how long you will be outside and how bad the bugs are, and if those bugs carry disease. every situation is different. use the following questions to make a " profile " that fits your situation - this may help you decide if you want to use a repellent, and if so, which kind. what type of pest are you concerned about? ticks may be more difficult to repel than mosquitoes. repellents provide some protection against ticks, as does wearing lightcolored, long - sleeved shirts and long pants, with bottoms tucked into socks and boots. when will you be outside? where will you be? some pests are more active at certain times. for example, some mosquitoes are most active between dusk and dawn. ticks may be active at any time of day. some places are more likely to have higher activity too. mosquitoes generally live in areas with brush and trees. ticks prefer areas with tall grass, brush and trees. how long will you be outside? are you doing some gardening, going on a hike, camping for a week? the longer you are out, the more protection you may need. some people exposed to high numbers of ticks and mosquitoes for long periods of time use a two - part approach. with this approach, about 33 percent deet in a controlled release formula is applied on exposed skin, and clothing is treated with permethrin. if, on the other hand, you are going to do some yard work or have a picnic during mid - day when mosquito activity is low and you decide to use an insect repellent, deet concentrations as low as five percent may provide sufficient protection from mosquito bites for up to about four hours. remember! if you decide to use a repellent, use only what and how much you need for your situation. lyme disease and pets lyme disease is not limited to humans. veterinarians have reported lyme in both dogs and cats. just as with humans, it is important for animals to avoid tick bites and receive prompt treatment for lyme disease. tick bite prevention : - when walking or exercising your pet outdoors, try to keep it away from grassy or wooded areas and leafy debris. - check your pet regularly for ticks, especially after any trips through grassy or wooded areas. comb through your pet ' s hair thoroughly. - if you find a find a tick, remove it promptly. - consult your veterinarian about treating your dog or cat with tick - killing pesticides ( ac


any trips through grassy or wooded areas. comb through your pet ' s hair thoroughly. - if you find a find a tick, remove it promptly. - consult your veterinarian about treating your dog or cat with tick - killing pesticides ( acaricides ) or using tick collars. there are many pesticides aimed at preventing tick bites, but some people and animals may be sensitive to the chemicals they contain. - there is currently a lyme disease vaccine available for dogs. however, there are varying opinions on its effectiveness. consult your veterinarian about the vaccine. - if you find several ticks on your dog, you may wish to discuss an insecticidal bath with your veterinarian or groomer. symptoms of lyme disease in pets : symptoms of lyme disease in animals are similar to the symptoms in humans. although you will not see a skin rash on your pet, they can experience a range of symptoms : - in dogs : some infected dogs do not experience any symptoms of lyme disease. symptoms include lethargy, arthritis ( displayed as joint pain, shifting from foot to foot, and lameness ), fever, fatigue, and kidney damage. symptoms can become chronic. - in cats : while there is some debate about whether cats suffer from lyme disease, cats are thought to be highly resistant to the disease. treatment of lyme disease in pets : as with humans, animals are generally treated for lyme disease with certain antibiotics. however, you should consult your veterinarian about proper treatment of your pet. questions or comments send an email to email @ example. com


hiv / aids & stis sexually transmitted diseases and adolescent health between 2004 and 2005 in minnesota, the chlamydia rate increased by 5 % and the gonorrhea rate increased by 18 %. std rates continued to be highest in the seven - county metropolitan area, particularly in the cities of minneapolis and st. paul. adolescents and young adults aged 15 - 24 years have the highest rates of chlamydia and gonorrhea. in minnesota, laboratory - confirmed infections of chlamydia, gonorrhea, syphilis, and chancroid are monitored by the mdh. other common sexually transmitted conditions caused by viral pathogens, such as herpes simplex virus ( hsv ) and human papillomavirus ( hpv ), are not reported to the mdh. sexually transmitted diseases sexually transmitted diseases or stds, also referred to as sexually transmitted infections, do not refer to any one disease but include more than 25 infectious organisms that are transmitted through sexual activity and the dozens of clinical syndromes that they cause. stds are almost always spread from person to person by sexual intercourse, most commonly by anal or vaginal intercourse. stds are less often spread through oral sex. some stds, such as hepatitis b or hiv infection, are also transmitted through blood - to - blood contact through the sharing of needles or equipment to inject drugs, body pierce or tattoo. pregnant women with stds may pass their infections to infants during pregnancy or birth or through breast feeding. this page serves as an inventory of all other documents available on the subject of stds that the mdh has produced. documents cover the topics of std surveillance, std basics and std testing. this page will also allow access to individual fact sheets ( available in english, amharic, oromo, spanish, and somali ) for the most common stds : genital herpes ( herpes simplex virus or hsv ) genital warts ( human papillomavirus or hpv ) human immunodeficiency virus ( hiv – the virus that causes aids ) nongonococcal urethritis ( ngu ) pubic lice ( crabs, pediculus pubis ) syphilis ( syph, pox ) vaginitis ( yeast infection, trichomonas, bacterial vaginosis ) for more information about stds in minnesota, go to : http : / / www. health. state. mn. us / divs / idepc


) vaginitis ( yeast infection, trichomonas, bacterial vaginosis ) for more information about stds in minnesota, go to : http : / / www. health. state. mn. us / divs / idepc / dtopics / stds / index. html hiv / aids and adolescent health in 1990, 10 % of new hiv infections reported to the mdh were among youth. in 2005 this percentage was 17 %. among young men, the number of new hiv diagnoses peaked in 1992 at 46 cases and then declined through the mid 1990s to a low of 14 cases in 1997. since 1997 the annual number of cases diagnosed among young men increased steadily to 28 in 2000, but then dropped to 18 cases in 2002. however, over the past four years that number has increased steadily from 18 cases in 2002 to 29 cases in 2005, a sixty - percent increase. unlike young men, the annual number of new hiv infections diagnosed among young women has remained relatively consistent over time. for example, 19 cases of hiv infection were diagnosed among young women in 1992 and 21 cases in 2005. females accounted for 42 % ( 21 / 50 ) of new hiv infections diagnosed among adolescents and young adults in 2005. in contrast, adult females ( 25 years of age or older ) accounted for only 26 % ( 67 / 254 ) of all adult cases. additionally, young women accounted for 24 % ( 21 / 88 ) of new infections among females, while young males accounted for 13 % ( 29 / 216 ) of new infections among males. similar to the adult hiv / aids epidemic, persons of color account for a disproportionate number of new hiv infections among adolescents and young adults. many people are infected with hiv for years before they actually seek testing and become aware of their hiv status. this phenomenon especially affects the observed case counts for younger age groups. and as a result, the reported number of hiv infections among youth ( with few or no reports of aids at first diagnosis ) is likely to underestimate the true number of new infections occurring in the population more than the reported number of cases in older age groups does. minnesota department of health hiv / aids home page the hiv / aids website serves as an inventory of all other documents available on the subject of hiv / aids that the mdh has produced. documents cover the topics of hiv / aids surveillance, hiv basics, hiv testing, hiv community planning, and hiv and other diseases and conditions.


psychotic depression, otherwise known as major depressive disorder with psychotic features, is being considered as a disorder in its own right according to a medicalnewstoday report. there are three particular features of psychotic depression that stand apart from non - psychotic depression. the first of these are paranoid beliefs that may involve sinister notions of being monitored, tracked, followed or whispered about. visual or auditory hallucinations may be present but more commonly delusions ( false beliefs ), perhaps in the form of special messages, or fearful beliefs about what is happening or about to happen. aside from psychotic symptoms, people with psychotic depression may also exhibit higher levels of anxiety, agitation, hypochondria, insomnia and cognitive impairment ( e. g. concentration, memory, reasoning problems ). psychotic depression has tended to be regarded as relatively uncommon, or as a potential feature of depression if symptoms are especially severe. however, one of the known issues with psychotic depression is the insight to which some sufferers appear to have into their situation. unlike a psychotic illness such as schizophrenia where insight is lacking, people with psychotic depression often hide their experiences because they know them not to be true. this probably masks the true extent of the condition and may even make treatment less effective. according to grace rattue ’ s article in medical news today, there remains some dispute over whether psychotic depression should be considered a distinct diagnostic category at all. one reason for this is its low diagnostic stability. the validity of psychiatric diagnosis hinges upon stability of diagnosis over time, so the more stable the diagnosis, the more likely it is to reflect a consistent process. however, those promoting a change in diagnostic practices make the case that the disorder is already sufficiently distinct. they point, for example, to higher mortality rates, a strong hereditary component, a higher risk of developing bipolar disorder and differences in treatment response and prognosis. at present the treatment of psychotic depression involves combinations of antidepressant and antipsychotic medications. if these are ineffective then electroconvulsive therapy ( ect ) may be considered. this is generally very effective. in terms of prognosis, most people with psychotic depression show good recovery within a year and if symptoms to return they are often more likely to be depressive than psychotic.


