and platinum analogs such as cisplatin and carboplatin. on the other hand, therapies with low risk of gonadotoxicity include plant derivatives such as vincristine and vinblastine, antibiotics such as bleomycin and dactinomycin, and antimetabolites such as methotrexate, mercaptopurine, and 5 - fluorouracil. female infertility by chemotherapy appears to be secondary to premature ovarian failure by loss of primordial follicles. this loss is not necessarily a direct effect of the chemotherapeutic agents, but could be due to an increased rate of growth initiation to replace damaged developing follicles. patients may choose between several methods of fertility preservation prior to chemotherapy, including cryopreservation of semen, ovarian tissue, oocytes, or embryos. as more than half of cancer patients are elderly, this adverse effect is only relevant for a minority of patients. chemotherapy is potentially teratogenic during pregnancy, especially during the first trimester, to the extent that abortion usually is recommended if pregnancy in this period is found during chemotherapy. second - and third - trimester exposure does not usually increase the teratogenic risk and adverse effects on cognitive development, but it may increase the risk of various complications of pregnancy and fetal myelosuppression. in males previously having undergone chemotherapy or radiotherapy, there appears to be no increase in genetic defects or congenital malformations in their children conceived after therapy. the use of assisted reproductive technologies and micromanipulation techniques might increase this risk. in females previously having undergone chemotherapy, miscarriage and congenital malformations are not increased in subsequent conceptions. however, when in vitro fertilization and embryo cryopreservation is practised between or shortly after treatment, possible genetic risks to the growing oocytes exist, and hence it has been recommended that the babies be screened. neurological adverse effects reported are cytotoxic - induced neuropathy causing pain or paralysis. some patients report fatigue or non - specific neurocognitive problems, such as an inability to concentrate ; this is sometimes called post - chemotherapy cognitive impairment, referred to as " chemo brain " by patients ' groups. other side effects in particularly large tumors, such as large lymphomas, some patients develop tumor lysis syndrome from the rapid breakdown of malignant cells. although prophylaxis is available and is often initiated


" by patients ' groups. other side effects in particularly large tumors, such as large lymphomas, some patients develop tumor lysis syndrome from the rapid breakdown of malignant cells. although prophylaxis is available and is often initiated in patients with large tumors, this is a dangerous side - effect that can lead to death if left untreated. less common side - effects include red skin ( erythema ), dry skin, damaged fingernails, a dry mouth ( xerostomia ), water retention, and sexual impotence. some medications can trigger allergic or pseudoallergic reactions. specific chemotherapeutic agents are associated with organ - specific toxicities, including cardiovascular disease ( e. g., doxorubicin ), interstitial lung disease ( e. g., bleomycin ) and occasionally secondary neoplasm ( e. g., mopp therapy for hodgkin ' s disease ). chemotherapy does not always work, and even when it is useful, it may not completely destroy the cancer. patients frequently fail to understand its limitations. in one study of patients who had been newly diagnosed with incurable, stage 4 cancer, more than two - thirds of patients with lung cancer and more than four - fifths of patients with colorectal cancer still believed that chemotherapy was likely to cure their cancer. healthcare workers exposed to antineoplastic agents take precautions to keep their exposure to a minimum. there is a limitation in cytotoxics dissolution in australia and the united states to 20 dissolutions per pharmacist / nurse, since pharmacists that prepare these drugs or nurses that may prepare or administer them are the two occupational groups with the highest potential exposure to antineoplastic agents. in addition, physicians and operating room personnel may also be exposed through the treatment of patients. hospital staff, such as shipping and receiving personnel, custodial workers, laundry workers, and waste handlers, all have potential exposure to these drugs during the course of their work. the increased use of antineoplastic agents in veterinary oncology also puts these workers at risk for exposure to these drugs. in other animals chemotherapy is used in veterinary medicine similar to in human medicine. - anti - cancer drugs ( journal ) - chemotherapy regimens - experimental cancer treatments - safe handling of hazardous drugs - national comprehensive cancer network - chemo brain - radiation induced cognitive decline - cancer - related fatigue - krumbhaar eb ( 1919 ).


