respiratory tract and conjunctiva. most victims encounter vaporized sarin, which affects the eyes and the respiratory system. six - tenths of a milligram of sarin is enough to kill an adult. sarin was developed by nazi scientists in germany in the 1930s. it was named for its four discoverers : schrader, ambrose, rudriger and van der linde. the united states began producing sarin in the early 1950s ; production ceased in 1956. it was produced and stockpiled in large quantities by both the united states and the soviet union. in 1995, the aum shinrikyo sect released sarin in the tokyo subway, killing 12 and injuring 5, 500 people. in that attack, sarin was transported as a liquid, in packages that resembled lunch boxes or bottled drinks. the packages were then punctured with umbrellas and began to leak a thick liquid containing sarin. vaporized, sarin is slightly heavier than air, so it hovers near the ground. humidity causes sarin to degrade, but warmer temperatures increase sarin ' s lethal duration, despite humidity. early symptoms include difficulty breathing, nausea, drowsiness, convulsions and miosis ( pupils in the eye shrink to the size of pinpoints ). exposure can also result in bleeding from orifices - witnesses in the tokyo attack said that victims had blood gushing from their noses and mouths. the pupils narrow to pinpoints, harming vision. drooling, runny nose, tears, tightness in chest, difficulty breathing, nausea, vomiting, headache and convulsions are among other symptoms. death does not always come with a warning and may be caused by cardiac arrhythmia and respiratory arrest. if sarin is released in the air, a person should try to hold his breath until a protective mask is put on. those displaying severe symptoms would receive intravenous treatment with an antidote. if a person ' s breathing has stopped, cpr would be performed but not mouth - to - mouth resuscitation if the facial skin has been contaminated. if a person has difficulty breathing, oxygen would be administered. if a person ' s eyes have been exposed, they should be flushed with water for 10 to 15 minutes. if a person ' s skin has been exposed, he should don a protective mask and remove clothing, then wash the skin with copious amounts of soap and water or a solution of 5 percent household bleach. medical attention should be


15 minutes. if a person ' s skin has been exposed, he should don a protective mask and remove clothing, then wash the skin with copious amounts of soap and water or a solution of 5 percent household bleach. medical attention should be sought under any of the above circumstances. those infected with sarin can be treated, but a potentially fatal dose requires swift treatment with injected antidotes. recovery depends on degree of exposure to sarin and how rapidly medical treatment is provided. death may occur within one to 10 minutes of inhalation exposure to a minute amount of sarin. the information about sarin was compiled from the following sources : southern medical association u. s. army soldier and biological chemical command council on foreign relations centers for disease control cdc fact sheets on agents mustard gas is a colorless, oily, odorless liquid that can be vaporized to form a gas. when mixed with other chemicals, it has a brownish tint and develops a pungent, garlicky odor. mustard gas enters the body through inhalation or skin contact, and it damages any tissue that comes into contact with it. it is more harmful to the skin on hot, humid days or in tropical climates. mustard gas was used in chemical warfare in world war i and world war ii. it was so powerful that only small amounts had to be added to explosives for it to be effective. once in the soil, mustard gas remains active for several weeks. it was also used at one time in the topical treatment of psoriasis. mustard gas burns the skin and causes blisters within a few days. the blisters may grow quite large and may be yellowish - brown in color. the parts of the body that are sweaty are the most likely to be harmed. it makes a person ' s eyes burn, eyelids swell and causes blinking. it attacks the corneas and can cause blindness. if inhaled, it can cause coughing, bronchitis and long - term respiratory disease. it can cause cancer in a person ' s airways and lungs later in life. some of the chemicals that are formed when mustard gas is burned or spilled into water can also be irritating to the skin. treatment has traditionally involved rapid decontamination and symptomatic treatment. victims should be moved into an area with fresh air as soon as possible. contaminated clothing should be removed as soon as possible. if a person ' s eyes are exposed, they must be flushed with lukewarm water for at least 15 minutes. exposed skin should be washed thoroughly


an area with fresh air as soon as possible. contaminated clothing should be removed as soon as possible. if a person ' s eyes are exposed, they must be flushed with lukewarm water for at least 15 minutes. exposed skin should be washed thoroughly with water. blisters should be treated as burns. if a person does not have a pulse, cpr will be administered. if a person is not breathing, artificial respiration will be provided. if breathing is labored, oxygen or other respiratory support is administered. mustard gas changes into other chemicals in the body and those chemicals mostly leave the body in the urine within a few weeks. if a person is exposed to a very large amount of mustard gas or exposed for a prolonged period of time, he could die. the information about mustard gas was compiled from the following sources : agency for toxic substances and disease registry congressional research service vx is a nerve agent that disrupts the transmission of nerve impulses in the body. it is an amber - colored, oily liquid that will remain in the environment until it has been properly cleaned through decontamination methods. it can be similar in appearance to motor oil. vx can enter the body through ingestion, inhalation or through the eyes or skin. vx is the most potent of all nerve agents and the least volatile, meaning it is slower to evaporate. it ' s approximately 50 times more toxic than cyanide gas. it was developed by the united states and britain in the 1950s. symptoms of overexposure may occur within minutes or hours, depending on the dose. the symptoms of vx exposure take longer to show up than with other nerve gases, but are similar. they include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, constriction of the pupils or blurred vision, runny nose, chest tightness, difficulty breathing, disorientation, loss of muscle control, loss of consciousness, convulsions and eventually respiratory failure and death. do not induce vomiting. a person exposed to vx should immediately don a respiratory mask. the person should be thoroughly decontaminated by washing with large amounts of water and soap, sodium carbonate or bleach. this should be done gently as scrubbing will increase absorption. emergency personnel should administer antidote. the patient may need an iv or to be placed on a ventilator to restore breathing. if there are seizures, a sedative such as valium may help. because symptoms may take up to 18 hours to appear, the


antidote. the patient may need an iv or to be placed on a ventilator to restore breathing. if there are seizures, a sedative such as valium may help. because symptoms may take up to 18 hours to appear, the person should be kept in the emergency room. the dose that would be lethal to 50 percent of the people exposed is about 10 milligrams, a tiny amount that could be held on the end of a straight pin. because the agents act slower than other nerve agents, successful treatment is possible. once a person recovers, the symptoms are not likely to return, but the patient may suffer from the effects of oxygen deprivation for days or weeks. the information about vx was compiled from the following sources : centers for disease control and prevention cdc fact sheets on agents u. s. army soldier and biological chemical command fernando l benitez, md, assistant medical director, dallas metro biotel ( ems ) system, clinical instructor of emergency medicine, department of surgery, division of emergency medicine, university of texas southwestern medical center http : / / www. emedicine. com tabun is classified as a nerve agent that interrupts the transmission of nerve impulses in the body. for example, it binds to nerves in the spine, muscles or central nervous system depending on the manner of ingestion. it was developed in germany in 1936 as an insecticide. like a number of widely used insecticides, tabun is an organic compound containing phosphorus ( organophosphorus compounds ). it is a tasteless liquid that ranges from colorless to brown and has a somewhat fruity odor. it is volatile at room temperature and can be absorbed through the eyes or skin or inhaled as vapor. the symptoms depend on how tabun is ingested. if inhaled or absorbed through the eyes, the first symptom to appear is usually miosis, or constriction of the pupils, and visual blurriness, combined with shortness of breath, wheezing, runny nose and tightness of the chest. if swallowed or absorbed through skin not near the eyes, pupil constriction may not occur, and nausea is the first symptom to appear. tabun ' s effects also include vomiting and diarrhea, urinary and fecal incontinence, loss of muscle control, convulsions, coma, and death. vomiting and diarrhea are symptoms of a serious exposure that must be treated immediately. do not induce vomiting. a


, urinary and fecal incontinence, loss of muscle control, convulsions, coma, and death. vomiting and diarrhea are symptoms of a serious exposure that must be treated immediately. do not induce vomiting. a person exposed to tabun should immediately don a respiratory mask. if eye contact has occurred, the patient should rinse the eyes with water for 10 to 15 minutes before putting on the mask ; in the case of skin contact, wash the affected area with lots of water and soap, sodium carbonate or bleach, but not hot water, as this will speed tabun absorption. at the emergency room, medical personnel should administer a nerve agent antidote. the patient may need an iv or to be placed on a ventilator to restore breathing. a person exposed to tabun or other nerve gases should remain in the emergency room for at least 24 hours. chances of long - term survival are high, but effects such as miosis, blurred vision and balance problems can persist for months. although skin absorption great enough to cause death may occur in one to two minutes, death may not occur for one to two hours. respiratory lethal dosages kill in one to 10 minutes, and liquid in the eye kills almost as rapidly. in most cases, by the time the patient arrives at the emergency room, the agent has already taken effect. if the exposure is mild to moderate, recovery is possible if treated immediately. the information about tabun was compiled from the following sources : cdc fact sheets on agents http : / / www. state. sd. us / doh / bioterrorism / chemical % 20agents. pdf u. s. army soldier and biological chemical command http : / / www. sbccom. army. mil / services / edu / tabun. htm federation of american scientists http : / / www. fas. org / nuke / intro / cw / agent. htm nerve agents, g - series : tabun, sarin, soman by jeffrey l arnold, md, facep, faaem, assistant clinical professor, department of emergency medicine, baystate medical center http : / / www. emedicine. com / emerg / topic898. htm a short history of the development of nerve gases


why is it so easy for most people, even young students, to obtain credit? how does the issuer of a credit card, a student loan, or a mortgage know how much risk it is taking in extending credit to a particular borrower? if every lender had to conduct a complete investigation of every borrower ’ s financial history, getting a loan would be difficult and expensive. fortunately, credit reporting agencies act as middlemen. they receive information from lenders about borrower accounts and consolidate that information in the form of a credit score, which they make available to potential new lenders. your credit score represents your overall creditworthiness. it affects your ability to obtain credit and the interest rate you will have to pay for future loans. your credit score can be a valuable asset or a major burden, so learn how to take care of it. this section will help you answer the following questions : - manage your finances - make today ' s decisions - prepare for your future - save money at duke - request a workshop protect your credit. eventually you will probably want to borrow money for a car or a home, and you ' ll minimize your interest rate by maintaining pristine credit. so make yourself a credit card company ' s worst customer : pay your bills on time and never carry a balance.