health and social behaviour : dietary reference values ( drvs ), current dietary goals, recommendations, guidelines and the evidence for them three main types of dietary recommendations may be produced by public health agencies : dietary allowances ( drvs ), dietary goals, and dietary guidelines. dietary allowances are quantitative guidelines for different population subgroups for the essential macro - and micro - nutrients to prevent nutritional deficiencies. dietary goals are quantitative national targets for selected macronutrients and micronutrients aimed at preventing long - term chronic disease e. g. coronary heart disease, stroke and cancer. they are usually aimed at the national population level rather than the individual level. dietary guidelines are broad targets aimed at the individual to promote nutritional well - being. they were initially introduced for macronutrients but are now being used for micronutrients. dietary guidelines can be expressed as quantitative targets ( e. g. five servings of fruit and vegetables / day ) or as qualitative guidelines ( e. g. eat more fruit and vegetables ). - the human body needs a variety of nutrients and the amount of each nutrient needed is called the nutrient requirement. - in the uk, estimated requirements for various groups within the uk population were examined and published by the committee on medical aspects of food and nutrition policy ( coma ) in the 1991 report dietary reference values for food energy and nutrients for the united kingdom. coma has now been replaced by the scientific advisory committee on nutrition ( sacn ) who are likely to review the uk nutritional requirements in the near future. - drvs are a series of estimates of the amount of energy and nutrients needed by different groups of healthy people in the uk population ; they are not recommendations or goals for individuals. - drvs have been set for following groups : boys and girls aged 0 - 3 months ; 4 - 6 months ; 7 - 9 months ; 10 - 12 months ; 1 - 3 years ; 4 - 6 years ; 7 - 10 years males aged 11 - 14 years ; 15 - 18 years ; 19 - 50 years ; 50 + years females aged 11 - 14 years ; 15 - 18 years ; 19 - 50 years ; 50 + years ; pregnancy and breastfeeding - in order to take account of the distribution of nutritional requirements within the population, coma used four dietary reference values ( drvs ) : - estimated average requirements ( ears ) - reference nutrient intakes ( rnis ) - lower reference nutrient intakes ( lrnis ) - safe intake source : food and agriculture organization of the united nations - ear is an


values ( drvs ) : - estimated average requirements ( ears ) - reference nutrient intakes ( rnis ) - lower reference nutrient intakes ( lrnis ) - safe intake source : food and agriculture organization of the united nations - ear is an estimate of the average requirement of energy or a nutrient needed by a group of people i. e. approximately 50 % of people will require less, and 50 % will require more. - rni is the amount of a nutrient that is enough to ensure that the needs of nearly all a group ( 97. 5 % ) are being met i. e. the majority will need less. - lrni is the amount of a nutrient that is enough for only a small number of people in a group who have low requirements ( 2. 5 % ) i. e. the majority need more. - safe intake is used where there is insufficient evidence to set an ear, rni or lrni. the safe intake is the amount judged to be enough for almost everyone, but below a level that could have undesirable effects. - the amount of each nutrient needed differs between individuals and at different life stages. individual requirements of each nutrient are related to a person ’ s age, gender, level of physical activity and health status. - the changes in estimated nutritional requirements at different life - stages are outlined in table 1 below : table 1 : nutritional requirements at different life - stages first 4 - 6 months of life ( period of rapid growth and development ) breast milk ( or infant formula ) contains all the nutrients required. between 6 - 12 months - requirements for iron, protein, thiamin, niacin, vitamin b6, vitamin b12, magnesium, zinc, sodium and chloride increase. department of health advice recommends exclusive breastfeeding until 6 months of age with weaning introduced at 6 months. energy requirements increase ( children are active and growing rapidly ). protein requirements increase slightly. vitamins requirements increase ( except vitamin d ). mineral requirements decrease for calcium, phosphorus and iron and increase for the remaining minerals ( except for zinc ). requirements for energy, protein, all the vitamins and minerals increase except c and d and iron. requirements for energy, protein, all vitamins and minerals increase except thiamin, vitamin c and a. requirements for energy continue to increase and protein requirements increase by approximately 50 %. by the age of 11, the vitamin and mineral requirements for boys and girls start to differ. boys : increased requirement for all the vitamins and minerals. girls


and a. requirements for energy continue to increase and protein requirements increase by approximately 50 %. by the age of 11, the vitamin and mineral requirements for boys and girls start to differ. boys : increased requirement for all the vitamins and minerals. girls : no change in the requirement for thiamin, niacin, vitamin b6, but there is an increased requirement for all the minerals. girls have a much higher iron requirement than boys ( once menstruation starts ). boys : requirements for energy and protein continue to increase as do the requirements for a number of vitamins and minerals ( thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamins b6, b12, c and a, magnesium, potassium, zinc, copper, selenium and iodine ). calcium requirements remain high as skeletal development is rapid. girls : requirements for energy, protein, thiamin, niacin, vitamins b6, b12 and c, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, copper, selenium and iodine all increase. boys and girls have the same requirement for vitamin b12, folate, vitamin c, magnesium, sodium, potassium, chloride and copper. girls have a higher requirement than boys for iron ( due to menstrual losses ) but a lower requirement for zinc and calcium. requirements for energy, calcium and phosphorus are lower for both men and women than adolescents and a reduced requirement in women for magnesium, and in men for iron. the requirements for protein and most of the vitamins and minerals remain virtually unchanged in comparison to adolescents ( except for selenium in men which increases slightly ). increased requirements for some nutrients. women intending to become pregnant and for the first 12 weeks of pregnancy are advised to take supplements of folic acid. additional energy and thiamin are required only during the last three months of pregnancy. mineral requirements do not increase. increased requirement for energy, protein, all the vitamins ( except b6 ), calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, zinc, copper and selenium. energy requirements decrease gradually after the age of 50 in women and age 60 in men as people typically become less active and the basal metabolic rate is reduced. protein requirements decrease for men but continue to increase slightly in women. the requirements for vitamins and minerals remain virtually unchanged for both men and women. after the menopause, women ’ s requirement for iron is reduced to the same level as that for men. after the age of 65 there is a reduction in energy needs but vitamin


vitamins and minerals remain virtually unchanged for both men and women. after the menopause, women ’ s requirement for iron is reduced to the same level as that for men. after the age of 65 there is a reduction in energy needs but vitamins and minerals requirements remain unchanged. this means that the nutrient density of the diet is even more important. drvs are estimates of energy and nutrient intakes and should therefore be used as guidance but should not be considered as exact recommendations. they show the amount of energy / nutrient that a group of people of a certain age range ( and sometimes sex ) needs for good health and they only apply for healthy people. current dietary goals, recommendations, guidelines and the evidence for them the uk food standards agency issues guidance on dietary recommendations on behalf of the department of health for the general public. the current government recommendations are outlined in table 2 below. table 2 : government dietary recommendations | total fat | | reduce to no more than 35 % of food energy ( currently at 35. 3 % ) | | saturated fat | | reduce to no more than 11 % of food energy ( currently at 13. 3 % ) | | total carbohydrate | | increase to more than 50 % of food energy ( currently at 48. 1 % ) | | sugars ( added ) | | no more than 11 % of food energy ( currently at 12. 7 % ) | | dietary fibre ( nsp ) | | increase the average intake of dietary fibre to 18g per day ( currently 13. 8g per day ). children ’ s intakes should be less | | fruit & vegetables | | increase to at least 5 portions ( 400g ) of a variety of fruit and vegetables per day ( currently 2. 8 portions per day ) | | alcohol | | should not provide more than 5 % of energy in the diet. women – should not regularly drink more than 2 - 3 units of alcohol / day men – should not regularly drink more than 3 - 4 units of alcohol / day | salt | | adults – no more than 6g salt a day ( 2. 4g sodium ) 1 to 3 years - 2 g salt a day ( 0. 8g sodium ) 4 to 6 years - 3g salt a day ( 1. 2g sodium ) 7 to 10 years - 5g salt a day ( 2g sodium ) 11 and over - 6g salt a day ( 2. 4g sodium ) the evidence for nutritional recommendations comes from a range of sources but particular emphasis is placed on coma reports


7 to 10 years - 5g salt a day ( 2g sodium ) 11 and over - 6g salt a day ( 2. 4g sodium ) the evidence for nutritional recommendations comes from a range of sources but particular emphasis is placed on coma reports : - 1991, coma report on energy and nutrients provided evidence for the dietary recommendations for total fat, saturated fat, total carbohydrate, sugars, and dietary fibre. - 1994, coma recommended reducing the average salt intake of the population to 6g a day based on evidence of a link between high salt intake and high blood pressure. in 2003, the sacn reviewed the evidence ( e. g. intersalt study and dietary approaches to stop hypertension ( dash ) sodium trial ) since 1994 and concluded the strength for the association between high salt intake and hypertension had increased. high blood pressure increases the risk of stroke and cardiovascular disease. sacn confirmed that reducing salt intake to 6g per day would benefit the whole population. evidence for increasing the consumption of fruit and vegetables to 5 a day is provided by a number of sources. the department of health estimated that eating at least 5 portions of a variety of fruit and vegetables can reduce the risk of deaths from chronic diseases ( heart disease, stroke and cancer ) by up to 20 %, delay the development of cataracts, reduce the symptoms of asthma, improve bowel function and help to manage diabetes. - british nutrition foundation http : / / www. nutrition. org. uk [ accessed 01. 08. 08 ] - department of health. ‘ dietary reference values for food and energy and nutrients for the united kingdom. ’ 1991. report of the panel on dietary reference values of the committee on medical aspects of food policy. - department of health http : / / www. dh. gov. uk / en / publichealth [ accessed 01. 08. 08 ] - food standards agency http : / / www. food. gov. uk [ accessed 01. 08. 08 ] - gibney m., margetts b., kearney j., arab l. public health nutrition. the nutrition society. blackwell publishing. - lewis, g. sheringham, j. kalim, k. crayford, t. mastering public health : a postgraduate guide to examinations and revalidation. the royal society of medicine press limited. © hannah pheasant 2008


