated women ready to have sex ” by the serbian forces, were not only expelled from work and deprived of basic health care and gynecological services but also used as an instrument to carry out ethnic cleansing and to terrorize and degrade families and society. kosovo ’ s women participated actively in the non - violent opposition to serbian repression. the security situation was extremely fragile. women and girls lived in constant fear of threat to their lives and dignity. one activist recalls : “ when there was no electricity, only boys could go outside in the streets. girls never dared venture out. ” in a study on the prevalence of multiple forms of gender - based violence in kosovo during and after the conflict and displacement, respondents most frequently identified serbian soldiers as perpetrators of incidents occurring during the conflict as well as during displacement. human rights watch found 96 verifia


study on the prevalence of multiple forms of gender - based violence in kosovo during and after the conflict and displacement, respondents most frequently identified serbian soldiers as perpetrators of incidents occurring during the conflict as well as during displacement. human rights watch found 96 verifiable accounts of sexual assault in kosovo during the period of the bombing by the north atlantic treaty organization ( nato ) from 24 march to 7 may 1999. research efforts also provided a general picture of the nature of the abuses : brutal and systematic rape of women, including pregnant women and children. most cases involved gang rapes and were often associated with “ the use of drugs, cutting of breasts, genitals and faces and placing serbian nationalist symbol tattoos on victims ’ bodies. ” definitive statistics of the number of women and girls who were victims of sexual violence during the war are unavailable. one expert noted that few women admit to having been raped because of the fear of ostracism from the family and community. fear of stigmatization compounded by inadequate support services is believed to be a major obstacle to disclosure. according to albanian tradition, to touch a woman amounts to a slight on the honor of the family ; this is why albanian women were targeted, not just to inflict shame and humiliation on them, but in the process to destroy the social fabric of the society as well. the effects of rapes are felt not only by the survivor but also by her family and society. the attack also has the effect of emasculating and humiliating men, because they feel guilty at having been unable to defend the honor of their women relatives. updated december 2010. please note : while this site is periodically updated, it is up to the user ’ s discretion to verify that the facts provided are the most current. | home page and key displacement facts | general reproductive health | | adolescents | | emergency contraception | | family planning | | gender - based violence | | minimum initial service package ( misp ) | | maternal & newborn care | | sexually transmitted infections / hiv / aids |


colon cancer, a cancer of the colon or rectum, is the second leading cancer killer yet one of the most preventable. most cases start out in the lower part of the digestive system as abnormal but benign cell growths called polyps. while most polyps never cause problems, some may become cancerous. it is estimated that about 30 % of middle aged or older adults have one or more colon polyps. in the early stages, precancerous polyps and colon cancer often have no symptoms. there are several types of screenings that can indicate the presence of benign or cancerous polyps and if caught early, colon cancer survival rates can be as high as 90 %. because the early stages of colon cancer often do not present symptoms, the american college of gastroenterologists recommends a baseline colon cancer screening for : - adults at age 50 - african - american adults at age 45. if you have additional risk factors such as a family history of colon or rectal cancer or if you are a heavy smoker, earlier screening may be recommended. symptoms of colon cancer may be caused by conditions other than cancer such as irritable bowel syndrome or diverticulitis but if you have any of the following symptoms, please talk with your doctor : - a change in your bowel habits, including diarrhea or constipation or a change in the consistency of your stool for more than a couple of weeks - narrow stools - rectal bleeding or blood in your stool - persistent abdominal discomfort, such as cramps, gas or pain - abdominal pain with a bowel movement - a feeling that your bowel doesn ' t empty completely - unexplained weight loss - anemia especially for men and postmenopausal women