| abstract | | christian morality has been of enormous significance in world history and still underpins moral notions today. in this groundbreaking volume, j. ian h. mcdonald explores the notion of christian ethics and discusses its roots, its significance in developing moral standards throughout the world and its stability in the modern world. the crucible of christian morality begins with a study of the ethos of early christian communities, examining the relation of cosmic vision to moral attitude and authority, noting also the types of moral discourse used, and tracing the roots of these developments to the old testament and to the ministry of jesus. the second half of the book concentrates on selected moral themes, concerned with persons, with communities in societies and with virtue or moral excellence, situating them in the context of ancient cultural developments. | | keywords | | christian ethics history | | buy the book | | $ 124. 79 new ( 1 % off ) $ 125. 00 direct from amazon $ 138. 32 used amazon page | | call number | | bj1212. m33 1998 | | through your library | | configure | similar books and articles james m. gustafson ( 1974 ). theology and christian ethics. philadelphia, united church press. frederick s. carney ( 1975 ). on frankena and religious ethics. journal of religious ethics 3 ( 1 ) : 7 - 25. josef fuchs ( 1983 ). personal responsibility and christian morality. gill and macmillan. peter s. gedge ( 1982 ). christian contributions to moral education. journal of moral education 11 ( 4 ) : 266 - 273. harry frederick ward ( 1929 ). our economic morality & the ethic of jesus. new york, the macmillan company. robin gill ( 1999 ). churchgoing and christian ethics. cambridge university press. david p. gushee ( 2011 ). the contemporary u. s. torture debate in christian historical perspective. journal of religious ethics 39 ( 4 ) : 589 - 597. todd a. salzman ( ed. ) ( 1999 ). method and catholic moral theology : the ongoing reconstruction. creighton university press. john hill ( 1981 ). christian moral education. journal of religious ethics 9 ( 1 ) : 103 - 117. william o. ’ neill ( 1993 ). the distinctiveness of christian morality. philosophy and theology 7 ( 4 ) : 405 - 423. added to index2009 - 01 - 28 total downloads5 ( # 160, 518 of 549, 754 ) recent downloads ( 6 months )


researchers at the research center quantop at the niels bohr institute at the university of copenhagen ( denmark ) have constructed an atomic magnetometer, which has achieved the highest sensitivity allowed by quantum mechanics. sensitive magnetometers could be used to measure electrical activity in the human brain and heart. the results have been published in physical review letters. the ultimate sensitivity of any measurement is determined by the laws of quantum mechanics. these laws, normally most noticeable at the atomic level, become relevant for larger objects as the sensitivity of measurements increase with the development of new technologies. atoms as magnetic sensors atoms have a fundamental property called spin, which makes the atoms act like small magnets that are sensitive to external magnetic fields and can be used as magnetic sensors. but each of the atomic spins has a quantum uncertainty, which sets the fundamental limit on the smallest external magnetic fields that the atom can sense. conventional atomic magnetometers are usually built with a very large number of atoms, because the overall sensitivity of billions of atoms is much greater than that of a single atom. but on the other hand, it is much more difficult to reach the limit of sensitivity given by quantum mechanics. however, researchers at the quantop center have constructed an atomic magnetometer with the ultimate sensitivity allowed by quantum mechanics. “ moving towards the goal we had to ensure that our method made it possible to suppress not only sources of technical errors, such as fluctuations in the magnetic field due to public transportation, radio waves and so on, but also to eliminate a number of errors of pure quantum mechanical origin ”, explains professor eugene polzik, director of the quantop center at the niels bohr institute. from brains to explosives as a result, the magnetometer can measure in a second a field, which is a hundred billion times weaker than the earth ’ s magnetic field. the magnetometer has a wide range of possible uses, because where there is an electric current, there is also a magnetic field. measurements of magnetic fields can reveal information about the electrical activity in the human brain and heart, the chemical identity of certain atoms, for example, explosives, or simply indicate the presence or absence of metal. the new quantum magnetometer functions at room temperature, which makes it a good alternative to the expensive commercial superconducting magnetometers ( the so - called ‘ squids ’ ). “ our quantum magnetometer functions at room temperature which makes it a good alternative to the expensive commercial superconducting magnometers ( the so - called ‘ squids ’ ). it has the


this project ’ s official title is " ocean - ice interaction in the amundsen sea : the keystone to ice - sheet stability ". a real mouthful, but it captures the essence of what we intend to do, where we will do it and why we feel it is important to do it. various other measurements have captured the west antarctic ice sheet changing very rapidly in the region where it flows into the amundsen sea, one of the sectors of the southern ocean. the spatial pattern strongly suggests that the cause of this change is weaker ice shelves, the floating apron of ice that fringe the perimeter of the ice sheet. our hypothesis is that warm water is melting the undersides of these ice shelves decreasing the " back pressure " from the ice shelves to help hold the ice sheet. less backpressure means the ice sheet can flow faster. faster flow - smaller ice sheet - higher sea levels - slow motion coastal flooding worldwide. satellite observations have been tremendously valuable in identifying these changes, but can ’ t tell us what ’ s going on beneath the ice. direct observations are required. that ’ s where our field work comes in. we need to drill through the ice to deploy instruments that will measure what ’ s going on. this may sound easy, but there are multiple hurdles that must be overcome. getting there is the first one. these ice shelves are heavily crevassed — landing even a small plane may not be possible. finding an area large enough to work could be difficult. we know how to use hot water drills to make a hole in the ice, but the hole is narrow forcing us to design new skinny instruments that are smart and sturdy enough to measure the water ’ s temperature, movement and saltiness. our instruments will be smart enough to " phone home " and understand new commands we might send. finally, to be able to use what we learn in one small area, we need to know the shape of not just the floating ice sheet, but also the water cavity beneath the ice and create new computer models so we can simulate what is going on and compare it with our measurements. and remember, this is antarctica. we can only be there during the middle of the summer, it is cold, it is probably very windy much of the time and even the simplest tasks can be very difficult. such a monumental scientific undertaking requires a host of talents. our team includes a variety of highly skilled polar scientists and engineers. this web site introduces them, along with our research plan. updates will allow visitors to this site to follow our progress.


rev 10 / 99 class chromadorea 1. pore - like or slit - like amphid apertures, always labial. 2. deirids present in some near nerve ring. 3. phasmids present, generally posterior. 4. no hypodermal glands, but hypodermal cells are multinucleate. 5. excretory system tubular. 6. no caudal glands. 7. male generally with a single testis. 8. caudal alae common. 9. male with paired preanal supplement glands in two sublateral rows. 10. sensory papillae cephalic only, although may be caudal papillae in males. 11. esophagus varies but has 3 esophageal glands. 12. almost exclusively terrestrial, rarely freshwater or marine. sub - class : rhabditia - no stomal armature. three - part esophagus has corpus, isthmus and metacorpus. tri - lobed chamber in terminal metacorpus. orders : 1. rhabditida - microbivores in soil ; vertebrate and invertebrate parasites. males with delicate rays in caudal alae. rhabditis, caenorhabditis, cephalobus, steinernema, heterorhabditis, acrobeles. 2. strongylida - adults are vertebrate parasites ; juveniles feed on bacteria or are parasites of annelids / molluscs. males with prominent rays in lobed caudal alae. ancylostoma ( hookworm ), enterobius ( pin worm ) sub - class : spiruria - wine - bottle esophagus, no valves, all animal parasites. orders : 1. spirurida - parasites of terrestrial and aquatic vertebrates, include filarioidea - filarial worms. stoma has a hook. large nematodes. wuchereria bancrofti ( elephantiasis ), onchocerca volvulus ( river blindness ), dirofilaria immitis ( dog heartworm ). 2. ascaridida - intestinal parasites of vertebrates. mainly minor parasites of birds and fish and < 2cm long, except in ascaris. ascaris, toxocara canis ( dog ascarid ), anisakis. 3. camallanida -


##rtebrates. mainly minor parasites of birds and fish and < 2cm long, except in ascaris. ascaris, toxocara canis ( dog ascarid ), anisakis. 3. camallanida - parasites of terrestrial and aquatic vertebrates, with copepods as obligatory secondary host. dracunculus medinensis ( guinea worm ). 4. drilonematida - parasites of annelids and molluscs. sub - class : diplogasteria - movable stomal armature almost exclusively in this sub - class in chromadorea ; 3 - part esophagus with muscular, usually valved, metacorpus and glandular postcorpus ; microbivores, insect parasites, plant parasites. orders : 1. diplogasterida - movable teeth in stoma, predators, omnivores, bacterial and fungal feeders, insect associates. very muscular metacorpus and structured, glandular postcorpus. odontopharynx. 2. tylenchida - all have movable hollow stylet. - aphelenchina - early plant parasites? hosts are gymnosperms, ferns, ornamentals / nursery, fungi, insects. males with 6 rays in caudal alae and " rose - thorn " - shaped spicules. - tylenchina - parasites of angiosperms, ( monocotyledons and dicotyledons ), fungi. male with at most 1 ray in caudal alae, blade - shaped spicule. - sphaerulariina - parasites of insects, and hexatylina - are other sub - orders. return to classification menu return to animal - parasitic nematode menu go to nemaplex home page