a colostomy is a surgical procedure that brings one end of the large intestine out through the abdominal wall. during this procedure, one end of the colon is diverted through an incision in the abdominal wall to create a stoma. a stoma is the opening in the skin where a pouch for collecting feces is attached. people with colostomies, whether temporary or long - term, have pouches attached to their sides where feces collects and can be easily disposed of. colostomies aren ’ t always permanent, especially in children with birth defects. however, people with chronic conditions may find near immediate relief from the surgery. a colostomy can result from one of several procedures to correct problems with the lower digestive tract. other “ ostomies ” include ileostomy ( diversion of the bottom of the small intestine ) or urostomy ( diversion of the tubes that carry urine out of the bladder ). colostomy may also be referred to as bowel diversion therapy. colostomies are performed because of problems with the lower bowel. some problems can be corrected simply by “ giving part of the bowel a rest, ” according to the american cancer society. this is when temporary colostomies are used to keep stool out of the colon. if the colon becomes diseased, as in the case of colon cancer, permanent colostomies are performed and the colon may be removed completely. conditions that may warrant a permanent colostomy include : - crohn ’ s disease : an autoimmune form of inflammatory bowel disease - colorectal cancer - colonic polyps : extra tissue growing inside the colon, which may be cancer or may turn into cancer - diverticulitis : small pouches in your digestive system, called diverticula, become infected or inflamed - imperforate anus, or other birth defects - irritable bowel syndrome : a condition affecting the colon that causes diarrhea, bloating, constipation, and pain in the abdominal area - ulcerative colitis : another form of inflammatory bowel disease which causes the digestive tract to become inflamed on a long - term basis colostomy also carries these other risks : - blockage of the colostomy - damage to other organs - hernia : an internal organ pushes through a weak area of muscle - internal bleeding - problems from scar tissue - prolapse of the colostomy - wound


these other risks : - blockage of the colostomy - damage to other organs - hernia : an internal organ pushes through a weak area of muscle - internal bleeding - problems from scar tissue - prolapse of the colostomy - wound breaking open your doctor can best explain your personal risks. the risks of the surgery and potential for complications are weighed against the advantages of the surgery for you. before surgery, your doctor will complete a full examination, which will include taking blood samples, a physical examination, and a complete medical history. during these visits, tell your doctor about any prior surgeries you ’ ve had and any medications you are taking, including over - the - counter medicines and supplements. your doctor will typically have you fast for at least 12 hours before surgery. you may also be given a laxative or enema for the night before to help cleanse your bowels. you can expect to stay in the hospital between three to seven days, so plan accordingly. this includes packing the right necessities, arranging care for your children, pets, or home, and taking the appropriate amount of time off of work. prior to surgery, you ’ ll change into a hospital gown. reclining in a rolling bed, a nurse will place an iv in your arm. this allows the hospital staff to administer fluids and medications easily. this is also how you will be given your general anesthesia. this will put you into a deep, painless sleep during the operation. while you ’ re asleep, you ’ ll be wheeled into the operating room for your colostomy. when you ’ ve been cleaned and prepared, your surgeon will begin with an incision into your abdomen. this incision may be large, or a series of smaller incisions. smaller incisions are used for for laparoscopy, a technique using small tools and a camera inserted into an incision to guide them. during the procedure, your doctor will locate the ideal part of the large intestine for the stoma. your doctor will cut the intestine in the appropriate area and bring it through your abdominal wall. a ring will be surgically implanted onto your abdominal wall. this ring will hold the end of the intestine in place. this ring may be permanent or temporary to help your skin heal around your exposed intestine. after everything is in place, your wound will be closed with stitches and you ’ ll be brought into a recovery room for observation. during that time, while staff waits for you to wake


hungry to learn food information websites food standards agency contains up to date food safety and health information. food standards agency : eat well, be well great website with up to date healthy eating information, food hygiene, food safety, food labelling information, recipes and web activities such as quizzes and games. british nutrition foundation an excellent website with a wide range of recipes, activities, games, videos, posters and nutritional information. contains a huge number of recipes, an ingredient search option and video recipes where you can watch recipes being prepared. also has information on healthy eating, general health, links to tv food programmes and a section on practical cooking skills. large database of recipes suitable for diabetics. recipes from the asda magazine. lots of healthy recipe ideas. step by step photo recipes low cost recipes, with step by step photos. site created by an occupational therapist working with adults with learning disabilities. fully illustrated, step by step, photo recipes. site has a wide range of recipes. photo recipes with step by step guide. recipes are a bit unusual, not all suitable, but the occasional good one, like stovies. click on ‘ step by step ’ link on right hand side of page. american website, so not all ingredients are suitable. contains detailed instructions and pictures. nala - irelands national adult literacy agency. health literacy pack : direct link to their brilliant health literacy resource section. nala ' s excellent student area, with health literacy learning activities. the california health literacy initiative - http : / / www. cahealthliteracy. org / contains a health literacy resource site with excellent links. better health channel - http : / / www. betterhealth. vic. gov. au / website with a variety of health information and easy to understand health worksheets ideal for adult learners. bbc cashwise - http : / / www. bbc. co. uk / education / beyond / cashwise. shtml looks at budgeting and managing your money. really useful for adults who want to improve money skills. this resource can be used in relation to health and budgeting. nutritional management services - food labelling http : / / www. nms. on. ca / secondary / food _ labelling. htm easy to understand guide to food labelling. world education, health education and adult literacy : breast & cervical cancer - http : / / www. worlded. org / us / health / heal / healbcchtml / index. htm this site promotes access to information and services


( washington, d. c. - dec. 15, 2005 ) epa finalized two related drinking water protection rules today - - one that reduces the risk of disease - causing microorganisms from entering water supplies and the other that requires water systems to limit the amount of potentially harmful " disinfection byproducts " ( dbps ) that end up in our drinking water. signed as epa enters the 31st anniversary year for the safe drinking water act, the rules were proposed in august 2003, and were developed from consensus recommendations from a federal advisory committee comprised of state and local governments, tribes, environmental, public health and water industry groups. " clean drinking water is a key ingredient to keeping people healthy and our economy strong, " said epa administrator stephen l. johnson. " over the past seven years epa has worked collaboratively with stakeholders to develop regulations that will provide a balance between the need to disinfect drinking water and protect citizens from potentially harmful contaminants. " the rules are important public health measures that will decrease the incidence of gastrointestinal illnesses caused by microbial contaminants and reduce potential cancer risks associated with disinfectant byproducts in drinking water. finalizing the two rules represents the last phase of a congressionally required rulemaking strategy under the 1996 amendments to the safe drinking water act. long term 2 enhanced surface water treatment rule ( lt2 ) the " long term 2 enhanced surface water treatment rule " ( lt2 ), increases monitoring and treatment requirements for water systems that are prone to outbreaks of cryptosporidium, a waterborne pathogen. consuming water with cryptosporidium causes gastrointestinal illness which can be severe in people with weakened immune systems, such as infants or the elderly and could be fatal in people with severely compromised immune systems, such as cancer and aids patients. lt2 will improve public health by reducing illness due to cryptosporidium and other harmful microorganisms in drinking water. the rule requires that public water systems that are supplied by surface water sources monitor for cryptosporidium. those water systems that measure higher levels of cryptosporidium or do not filter their water must provide additional protection by using options from a " microbial toolbox " of treatment and management processes, such as ultraviolet disinfection, and watershed control programs. the rule also addresses risks of contamination in systems that store treated drinking water in open reservoirs, where water quality can be compromised by exposure to outdoor elements. the rule requires open reservoirs to either be covered or


disinfection, and watershed control programs. the rule also addresses risks of contamination in systems that store treated drinking water in open reservoirs, where water quality can be compromised by exposure to outdoor elements. the rule requires open reservoirs to either be covered or receive added treatment. stage 2 disinfection byproducts rule ( stage 2 dbp ) the " stage 2 disinfection byproducts rule " ( stage 2 dbp ), was developed to balance the benefits and risks posed by drinking water disinfection. while disinfection is commonly known as one of the major public health advances of the 20th century, it also creates harmful byproducts that are formed when disinfectants, such as chlorine, combine with naturally occurring materials in water. the final rule targets water systems that have the greatest risk of high dbps by using more stringent methods for determining compliance. under the rule, water systems are required to find monitoring sites where higher levels of dbps are likely to occur and use these new locations for compliance monitoring. if dbps are found to exceed drinking water standards at any of these new monitoring locations, water systems must begin to take corrective action. the final rules will be published in the federal register in january. pre - publication copies and additional information can be found on the epa web site at : http : / / www. epa. gov / safewater / disinfection /


s eyjafjallajokull volcano have done recently in europe. darrington could be flattened by one of glacier peak ' s lahars, a mud, rock, tree and melted glacier mixture that, while obliterating everything in its path, can lay down 30 feet of new soil in minutes. the small mountain town of about 1, 500 people is built on dozens of such flows. more than $ 750 million worth of homes, farms and other property in the stillaguamish river basin, including parts of arlington and stanwood, lie in the path of a potential glacier peak lahar. so does all of the skagit river valley to the north, which is the direction a lahar is most likely to flow. many of those who bought their homes there for the commanding views of mount baker or mount rainier have no idea that an equally powerful volcano is right in their back pocket, tucked behind some smaller mountains east of darrington and granite falls. only in 2007 did snohomish county begin requiring landowners to sign a document that, for the first time, makes them acknowledge that they ' re buying or building a home within the long reach of glacier peak. property owners and government officials aren ' t the only ones oblivious to snohomish county ' s only volcano. researchers crawl over baker, rainier and st. helens, studying, cataloging and predicting when they might erupt again. only the hardiest scientists try to uncover glacier peak ' s secrets. because it ' s hidden away and difficult to get to, it may be the least understood cascade range volcano. there are roads to st. helens, baker and rainier. there ' s no road to glacier peak, and now all but one of the dirt roads that would get you close are blown out, destroyed by flooding. to get there, hikers take the mountain loop highway out of granite falls, take north fork sauk road to the trailhead and then hike 17 miles to the peak. it takes three days for an in - shape climber to summit glacier peak, and it usually is undertaken only in the late spring or summer. st. helens, rainier, and, to a lesser extent, baker are dotted with seismometers. continuous global positioning system monitors are ready to catch even the tiniest movements at the top of those volcanoes. glacier peak has three seismometers and no gps monitoring stations. ideally, it should have 15 to 20 devices, but currently there is no money for that, said