( ara ) - ‘ tis the season for at - home entertaining – food, friends, family, fun and yes, even fires. fire fighters respond to calls of nearly 400, 000 home fires each year, according to the national fire prevention association ( nfpa ). many fires occur in cold weather months as more people bring warmth into their homes with things like traditional candles or holiday lighting. these fires result in more than 15, 000 civilian deaths or injuries annually. fire - proof the holiday season with these tips that safeguard your family and your home : reduce your risk of fire by using flameless candles. though they look and smell like real candles, they don ’ t pose the same safety risks. scentsy wickless candles provide the light and ambiance of traditional candles without the smoke, soot or an open flame. with more than 80 fragrances to choose from and 100 styles of warmers available, there ’ s a fit for every fragrance personality and home decor style. avoid outlet overload don ’ t overload electrical outlets and extension cords with holiday lights or other electronics. plug only one heat - producing appliance, such as electric blankets, irons, toasters or coffee makers, into a receptacle outlet at a time. consider avoiding outlet overload by choosing battery - powered options when they ’ re available. cook with care unattended cooking is the leading cause of u. s. home fire injuries, according to the nfpa. don ’ t stray too far from the kitchen if you ’ re frying, grilling or broiling food. if you ’ re boiling, baking, or roasting, be sure to check it regularly and use a timer to remind you when it ’ s finished. plug microwave ovens and other cooking appliances directly into an outlet. never use an extension cord for a cooking appliance, as it can overload the circuit and cause a fire. establish a fire - safe home by installing fire extinguishers and smoke alarms. use a portable fire extinguisher to save lives and property by putting out or containing small fires. store extinguishers where they can be quickly accessed in areas with great fire risk, such as in the kitchen or near the garage door. smoke alarms should be installed in every room of the home, except for the kitchen, and should be tested once each month. have a plan establish a fire escape plan with the members of your household, and practice it often. you should always have two ways to exit each room,


explore western north island there ’ s an old - fashioned charm to wanganui, the slow pace mirroring the speed of the river that bisects it. founded on the banks of the whanganui river, new zealand ’ s longest navigable watercourse, wanganui is one of new zealand ’ s oldest cities and was the hub of early european commerce because of its access to the interior, and coastal links with the ports of wellington and new plymouth. the river traffic has long gone and the port is a shadow of what it was, leaving a city that feels too big for its 42, 000 people – it even has a small opera house. still, it ’ s a manageable place that exudes civic pride, both for its quality museums and well - tended streetscape. the cultural heart of wanganui beats around pukenamu, a grassy hill that marks the site of wanganui ’ s last tribal war in 1832. now known as queens park, it contains three of the city ’ s most significant buildings. the low cost of living has seen a thriving arts community spring up here, and it ’ s a pleasant place to idle away some time in the renowned art gallery, watch a glass - blowing demonstration or take a class, and to ride on a restored river steamer. when europeans arrived in the 1830s, land rights quickly became a bone of contention with the local maori population. transactions that maori perceived as a ritual exchange of gifts were taken by the new zealand company to be a successful negotiation for the purchase of wanganui and a large amount of surrounding land. settlement went ahead regardless of the misunderstanding, and it was not until the gilfillan massacre of 1847 that trouble erupted – when a maori was accidentally injured, his tribesmen massacred four members of the gilfillan family. further violent incidents culminated in a full - scale but inconclusive battle at st john ’ s hill. the next year the problems were apparently resolved by a payment of £1000 to the maori. in the 1990s, the central moutoa gardens became the focus of renewed tensions, while the spelling of the city ’ s name also creates divisions – for more information, see wanganui or whanganui?. read more wanganui or whanganui? wanganui or whanganui? unlike the whanganui national park and whanganui river, the city of wanganui has long been spelt without an “ h ”. the pronunciation of both is the same,