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temporal range : middle jurassic – late cretaceous, 164 – 65. 5ma | deinonychus antirrhopus ( large ) and buitreraptor gonzalezorum ( small ), field museum of natural history | matthew & brown, 1922 matthew & brown, 1922 matthew & brown, 1922 ornithodesmidae hooley, 1913 dromaeosauridae is a family of bird - like theropod dinosaurs. they were small - to medium - sized feathered carnivores that flourished in the cretaceous period. the name dromaeosauridae means ' running lizards ', from greek dromeus ( δρομευς ) meaning ' runner ' and sauros ( σαυρος ) meaning ' lizard '. in informal usage they are often called raptors ( after velociraptor ), a term popularized by the film jurassic park ; a few types include the term " raptor " directly in their name and have come to emphasize their supposed bird - like habits. dromaeosaurid fossils have been found in north america, europe, africa, japan, china, mongolia, madagascar, argentina, and antarctica. they first appeared in the mid - jurassic period ( late bathonian stage, about 164 million years ago ) and survived until the end of the cretaceous ( maastrichtian stage, 65. 5 ma ), existing for over 100 million years, up until the cretaceous – paleogene extinction event. the presence of dromaeosaurs as early as the middle jurassic has been confirmed by the discovery of isolated fossil teeth, though no dromaeosaurid body fossils have been found from this period. the distinctive dromaeosaurid body plan helped to rekindle theories that at least some dinosaurs may have been active, fast, and closely related to birds. robert bakker ’ s illustration for john ostrom ’ s 1969 monograph, showing the dromaeosaurid deinonychus in a fast run, is among the most influential paleontological reconstructions in history. the dromaeosaurid body plan includes a relatively large skull, serrated teeth, narrow snout, and forward - facing eyes which indicate some degree of binocular vision. dromaeosaurids, like most other theropods, had a moderately long s - curved neck, and their trunk was relatively short and deep. like other maniraptorans, they had long arms that could be folded against the body in some species,


shaped claws. dromaeosaurids had long tails. most of the tail vertebrae bear bony, rod - like extensions, as well as bony tendons in some species. in his study of deinonychus, ostrom proposed that these features stiffened the tail so that it could only flex at the base, and the whole tail would then move as a single, rigid, lever. however, one well - preserved specimen of velociraptor mongoliensis ( igm 100 / 986 ) has an articulated tail skeleton that is curved horizontally in a long s - shape. this suggests that, in life, the tail could bend from side to side with a substantial degree of flexibility. it has been proposed that this tail was used as a stabilizer and / or counterweight while running or in the air ; in microraptor, an elongate diamond - shaped fan of feathers is preserved on the end of the tail. this may have been used as an aerodynamic stabilizer and rudder during gliding and / or powered flight ( see " flight and gliding " below ). dromaeosaurids were small to medium - sized dinosaurs, ranging from about 0. 7 metres ( 2. 3 ft ) in length ( in the case of mahakala ) to over 6 metres ( 20 ft ) ( in utahraptor and achillobator ). some may have grown larger ; undescribed specimens of utahraptor in brigham young university collections belonged to individuals that may have reached up to 11 m ( 36 ft ) long, though these await more detailed study. large size appears to have evolved at least twice among dromaeosaurids ; once among the dromaeosaurines utahraptor and achillobator, and again among the unenlagiines ( austroraptor, which measured 5 metres ( 16 ft ) long ). a possible third lineage of giant dromaeosaurs is represented by isolated teeth found on the isle of wight, england. the teeth belong to an animal the size of the dromaeosaurine utahraptor, but they appear to belong to velociraptorines, judging by the shape of the teeth. mahakala is both the most primitive dromaeosaurid ever described and the smallest. this evidence, combined with the small size of other primitive relatives such as microraptor and the troodontid anchiornis, indicates that the common ancestor of dromaeosaurids,