are ready to catch even the tiniest movements at the top of those volcanoes. glacier peak has three seismometers and no gps monitoring stations. ideally, it should have 15 to 20 devices, but currently there is no money for that, said cynthia gardner, scientist in charge at the usgs ' cascade volcano observatory in vancouver, wash. there is technology to track volcanoes from satellites, but it is not in real time and isn ' t always reliable. remote and beautiful “ mount baker is very conspicuous, ” said richard waitt, a geologist with the u. s. geological survey ' s cascades volcano observatory. “ everybody knows about mount rainier. everyone knows about mount st. helens for a different reason. mount adams is a big spectacular thing from places like goldendale and yakima. ” in populated areas, glacier peak is mostly hidden from view. “ glacier peak isn ' t really visible from anywhere, ” waitt said. “ that ' s the one that ' s most surrounded by other mountains. it ' s only when you get up on mountains that you get up high enough to see it. when you ' re closer to it on the east side, or when you ' re hiking close to it on a trail, it can be a stunning big peak. ” the volcano has always been held in high esteem by those who make the long trek to see it. according to historical accounts, members of the sauk - suiattle indian tribe called glacier peak tda - ko - buh - ba or takobia. translations are difficult, according to one accounting by tribal elders. it ' s called “ da kobad, ” which translates to “ great white mother mountain ” in “ indian stories and legends of the stillaguamish, sauks and allied tribes, ” a booklet first printed in 1926. those who know the volcano love it. they count it as one of the country ' s most wild places, rising from the heart of one of the largest contiguous pieces of wilderness in the country outside of alaska. the glacier peak wilderness, edged by the stephen mather wilderness in north cascades national park to the north and the henry m. jackson wilderness to the south, is so rugged and untrammeled that grizzly bears and wolves are believed to live there. “ the setting is kind of unparalleled, ” said gary paull, trails and wilderness manager for the mount baker - snoqualmie national forest. “ it ' s a big mountain. it towers up more


believed to live there. “ the setting is kind of unparalleled, ” said gary paull, trails and wilderness manager for the mount baker - snoqualmie national forest. “ it ' s a big mountain. it towers up more than 7, 000 feet from the valley floor. you don ' t see logging roads. you don ' t see ( clear - cut ) harvest units. it ' s just one of the more wild settings you ' re going to find yourself in. ” glacier peak hazard zones anatomy of an eruption how volcanoes work tom sisson is equal parts geologist and mountain man. he ' s done a lot of hiking and camping on glacier peak to find out what makes the volcano tick. sisson ' s job is to determine what a future eruption might look like. by building on existing knowledge and by doing new research, he ' s tasked with getting better dates on past eruptions and to see how long the eruptions lasted. officially, he ' s putting together a geological hazards assessment. “ ( sisson ) is doing a detailed geologic map of the volcano. he ' s looking at how large and explosive past eruptions have been, ” usgs geologist gardner said. “ each volcano has its own history of eruptive behavior. ” thanks to how difficult it is to get to and its lack of notoriety, glacier peak is one of the last volcanoes in the cascades to get such a study, she said. sisson is hearty and hale, which makes him the right candidate for glacier peak, gardner said. “ he ' s a really expert mountaineer in addition to an expert geologist, ” she said. “ he ' s extremely capable in the back country as a mountaineer. ” his work as a geologist only begins after he hikes in to the mountain. first sisson must find a lava flow or rock deposit that looks like it could be from an eruption that he ' s interested in studying. then he must break off a piece and haul it back to his lab, something that ' s difficult to do when the only tools you ' re allowed to use are a pickaxe, shovel and muscle. and rocks are heavy. “ we ' ve been working with a horse packer out of darrington, ” sisson said, giving credit to the u. s. forest service for granting him unrestricted access to the area. “ we ' ll bring the rocks out to a base camp and he ' ll haul them off the mountain for us. ” camping out for two weeks at a time


the u. s. forest service for granting him unrestricted access to the area. “ we ' ll bring the rocks out to a base camp and he ' ll haul them off the mountain for us. ” camping out for two weeks at a time, sisson and any fellow geologists he can talk into helping him will find a “ hundred or so rocks ” to take back to his lab in menlo park, calif. each rock tells part of the story. it ' s sisson ' s job to put the pieces together. “ we want to know what kind of lava it was, ” he said. “ we want to know when the eruption took place. ” geologist jim beget did his thesis on glacier peak in 1970, sketching out a picture of a volcano that has an active and explosive eruptive history with major eruptions roughly 1, 800, 5, 000, 11, 500 and 13, 000 years ago. in his thesis work, beget also found lahars from smaller, more recent events closer to the mountain, from darrington and out to the east, said joe dragovich, a geologist with the state department of natural resources division of geology and earth resources. the mountain has erupted at least seven times in the past 13, 000 years. the eruption 11, 500 years ago altered the course of the sauk river by blocking its previous course down the stillaguamish valley with volcanic debris, beget wrote. the sauk has flowed north to the skagit river ever since. little research and monitoring have been done since beget ' s thesis. dragovich found that out when he accidentally discovered large deposits from glacier peak lahar runouts ( when a mudflow fans out and drops its load of mud ) in the skagit river valley. a couple lahars in the past 5, 000 years have reached the mouth of the skagit river, and some of the larger and older ones, from 80, 000 to 125, 000 years old, stretched all the way to whidbey island, he said. a mudflow 5, 000 years ago deposited nearly 10 cubic miles of material into the skagit valley — five times the amount of the 1980 mount st. helens eruption, according to research by dragovich. like darrington, the cities of lyman, sedro - woolley and burlington, are built on lahar deposits from glacier peak, he wrote. “ the fact that we can go into the lower skagit and find all these lahars in the 1990s says there


the cities of lyman, sedro - woolley and burlington, are built on lahar deposits from glacier peak, he wrote. “ the fact that we can go into the lower skagit and find all these lahars in the 1990s says there ' s a lot of work that remains to be done, ” dragovich said. “ it ' s an education thing. it ' s a research thing. ” four summers into a six to eight summer plan to bring glacier peak ' s research profile up to date, sisson is learning much about the volcano. for one, he found clues that suggest the volcano is far more active than originally thought. “ instead of one eruption, each event was several eruptions over a long period of time, eruptive activity that could have spanned hundreds of years, ” he said. “ then there are extended periods where nothing is happening. it ' s feast or famine there. ” sisson also has found that glacier peak is much older than he expected, more than 700, 000 years old. mount st. helens, by contrast, is about 300, 000 years old, he said. mount st. helens ' 1980 eruption blew out the north side of the mountain, killing 57 people, destroying 250 homes, 47 bridges and 185 miles of highways. the mountain ' s elevation shrunk from 9, 677 feet to 8, 365 feet after the largest landslide on record in the united states. now, the volcano is a national monument and the focal point for research on cascade volcanoes. it, along with two other volcanoes, has the highest level of monitoring in the country. one of glacier peak ' s three monitors is at 7, 500 feet on the west side of the mountain. the other two are not on the mountain but are within 25 miles of the volcano. this comparative low level of monitoring is why the volcano scored average at best on the usgs national volcano early warning system, a 2005 rating that said gave the volcano a 2 out of 4 score. mount st. helens did far better, with its eruption monitoring program scoring 4 out of 4. rainier and baker were among a number of cascade volcanoes that scored 2 out of 4. “ this threat assessment it a relatively new assessment, so it ' s a new way of looking at things, ” gardner said. “ we ' re using the information to build up our monitoring program in the cascades. ” local emergency management officials are concerned because many of the people who live in snohomish county, one of the fastest growing counties in


” gardner said. “ we ' re using the information to build up our monitoring program in the cascades. ” local emergency management officials are concerned because many of the people who live in snohomish county, one of the fastest growing counties in the state, don ' t know they live next to a fire - breathing mountain. still, thanks to the clusters of earthquakes that normally come before an eruption, they believe they will have time to warn county residents to evacuate or move to higher ground. even better, they now have reverse 911 calling technology that allows access to thousands per minute to warn them that, say, glacier peak had erupted and a lahar was rushing toward darrington. “ all of darrington and the surrounding area would be called and notified in two minutes, ” said john pennington, director of the snohomish county department of emergency management. the county also is looking at putting up sirens that would tell darrington residents to head to higher ground if a lahar were headed their way. lahars, like water, seek out low ground. that ' s an advantage for emergency responders because it means that the people most apt to be affected by a big mudflow are the same ones who get nailed by flooding. “ these folks are used to getting to higher ground pretty quickly, ” pennington said. “ they see the river rise pretty quickly. they can usually anticipate and watch the signs, and move to higher ground rather quickly. ” bill sheets : 425 - 339 - 3439 ; email @ example. com.