response to the global emergency 22 dec 2005 davis wasdell looks at the climate change, solutions and actions that can be taken to prevent it. for every positive ’ story, there is of course a negative ’ downside – so we will get that out of the way first! the current debate on climate change has seriously under - estimated the problem facing us as a planet. attention : this article has been imported from our old websitewhile we ' ve taken every precaution to ensure that the content of this article remains intact, it may contain errors. for every positive ’ story, there is of course a negative ’ downside – so we will get that out of the way first! the current debate onclimate change has seriously under - estimated the problem facing us as aplanet. greenhouse gases have been altering the climate for agreat many years, and the effects of those prior emissions have stillto work their way through the system into their final ’ form. even if we are able to curtail our current rate of greenhouse gasemissions ( the current strategy proposed by kyoto ), the amount ofgreenhouse gas concentration actually already in the system will stillmean that the temperature of our planet increases. however, inherent in the so - called global warming ’ are feedback loops which canbe triggered and which would then lead to effects independent of anyefforts to curtail carbon dioxide emissions — in fact it is likely thatcurrent strategies could lead to runaway global heating, rendering ourplanet uninhabitable ( for further information on feedback loops see : www. meridian. org. uk — article on feedback crisis in climate change ’ and article on global warning ’ both accessible from the home page ). the positive side of this is, of course, that it is becomingincreasingly impossible for politicians, and indeed the general public, to ignore this looming catastrophe. today we recognise that thosein possession of the most accurate information share the greatestresponsibility for ensuring its most effective application. so itis now imperative to recognise that there now exists a state of globalemergency in which we should declare that excessive greenhouse gasesare an eco - toxin with potentially catastrophic impact on the globalbiosphere. we must now develop an emergency strategy to move ourglobal society towards a zero or negative carbon economy within theshortest possible time - scale and develop the most effectiveinstitutional instruments to manage the transition. politicians do not lead ’ in democracies. they follow courses ofaction


##al society towards a zero or negative carbon economy within theshortest possible time - scale and develop the most effectiveinstitutional instruments to manage the transition. politicians do not lead ’ in democracies. they follow courses ofaction that are socially sanctioned by their people. we thereforehave the most tremendous opportunity to influence ourdecision - makers. lobbying plays its part, but the most effectiveintervention we can make is to take responsibility for change in ourown lifestyle. we need a groundswell of people acting with theirfriends and neighbours to lead by example, reforming energy use, wasteproduction etc. — in short moving from the consumer society to theconserver society. lifestyle change must be matched with changein values, in beliefs, and in those deep unconscious drivers of theenough is not enough ’ syndrome. local neighbourhood action – people working together in replicating small cells and clusters — hasthe power to change our society amazingly fast. fast enough, infact, to be able to reach critical mass in time to avert the worsteffects of the global emergency ’. now is the time for all people to come to the aid of the planet. the future of the world is now in our hands. if you enjoyed this article, please consider making a donation donating helps us keep reporting on positive news


falconer - when falconer turns blue monday, april 2, the community will gather to raise awareness on a disorder that affects tens of millions. the village will partake in the third annual light it up blue event on world autism awareness day, and support from the county hasn ' t been difficult to find. within the village, creating a friendly environment for children with autism begins early on and lasts through graduation, according to a few falconer central school employees. seth carr, a student in alynn conlan ’ s temple elementary class, uses the ipad app dexteria to increase fine motor coordination. in total, the district has roughly 140 special education students from kindergartners through 21 - year - olds. by using an inclusion model, children with disabilities learn alongside and follow the leads of regular education students, which can be beneficial. they find role models in class, according to julie possai, the district ' s special education director. although some students do spend time in self - contained classrooms, the district tries to move them into a general education setting as soon as possible. " the inclusion model is critical, " she said. " they ' re a part of our community. they ' re just viewed as one of the kids in the class. it normalizes what we perceive as being different or odd. falconer is generally a very friendly environment. it ' s not a big deal. there doesn ' t appear to be a stigma. " autism speaks, the nation ' s largest autism science and advocacy organization, cites a 600 percent increase in children with autism in the past 20 years. today, one in 110 children have autism. to assist the growing number of children with learning disabilities, falconer has focused on bringing technology into its classrooms and keeping students within their home district. " we have to find some way to make these kids a part of our world, " said amy smith, classroom aide in temple elementary ' s special education room. " if we didn ' t have schools like falconer, these kids would be leaving to live in group homes and not be productive. our goal is to make these kids productive in this world. " andy ohl, the district ' s assistive technology coordinator, remembers flipping through his high - school yearbook and seeing faces of classmates he never met. they attended classes in isolated rooms and never interacted with ohl and his regular education classmates. today, the special education children not only learn with and from regular education students, they have gadgets and applications that help them along. " our


met. they attended classes in isolated rooms and never interacted with ohl and his regular education classmates. today, the special education children not only learn with and from regular education students, they have gadgets and applications that help them along. " our kids here are totally integrated in the classroom, " he said. " they go to a regular education gym class, or a music class or they go as a group to the library. it ' s all individualized based on each child and how they would benefit most. " ohl believes schools have struggled with finding appropriate content for students with disabilities for years. in the past, a device providing non - verbal students with a voice cost around $ 10, 000, he said. today, through the use of ipods and ipads, the district can purchase an application called " proloquo2go " for $ 189 that handles similar tasks as more expensive augmentative communication devices. " by being able to purchase the ipad, we ' ve added a number of different things that we weren ' t able to on those dedicated devices, " ohl said. " they provide them with their voice. it allows them to speak using symbols. the device does the speaking for them. we can add on the fly. the device has a camera built into it. every new thing that they encounter within the classroom or in the community, the teacher or the aide can take a picture of that and add that right to their vocabulary. " the ipads, new additions to the district, allow the staff to purchase student - specific content for children of all ability levels. the devices address the behavioral component of autism through video screen modeling that shows each scenario the students will encounter throughout the day. by showing children with autism positive behaviors, transitions from one room or task to the next become less difficult, according to ohl. " when they transition to the lunch room, if they ' re not aware of what ' s going on in the next two minutes, you have the potential for a breakdown in behavior, " he said. " by having that behavior from the day before or the week before modeled on a video screen on the ipad and presented to them, they watch the proper way to walk in the hall, and they ' re more able to regulate their system as far as what ' s coming next. " in the past, teachers and aides relied on picture schedules to show children what would come next. the district has also made a writing program with a phonetic spell checker and teacher - created podcast study


as far as what ' s coming next. " in the past, teachers and aides relied on picture schedules to show children what would come next. the district has also made a writing program with a phonetic spell checker and teacher - created podcast study guides available for third - through 12th - grade students, allowing them access to the technology 24 hours per day. " there are so many apps for children who have communication issues, " possai said. " for older children who struggle academically, we run out of tools in the tool box sometimes. it ' s another avenue. " through the inclusion model and the use of technology, ohl believes disabilities have become more socially acceptable and understood. not only do special - education students take classes with regular - education children, they no longer need a teacher or an aide to sit with them during examinations thanks to the ipod. teachers can podcast examinations and store them on the devices prior to exams, allowing students with reading disabilities to hear the questions read out loud without having to leave the classroom. " the ipod and ipad are socially appropriate as opposed to these big, bulky pieces these kids would have to carry around to communicate or sitting in a room by themselves, " ohl said. " it kind of takes the stigma of a child having a learning disability away. " the technologies used by the district assist students with mild and profound disabilities in hopes of helping them graduate. in order to make that happen, the students must pass regents examinations. those who have grown accustomed to the various learning - enhancing technologies may use them on those exams, according to ohl. " it levels the playing field for students who typically wouldn ' t be able to read a test or even answer an essay question in a manner where they would get credit, " he said. " if you can ' t read the test, you ' ll never pass. i can ' t judge your level of knowledge of the content. through these accommodations, now we can find out if this child knows earth science or biology. it ' s really beneficial, and a lot of our students are taking advantage of it. " the district not only focuses on helping children graduate, falconer hopes to lead children with disabilities down paths that will help them find jobs after they leave. special education students work in the school ' s cafeteria or handle groundskeeping duties while enrolled at falconer, allowing them to experience fields they find interesting. " when they graduate, our goal is to have those kids work those jobs that they want to work, " ohl said. "


' s cafeteria or handle groundskeeping duties while enrolled at falconer, allowing them to experience fields they find interesting. " when they graduate, our goal is to have those kids work those jobs that they want to work, " ohl said. " they can only do that if they build skills all along the way. " educating the community falconer central may have helped reduce the stigma around autism and learning disabilities within its three schools. however, cathy barber, an organizer of the light it up blue event, believes county residents have more to learn. her son, jacob, has autism. the 5 - year - old attends chautauqua lake school, but cannot speak. " he ' s starting to, but it ' s been a long road, " she said, noting the importance of admitting there is a problem and getting a child who potentially has autism help early. " there ' s nothing around here for anyone with a child with autism. you have to go to buffalo or erie. people don ' t realize. people need to teach their kids about it. they look at jacob and wonder why he ' s doing the things that he does when we take him out because i refuse to keep him sheltered. it ' s especially important for the kids. some of the kids do have interactions with kids such as jacob, and they do fantastic with it. " smith ' s son, jase, was diagnosed with asperger ' s syndrome four years ago. at age 2, he couldn ' t speak. smith had seen the negative side of educating children with autism. she saw kids throw tantrums when they didn ' t have the ability to say what they wanted. " there was no way that was going to be my kid, " she said, " so we really pushed and got jase to function in our world. he never shuts up anymore. what we need is for these kids to be better understood, and they need these things that andy ( ohl ) and the technology department are coming up with. if they can ' t tell us what they need, we ' re in real trouble. if they melt down, kick and scream on the floor, it ' s not getting anybody anywhere. " with technology and a reduction in the stigma surrounding the disorder, smith believes autistic kids are better off today than they were in the past. with a successful event april 2, that stigma could be further reduced. " we ' ve had a huge response to this, " smith said. " i didn ' t expect it to