all members of the family retained feathers. there is currently disagreement about the function of the enlarged " sickle claw " on the second toe. when john ostrom described it for deinonychus in 1969, he interpreted the claw as a blade - like slashing weapon, much like the canines of some saber - toothed cats, used with powerful kicks to cut into prey. adams ( 1987 ) suggested that the talon was used to disembowel large ceratopsian dinosaurs. the interpretation of the sickle claw as a killing weapon applied to all dromaeosaurids. however, manning et al. argued that the claw instead served as a hook, reconstructing the keratinous sheath with an elliptical cross section, instead of the previously inferred inverted teardrop shape. in manning ' s interpretation, the second toe claw would be used as a climbing aid when subduing bigger prey and also as stabbing weapon. ostrom compared deinonychus to the ostrich and cassowary. he noted that the bird species can inflict serious injury with the large claw on the second toe. the cassowary has claws up to 125 millimetres ( 4. 9 in ) long. ostrom cited gilliard ( 1958 ) in saying that they can sever an arm or disembowel a man. kofron ( 1999 and 2003 ) studied 241 documented cassowary attacks and found that one human and two dogs had been killed, but no evidence that cassowaries can disembowel or dismember other animals. cassowaries use their claws to defend themselves, to attack threatening animals, and in agonistic displays such as the bowed threat display. the seriema also has an enlarged second toe claw, and uses it to tear apart small prey items for swallowing. phillip manning and colleagues ( 2009 ) attempted to test the function of the sickle claw and similarly shaped claws on the forelimbs. they analyzed the bio - mechanics of how stresses and strains would be distributed along the claws and into the limbs, using x - ray imaging to create a three dimensional contour map of a forelimb claw from velociraptor. for comparison, they analyzed the construction of a claw from a modern predatory bird, the eagle owl. they found that, based on the way that stress was conducted along the claw, they were ideal for climbing. the scientists found that the sharpened tip of the claw was a puncturing and gripping instrument, while the curved


predatory bird, the eagle owl. they found that, based on the way that stress was conducted along the claw, they were ideal for climbing. the scientists found that the sharpened tip of the claw was a puncturing and gripping instrument, while the curved and expanded claw base helped transfer stress loads evenly. the manning team also compared the curvature of the dromaeosaurid " sickle claw " on the foot with curvature in modern birds and mammals. previous studies had shown that the amount of curvature in a claw corresponded to what lifestyle the animal has : animals with strongly curved claws of a certain shape tend to be climbers, while straighter claws indicate ground - dwelling lifestyles. the sickle - claws of the dromaeosaurid deinonychus have a curvature of 160 degrees, well within the range of climbing animals. the forelimb claws they studied also fell within the climbing range of curvature. paleontologist peter mackovicky commented on the manning team ' s study, stating that small, primitive dromaeosaurids ( such as microraptor ) were likely to have been tree - climbers, but that climbing did not explain why later, gigantic dromaeosaurids such as achillobator retained highly curved claws when they were too large to have climbed trees. mackovickey speculated that giant dromaeosaurids may have adapted the claw to be used exclusively for latching on to prey. in 2009 phil senter published a study on dromaeosaurid toes and showed that their range of motion was compatible with the excavation of tough insect nests. senter suggested that small dromaeosaurids such as rahonavis and buitreraptor were small enough to be partial insectivores, while larger genera such as deinonychus and neuquenraptor could have used this ability to catch vertebrate prey residing in insect nests. however, senter did not test whether the strong curvature of dromaeosaurid claws was also conductive to such activities. in 2011, denver fowler and colleagues suggested a new method by which dromaeosaurs may have taken smaller prey. this model, known as the " raptor prey restraint " ( rpr ) model of predation, proposes that dromaeosaurs killed their prey in a manner very similar to extant accipitrid birds of prey : by leaping onto their quarry, pinning it under their body weight, and gripping it tightly with the large, sickle - shaped claws.


dromaeosaurs killed their prey in a manner very similar to extant accipitrid birds of prey : by leaping onto their quarry, pinning it under their body weight, and gripping it tightly with the large, sickle - shaped claws. like accipitrids, the dromaeosaur would then begin to feed on the animal while still alive, until it eventually died from blood loss and organ failure. this proposal is based primarily on comparisons between the morphology and proportions of the feet and legs of dromaeosaurs to several groups of extant birds of prey with known predatory behaviors. fowler found that the feet and legs of dromaeosaurs most closely resemble those of eagles and hawks, especially in terms of having an enlarged second claw and a similar range of grasping motion. the short metatarsus and foot strength, however, would have been more similar to that of owls. the rpr method of predation would be consistent with other aspects of dromaeosaurid anatomy, such as their unusual dentition and arm morphology. the arms, which could exert a lot of force but were likely covered in long feathers, may have been used as flapping stabilizers for balance while atop a struggling prey animal, along with the stiff counterbalancing tail. dromaeosaurid jaws, thought by fowler and colleagues to be comparatively weak, would have been useful for eating prey alive but not as useful for quick, forceful dispatch of the prey. these predatory adaptations working together may also have implications for the origin of flapping in paravians. deinonychus fossils have been uncovered in small groups near the remains of the herbivore tenontosaurus, a larger ornithischian dinosaur. this had been interpreted as evidence that these dromaeosaurs hunted in coordinated packs like some modern mammals. however, not all paleontologists found the evidence conclusive, and a subsequent study published in 2007 by roach and brinkman suggests that the deinonychus may have actually displayed a disorganized mobbing behavior. modern diapsids, including birds and crocodiles ( the closest relatives of dromaeosaurs ), display minimal cooperative hunting ; instead, they are usually either solitary hunters, or are drawn to previously killed carcasses, where conflict often occurs between individuals of the same species. for example, in situations where groups of komodo dragons are eating together, the largest individuals eat first and might attack smaller komodo dragons that attempt to feed ; if the smaller animal