500 years of florida history sailor takes a different tack on ponce de leon ' s florida voyage published : sunday, march 10, 2013 at 6 : 09 p. m. last modified : sunday, march 10, 2013 at 9 : 44 p. m. bradenton - for most of his life, douglas t. peck has battled nazis, gravity, ocean currents and all manner of resistance from expert opinion. as florida prepares to celebrate the 500th anniversary of its discovery by europeans, the man who rewrote the map of that milestone voyage figures he ' s too old to make peace now. " i wouldn ' t have any reason for going back to school, " responds peck to a question about how a doctoral degree might have converted key academic circles into more receptive audiences. " the very professors who want to teach me something are the ones i ' ve proven wrong. " i ' d flunk out. " two decades ago, the feisty world war ii veteran ignited a debate among historians — and ultimately, between two communities — by reconstructing juan ponce de leon ' s historic 1513 maritime journey to florida ' s coasts. in the early spring of 1990, using modern navigational technology and adjusting for flaws in 16th - century compasses, peck set sail from puerto rico and followed the same northwesterly, day - by - day course described by the spanish conquistador. piloting a 33 - foot cutter named the " gooney bird, " peck plunged headlong into a revelation : he made landfall not at st. augustine, as tradition holds, but some 125 miles farther south, in melbourne beach. consequently, when the quincentennial anniversary of juan ponce ' s expedition rolls around on april 4, st. augustine and melbourne beach will host separate festivities claiming geographical stewardship of the spaniard ' s legacy. still, at age 95, the restless bradenton resident claims he gets no respect from florida scholars, even as he attempts to demolish yet another sacred cow — the supremacy of european seafaring. " they ' ve always tried to portray the maya with crude log canoes incapable of going great distances, " peck says of the celebrated pre - columbian temple builders of mexico. " but i can show where the maya mastered celestial navigation a thousand years before the europeans and spread their influence into florida and beyond. " a love of the sea virtually deaf but disdaining hearing aids, peck ' s appearance exudes a maverick aura. white hair falling about his collar, past his pierced earrings, the old army air corps


and spread their influence into florida and beyond. " a love of the sea virtually deaf but disdaining hearing aids, peck ' s appearance exudes a maverick aura. white hair falling about his collar, past his pierced earrings, the old army air corps aviator wears a nautical necklace medallion awarded by the spanish government in appreciation of his research. on this day, he also wears khakis and hush puppies, along with a blue blazer over a hawaiian shirt erupting with tropical flowers and vintage warplanes. a retired commercial pilot with combat experience over north africa and italy aboard the likes of p - 38s and p - 47s, peck went on to earn a master ' s degree in military science at the u. s. army war college in 1958. that was the decade he also began his love affair with the sea. " i ' ve known any number of pilots who retired from flying " because it was too expensive, explains the retired air force command pilot and engineering officer. " sailing is the next best thing. " peck would eventually make four trans - atlantic crossings from spain to the bahamas. in 2011, the royal institute of navigation published his results, " the empirical reconstruction of columbus ' navigational log and track of his 1492 - 1493 discovery voyage. " it was during those adventures that peck became intrigued with christopher columbus ' young seaman apprentice, anton de alaminos. twenty years later, alaminos would become the pilot on that fateful journey to the unknown land that juan ponce would call " la florida. " " ponce de leon was not a navigator, he was a warrior. he didn ' t know anything about navigation, " peck declares. " alaminos was running the ship. i ' d been told that his logs were no good and nobody knows for sure where ponce de leon landed, but as i began to read, i said, ' my god, it ' s so clear and so accurate. he was using dead reckoning, not celestial navigation. ' " and i was able to pinpoint where ponce de leon landed within an eight - mile frame. " because juan ponce ' s original log has never been recovered, historians have relied on a 1601 copy transcribed by antonio de herrera. scholars have challenged its accuracy because of herrera ' s insertion of events and observations that occurred after the florida odyssey. but peck says every aspect of his 1990 " gooney bird " trip lined up perfectly with aliminos ' headings and distances. except for one thing : the latitudes for the 151


insertion of events and observations that occurred after the florida odyssey. but peck says every aspect of his 1990 " gooney bird " trip lined up perfectly with aliminos ' headings and distances. except for one thing : the latitudes for the 1513 trip were too far north by a full 2 degrees, as compasses failed to correct for magnetic variation. although scholars have long contended the ponce voyage was charted by celestial navigation, peck says there is no evidence for that. " aliminos learned dead reckoning from columbus, and he stuck with it, " peck says. the revised coordinates came as a shock to st. augustine, whose attractions include the fountain of youth archaeological park ( another alleged ponce de leon myth that peck has gone to great lengths to debunk ). but by 1992, the florida historical quarterly felt confident enough with peck ' s research to publish it in their october issue. retired university of florida professor and de facto dean of florida history michael gannon worked with peck on the article and says he has seen nothing to refute that groundbreaking data. historian and former director of the st. augustine foundation at flagler college eugene lyon is also in peck ' s corner. " when i read captain peck ' s book, i felt his interpretation of the only real log we have is a good one, " lyon says. " melbourne beach is the most likely place ponce de leon landed. " but peck says gannon and lyon " are the only two published florida scholars " who have supported his work. indeed, all but two of peck ' s 19 papers — on ponce de leon as well as other aspects of pre - columbian history — have appeared in out - of - state university presses, from england to mexico to the national geographic society. peck has just ended his latest local squabble with the university of florida press, with whom he broke off negotiations over his latest manuscript. " the editor who was working with him saw great value in his work and admired his research, " says university press editor in chief amy gorelick. " but they couldn ' t agree on how it should be rewritten. " gannon, who suggested two years ago that peck write a definitive piece on the ponce de leon voyage for the quincentennial, also attempted to shepherd the manuscript into publication. " when he sticks to the voyage, he ' s got it nailed, " gannon says. " but he wanted to put a lot of other things in there that weren ' t related to a good, precise narrative of the voyage


into publication. " when he sticks to the voyage, he ' s got it nailed, " gannon says. " but he wanted to put a lot of other things in there that weren ' t related to a good, precise narrative of the voyage of 1513. " sitting next to his map of juan ponce ' s epic 16th - century trip is a scale - model replica of a 40 - foot, seaworthy canoe peck insists the yucatan maya employed to spread their culture to florida and beyond. to peck, that means the maya, with their advanced understanding of celestial navigation, beat the spanish to the sunshine state by several centuries. maybe someday, peck muses, florida historians will catch up. in the meantime, on april 4, peck says he plans to attend the quincentennial ceremonies at the site of his own discovery, in melbourne beach. outwardly, he appears to relish his outlaw role. " it ' s gotten to where historians don ' t like to see me coming down the road, " he says, " because i turn all their old tired theories upside down. " reader comments posted to this article may be published in our print edition. all rights reserved. this copyrighted material may not be re - published without permission. links are encouraged.


check out these tips for growing subtropical fruit. e - mail this page to your friendsx a link to % this page % was e - mailed even if you don ' t live in the deep south, you can still grow subtropical fruits. thanks to better growing information and more disease - resistant varieties, subtropical plants can be grown in just about any climate. master gardener paul james and subtropical fruit gardener tom spellman explain how. depending on where you live, there are steps you can take to protect the heat - loving subtropicals from their mortal enemy, cold weather. take for instance this jackfruit growing on a hilltop in san diego. if the temperature dips below freezing, it ' s a goner, so the plant ' s location is critical to its survival. spellman planted this tree on the edge of a slope where the cold air falls away. it ' s also planted close to the wall of the house where it receives reflected heat from the surface of the house. spellman took further precautions by planting it in a soil that has been thoroughly amended and mulched so that it is very fast - draining. he also uses an easy - to - make, customized plant cover. to build your own protective plant cover, drive four wooden posts into the ground just outside of the foliage line to provide a structure for the cover. cut and staple a lightweight row covering to the posts, being careful not to pull too tightly because the tree needs air circulation. then add another length of material crosswise to enclose the tree. this cover provides up to five degrees of additional frost protection. " it ' s not the saving grace if we have a really severe frost, " says spellman, " but for temperatures down to the mid to high 20s, you ' re going to get good results from it. " the tree cover should stay on until the threat of frost has passed. for colder climates where a cover is not enough protection, there are more elaborate options. some gardeners use plastic coverings with small space heaters or light bulbs to keep up the temperature. " extreme beauty sometimes calls for extreme measures, " says james. another way to nurture subtropical plants is something you probably do already for the rest of the garden - - mulch. wilson recommends using mulch because it holds in moisture and increases the bioactivity in the soil. by encouraging earthworms and beneficial fungi to live in the soil, it also allows the plants ' root systems to take up nutrients in a much more efficient form. if you '


it holds in moisture and increases the bioactivity in the soil. by encouraging earthworms and beneficial fungi to live in the soil, it also allows the plants ' root systems to take up nutrients in a much more efficient form. if you ' re still not sure about providing adequate frost protection outdoors, make it easier on yourself and grow your subtropical plants indoors. " most varieties in areas east of here are only going to be outdoors for the summer, " says wilson. " you ' re going to have to put them in a glass house or enclose them in a screen porch. " subtropical plants need to be grown some place where they can be maintained in a frost - free environment. one of the best ways cold - climate gardeners can grow subtropical plants is in containers. the benefits include great drainage, good soil, mobility and great variety. in one barrel, spellman plans to grow four plants plus a ground cover. " i chose this half - barrel because of its 25 - gallon capacity, " he says. " i think these selections will probably thrive in this barrel for three to five years. " some of the plants he has selected include passionfruit, seen here, pineapple guava, papaya and a meyer lemon, which isn ' t subtropical but flourishes in warm weather. a strawberry plant will serve as a foundation. to prepare the container, start with a rich, high - quality potting soil. add a few inches of soil to the bottom and then stomp down on the soil with your foot to minimize settling. next add the plants, positioning the shorter pineapple guava and papaya in front, the lemon to create depth, and the taller passionfruit to provide height. to finish off the container, spellman plants edible strawberries around the perimeter of the base. the great thing about a container is that you can simply move it indoors when cold weather threatens. " so you see, it really is possible to grow subtropical fruit just about anywhere in the continental u. s., " says james. if you feel like monkeying around with a new botanical adventure, why not grow bananas?