the hidden risks of pumping waste underground over the past several decades, u. s. industries have injected more than 30 trillion gallons of toxic liquid deep into the earth, using broad expanses of the nation ’ s geology as an invisible dumping ground. no company would be allowed to pour such dangerous chemicals into the rivers or onto the soil. but until recently, scientists and environmental officials have assumed that deep layers of rock beneath the earth would safely entomb the waste for millennia. there are growing signs they were mistaken. records from disparate corners of the united states show that wells drilled to bury this waste deep beneath the ground have repeatedly leaked, sending dangerous chemicals and waste gurgling to the surface or, on occasion, seeping into shallow aquifers that store a significant portion of the nation ’ s drinking water. in 2010, contaminants from such a well bubbled up in a west los angeles dog park. within the past three years, similar fountains of oil and gas drilling waste have appeared in oklahoma and louisiana. in south florida, 20 of the nation ’ s most stringently regulated disposal wells failed in the early 1990s, releasing partly treated sewage into aquifers that may one day be needed to supply miami ’ s drinking water. there are more than 680, 000 underground waste and injection wells nationwide, more than 150, 000 of which shoot industrial fluids thousands of feet below the surface. scientists and federal regulators acknowledge they do not know how many of the sites are leaking. federal officials and many geologists insist that the risks posed by all this dumping are minimal. accidents are uncommon, they say, and groundwater reserves — from which most americans get their drinking water — remain safe and far exceed any plausible threat posed by injecting toxic chemicals into the ground. but in interviews, several key experts acknowledged that the idea that injection is safe rests on science that has not kept pace with reality, and on oversight that doesn ’ t always work. “ in 10 to 100 years we are going to find out that most of our groundwater is polluted, ” said mario salazar, an engineer who worked for 25 years as a technical expert with the epa ’ s underground injection program in washington. “ a lot of people are going to get sick, and a lot of people may die. ” the boom in oil and natural gas drilling is deepening the uncertainties, geologists acknowledge. drilling produces copious amounts of waste, burdening regulators and demanding hundreds of additional disposal wells. those wells — more holes punched in the ground — are changing the


boom in oil and natural gas drilling is deepening the uncertainties, geologists acknowledge. drilling produces copious amounts of waste, burdening regulators and demanding hundreds of additional disposal wells. those wells — more holes punched in the ground — are changing the earth ’ s geology, adding man - made fractures that allow water and waste to flow more freely. “ there is no certainty at all in any of this, and whoever tells you the opposite is not telling you the truth, ’ said stefan finsterle, a leading hydrogeologist at lawrence berkeley national laboratory who specializes in understanding the properties of rock layers and modeling how fluid flows through them. “ you have changed the system with pressure and temperature and fracturing, so you don ’ t know how it will behave. ” a propublica review of well records, case histories and government summaries of more than 220, 000 well inspections found that structural failures inside injection wells are routine. from late 2007 to late 2010, one well integrity violation was issued for every six deep injection wells examined — more than 17, 000 violations nationally. more than 7, 000 wells showed signs that their walls were leaking. records also show wells are frequently operated in violation of safety regulations and under conditions that greatly increase the risk of fluid leakage and the threat of water contamination. structurally, a disposal well is the same as an oil or gas well. tubes of concrete and steel extend anywhere from a few hundred feet to two miles into the earth. at the bottom, the well opens into a natural rock formation. there is no container. waste simply seeps out, filling tiny spaces left between the grains in the rock like the gaps between stacked marbles. many scientists and regulators say the alternatives to the injection process — burning waste, treating wastewater, recycling, or disposing of waste on the surface — are far more expensive or bring additional environmental risks. subterranean waste disposal, they point out, is a cornerstone of the nation ’ s economy, relied on by the pharmaceutical, agricultural and chemical industries. it ’ s also critical to a future less dependent on foreign oil : hydraulic fracturing, “ clean coal ” technologies, nuclear fuel production, and carbon storage ( the keystone of the strategy to address climate change ) all count on pushing waste into rock formations below the earth ’ s surface. the u. s. environmental protection agency, which has primary regulatory authority over the nation ’ s injection wells, would not discuss specific well failures identified by propublica or make staffers available for interviews. the agency also declined to answer