71, 000 new yorkers : “ rise does matter! ” superstorm sandy produced record storm surge levels for locations in and around the ny city metropolitan region. one way that global warming made sandy worse is because global warming is causing sea levels to rise. sea levels have risen more than a foot in the new york city region since the industrial revolution. so what difference did this extra foot make for the citizens of new york city? quite a lot. 6, 000 more people impacted for each inch of rise! 70, 929 more people and 30, 551 more homes flooded. i asked storm surge expert dr. ben strauss to reflect on what this extra foot meant for new yorkers. his reply appears below ( with permission ) : according to noaa ’ s preliminary tide gauge readings, sandy peaked at 9. 15 ft above mean high water ( mhw, the average high tide line ) at the battery in nyc. surging seas uses the same elevation reference, mhw. so from our tool you can see we estimate that in nyc alone, ~ 633k people live on, and ~ 273k homes sit on, land that ’ s less than 9 ft above mhw. compare that to 8ft, or one foot less : ~ 562k people and ~ 242k homes. so, yes, sandy ’ s damage would absolutely still have been unthinkable without the extra 8 inches or so we might attribute to warming since the late 19th century. but you add about 6k people per vertical inch in this 8 - 9 ft elevation range. i think we all would have been happy to see just a few percent less damage here! a few other thoughts : - flood damage increases more steeply than flood depth - how many pieces of infrastructure might have been saved if the water were a bit lower? - a relative of mine heard a cbs news radio report that the water got 1. 5 ft higher than anyone at con ed had ever imagined / planned for — i don ’ t know the exact wording. would the 14th st transformer station that exploded and left so much of lower manhattan in the dark — would it have exploded with 8 inches lower water? ( est. global sea level rise since 1880 ) 15 inches? ( est total nyc slr since 1880, including local land subsidence ) sea level rise is certainly not the main story line here, but it contributed to the total damage from flooding and surge without any doubt. furthermore, sandy provides an illustration of flood levels that could be common —


1880, including local land subsidence ) sea level rise is certainly not the main story line here, but it contributed to the total damage from flooding and surge without any doubt. furthermore, sandy provides an illustration of flood levels that could be common — say, once a decade or worse toward the end of this century — if the upper end of sea level rise projections for nyc are realized. dr. ben strauss serves as chief operating officer and director of the program on sea level rise at climate central. in the latter capacity, he has published multiple scientific papers, testified before the u. s. senate, authored the surging seas report, and led development of the surgingseas. org coastal flood risk tool, leading to front - page coverage in the new york times and washington post, appearances on nbc, abc, cbs, pbs and npr national programming, and extensive coverage nationwide, from ap, reuters, bloomberg, usa today and the la times, to many hundreds of local news outlets, to numerous editorials and op eds. in the future, we will look back at the one foot sea level rise as “ the good old days ”. according to the new york state sea level rise task force report, it is very possible that seas will rise an additional 2. 5 ft by the 2050s and 4. 5 ft by the 2080s. imagine what a sandy would do then? it is pretty clear that new york city planners have much work to do to avoid future catastrophes. city officials did not endorse many of the recommendations of the task force in 2010. perhaps they will reconsider their position now?


august 20, 2010 today ’ s exercise is about a relatively new sorting algorithm. we start with an article optimizing your wife by kevin brown, which proposes that the best way for a man to find a wife is to decide how many women he is willing to date before he chooses a wife, we ’ ll call that n, determine which of the first √n women is “ best, ” according to whatever matters to him, and then choose the next woman after the first √n that is better than any of the first √n women. for instance, to find the marriageable woman in a batch of a hundred, date ten of them, then marry the next one that is better than any of those ten. you may not find the optimal woman, but you ’ ll be close. eric burnett turned brown ’ s idea into a sorting algorithm. first, sample the first √n values at the beginning of an array, then swap any of the remaining values that are better than the greatest value of the sample to the end of the array, swap the greatest value of the sample just before those at the end, then recur on the smaller array before those greatest values. finish the sort by performing insertion sort on the entire array ; that will be quick, since most values are near their final positions. burnett ’ s algorithm requires three pointers : the current location of the end of the sample, the current location of the end of the array still under consideration, and a pointer that sweeps through the array. the time complexity is o ( n1. 5 ), which is similar to other sorting methods like shell sort and comb sort that have a first stage that nearly sorts the input followed by insertion sort to clean up the rest. your task is to write a function that sorts an array using marriage sort. when you are finished, you are welcome to read or run a suggested solution, or to post your own solution or discuss the exercise in the comments below. pages : 1 2


imatinib, known commercially as gleevec, worked best when combined with the chemotherapy paclitaxel to slash the incidence of bone metastases and the size of tumors in mice injected with a multiple - drug resistant form of prostate cancer. tumors were found in only 4 of 18 mice treated with the combination, median tumor weight was one tenth of a gram, and the cancer spread to the lymph nodes in three cases. tumors grew in all 19 control mice, their median tumor weight was 1. 3 grams, and all metastasized to the lymph nodes. this extremely drug - resistant form of the cancer, designed by the research team to emulate the grim clinical reality of prostate cancer that has spread into the bone, successfully warded off the combined medications in lab experiments, said isaiah j. fidler, d. v. m., ph. d., chair of the department of cancer biology and director of the cancer metastasis research center at m. d. anderson. " why, then, did it work so well in the animal? because we didn ' t attack the tumor, we attacked the blood vessels. we target and destroy the vasculature that provides oxygen and nutrients to tumor cells, " said fidler, the paper ' s senior author. fidler and colleagues show in the jnci paper that imatinib killed tumor - related blood vessel ( endothelial ) cells by inactivating the platelet - derived growth factor receptors ( pdgf - r ) on the cell surface. this prevents the receptor ' s activation either by pdgf binding to it externally or by a signal generated internally by the cell. activation of pdgf - r stimulates the birth of new blood vessels, promotes cell division and migration, and inhibits a protective form of cell suicide known as apoptosis, all harmful effects in the service of a cancer cell. with imatinib preventing activation of pdgf - r, fidler said, the endothelial cells died by apoptosis first, with tumor cells following suit one to two weeks later. fidler said the findings are a vibrant example of the " seed and soil " hypothesis in metastasis - the deadly spreading of a cancer from its organ of origin to other organs, a process that kills 90 percent of all patients who die from their disease. in landmark findings, fidler and colleagues demonstrated that the vast majority of cancer cells that depart a tumor die swiftly once in circulation and that metastases originate from less than 1


a process that kills 90 percent of all patients who die from their disease. in landmark findings, fidler and colleagues demonstrated that the vast majority of cancer cells that depart a tumor die swiftly once in circulation and that metastases originate from less than 1 percent of a cancer ' s cells and even can arise from a single cell. when these metastatic " seeds " enter circulation, they still need to find the exact microenvironment that permits them to grow. for prostate cancer, the second - leading cause of cancer death among men, that microenvironment is the bone. earlier research by fidler and colleagues showed pdgf - r activation in metastatic prostate tumors adjacent to the bone but not in tumor cells next to muscle. pdgf - r also was activated in tumor - associated endothelial cells in the bone, but not in those blood vessel cells in neighboring muscle. a jnci paper by fidler and colleagues in 2003 showed that blocking pdgf - r signaling in the mouse model of metastatic prostate cancer cut the incidence of cancer, reduced the size of tumors and incidence of metastasis. the question was whether the combination of imatinib and paclitaxel achieved this by attacking the tumor itself or the tumor - related blood vessels. this week ' s jnci paper answers that question : it kills the blood vessels first. " here, we attack the soil. the seeds can be resistant. kill the endothelial cell, you kill the soil, " fidler said. imatinib had an effect by itself, but the best result came from the pairing with paclitaxel, known commercially as taxol, which induces apoptosis in non - resistant cancer cells. taxol, developed by the bristol - myers squibb co., is frontline therapy for prostate cancer but eventually loses its effect as resistant tumor cells proliferate. gleevec, developed by novartis pharmaceuticals corporation, is used to treat chronic myelogenous leukemia and gastrointestinal stromal tumors. cancer cells are biologically diverse and genetically unstable, fidler says, so it is highly unlikely that a single therapy will prevail, necessitating a multi - modal attack on the disease. paul mathew, m. d., assistant professor, and christopher logothetis, m. d., professor and chair of the department of genitourinary medical oncology at m. d. anderson, are leading a phase ii clinical trial employing imatinib and


d., assistant professor, and christopher logothetis, m. d., professor and chair of the department of genitourinary medical oncology at m. d. anderson, are leading a phase ii clinical trial employing imatinib and docetaxel against androgen - independent prostate cancer. docetaxel is in the same family of medication as paclitaxel. this research project was funded by a cancer center support core grant and a specialized programs in research excellence ( spore ) grant, both from the national cancer institute of the national institutes of health. fidler, mathew and logothetis have research projects that are sponsored by novartis pharmaceuticals. co - authors of the jnci paper, all from m. d. anderson, are : first author sun - jin kim, m. d., ph. d. ; hisanori uehara, m. d., ph. d. ; sertac yazici, m. d. ; joseph erik busby, m. d. ; toru nakamura, m. d., ph. d. ; junqin he, m. d. ; marva maya ; christopher logothetis, m. d. ; paul mathew, m. d. ; xuemei wang ; kim - anh do, ph. d. ; and dominic fan, ph. d. last reviewed : by john m. grohol, psy. d. on 21 feb 2009 published on psychcentral. com. all rights reserved.