this blog is part of a series organized by the huffington post and the ngo alliance interaction to call attention to the crisis in the sahel, a region in sub - saharan africa where more than 18 million people face starvation and 1. 1 million children under the age of 5 are at risk of dying from acute malnutrition. click here to read more of huffpost impact ' s coverage of the sahel and here to find out what interaction members and others are doing in the sahel. i recently returned from the sahel region of africa, where a major humanitarian crisis is now unfolding, affecting an estimated 18. 7 million people. in the tahoua region of niger, where concern is responding, i saw children who, completely listless from the effects of malnutrition, could not hold down therapeutic milk in overcrowded feeding centers. the united nations now estimates that upwards of one million children are at extreme risk of severe acute malnutrition across this semi - arid belt of land along the sahara desert. even in ' non - crisis ' years, 645, 000 children die in the sahel - - 35 percent of which are linked to malnutrition. this grim reality will never change unless we address the root causes of cyclical hunger. last year, sporadic rainfall followed by plagues of birds, locusts, and other pests wiped out crops for many smallholder farmers. a range of other factors, including environmental degradation, regional insecurity - - aggravated by recent displacements from the conflict in mali - - and chronic poverty have exacerbated the problem. between october 2011 and april 2012, prices of local millet and sorghum, staples in niger, rose by approximately 68 percent. even when food is available, rocketing prices make them unaffordable and out - of - reach for the poor. i visited one village where people had been waiting all morning to show us what they were currently surviving on. they brought what they call " famine foods, " which are only eaten when nothing else is available. they had wild desert plants, very hard and bean - like vegetables, and most shocking of all, grain that they had taken from giant anthills. recent united nations figures reveal that agencies and governments in the region require $ 925 million to meet immediate humanitarian needs in the sahel. at the end of may, less than half of that had been provided. particularly vulnerable countries such as niger now face an acute funding shortfall. a further delay in response will lead


$ 925 million to meet immediate humanitarian needs in the sahel. at the end of may, less than half of that had been provided. particularly vulnerable countries such as niger now face an acute funding shortfall. a further delay in response will lead only to a deterioration of the crisis. in the short - term, there is an urgent need to meet immediate funding shortfalls. national governments in the region, donors, and humanitarian agencies must rapidly implement measures that enable the poorest to buy food. interventions such as monthly cash allowances, cash - for - work initiatives, and livelihoods opportunities can mitigate the short - term effects of the disaster. because this prevention work will not keep every child from becoming malnourished, we must also invest in the local health systems so that more people have access to treatment when and if they need it. but a band - aid approach will never break the cycle of hunger. in the longer - term, government and donors must prioritize crisis prevention, rather than emergency response. strong, preventative action that builds the resilience of vulnerable communities to crop losses and rising food prices and makes smart investments in health care and infrastructure development are essential in finally closing the ' hunger gap ' that so many people in the sahel face each and every year. we must also respond more quickly to warning signs as they first emerge. unlike sudden onset emergencies like earthquakes, we do have systems in place that warn us when a food crisis is likely to emerge. we will never save as many lives if we continue to react only once an emergency is fully underway, nor will we prevent communities from falling deeper and deeper into poverty each time crops fail and food prices skyrocket. and it ' s not only the right thing to do - - it ' s also far less costly. evidence shows that it would have cost $ 1 per day per child to prevent malnutrition if international donors had launched an early response to the 2005 niger food crisis. instead, it cost $ 80 per day per child to provide emergency medical treatment for severe malnutrition. when i was in niger, i saw children so close to death because of a lack of food, their worried parents cradling them, uncertain if they will live or die. the longer the delay in seeking treatment, the harder it is to save them. in one nutrition treatment center, i met a child who was so dehydrated that her veins had collapsed, making it nearly impossible to insert an intravenous cannula to give her life


treatment, the harder it is to save them. in one nutrition treatment center, i met a child who was so dehydrated that her veins had collapsed, making it nearly impossible to insert an intravenous cannula to give her lifesaving fluids. the health worker first tried her arm, her hand, and then finally her head, but was unable to get the needle into a vein. with the help of a colleague, they were finally able to get the needle in so that the child could start the long, slow road to recovery. concern has been working in niger since 2002 and has responded to food crises in 2005, 2008, and 2010. last year, when the first early warning signs emerged that a food crisis would likely be on the horizon in 2012, we launched programs that gave the poorest and most vulnerable quick access to cash so that they would continue to be able to access food without making the hard sacrifices that so many have to face, like pulling their children out of school or selling the few assets that they have just so they can eat. the impact of these interventions is immediate and, in the midst of a crisis, is proof that we can save lives and protect the most vulnerable if we respond early and coordinated / strong. i met a woman who had five children and whose husband had left to nigeria to find work, but had not heard from him since. she started to receive monthly cash allowances from concern through her mobile phone, a safety net that helped her provide food for her children and prevent them from becoming malnourished. this year, concern will plan to reach 150, 000 people like her with interventions that not only respond to the urgent needs, including the treatment of malnutrition, but also build long - term resilience and tackle the root causes of poverty and hunger. i met men and women who were setting up rain harvesting systems as part of concern ' s cash - for - work schemes. these people were not only receiving an income to get them through the lean season - - they were also learning valuable techniques that were already increasing their crop yields by at least 50 percent. we have an opportunity now in the sahel to change how we approach hunger and food security, but it cannot only be international non - governmental organizations ( ngos ) like concern which work to make this happen. national governments, donor governments as well as the news media and the general public must also change their culture of only opening their eyes once photographs of emaciated children are splashed across the front - page. we


like concern which work to make this happen. national governments, donor governments as well as the news media and the general public must also change their culture of only opening their eyes once photographs of emaciated children are splashed across the front - page. we know what we need to do and have the power to make those images disappear - - but there is no time to waste. the sahel region of west africa is suffering from a food crisis. the lethal combination of drought, poor harvest, and increased food prices is affecting an estimated 18. 7 million people across niger, chad, mali, burkina faso, and mauritania, and putting more than one million children under five years old at risk of severe acute malnutrition. < i > photo : tagaza djibo / concern worldwide < / i > children draw water from the only traditional well of the village of missoulmi in the region of tahoua, niger. people often suffer from waterborne diseases as they lack access to clean and safe water. < em > photo : tagaza djibo / concern worldwide < / em > mariama mamidine, from the village of inwaran in tahoua, niger is a mother of five and her husband is an immigrant worker based in the ivory coast. her youngest son, habibou ibrahim, is severely malnourished and currently receiving treatment at a concern - supported treatment ward in the regional hospital. when interviewed, she explains to us : " we are only able to have one meal a day for the children. my husband is aware of my child ' s illness but hasn ' t sent any money. life in our village is very difficult because of the lack on anything to eat. " < i > photo : tagaza djibo / concern worldwide < / i > hafiza moussa is three years old and suffering from malaria. he is receiving treatment from a concern - supported ward ( creni ) at the regional hospital. < i > photo : jennifer o ' gorman / concern worldwide < / i > despite being so sick, mainiouna raises his hand to wave goodbye. mainiouna, who is three years old, was diagnosed with pleurisy. accompanied by his mother maria, he is currently being looked after at the concern - supported ward ( creni ) at the tahoua regional hospital. < em > photo : noel gavin / allpix / concern worldwide < / em > " i am a widow taking care of my four grandson


being looked after at the concern - supported ward ( creni ) at the tahoua regional hospital. < em > photo : noel gavin / allpix / concern worldwide < / em > " i am a widow taking care of my four grandsons left by their parents so they can find work in nigeria. my situation is not very good. currently to feed my family, i search for millet grains in termite hills. sometime i manage to get enough to prepare one meal. i also gather firewood to sell so i can buy something to eat. " - - zahi amadou, from the village of maissoulimi, tahoua region, niger zahi is one of the women benefiting from concern ' s mobile cash transfer program. she received money through her mobile phone and uses this to buy food for her family. < em > photo : tagaza djibo / concern worldwide < / em > " my nine - month old daughter was screened by the concern team and diagnosed with severe acute malnutrition. she was so weak and sick i thought she wouldn ' t survive until she was admitted into the affala health center. at the center, concern provided with her with plumpy nut and medicine, and it ' s through this treatment that my child got her health back and was discharged. she still benefits from 15 sachets of plumpy nut a week. " - - niima halilou, 44 years old, mother of seven children from tahoua, niger < em > photo : tagaza djibo / concern worldwide < / em > mrs. gaichatou kazi is 40 years old and lives with her husband and her five children in the village of missoulmi, tahoua region, niger. she is a beneficiary of concern ' s mobile cash transfer program. the money is sent through her mobile phone, a safety net that helped her provide food for her children and prevent them from becoming malnourished. < em > photo : tagaza djibo / concern worldwide < / em > concern has been working in niger since 2002 and has responded to food crises in 2005, 2008, and 2010. last year, when the first early warning signs emerged that a food crisis would likely be on the horizon in 2012, we launched programs that gave the poorest and most vulnerable quick access to cash so that they would continue to be able to access food, without making the hard sacrifices that so many have to face, like