s surface. the u. s. environmental protection agency, which has primary regulatory authority over the nation ’ s injection wells, would not discuss specific well failures identified by propublica or make staffers available for interviews. the agency also declined to answer many questions in writing, though it sent responses to several. its director for the drinking water protection division, ann codrington, sent a statement to propublica defending the injection program ’ s effectiveness. “ underground injection has been and continues to be a viable technique for subsurface storage and disposal of fluids when properly done, ” the statement said. “ epa recognizes that more can be done to enhance drinking water safeguards and, along with states and tribes, will work to improve the efficiency of the underground injection control program. ” still, some experts see the well failures and leaks discovered so far as signs of broader problems, raising concerns about how much pollution may be leaking out undetected. by the time the damage is discovered, they say, it could be irreversible. “ are we heading down a path we might regret in the future? ” said anthony ingraffea, a cornell university engineering professor who has been an outspoken critic of claims that wells don ’ t leak. “ yes. ” in september 2003, ed cowley got a call to check out a pool of briny water in a bucolic farm field outside chico, texas. nearby, he said, a stand of trees had begun to wither, their leaves turning crispy brown and falling to the ground. chico, a town of about 1, 000 people 50 miles northwest of fort worth, lies in the heart of texas ’ barnett shale. gas wells dot the landscape like mailboxes in suburbia. a short distance away from the murky pond, an oil services company had begun pumping millions of gallons of drilling waste into an injection well. regulators refer to such waste as salt water or brine, but it often includes less benign contaminants, including fracking chemicals, benzene and other substances known to cause cancer. the well had been authorized by the railroad commission of texas, which once regulated railways but now oversees 260, 000 oil and gas wells and 52, 000 injection wells. ( another agency, the texas commission on environmental quality, regulates injection wells for waste from other industries. ) before issuing the permit, commission officials studied mathematical models showing that waste could be safely injected into a sandstone layer about one - third of a mile beneath the farm. they specified how much waste could go into


regulates injection wells for waste from other industries. ) before issuing the permit, commission officials studied mathematical models showing that waste could be safely injected into a sandstone layer about one - third of a mile beneath the farm. they specified how much waste could go into the well, under how much pressure, and calculated how far it would dissipate underground. as federal law requires, they also reviewed a quarter - mile radius around the site to make sure waste would not seep back toward the surface through abandoned wells or other holes in the area. yet the precautions failed. “ salt water ” brine migrated from the injection site and shot back to the surface through three old well holes nearby. “ have you ever seen an artesian well? ” recalled cowley, chico ’ s director of public works. “ it was just water flowing up out of the ground. ” despite residents ’ fears that the injected waste could be making its way towards their drinking water, commission officials did not sample soil or water near the leak. if the injection well waste “ had threatened harm to the ground water in the area, an in - depth rrc investigation would have been initiated, ” ramona nye, a spokeswoman for texas ’ railroad commission, wrote in an email. the agency disputes cowley ’ s description of a pool of brine or of dead trees, saying that the waste barely spilled beyond the overflowing wells, though officials could not identify any documents or staffers who contradicted cowley ’ s recollections. accounts similar to cowley ’ s appeared in an article about the leak in the wise county messenger, a local newspaper. the agency has destroyed its records about the incident, saying it is required to keep them for only two years. after the breach, the commission ordered two of the old wells to be plugged with cement and restricted the rate at which waste could be injected into the well. it did not issue any violations against the disposal company, which had followed texas ’ rules, regulators said. the commission allowed the well operator to continue injecting thousands of barrels of brine into the well each day. a few months later, brine began spurting out of three more old wells nearby. “ it ’ s kind of like whac - a - mole, where one thing pops up and by the time you go to hit it, another thing comes up, ” cowley said. “ it was frustrating. … if your water goes, what does that do to the value of your land? ” deep well


where one thing pops up and by the time you go to hit it, another thing comes up, ” cowley said. “ it was frustrating. … if your water goes, what does that do to the value of your land? ” deep well injection takes place in 32 states, from pennsylvania to michigan to california. most wells are around the great lakes and in areas where oil and gas is produced : along the appalachian crest and the gulf coast, in california and in texas, which has more wells for hazardous industrial waste and oil and gas waste than any other state. federal rules divide wells into six classes based on the material they hold and the industry that produced it. class 1 wells handle the most hazardous materials, including fertilizers, acids and deadly compounds such as asbestos, pcbs and cyanide. the energy industry has its own category, class 2, which includes disposal wells and wells in which fluids are injected to force out trapped oil and gas. the most common wells, called class 5, are a sort of catch - all for everything left over from the other categories, including storm - water runoff from gas stations. the epa requires that class 1 and 2 injection wells be drilled the deepest to assure that the most toxic waste is pushed far below drinking water aquifers. both types of wells are supposed to be walled with multiple layers of steel tubing and cement and regularly monitored for cracks. officials ’ confidence in this manner of disposal stems not only from safety precautions, but from an understanding of how rock formations trap fluid. underground waste, officials say, is contained by layer after layer of impermeable rock. if one layer leaks, the next blocks the waste from spreading before it reaches groundwater. the laws of physics and fluid dynamics should ensure that the waste can ’ t spread far and is diluted as it goes. the layering “ is a very strong phenomenon and it ’ s on our side, ” said susan hovorka, a senior research scientist at the university of texas at austin ’ s bureau of economic geology. according to risk analyses cited in epa documents, a significant well leak that leads to water contamination is highly unlikely — on the order of one in a million. once waste is underground, though, there are few ways to track how far it goes, how quickly or where it winds up. there is plenty of theory, but little data to prove the system works. “ i do think the risks are low, but it has never been adequately demonstrated, ” said john apps, a leading geoscientist