individual differences | methods | statistics | clinical | educational | industrial | professional items | world psychology | | clockwise from the upper left : giraffe, golden crown fruit bat, lion, hedgehog | clockwise from the upper left : giraffe, golden crown fruit bat, lion, hedgehog mammals ( formally mammalia ) are a class of vertebrate animals whose name is derived from their distinctive feature, mammary glands, with which they feed their young. they are also characterized by the possession of sweat glands, hair, three middle ear bones used in hearing, and a neocortex region in the brain. except for the three species of monotremes ( which lay eggs ), all mammals give birth to live young. most mammals also possess specialized teeth, and the largest group of mammals, the placentals, use a placenta during gestation. the mammalian brain regulates endothermic and circulatory systems, including a four - chambered heart. there are approximately 5, 400 species of mammals, ranging in size from the template : convert / – template : convert / test / a bumblebee bat to the template : convert / loffaoffdbsontemplate : convert / test / a blue whale, distributed in about 1, 200 genera, 153 families, and 29 orders, though this varies by classification scheme. the mammals are divided into two subclasses, the prototheria, which includes the egg - laying monotremes, and the theria, which includes the live - bearing marsupials and placentals. most mammals, including the six largest orders, belong to the placental group. the three largest orders, in descending order, are rodentia ( mice, rats, and other small, gnawing mammals ), chiroptera ( bats ), and soricomorpha ( shrews, moles and solenodons ). the next three largest orders include the carnivora ( dogs, cats, weasels, bears, seals, and their relatives ), the cetartiodactyla ( including the even - toed hoofed mammals and the whales ) and the primates to which the human species belongs. the relative size of these latter three orders differs according to the classification scheme and definitions used by various authors. phylogenetically, mammalia is defined as all descendants of the most recent common ancestor of monotremes ( e. g., echidnas and platypuses ) and therian mammals ( mars


classification scheme and definitions used by various authors. phylogenetically, mammalia is defined as all descendants of the most recent common ancestor of monotremes ( e. g., echidnas and platypuses ) and therian mammals ( marsupials and placentals ). this means that some extinct groups of " mammals " are not members of the crown group mammalia, even though most of them have all the characteristics that traditionally would have classified them as mammals. these " mammals " are now usually placed in the unranked clade mammaliaformes. the mammalian line of descent diverged from the reptile line at the end of the carboniferous period. the majority of reptiles would evolve into modern - day reptiles and birds, while the synapsid branch led to mammals. the first true mammals appeared in the jurassic period. modern mammalian orders appeared in the palaeocene and eocene epochs of the palaeogene period. however, other features are required when classifying fossils, since soft tissue glands and some other features are not visible in fossils. paleontologists use a distinguishing feature that is shared by all living mammals ( including monotremes ), but is not present in any of the early triassic synapsids : mammals use two bones for hearing that were used for eating by their ancestors. the earliest synapsids had a jaw joint composed of the articular ( a small bone at the back of the lower jaw ) and the quadrate ( a small bone at the back of the upper jaw ). most reptiles and non - mammalian synapsids use this system including lizards, crocodilians, dinosaurs ( and their descendants the birds ), and therapsids ( mammal - like " reptiles " ). mammals have a different jaw joint, however, composed only of the dentary ( the lower jaw bone which carries the teeth ) and the squamosal ( another small skull bone ). in mammals the quadrate and articular bones have become the incus and malleus bones in the middle ear. note : " non - mammalian synapsids " above implies that mammals are a sub - group of synapsids, and that is exactly what cladistics says they are. mammals also have a double occipital condyle : they have two knobs at the base of the skull which fit into the topmost neck vertebra, and other vertebrates have a single occipital condyle. paleontologists use


occipital condyle : they have two knobs at the base of the skull which fit into the topmost neck vertebra, and other vertebrates have a single occipital condyle. paleontologists use only the jaw joint and middle ear as criteria for identifying fossil mammals, since it would be confusing if they found a fossil that had one feature, but not the other. anatomy and morphologyedit the majority of mammals have seven cervical vertebrae ( bones in the neck ) ; this includes bats, giraffes, whales, and humans. the few exceptions include the manatee and the two - toed sloth, which have only six cervical vertebrae, and the three - toed sloth with nine cervical vertebrae. the lungs of mammals have a spongy texture and are honeycombed with epithelium having a much larger surface area in total than the outer surface area of the lung itself. the lungs of humans are typical of this type of lung. breathing is largely driven by the muscular diaphragm which divides the thorax from the abdominal cavity, forming a dome with its convexity towards the thorax. contraction of the diaphragm flattens the dome increasing the volume of the cavity in which the lung is enclosed. air enters through the oral and nasal cavities ; it flows through the larynx, trachea and bronchi and expands the alveoli. relaxation of the diaphragm has the opposite effect, passively recoiling during normal breathing. during exercise, the abdominal wall contracts, increasing visceral pressure on the diaphragm, thus forcing the air out more quickly and forcefully. the rib cage itself also is able to expand and contract the thoracic cavity to some degree, through the action of other respiratory and accessory respiratory muscles. as a result, air is sucked into or expelled out of the lungs, always moving down its pressure gradient. this type of lung is known as a bellows lung as it resembles a blacksmith ' s bellows. the mammalian heart has four chambers : the right atrium, right ventricle, left atrium, and left ventricle. atria are for receiving blood ; ventricles are for pumping blood to the lungs and body. the ventricles are larger than the atria and their walls are thick, because muscular walls are needed to forcefully pump the blood from the heart to the body and lungs. deoxygenated blood from the body enters the right atrium,


. the ventricles are larger than the atria and their walls are thick, because muscular walls are needed to forcefully pump the blood from the heart to the body and lungs. deoxygenated blood from the body enters the right atrium, which pumps it to the right ventricle. the right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs, where carbon dioxide diffuses out, and oxygen diffuses in. from the lungs, oxygenated blood enters the left atrium, where it is pumped to the left ventricle ( the largest and strongest of the 4 chambers ), which pumps it out to the rest of the body, including the heart ' s own blood supply. all mammalian brains possess a neocortex, a brain region that is unique to mammals. mammals have integumentary systems made up of three layers : the outermost epidermis, the dermis, and the hypodermis. this characteristic is not unique to mammals, since it is found in all vertebrates. the epidermis is typically ten to thirty cells thick ; its main function being to provide a waterproof layer. its outermost cells are constantly lost ; its bottommost cells are constantly dividing and pushing upward. the middle layer, the dermis, is fifteen to forty times thicker than the epidermis. the dermis is made up of many components such as bony structures and blood vessels. the hypodermis is made up of adipose tissue. its job is to store lipids, and to provide cushioning and insulation. the thickness of this layer varies widely from species to species. although mammals and other animals have cilia that superficially may resemble it, no other animals except mammals have hair. it is a definitive characteristic of the order. some mammals have very little, but nonetheless, careful examination reveals the characteristic, often in obscure parts of their bodies. none are known to have hair that naturally is blue or green in color although some cetaceans, along with the mandrills appear to have shades of blue skin. many mammals are indicated as having blue hair or fur, but in all known cases, it has been found to be a shade of gray. the two - toed sloth and the polar bear may seem to have green fur, but this color is caused by algae growths. most mammals give birth to live young ( vivipary ), but a few, namely the monotremes, lay eggs, and at least one of them, the platypus,


but this color is caused by algae growths. most mammals give birth to live young ( vivipary ), but a few, namely the monotremes, lay eggs, and at least one of them, the platypus, presents a particular sex determination system that in some ways resembles that of birds. oviviparous species which are not mammals such as guppies and snakes also give birth in a manner resembling live birth ; thus it is not a distinguishing characteristic of mammals. mammals have sweat glands, a defining feature present in no other group. some of these glands have specialized to produce milk ( in what are called mammary glands ), a liquid used by newborns as their primary source of nutrition. the monotremes branched from other mammals early on, and do not have the nipples seen in most mammals, but they do have mammary glands. nearly all mammals are endothermic ( " warm - blooded " ). most mammals also have hair to help keep them warm. like birds, mammals can forage or hunt in cold weather and climates where reptiles and large insects cannot. endothermy requires plenty of food energy, so pound for pound mammals eat more food than reptiles. small insectivorous mammals eat prodigious amounts for their size. in intelligent mammals, such as primates, the cerebrum is larger relative to the rest of the brain. intelligence itself is not easy to define, but indications of intelligence include the ability to learn, matched with behavioral flexibility. rats, for example, are considered to be highly intelligent as they can learn and perform new tasks, an ability that may be important when they first colonize a fresh habitat. in some mammals, food gathering appears to be related to intelligence : a deer feeding on plants has a brain relatively smaller than a cat, who must think to outwit its prey. - see also : animal locomotion mammals evolved from four - legged ancestors. they use their limbs to walk, climb, swim, and fly. some land mammals have toes that produce claws and hooves for climbing and running. aquatic mammals such as whales and dolphins have fins which evolved from legs. [ [ image : elephant near ndutu. jpg | thumb | an african elephant - see also : terrestrial locomotion - see also : scansorial locomotion sloths travel slowly along branches rather than swinging energetically. buoyed by their aquatic environment, whales have evolved into the largest mammals and indeed the largest animals ever.