with the improvements in sequencing technology we are rapidly approaching bioinformatic overload. biologists need new methods to store and access the huge wave of data that is about to hit the subject and one solution might be to use compression at the moment dna sequencing is following a doubling law with the speed doubling every few months. this far outstrips the rate at which computing power is increasing. the amount of genomic data is estimated to be increasing ten - fold each year and currently sequencing a complete human genome takes about a week and costs less than $ 10, 000. soon complete sequencing will be a matter of routine. we clearly need some new ways of processing this data mountain. the main problem is searching through long sequences to find similar target sequences. you might think that searching one string for a target string is an easy algorithm, but the matching criterion is not exact. there can be mismatched point mutations and missing or additional units, indels ( insertions / deletions ). this makes matching sequences very difficult because you aren ' t searching for an exact match but for a good match. what makes the whole situation worse is the size of the search space and the target. we do know of exact solutions to the problem based on dynamic programming but in most cases practical analysis depends on heuristics. put simply genome sequence analysis is a difficult algorithmic problem. the key to finding a solution is to notice that most genomic sequences differ by very little. it may well be that the number of complete genome sequences being stored is increasing rapidly, but the actual amount of new data is very small. in other words, a single dna sequence isn ' t particularly compressible but a set of sequences shares so much in common that the redundancy can be used to store them in a much smaller storage space. from the compression achieved you can see that adding more genomes adds very little information this compressed data format not only saves storage space it can make sequence analysis much faster. the trick is to use a compression format that respects the underlying structure of the situation by storing the details of substitution, deletion, insertion and so on. once you have a compressed format sequence it can be searched in a time that is proportional to the file size without having to decompress it. in a recent paper in nature biotechnology, po - ru loh, michael baym and bonnie berger ( mit and harvard medical school ) have demonstrated that this can be made to work. a genomic database was compressed using sequence similarities and then the standard blast and


recent paper in nature biotechnology, po - ru loh, michael baym and bonnie berger ( mit and harvard medical school ) have demonstrated that this can be made to work. a genomic database was compressed using sequence similarities and then the standard blast and blat algorithms were implemented on the compressed data without performing decompression. blast, for example, works by searching for small marker " words " taken from the target in the search sequence. if the words are found and they have the same spacing in both the target and the search sequence then we have a potential match. the compressed version of the algorithm first searches any parts of the search sequence that hasn ' t been compressed using a low threshold for a match. then regions that have been identified as possible areas are effectively decompressed and searched with a higher threshold. the resulting algorithm was four times faster than the standard algorithm. there are problems with the method. in particular as more sequences are added to the database the compression becomes less effective as the redundancy decreases. there is clearly a lot of work still to be done. in particular there is a need to study the compression methods that could be used and how they interact with the search. it is obvious that precomputing similarities between sequences as part of a dictionary style compression should make searching faster.


pensions were one of the great inventions of the past century. now the european central bank ( ecb ) has issued a ' wake - up call ' on the affordability issues that lie ahead. the reason is very simple. as we note in ' boom, gloom and the new normal ', pensions were introduced first introduced in germany in 1889, and then in the uk in 1908. the idea was to provide a small amount of money to a small number of people for a small period of time : • life expectancy then was 30 years lower than today • pensions only went to those who lived 20 years longer than average since then, we have failed to index pension age to rising life expectancy. in addition, westerners have come to assume that pensions are a ' universal right '. we forget that younger people will have to pay the bill for this dramatic increase in costs. the ecb ' s report summarises the result. it calculates state - funded pension obligations in 19 eu countries where sufficient data exists : • they have combined obligations of €30trn ( $ 39trn ) • by comparison, total eu gdp in 2010 was only $ 12trn the ecb is not supposed to intervene in political issues. so it cannot publically state the obvious conclusion. but most people reading the report will be in no doubt about what this means. put simply, future pensioners are most unlikely to actually receive the money that has been ' promised ' to them. younger generations cannot, and will not, afford to pay the bill. in turn, this has enormous implications for the type and cost of the products and services that older people will require. affordability will be the key criteria for them in future years, not ' value in use '. companies that grasp this challenge will not only help to cushion the transition for disappointed would - be pensioners. they will also build a robust platform for their own future growth.


everybody read about it – a high - tech hunter got video evidence that confirmed the presence in a morgan county woods of an adult cougar, only the fourth known to have been sighted in illinois since the 1870s, according to the state department of natural resources. the dnr staff are good scientists who don ’ t let their conclusions get ahead of their evidence. but less - than - scientific evidence of the big cat ’ s presence has been piling up for years, and for years was dismissed by wildlife experts. in deep southern illinois, for instance, cougars are seen more often than sober college students. one would think that it was be easier to mistake a democrat for a doughnut than to mistake a dog for a cat but lots of people do. most of the animals reported as cougars in illinois have probably been coyotes or feral dogs. however, the habitat and the food supply is there, so why shouldn ’ t the cats be there? these days we know wild animals only from the sanitized images from tv wildlife documentaries and the zombie - like specimens trapped in zoos. we no longer appreciate their wildness or their strength, as is confirmed by the regular reports of grown people sticking their hands into the cages of zoos. that wouldn ’ t be a problem if the only place people encountered cougars was the zoo. but the construction since the 1980s of exurban subdivisions surrounded by nature preserves and leafy stream bottoms means that people and cougars increasingly share the same habitat. the cats in such areas dine regularly on household pets, which they regard sort of like fast food. cougars ’ appetite for dogs is the best argument i know for strong wildlife protection laws. in a 2004 article for illinois issues magazine, i noted that in old illinois the big cats were known almost universally as panthers. the mappers of the u. s. geological survey list more than a dozen “ panther creeks ” along with their forks and branches, plus a panther grove, a panther hollow and a panther den, but not a single landscape feature in the state is officially named after the cougar. but while we know why yesterday ’ s negroes are now known as african - americans and why yesterday ’ s democratic party is now known as mike madigan, it is not clear why the panther is now known as the cougar. i speculated that “ panther ” was much the commoner usage in the american south, and the early preference for the term in illinois no doubt owes to the southern origin of so many of the state ’ s settlers. ( the cat


cougar. i speculated that “ panther ” was much the commoner usage in the american south, and the early preference for the term in illinois no doubt owes to the southern origin of so many of the state ’ s settlers. ( the cat is still popularly known as the panther in southern illinois. ) the morgan county folks interviewed by the sj - r expressed unease at the idea of cougars in the neighborhood. true, the cat is astonishingly agile, strong and quick ; california wildlife experts tell hikers that there is no point being alert to a cat attack in the wild, because you ’ ll never know they ’ re there until they ’ re on your back. however, frontier dwellers were more afraid of the gray wolf, mainly because wolves, like legislators, hunted in packs. in settled areas, the cats are shy and withdrawing. in the summer of 2010 i got a chance to learn a little about life on the cougar - suburb interface in northern california. they feed mainly on deer in the wooded hills that surround so many subdivisions. in doing so they fulfill the ancient and honorable role of the predator by culling wild herds of sick or weakly animals. this fact alone endears the cats to nearby homeowners, since deer sneak down from the hills at night to lunch on garden plants like bluto going down the cafeteria line in animal house. cougars thus are seen in northern california nearly as often as coyotes are seen in illinois, and often in surprisingly populated spots. a jaded public usually reacts with curiosity rather than alarm. when an adult cat was spotted in daylight within yards of a middle school, the school did not respond by locking down the campus. it merely reminded anxious parents that their favorite tax deductions have been taught how to behave when confronted by a cougar. which is, try to make yourself look bigger than you are and make a lot of noise. that ’ s pretty much how schoolkids act all the time, which explains why cougars out there fear schoolkids in the same way that schoolkids fear math teachers. and what should you do if you are confronted by a cougar and you are too embarrassed to behave like you ’ re a fifth - grader? you could try imitating a candidate for congress ; they also make a lot of noise and try to look bigger than they are, and the cougar is probably as sick of politics as you are. if it actually attacks you anyway, do what everyone else does – blame obama. contact james krohe jr


atheism, agnosticism, noncognitivism ( 1998 ) theodore m. drange suppose you are to answer the following two questions : ( 1 ) does the sentence " god exists " express a proposition? if you say no to the first question, then you may be classified as a noncognitivist with regard to god - talk. if you say yes to it, thereby allowing that the given sentence does express a proposition, then you are a cognitivist with regard to god - talk. ( let us henceforth abbreviate these expressions, simply using the terms " cognitivist " and " noncognitivist ". ) all theists, atheists, and agnostics are cognitivists, so the second question applies to them : is the proposition that god exists true or false? you are a theist if and only if you say that the proposition is true or probably true, you are an atheist if and only if you say that it is false or probably false, and you are an agnostic if and only if you understand what the proposition is, but resist giving either answer, and support your resistance by saying, " the evidence is insufficient " ( or words to that effect ). one virtue of this way of characterizing the three groups of cognitivists is that it captures the way the terms are commonly used in ordinary language, and, in particular, it makes the groups mutually exclusive. no one can consistently be both a theist and an agnostic, or both an atheist and an agnostic. some other ways of drawing the distinction fail to capture that important feature. for example, if the term " agnostic " were defined as anyone who claims that there is insufficient evidence to know whether or not god exists, then it would be possible for a person to be both a theist and an agnostic. he could be what is called a fideist and say, " i realize that the evidence is insufficient, but i believe in god anyway. " ( incidentally, i am here taking the expression " believe in god " simply as shorthand for " believe that god exists. " ) alternatively, such an " agnostic " could be a " fideistic atheist " and say, " though the evidence is insufficient, i deny god ' s existence anyway. " that would make it possible for someone to be both an atheist and an agnostic. this result is a drawback to such a definition of " agnostic, " for it conflicts with


evidence is insufficient, i deny god ' s existence anyway. " that would make it possible for someone to be both an atheist and an agnostic. this result is a drawback to such a definition of " agnostic, " for it conflicts with the way the term is commonly used. another definition of " agnostic " which is at variance with common usage is that of thomas huxley, who first coined the word in 1869. he said the following : agnosticism is not a creed but a method, the essence of which lies in vigorous application of a single principle. positively the principle may be expressed as : in matters of intellect, follow your reason as far as it can carry you without other considerations. and negatively, in matters of the intellect, do not pretend the conclusions are certain that are not demonstrated or demonstrable. it is wrong for a man to say he is certain of the objective truth of a proposition unless he can produce evidence which logically justifies that certainty. that is what agnosticism asserts ; and, in my opinion, it is all that is essential to agnosticism.... the application of the principle results in the denial of, or the suspension of judgment concerning, a number of propositions respecting which our contemporary ecclesiastical " gnostics " profess entire certainty. thus, huxley would call anyone an " agnostic " who abides by the principle that propositions should be believed exactly in accord with the available evidence. however, he does not make the application of that principle to god ' s existence a part of the definition of the term " agnostic. " thus, people who claim to be able to prove god ' s existence or nonexistence could still be " agnostics " by huxley ' s definition, for they may indeed be abiding by the given principle. since the definition allows one to be both an agnostic and a theist or atheist, it fails to capture that ordinary - language concept that is the focus of this investigation. an agnostic could also be an atheist if the term " atheist " were defined more broadly, for example, as anyone who lacks a belief in god, or who classifies the proposition that god exists as anything other than true. such a definition is recommended by george h. smith in his book atheism : the case against god. other writers who support the definition are cited in michael martin ' s book atheism : a philosophical justification. according to this usage, people would be " atheists " even if