quickly or where it winds up. there is plenty of theory, but little data to prove the system works. “ i do think the risks are low, but it has never been adequately demonstrated, ” said john apps, a leading geoscientist who advises the department of energy for lawrence berkeley national labs. “ every statement is based on a collection of experts that offer you their opinions. then you do a scientific analysis of their opinions and get some probability out of it. this is a wonderful way to go when you don ’ t have any evidence one way or another … but it really doesn ’ t mean anything scientifically. ” the hard data that does exist comes from well inspections conducted by federal and state regulators, who can issue citations to operators for injecting illegally, for not maintaining wells, or for operating wells at unsafe pressures. this information is the epa ’ s primary means of tracking the system ’ s health on a national scale. yet, in response to questions from propublica, the epa acknowledged it has done very little with the data it collects. the agency could not provide propublica with a tally of how frequently wells fail or of how often disposal regulations are violated. it has not counted the number of cases of waste migration or contamination in more than 20 years. the agency often accepts reports from state injection regulators that are partly blank, contain conflicting figures or are missing key details, propublica found. in 2007, the epa launched a national data system to centralize reports on injection wells. as of september 2011 — the last time the epa issued a public update — less than half of the state and local regulatory agencies overseeing injection were contributing to the database. it contained complete information from only a handful of states, accounting for a small fraction of the deep wells in the country. the epa did not respond to questions seeking more detail about how it handles its data, or about how the agency judges whether its oversight is working. in a 2008 interview with propublica, one epa scientist acknowledged shortcomings in the way the agency oversees the injection program. “ it ’ s assumed that the monitoring rules and requirements are in place and are protective — that ’ s assumed, ” said gregory oberley, an epa groundwater specialist who studies injection and water issues in the rocky mountain region. “ you ’ re not going to know what ’ s going on until someone ’ s well is contaminated and they are complaining about it. ” propublica ’ s analysis of case histories and epa data from october 2007 to october 2010 showed that when an


“ you ’ re not going to know what ’ s going on until someone ’ s well is contaminated and they are complaining about it. ” propublica ’ s analysis of case histories and epa data from october 2007 to october 2010 showed that when an injection well fails, it is most often because of holes or cracks in the well structure itself. operators are required to do so - called “ mechanical integrity ” tests at regular intervals, yearly for class 1 wells and at least once every five years for class 2 wells. in 2010, the tests led to more than 7, 500 violations nationally, with more than 2, 300 wells failing. in texas, one violation was issued for every three class 2 wells examined in 2010. such breakdowns can have serious consequences. damage to the cement or steel casing can allow fluids to seep into the earth, where they could migrate into water supplies. regulators say redundant layers of protection usually prevent waste from getting that far, but epa data shows that in the three years analyzed by propublica, more than 7, 500 well test failures involved what federal water protection regulations describe as “ fluid migration ” and “ significant leaks. ” in september 2009, workers for unit petroleum company discovered oil and gas waste in a roadside ditch in southern louisiana. after tracing the fluid to a crack in the casing of a nearby injection well, operators tested the rest of the well. only then did they find another hole — 600 feet down, and just a few hundred feet away from an aquifer that is a source of drinking water for that part of the state. most well failures are patched within six months of being discovered, epa data shows, but with as much as five years passing between integrity tests, it can take a while for leaks to be discovered. and not every well can be repaired. kansas shut down at least 47 injection wells in 2010, filling them with cement and burying them, because their mechanical integrity could not be restored. louisiana shut down 82. wyoming shut down 144. another way wells can leak is if waste is injected with such force that it accidentally shatters the rock meant to contain it. a report published by scientists at the department of energy ’ s pacific northwest national laboratory and the university of texas said that high pressure is “ the driving force ” that can help connect deep geologic layers with shallower ones, allowing fluid to seep through the earth. most injection well permits strictly limit the maximum pressure allowed, but well operators — rushing to dispose of more waste in less time — sometimes break the rules, state