also : terrestrial locomotion - see also : scansorial locomotion sloths travel slowly along branches rather than swinging energetically. buoyed by their aquatic environment, whales have evolved into the largest mammals and indeed the largest animals ever. - see also : aerial locomotion to maintain a high constant body temperature is energy expensive - mammals therefore need a nutritious and plentiful diet. while the earliest mammals were probably predators, different species have since adapted to meet their dietary requirements in a variety of ways. some eat animal prey - this is a carnivorous diet ( and includes insectivorous diets ). other mammals, called herbivores, eat plants. an herbivorous diet includes sub - types such as fruit - eating and grass - eating. an omnivore eats boths prey and plants. carnivorous mammals have a simple digestive tract, because the proteins, lipids, and minerals found in meat require little in the way of specialized digestion. plants, on the other hand, contain complex carbohydrates, such as cellulose. the digestive tract of an herbivore is therefore host to bacteria that ferment these substances, and make them available for digestion. the bacteria are either housed in the multichambered stomach or in a large cecum. the size of an animal is also a factor in determining diet type. since small mammals have a high ratio of heat losing surface area to heat generating volume, they tend to have high - energy requirements and a high metabolic rate. mammals that weigh less than about 18 oz ( 500g ) are mostly insectivorous because they cannot tolerate the slow, complex digestive process of a herbivore. larger animals on the other hand generate more heat and less of this heat is lost. they can therefore tolerate either a slower collection process ( those that prey on larger vertebrates ) or a slower digestive process ( herbivores ). furthermore, mammals that weigh more than 18 oz ( 500g ) usually cannot collect enough insects during their waking hours to sustain themselves. the only large insectivorous mammals are those that feed on huge colonies of insects ( ants or termites ). specializations in herbivory include : granivory " seed eating ", folivory " leaf eating ", fruivory " fruit eating ", nectivory " nectar eating ", gumivory " gum eating ", and mycophagy " fungus eating " - for more details on this topic


folivory " leaf eating ", fruivory " fruit eating ", nectivory " nectar eating ", gumivory " gum eating ", and mycophagy " fungus eating " - for more details on this topic, see evolution of mammals. the evolution of mammals from synapsids, also known as mammal - like " reptiles " was a gradual process which took approximately 70 million years, from the mid - permian through the triassic period to the mid - jurassic, and by the mid - triassic there were many species that looked like mammals. note that synapsids are not reptiles at all, but belong to a distinct lineage of tetrapods. [ [ image : skull synapsida 1. png | thumb | the original synapsid skull structure has one hole behind each eye, in a fairly low position on the skull ( lower right in this image ). ] ] the first fully terrestrial vertebrates were amniotes. like the amphibians they evolved from, they had legs and lungs. amniotes ' eggs, however, had internal membranes which allowed the developing embryo to breathe but kept water in. this allowed amniotes to lay eggs on dry land, while amphibians generally need to lay their eggs in water. the first amniotes apparently arose in the late carboniferous. they descended from amphibians, which were numerous at the time, and lived on land already inhabited by insects, other invertebrates, ferns, mosses, and other plants. within a few million years two important amniote lineages became distinct : the synapsids, from which mammals are descended ; and the sauropsids, from which lizards, snakes, crocodilians, dinosaurs and birds are descended. synapsids have a single hole ( temporal fenestra ) low on each side of the skull. therapsids descended from pelycosaurs in the middle permian, about 260m years ago, and took over their position as the dominant land vertebrates. they differ from pelycosaurs in several features of the skull and jaws, including : larger temporal fenestrae ; incisors which are equal in size. the therapsids went through a series of stages, beginning with animals which were very like their pelycosaur ancestors and ending with the triassic cynodonts, some of which could easily be mistaken for mammals. those stages were characterized by : - gradual development of a bony


a series of stages, beginning with animals which were very like their pelycosaur ancestors and ending with the triassic cynodonts, some of which could easily be mistaken for mammals. those stages were characterized by : - gradual development of a bony secondary palate. - the dentary gradually becomes the main bone of the lower jaw. - progress towards an erect limb posture, which would increase the animals ' stamina by avoiding carrier ' s constraint. but this process was slow and erratic - for example : all herbivorous therapsids retained sprawling limbs ( some late forms may have had semi - erect hind limbs ) ; permian carnivorous therapsids had sprawling forelimbs, and some late permian ones also had semi - sprawling hindlimbs. in fact modern monotremes still have semi - sprawling limbs. - in the triassic, progress towards the mammalian jaw and middle ear. - there is possible evidence of hair in triassic therapsids, but none for permian therapsids. - some scientists have argued that some triassic therapsids show signs of lactation. the permian – triassic extinction event ended the dominance of the therapsids, and in the early triassic all the medium to large land animal niches were taken over by archosaurs, which were the ancestors of crocodilians, pterosaurs, dinosaurs and birds. after this " triassic takeover " the cynodonts and their descendants could only survive as small, mainly nocturnal insectivores. this may actually have accelerated the evolution of mammals - for example the surviving cynodonts and their descendants had to evolve towards warm - bloodedness because their small bodies would otherwise have lost heat quickly, especially as they were active mainly at night. the first true mammals appeared in the early jurassic, over 70 million years after the first therapsids and approximately 30 million years after the first mammaliaformes. hadrocodium appears to be in the middle of the transition to true mammal status — it had a mammalian jaw joint ( formed by the dentary and squamosal bones ), but there is some debate about whether its middle ear was fully mammalian. - they use the same orifice to urinate, defecate and reproduce ( " monotreme " means " one hole " ) - as lizards and birds also do. - they lay eggs which are leathery and uncalcified, like those of lizards, turtles and crocodilians. unlike other mammals,


" monotreme " means " one hole " ) - as lizards and birds also do. - they lay eggs which are leathery and uncalcified, like those of lizards, turtles and crocodilians. unlike other mammals, female monotremes do not have nipples and feed their young by " sweating " milk from patches on their bellies. the oldest known marsupial is sinodelphys, found in 125m - year old early cretaceous shale in china ' s northeastern liaoning province. the fossil is nearly complete and includes tufts of fur and imprints of soft tissues. the living eutheria ( " true beasts " ) are all placentals. but the earliest known eutherian, eomaia, found in china and dated to 125m years ago, has some features which are more like those of marsupials ( the surviving metatherians ) : - epipubic bones extending forwards from the pelvis, which are not found in any modern placental, but are found in marsupials, monotremes and mammaliformes such as multituberculates. in other words, they appear to be an ancestral feature which subsequently disappeared in the placental lineage. - a narrow pelvic outlet, which indicates that the young were very small at birth and therefore pregnancy was short, as in modern marsupials. this suggests that the placenta was a later development. the traditional view is that : mammals only took over the medium - to large - sized ecological niches in the cenozoic, after the extinction of the dinosaurs ; but then they diversified very quickly ; for example the earliest known bat dates from about 50m years ago, only 15m years after the extinction of the dinosaurs. on the other hand recent molecular phylogenetic studies suggest that most placental orders diverged about 100m to 85m years ago, but that modern families first appeared in the late eocene and early miocene but paleontologists object that no placental fossils have been found from before the end of the cretaceous during the cenozoic several groups of mammals appeared which were much larger than their nearest modern equivalents - but none was even close to the size of the largest dinosaurs with similar feeding habits. earliest appearances of featuresedit the earliest clear evidence of hair or fur is in fossils of castorocauda, from 164m years ago in the mid jurassic. from 1955 onwards some scientists have interpreted the foramina ( passages ) in the maxillae ( upper jaws ) and premax


clear evidence of hair or fur is in fossils of castorocauda, from 164m years ago in the mid jurassic. from 1955 onwards some scientists have interpreted the foramina ( passages ) in the maxillae ( upper jaws ) and premaxillae ( small bones in front of the maxillae ) of cynodonts as channels which supplied blood vessels and nerves to vibrissae ( whiskers ), and suggested that this was evidence of hair or fur. but foramina do not necessarily show that an animal had vibrissae - for example the modern lizard tupinambis has foramina which are almost identical to those found in the non - mammalian cynodont thrinaxodon. the evolution of erect limbs in mammals is incomplete — living and fossil monotremes have sprawling limbs. in fact some scientists think that the parasagittal ( non - sprawling ) limb posture is a synapomorphy ( distinguishing characteristic ) of the boreosphenida, a group which contains the theria and therefore includes the last common ancestor of modern marsupial and placentals - and therefore that all earlier mammals had sprawling limbs. sinodelphys ( the earliest known marsupial ) and eomaia ( the earliest known eutherian ) lived about 125m years ago, so erect limbs must have evolved before then. it is currently very difficult to be confident when endothermy first appeared in the evolution of mammals. modern monotremes have a lower body temperature and more variable metabolic rate than marsupials and placentals. so the main question is when a monotreme - like metabolism evolved in mammals. the evidence found so far suggests triassic cynodonts may have had fairly high metabolic rates, but is not conclusive. in particular it is difficult to see how small animals can maintain a high and stable body temperature without fur. - main article : mammal classification george gaylord simpson ' s " principles of classification and a classification of mammals " ( amnh bulletin v. 85, 1945 ) was the original source for the taxonomy listed here. simpson laid out a systematics of mammal origins and relationships that was universally taught until the end of the 20th century. since simpson ' s classification, the paleontological record has been recalibrated, and the intervening years have seen much debate and progress concerning the theoretical underpinnings of systematization itself, partly through the new concept of cladistics. though field work gradually made simpson ' s classification outdated,


been recalibrated, and the intervening years have seen much debate and progress concerning the theoretical underpinnings of systematization itself, partly through the new concept of cladistics. though field work gradually made simpson ' s classification outdated, it remained the closest thing to an official classification of mammals. standardized textbook classificationedit a somewhat standardized classification system has been adopted by most current mammalogy classroom textbooks. the following taxonomy of extant and recently extinct mammals is from vaughan et al. ( 2000 ). - subclass prototheria : monotremes : platypuses and echidnas - subclass theria : live - bearing mammals in 1997, the mammals were comprehensively revised by malcolm c. mckenna and susan k. bell, which has resulted in the " mckenna / bell classification ". mckenna and bell, classification of mammals : above the species level, ( 1997 ) is the most comprehensive work to date on the systematics, relationships, and occurrences of all mammal taxa, living and extinct, down through the rank of genus. the new mckenna / bell classification was quickly accepted by paleontologists. the authors work together as paleontologists at the american museum of natural history, new york. mckenna inherited the project from simpson and, with bell, constructed a completely updated hierarchical system, covering living and extinct taxa that reflects the historical genealogy of mammalia. the mckenna / bell hierarchical listing of all of the terms used for mammal groups above the species includes extinct mammals as well as modern groups, and introduces some fine distinctions such as legions and sublegions ( ranks which fall between classes and orders ) that are likely to be glossed over by the nonprofessionals. the published re - classification forms both a comprehensive and authoritative record of approved names and classifications and a list of invalid names. extinct groups are represented by a cross ( † ). - subclass prototheria : monotremes : echidnas and the platypus - subclass theriiformes : live - bearing mammals and their prehistoric relatives - infraclass † allotheria : multituberculates - infraclass † triconodonta : triconodonts - infraclass holotheria : modern live - bearing mammals and their prehistoric relatives - supercohort theria : live - bearing mammals - cohort marsupialia : marsupials - cohort placentalia : placentals - magnorder xenarthra : xenarthrans - magnorder epitheria : ep