. smith in his book atheism : the case against god. other writers who support the definition are cited in michael martin ' s book atheism : a philosophical justification. according to this usage, people would be " atheists " even if they answer the question whether it is true that god exists with " no one knows. " this is a departure from the most common use of the word " atheist " in ordinary language, which is in itself an important reason to avoid it. another reason is that infants and fetuses have no belief in god, yet it would be perverse to say that they are all atheists. sometimes the use of the term " atheism " to mean " lack of theistic belief " is supported by an appeal to etymology. for example, martin, in the book mentioned above, says the following : in greek a ' means without ' or not ' and theos ' means god. ' from this standpoint an atheist would simply be someone without a belief in god, not necessarily someone who believes that god does not exist. according to its greek roots, then, atheism is a negative view, characterized by the absence of belief in god. this argument is rather unsatisfactory for at least two reasons. first, it is not completely clear that the correct translation of the greek prefix " a " is " without. " it might also mean " no, " in which case " a - the - ism " could be translated as " no - god - ism, " or " the view that there is no god. " note that there is no " ism " in greek. second, even if the etymology of the word " atheism " did indicate that it once meant " without belief in god, " that is still not a good guide to current usage. it is quite common for words to acquire new meanings over time. it seems far more important what people mean by a word today than what it once meant long ago. another argument sometimes put forward is that we should ascertain what the word " atheist " means by taking a poll among atheists. but that is an unclear suggestion. how are we to decide who is an atheist ( and thus to be polled ) prior to ascertaining what the word " atheist " means? let us assume that the poll is to be taken among all those native speakers of english who are not theists. it is still not clear what the result of such a poll would be. i have never seen any statistical


word " atheist " means? let us assume that the poll is to be taken among all those native speakers of english who are not theists. it is still not clear what the result of such a poll would be. i have never seen any statistical result presented on the matter. my conclusion here is that no good case has ever been made for using the word " atheist " in the sense of " one who is without belief in god. " in this essay, i shall use the term " atheist " in its ( more common ) narrow sense. martin draws a distinction between " negative atheists, " who are without any belief in god, and " positive atheists, " who deny god ' s existence. ) applying that distinction, it could be said that i ( and most people ) use the term " atheist " in the sense of " positive atheist. " it should be noted that all positive atheists are automatically negative atheists, which may sound somewhat peculiar when those expressions are used. in place of the expression " negative atheist, " i shall use the term " nontheist. " that seems to be a better term ( than " atheist " ) for capturing the more general concept of " one who is without belief in god, " for several reasons : ( 1 ) almost everyone who employs the term " nontheist " already uses it in the given way. ( 2 ) as indicated in dictionaries, most native speakers of english use the term " atheist " for the more definite concept of " one who denies that god exists. " it is desirable that we abide by common usage and it is foolish ( and probably futile ) to try to reform people ' s usage of terms. ( 3 ) it would be more natural to call infants and fetuses " nontheists " than to call them " atheists. " ( 4 ) it is desirable to have a system in which the familiar three classes, theists, atheists, and agnostics, are mutually exclusive, and that would not be possible if the term " atheist " were instead used for the more general concept. although the usual way of defining " theist, " " atheist, " and " agnostic " ( in terms of the proposition that god exists ) is commendable, it is also incomplete, for it yields no classification for someone who says, " it depends on how you define the word god ' : for some definitions the proposition is true, for others it is false, and for still others i just don ' t know.


also incomplete, for it yields no classification for someone who says, " it depends on how you define the word god ' : for some definitions the proposition is true, for others it is false, and for still others i just don ' t know. " let us consider an alternate way of formulating the definitions. since the word " god " has many different meanings, it is possible for the sentence " god exists " to express many different propositions. what we need to do is to focus on each proposition separately. subscripts could be used for the different senses of " god. " thus we have the proposition that god1 exists, the proposition that god2 exists, the proposition that god exists, etc., with each different sense of " god " suitably defined. for each different sense of the term " god, " there will be theists, atheists, and agnostics relative to that concept of god. a person might be a theist relative to one concept of god but an atheist or agnostic relative to a different one. if the question is raised whether god1 exists, then theists relative to that concept ( of god ) are people who answer that question affirmatively. atheists relative to that concept are people who answer the question negatively. and agnostics relative to that concept are people who understand the question but who avoid committing themselves to a " yes " or " no " answer to it by maintaining that the evidence either way is insufficient. now suppose someone says of the sentence " god1 exists, " where " god1 " has been previously defined in some way, that it is a cognitively meaningless sentence and does not express any proposition at all. should such a person be called an " atheist " or an " agnostic "? in the encyclopedia of philosophy he is classified as an atheist. from one point of view, that seems reasonable, since such a person is obviously very far from being a believer in god1. on the other hand, he is not giving a negative answer to the question whether god1 exists. he is not saying of the proposition that god1 exists that it is a false proposition. so, from that perspective, he seems to fit more into the category of an agnostic. of course, the person in question is not taking a noncommittal stance relative to the proposition that god1 exists, for he does not even concede that there is any such proposition. so the " agnostic " label doesn ' t fit either. a. j. ayer,


taking a noncommittal stance relative to the proposition that god1 exists, for he does not even concede that there is any such proposition. so the " agnostic " label doesn ' t fit either. a. j. ayer, a philosopher who held this type of position, rejected both labels " atheist " and " agnostic. " and that is the terminology that i prefer. i call such a person a " noncognitivist with regard to god - talk " ( or just " noncognitivist " for short ) and place him into a fourth category. the correctness of this terminology cannot be settled by appeal to ordinary language, for the type of position being considered is practically unknown among the lay public. it is almost exclusively held by those analytical philosophers known as logical positivists. rudolf carnap employed it with respect to the word " god " in his essay " the elimination of metaphysics through logical analysis of language. " a somewhat similar outlook had been expressed about seventy years earlier by charles bradlaugh in his essay " a plea for atheism, " however the view was there referred to as " atheism. " anyway, there is no basis for assessing how it would probably be classified by ordinary people. what is called for is simply some sort of linguistic stipulation. the reason i call the view " noncognitivism with regard to god - talk " rather than " noncognitivism with regard to religious language " is that the sentence " god exists " occurs in contexts other than religious language. one such context is the field of metaphysics. the existence of god is a standard topic in metaphysics, and there need be no reference within that context to religion or to religious discourse. thus, the noncognitivist is rejecting the cognitive meaningfulness of various sentences that contain the word " god, " whether those sentences occur within religious discourse or not. consider now the sentence " god1 exists, " where some definition has been previously given for the subject term " god1. " relative to that sentence, we may put forward the following definitions : a noncognitivist is someone who declares that the sentence does not express any proposition at all. a theist is someone who allows that the sentence expresses a proposition and who classifies the proposition as true or probably true. an atheist is someone who allows that the sentence expresses a proposition and who classifies the proposition as false or probably false. an agnostic is someone who allows that the sentence


sentence expresses a proposition and who classifies the proposition as true or probably true. an atheist is someone who allows that the sentence expresses a proposition and who classifies the proposition as false or probably false. an agnostic is someone who allows that the sentence expresses a proposition, and who grants that he / she knows what that proposition is, but who is noncommittal about its truth or falsity on the grounds of insufficient evidence. it is to be borne in mind here that each category is relative to a particular interpretation of a sentence of the type " god exists, " a person may be in one category relative to one interpretation ( or one sense of the word " god " ), but in a different category relative to another interpretation. to illustrate these distinctions, consider the following four responses to a request for a definition of the term " god " : god1 = the universe itself ( all that exists ). [ or, alternatively, god1 = love. ] god2 = the powerful being who created the universe. god3 = the omnipotent creator of the universe whose highest goal regarding humans is that they believe that he has a son who died for them so that they might obtain salvation. god4 =? ( no definition is possible ; the word is indefinable. ) now suppose there were a philosopher who examined these four responses. when asked the question " does god exist? " he might very well respond as follows : in the case of god1, yes, god definitely exists, for it is obvious that the universe [ or love ] exists. in the case of god2, i understand the question but have no answer to it since the evidence is insufficient. in the case of god3, there is good evidence that such a being does not exist, for most humans do not believe in his son, etc., yet, if such a being were to exist, then probably he would have done things to cause them to have the given belief. and in the case of god4, i do not understand the question. since no definition of " god4 " has been given, the sentence " god4 exists " expresses no proposition whatever. given this response, we should say of such a philosopher that he is a theist relative to god1, an agnostic relative to god2, an atheist relative to god3, and a noncognitivist relative to god4. i would say that these answers to the four " does god exist? " questions are reasonable, though they are not necessarily the