help connect deep geologic layers with shallower ones, allowing fluid to seep through the earth. most injection well permits strictly limit the maximum pressure allowed, but well operators — rushing to dispose of more waste in less time — sometimes break the rules, state regulatory inspections show. according to data provided by states to the epa, deep well operators have been caught exceeding injection pressure limits more than 1, 100 times since 2008. excessive pressure factored into a 1989 well failure that yielded new clues about the risks of injection. while drilling a disposal well in southern ohio, workers for the aristech chemical corp. ( since bought by sunoco, and sold again, in 2011, to haverhill chemicals ) were overwhelmed by the smell of phenol, a deadly chemical the company had injected into two class 1 wells nearby. somehow, perhaps over decades, the pollution had risen 1, 400 feet through solid rock and was progressing toward surface aquifers. ohio environmental officials – aided by the epa – investigated for some 15 years. they concluded that the wells were mechanically sound, but aristech had injected waste into them faster and under higher pressure than the geologic formation could bear. though scientists maintain that the aristech leak was a rarity, they acknowledge that such problems are more likely in places where industrial activity has changed the underground environment. there are upwards of 2 million abandoned and plugged oil and gas wells in the u. s., more than 100, 000 of which may not appear in regulators ’ records. sometimes they are just broken off tubes of steel, buried or sticking out of the ground. many are supposed to be sealed shut with cement, but studies show that cement breaks down over time, allowing seepage up the well structure. also, if injected waste reaches the bottom of old wells, it can quickly be driven back towards aquifers, as it was in chico. “ the united states looks like a pin cushion, ” said bruce kobelski, a geologist who has been with the agency ’ s underground injection program since 1986. kobelski spoke to propublica in may, 2011, before the epa declined additional interview requests for this story. “ unfortunately there are cases where someone missed a well or a well wasn ’ t indicated. it could have been a well from the turn of the [ 20th ] century. ” clefts left after the earth is cracked open to frack for oil and gas also can connect abandoned wells and waste injection zones. how far these man - made fissures go is still the subject


turn of the [ 20th ] century. ” clefts left after the earth is cracked open to frack for oil and gas also can connect abandoned wells and waste injection zones. how far these man - made fissures go is still the subject of research and debate, but in some cases they have reached as much as a half - mile, even intersecting fractures from neighboring wells. when injection wells intersect with fracked wells and abandoned wells, the combined effect is that many of the natural protections assumed to be provided by deep underground geology no longer exist. “ it ’ s a natural system and if you go in and start punching holes through it and changing pressure systems around, it ’ s no longer natural, ” said nathan wiser, an underground injection expert working for the epa in its rocky mountain region, in a 2010 interview. “ it ’ s difficult to know how it would behave in those circumstances. ” epa data provides a window into some injection well problems, but not all. there is no way to know how many wells have undetected leaks or to measure the amount of waste escaping from them. in at least some cases, records obtained by propublica show, well failures may have contaminated sources of drinking water. between 2008 and 2011, state regulators reported 150 instances of what the epa calls “ cases of alleged contamination, ” in which waste from injection wells purportedly reached aquifers. in 25 instances, the waste came from class 2 wells. the epa did not respond to requests for the results of investigations into those incidents or to clarify the standard for reporting a case. the data probably understates the true extent of such incidents, however. leaking wells can simply go undetected. one texas study looking for the cause of high salinity in soil found that at least 29 brine injection wells in its study area were likely sending a plume of salt water up into the ground unnoticed. even when a problem is reported, as in chico, regulators don ’ t always do the expensive and time - consuming work necessary to investigate its cause. “ the absence of episodes of pollution can mean that there are none, or that no one is looking, ” said salazar, the epa ’ s former injection expert. “ i would tend to believe it is the latter. ” the practice of injecting waste underground arose as a solution to an environmental crisis. in the first half of the 20th century, toxic waste collected in cesspools, or was dumped in rivers or poured onto fields. as the consequences of unbridled pollution