great american interchange. the traditional view that no placental mammals reached australasia until about 5 million years ago when bats and murine rodents arrived has been challenged by recent evidence and may need to be reassessed. these molecular results are still controversial because they are not reflected by morphological data, and thus not accepted by many systematists. further there is some indication from retrotransposon presence / absence data that the traditional epitheria hypothesis, suggesting xenarthra as the first divergence, might be true. - clade atlantogenata - group i : afrotheria - clade afroinsectiphilia - clade paenungulata - group ii : xenarthra - group i : afrotheria - clade boreoeutheria - group iii : euarchontoglires ( supraprimates ) - superorder euarchonta - superorder glires - group iv : laurasiatheria - order erinaceomorpha : hedgehogs - order soricomorpha : moles, shrews, solenodons - clade ferungulata - clade cetartiodactyla - clade pegasoferae - group iii : euarchontoglires ( supraprimates ) particular groups studied by psychologistsedit psychologists have studied : - primates ( nonhuman ) - seals ( animal ) - ↑ ( 2005 - 11 - 16 ) wilson, d. e., and reeder, d. m. ( eds ) mammal species of the world, 3rd edition, johns hopkins university press. isbn 0 - 801 - 88221 - 4. - ↑ rose, kenneth d. ( 2006 ). the beginning of the age of mammals, baltimore : johns hopkins university press. - ↑ mckenna, malcolm c. ; bell, susan groag. classification of mammals, columbia university press. - ↑ 4. 0 4. 1 ( 2001 ) don e. wilson & david burnie animal : the definitive visual guide to the world ' s wildlife, 1st edition, 86 – 89, dk publishing. - ↑ amniota - palaeos. - ↑ synapsida overview - palaeos. - ↑ therapsida - palaeos. - ↑ kermack ( 1984 ). the evolution of mammalian characters, croom helm. - ↑ cynodontia : overview - palaeos. - ↑ symmetrodonta - palaeos. - ↑


palaeos. - ↑ kermack ( 1984 ). the evolution of mammalian characters, croom helm. - ↑ cynodontia : overview - palaeos. - ↑ symmetrodonta - palaeos. - ↑ oldest marsupial fossil found in china. national geographic news. - ↑ eomaia scansoria : discovery of oldest known placental mammal. - ↑ 13. 0 13. 1 dinosaur extinction spurred rise of modern mammals. news. nationalgeographic. com. url accessed on 2009 - 03 - 08. - ↑ jurassic " beaver " found ; rewrites history of mammals. - ↑ rogue finger gene got bats airborne. newscientist. com. url accessed on 2009 - 03 - 08. - ↑ bininda - emonds, o. r. p. ( 2007 ). the delayed rise of present - day mammals. nature ( 446 ) : 507 – 511. - ↑ oftedal, o. t. ( 2002 ). the mammary gland and its origin during synapsid evolution. journal of mammary gland biology and neoplasia 7 ( 3 ) : 225 – 252. - ↑ oftedal, o. t. ( 2002 ). the origin of lactation as a water source for parchment - shelled eggs = journal of mammary gland biology and neoplasia 7 ( 3 ) : 253 – 266. - ↑ lactating on eggs. nationalzoo. si. edu. url accessed on 2009 - 03 - 08. - ↑ brink, a. s. ( 1955 ). a study on the skeleton of diademodon. palaeontologia africana 3 : 3 – 39. - ↑ kemp, t. s. ( 1982 ). mammal - like reptiles and the origin of mammals, london : academic press. - ↑ bennett, a. f. and ruben, j. a. ( 1986 ) " the metabolic and thermoregulatory status of therapsids " ; pp. 207 – 218 in n. hotton iii, p. d. maclean, j. j. roth and e. c. roth ( eds ), " the ecology and biology of mammal - like reptiles ", smithsonian institution press, washington. - ↑ estes, r. ( 1961 ). cranial anatomy of the cynodont reptile thrinaxodon liorhinus. bulletin of the museum of comparative zoology : 165 – 180. -


smithsonian institution press, washington. - ↑ estes, r. ( 1961 ). cranial anatomy of the cynodont reptile thrinaxodon liorhinus. bulletin of the museum of comparative zoology : 165 – 180. - ↑ ice age animals, illinois state museum - ↑ kielan−jaworowska, z. ( 2006 ). limb posture in early mammals : sprawling or parasagittal. acta palaeontologica polonica 51 ( 3 ) : 10237 – 10239. - ↑ paul, g. s. ( 1988 ). predatory dinosaurs of the world, new york : simon and schuster. - bergsten, johannes. february 2005. " a review of long - branch attraction ". cladistics 21 : 163 – 193. ( pdf version ) - brown, w. m. ( 2001 ). natural selection of mammalian brain components. trends in ecology and evolution, 16, 471 - 473. - khalaf - von jaffa, norman ali bassam ali taher ( 2006 ). mammalia palaestina : the mammals of palestine. gazelle : the palestinian biological bulletin. number 55, july 2006. pp. 1 – 46. - mckenna, malcolm c., and bell, susan k. 1997. classification of mammals above the species level. columbia university press, new york, 631 pp. isbn 0 - 231 - 11013 - 8 - nowak, ronald m. 1999. walker ' s mammals of the world, 6th edition. johns hopkins university press, 1936 pp. isbn 0 - 8018 - 5789 - 9 - simpson, george gaylord. 1945. " the principles of classification and a classification of mammals ". bulletin of the american museum of natural history, 85 : 1 – 350. - william j. murphy, eduardo eizirik, mark s. springer et al., resolution of the early placental mammal radiation using bayesian phylogenetics, science, vol 294, issue 5550, 2348 – 2351, 14 december 2001. - springer, mark s., michael j. stanhope, ole madsen, and wilfried w. de jong. 2004. " molecules consolidate the placental mammal tree ". trends in ecology and evolution, 19 : 430 – 438. ( pdf version ) - vaughan, terry a., james m. ryan, and nicholas j. capzaplewski. 2000. mammalogy : fourth edition. saunders college publishing, 565 pp.


evolution, 19 : 430 – 438. ( pdf version ) - vaughan, terry a., james m. ryan, and nicholas j. capzaplewski. 2000. mammalogy : fourth edition. saunders college publishing, 565 pp. isbn 0 - 03 - 025034 - x ( brooks cole, 1999 ) - jan ole kriegs, gennady churakov, martin kiefmann, ursula jordan, juergen brosius, juergen schmitz. ( 2006 ) retroposed elements as archives for the evolutionary history of placental mammals. plos biol 4 ( 4 ) : e91. plos biology - retroposed elements as archives for the evolutionary history of placental mammals. biology. plosjournals. org. url accessed on 2009 - 03 - 08. - david macdonald, sasha norris. 2006. the encyclopedia of mammals, 3rd edition. printed in china, 930 pp. isbn 0 - 681 - 45659 - 0. - globaltwitcher. com - all species in the world with distribution maps and images - north american fossil mammal systematics database - paleocene mammals, a site covering the rise of the mammals - evolution of mammals, a brief introduction to early mammals - tree of life poster - shows mammals ' evolutionary relation to other organisms - the evolution of mesozoic mammals, a rough sketch, an informal introduction - carnegie museum of natural history, some discoveries of early mammal fossils - mammal taxonomy, database of mammals of the world, updated each month - high - resolution images of various mammalian brains - mammal species, collection of information sheets about various mammal species - summary of molecular support for epitheria - mikko ' s phylogeny archive - european mammal atlas emma from societas europaea mammalogica - marine mammals of the world — an overview of all marine mammals, including descriptions, multimedia and a key - mammalogy. org the american society of mammalogists was established in 1919 for the purpose of promoting the study of mammals, and this website includes a mammal image library extant mammal orders by infraclass afrosoricida · macroscelidea · tubulidentata · hyracoidea · proboscidea · sirenia · cingulata · pilosa · scandentia · dermoptera · primates · rodentia · lagomorpha · erinaceomorpha · soricomorpha · chiroptera · pholidota · car


wage dependency and vulnerability through the first half of the nineteenth century america was a nation of farmers, shopkeepers, and small businessmen living in small towns. capitalism was local and commercial, rather than national and industrial, and the family was a self - sustaining economic unit. family members worked largely within the confines of the household, on the family ' s land, or in the family ' s shop or other small business. gradually, however, technological development and increases in economic centralization and differentiation combined to erode households ' self - sufficiency. more people began to work outside the family for wages or salary. and as needs came to be more commonly supported by participation in the labor market, fewer families held their own land or other businesses. today, only a small fraction of americans owns household - sustaining property. the vast majority of us, including many professional and managerial people, are dependent for our livelihoods on selling our labor in the market. wage dependency creates the preconditions for wage vulnerability. any disruption in wages threatens a worker ' s ability to meet basic needs. and many disruptions to participation in the labor market — disabling injury, aging, recession, plant closings due to loss of international competitiveness — lie beyond the control of an individual worker. even households in the top quintile of income distribution are not immune to such hazards. only the very wealthiest households can sustain themselves over lengthy periods without labor market participation and without recourse to outside assistance, such as public social programs. other trends characteristic of advanced industrial societies reinforce the problems of wage dependency and vulnerability. as people go to work for others, they tend to move from rural to urban environments, and urban settings afford fewer opportunities for household production of food and shelter. additionally, the nuclear family, itself an adaptation to urban industrial society, has been splintered by desertion and divorce, events that often leave women and their children without a source of adequate income. new households based on remarriage, sibling ties, and friendships have reduced some, but by no means all, of these difficulties. finally, as life expectancies increase well beyond society ' s conception of the duration of people ' s economic usefulness, a growing proportion of elderly people find themselves excluded from regular participation in the labor market. in addition to these trends associated with wage dependency and vulnerability, the prices of customary and essential services have far outpaced normal income levels. the rural household of the early nineteenth century was largely self - sufficient not only with respect to basic goods but also with