injecting waste underground arose as a solution to an environmental crisis. in the first half of the 20th century, toxic waste collected in cesspools, or was dumped in rivers or poured onto fields. as the consequences of unbridled pollution became unacceptable, the country turned to an out - of - sight alternative. drawing on techniques developed by the oil and gas industry, companies started pumping waste back into wells drilled for resources. toxic waste became all but invisible. air and water began to get cleaner. then a host of unanticipated problems began to arise. in april, 1967 pesticide waste injected by a chemical plant at denver ’ s rocky mountain arsenal destabilized a seismic fault, causing a magnitude 5. 0 earthquake — strong enough to shatter windows and close schools — and jolting scientists with newfound risks of injection, according to the u. s. geological survey. a year later, a corroded hazardous waste well for pulping liquor at the hammermill paper co., in erie, pa., ruptured. five miles away, according to an epa report, “ a noxious black liquid seeped from an abandoned gas well ” in presque isle state park. in 1975 in beaumont, texas, dioxin and a highly acidic herbicide injected underground by the velsicol chemical corp. burned a hole through its well casing, sending as much as five million gallons of the waste into a nearby drinking water aquifer. then in august 1984 in oak ridge, tenn., radioactive waste was turned up by water monitoring near a deep injection well at a government nuclear facility. regulators raced to catch up. in 1974, the safe drinking water act was passed, establishing a framework for regulating injection. then, in 1980, the epa set up the tiered classes of wells and began to establish basic construction standards and inspection schedules. the epa licensed some state agencies to monitor wells within their borders and handled oversight jointly with others, but all had to meet the baseline requirements of the federal underground injection control program. even with stricter regulations in place, 17 states – including alabama, north carolina, south carolina and wisconsin — banned class 1 hazardous deep well injection. “ we just felt like based on the knowledge that we had at that time that it was not something that was really in the best interest of the environment or the state, ” said james warr, who headed alabama ’ s department of environmental management at the time. injection accidents kept cropping up. a 1987 general accountability office review put


was not something that was really in the best interest of the environment or the state, ” said james warr, who headed alabama ’ s department of environmental management at the time. injection accidents kept cropping up. a 1987 general accountability office review put the total number of cases in which waste had migrated from class 1 hazardous waste wells into underground aquifers at 10 — including the texas and pennsylvania sites. two of those aquifers were considered potential drinking water sources. in 1989, the gao reported 23 more cases in seven states where oil and gas injection wells had failed and polluted aquifers. new regulations had done little to prevent the problems, the report said, largely because most of the wells involved had been grandfathered in and had not had to comply with key aspects of the rules. noting four more suspected cases, the report also suggested there could be more well failures, and more widespread pollution, beyond the cases identified. “ the full extent to which injected brines have contaminated underground sources of drinking water is unknown, ” it stated. the gao concluded that most of the contaminated aquifers could not be reclaimed because fixing the damage was “ too costly ” or “ technically infeasible. ” faced with such findings, the federal government drafted more rules aimed at strengthening the injection program. the government outlawed certain types of wells above or near drinking water aquifers, mandating that most industrial waste be injected deeper. the agency also began to hold companies that disposed of hazardous industrial waste to far stiffer standards. to get permits to dispose of hazardous waster after 1988, companies had to prove – using complex models and geological studies — that the stuff they injected wouldn ’ t migrate anywhere near water supplies for 10, 000 years. they were already required to test for fault zones and to conduct reviews to ensure there were no conduits for leakage, such as abandoned wells, within a quarter - mile radius. later, that became a two - mile minimum radius for some wells. the added regulations would have prevented the vast majority of the accidents that occurred before the late 1980s, epa officials contend. “ the requirements weren ’ t as rigorous, the testing wasn ’ t as rigorous and in some cases the shallow aquifers were contaminated, ” kobelski said. “ the program is not the same as it was when we first started. ” today ’ s injection program, however, faces a new set of problems. as federal regulators toughened rules for injecting hazardous waste, oil and gas companies argued that the new standards could drive