addition to these trends associated with wage dependency and vulnerability, the prices of customary and essential services have far outpaced normal income levels. the rural household of the early nineteenth century was largely self - sufficient not only with respect to basic goods but also with respect to services. for example, home remedies were the rule for illness or injury, in part because of the expense of hiring a physician, particularly the cost of transportation, but in part because a professional healer could not always be expected to achieve results more encouraging than those of a layperson. today, in contrast, the efficacy of sophisticated medical services is far superior to lay remedies, and people who cannot acquire access to the most crucial of these services cannot successfully claim full membership in contemporary society. indeed, in a wage - dependent economy, individuals rely heavily on medical care to cure the illnesses or injuries that disrupt their ability to earn a living. yet while medical care is increasingly important, it is also extremely expensive, beyond the reach of most people ' s incomes. the fortunate have their medical bills paid for by private insurance or public social programs ; the unfortunate often go without even the most basic care. in sum, an intrinsic characteristic of advanced industrial societies is that families are no longer independent economic units. in light of the family ' s loss of self - sufficiency, modern societies have created social programs to provide a measure of protection for their citizens. in the united states, as in other advanced industrial societies, these social programs are intended to cushion people against episodic disruptions of income as well as to sustain people whose economic resources are persistently insufficient.


the present study examined mothers ’ conceptualization and management of pain in their children during routine immunization. all of the participants found the immunization experience to be distressing. they minimized their concern regarding pain by focusing on the benefits of immunization and dismissing the pain as short lived and needing to be endured. participants reported the use of non - pharmacological analgesic techniques, such as distraction, to comfort their children. when medications were used, it was usually oral analgesics to prevent or treat vaccine fevers occurring after immunization. participants were largely unaware about topical anesthetics. they expressed a willingness to use them if endorsed by their physicians, who were identified as their main trusted source of pain management information. these findings are consistent with our previous data ( regarding pain management practices during immunization ) that demonstrate a gap between evidence - based recommendations of topical anesthetics and current practices ( 6 ). these findings also reflect the broader literature on pain management that addresses the role of societal attitudes in the under - treatment of pain ( 10 ) such as the relative unimportance given to pain compared with other ailments ( such as fever ) ( 11 ), views about pain as a necessary part of life experience, the notion that pain is a part of immunization and a short - lived experience, and concerns about over - medication with analgesics leading to tolerance or addiction ( 13 previous research has shown that the rate of vaccination deferral is associated with the number of vaccine injections due to be administered at a visit ( 15 ). interestingly, some participants in the present study attributed pain to fear rather than the other way around. fear occurs if a child assesses a situation as threatening and, with respect to needles, develops primarily through negative memories formed during past experiences with needles ( 17 ). fear can magnify the pain experienced by children during subsequent immunizations. all mothers reported using nonpharmacological methods to reduce pain during their children ’ s immunizations. psychological interventions such as distraction are effective in reducing immunization pain ; however, they depend on the ability of adults to effectively engage a child ’ s attention ( 18 ). parental interventions can attenuate child pain and distress ; however, parents do not reliably use them, and previous training is recommended. while these findings might seem intuitive, they point to the need to critically re - examine and question the current assumptions and practices. pain relief is considered a ‘ basic human


however, parents do not reliably use them, and previous training is recommended. while these findings might seem intuitive, they point to the need to critically re - examine and question the current assumptions and practices. pain relief is considered a ‘ basic human right ’ ( 19 ), and the fundamental principle of responsible medical care is to ‘ first do no harm ’ ( 20 ). given the solid evidence base for the effectiveness and safety of topical anesthetics in children ( 5 ), there is clearly a need to study whether parents, health care practitioners and policymakers are participating in a social construction of pain management, and whether children would benefit from a critical reflection and analysis of this issue. as noted in the introduction, there are a range of factors that affect whether change occurs ( and the extent of change ) in health care ( 7 ). in previous studies ( 6 ), we have documented that parents are capable of administering topical anesthetics in their children and are willing to pay for analgesics to reduce immunization pain in their children. parents are willing to pay more than the actual cost of topical anesthetics ( approximately $ 5 to $ 8 per dose ). on the other hand, according to our findings, using topical anesthetics is not compatible with prevailing norms and values. for example, participants ’ physicians did not provide information about their use and there is a prevailing value of accepting and enduring the ‘ short - term ’ pain of immunization. there is also a lack of knowledge about topical anesthetics and they are not discussed during the physician visit. the present article is an initial step toward examining attitudes and practices, and how interventions can be developed to enable the use of evidence - based practices that minimize pain and the resulting implications. because physicians were identified as trusted sources of information, strategies are needed to support them as pain management educators. qualitative studies are currently being conducted with health care professionals ( including paediatricians, family practice physicians, clinic nurses and public health nurses ) performing vaccine injections to provide insight into their attitudes toward pain and preferred education strategies and resources that would enable them to educate their patients and families and support evidence - based pain management practice changes. the qualitative methods used allowed an in - depth exploration of participants ’ opinions, which has not previously been done. credibility of findings was improved by the use of multiple coders, checking emergent codes with participants in subsequent interviews, and validation of interviews by content and method experts. the number of interviews is indicative


participants ’ opinions, which has not previously been done. credibility of findings was improved by the use of multiple coders, checking emergent codes with participants in subsequent interviews, and validation of interviews by content and method experts. the number of interviews is indicative of the time - intensive nature of qualitative research, and the achievement of saturation of key themes suggests that the number of interviews was sufficient. it is possible that the timing of the interview – during the women ’ s stay at hospital following the birth of their baby – might have affected the findings, but the consistency of the findings with other research minimizes this concern. the findings are limited to a sample of women located in a downtown hospital. we do not know how the results would compare for women living in a rural or remote setting, as well as for fathers. many fathers accompany their children to immunization appointments and they may have attitudes that are different from mothers. we chose to initially investigate mothers due to our experience with mothers as the primary caregivers involved in immunization appointments. in many regions of canada, physicians, particularly paediatricians, play a minor or no role in the administration of routine vaccines provided through publicly funded programs. it will be important to conduct additional studies to examine attitudes toward and practices regarding pain management during immunization with different groups and within the context of different health care and geographical settings.


what is president ’ s day? today marks the annual holiday known as president ’ s day. however, many people don ’ t know exactly what the holiday represents and entails, or even where it originated from. so sit back like you ’ re in grade school again and read about one of the many holidays that are so important you don ’ t even get mail because of. president ’ s day was originally named solely for the nation ’ s first president, george washington, who was born on february 22, 1732. the holiday always takes place on the third monday in february, as it is the day that is closest to washington ’ s birthday. however, up until 1971, it was always celebrated on february 22, until the uniform monday holiday act was passed into congress. this caused a minor fluke, because it was no longer technically “ washington ’ s birthday, ” as since 1971, the holiday always falls between the 15th and 21st. then, low and behold, many decades and 15 presidents later came abraham lincoln, perhaps the second best, and most renowned president of the united states. he was born just ten days before washington, on february 12, 18o9. his great efforts as president made him just as deserving as washington of a special day. prior to the holiday act, lincoln was always celebrated on his day of birth. when the act was passed, however, controversies were brought to the surface. the single holiday observance meant that the traditional 10 - day separation between washington ’ s birthday ( february 22 ) and lincoln ’ s birthday ( february 12 ) had essentially been eliminated. however, while congress had created a uniform federal holiday law, there was not a uniform holiday title agreement among the individual states. even though most states with individual holidays honoring washington and lincoln shifted their state recognition date of washington ’ s birthday to correspond to the third monday in february, some states, including california, idaho, tennessee, texas and others, chose not to retain the federal holiday title and renamed their state holiday “ president ’ s day. ” this seemed to solve the issue, and to this day the holiday has always taken place on the third monday, and the term ” president ’ s day ” took hold and is still grabbing on. however, in some parts of the country, certain groups still recognize washington and lincoln separately. in westmoreland county, virginia, the george washington birthplace national monument celebrates the first u. s. president every year on his birthday, as well as on president ’ s day. special colonial events and activities take place


recognize washington and lincoln separately. in westmoreland county, virginia, the george washington birthplace national monument celebrates the first u. s. president every year on his birthday, as well as on president ’ s day. special colonial events and activities take place throughout the entire day. mount vernon also celebrates his birthday the weekend before and on president ’ s day, which is known as an annual free day. this usually lures between 10, 000 and 18, 000 visitors on the monday alone. for lincoln, annual activities include : a february 12th wreath - lying ceremony at the abraham lincoln birthplace national historic site in hodgenville, kentucky ; lincoln day, which is celebrated at the lincoln boyhood national memorial in lincoln city, indiana on the sunday nearest to his birthday, in which a special ceremony takes place at abraham lincoln hall, which is followed by a similar wreath - lying ceremony at lincoln ’ s mother ’ s grave site. special birthday programs at the lincoln home national historic site in springfield, illinois also take place each year. some people believe that other past presidents deserve to be honored as well, so for those individuals, other events take place. other events, such as closings and sales also take place today. for events happening near you, go to your town ’ s website for all the information. so now that you know where president ’ s day originated from and what it stands for, what will you do today to commemorate the men who made our country what it is today? you wouldn ’ t be who you are or have all the rights and freedom that you have if it weren ’ t for our past presidents, so find some way to thank and honor them today.