, where conflict often occurs between individuals of the same species. for example, in situations where groups of komodo dragons are eating together, the largest individuals eat first and might attack smaller komodo dragons that attempt to feed ; if the smaller animal dies, it is usually cannibalized. when this information is applied to the sites containing putative pack - hunting behavior in dromaeosaurs, it appears somewhat consistent with a komodo - or crocodile - like feeding strategy. deinonychus skeletal remains found at these sites are from subadults, with missing parts that may have been eaten by other deinonychus, which a study by roach et al. presented as evidence against the idea that the animals cooperated in the hunt. in 2007, scientists described the first known extensive dromaeosaur trackway, in shandong, china. in addition to confirming the hypothesis that the sickle - claw was held retracted off the ground, the trackway ( made by a large, achillobator - sized species ) showed evidence of six individuals of about equal size moving together along a shoreline. the individuals were spaced about one meter apart, and retained the same direction of travel, walking at a fairly slow pace. the authors of the paper describing these footprints interpreted the trackways as evidence that some species of dromaeosaurs lived in groups. while the trackways clearly do not represent hunting behavior, the idea that groups of dromaeosaurs may have hunted together, according to the authors, could not be ruled out. flying and gliding the ability to fly or glide has been suggested for at least two dromaeosaurid species. the first, rahonavis ostromi ( originally classified as avian bird, but found to be a dromaeosaurid in later studies ) may have been capable of powered flight, as indicated by its long forelimbs with evidence of quill knob attachments for long sturdy flight feathers. the forelimbs of rahonavis were more powerfully built than archaeopteryx, and show evidence that they bore strong ligament attachments necessary for flapping flight. luis chiappe concluded that, given these adaptations, rahonavis could probably fly but would have been more clumsy in the air than modern birds. another species of dromaeosaurid, microraptor gui, may have been capable of gliding using its well - developed wings on both the fore and hind limbs. a 2005 study by sankar chatterjee suggested


the air than modern birds. another species of dromaeosaurid, microraptor gui, may have been capable of gliding using its well - developed wings on both the fore and hind limbs. a 2005 study by sankar chatterjee suggested that the wings of microraptor functioned like a split - level " biplane ", and that it likely employed a phugoid style of gliding, in which it would launch from a perch and swoop downward in a ' u ' shaped curve, then lift again to land on another tree, with the tail and hind wings helping to control its position and speed. chatterjee also found that microraptor had the basic requirements to sustain level powered flight in addition to gliding. comparisons between the scleral rings of several dromaeosaurids ( microraptor, sinornithosaurus, and velociraptor ) and modern birds and reptiles indicate that some dromaeosaurids ( including microraptor and velociraptor ) may have been nocturnal predators, while sinornithosaurus is inferred to be cathemeral ( active throughout the day at short intervals ). however, the discovery of iridescent plumage in microraptor has cast doubt on the inference of nocturnality in this genus, as no modern birds that have iridescent plumage are known to be nocturnal. studies of the olfactory bulbs of dromaeosaurids reveal that they had similar olfactory ratios for their size to other non - avian theropods and modern birds with an acute sense of smell, such as tyrannosaurids and the turkey vulture, probably reflecting the importance of the olfactory sense in the daily activities of dromaeosaurids such as finding food. in 2001, bruce rothschild and others published a study examining evidence for stress fractures and tendon avulsions in theropod dinosaurs and the implications for their behavior. since stress fractures are caused by repeated trauma rather than singular events they are more likely to be caused by regular behavior than other types of injuries. the researchers found lesion like those caused by stress fractures on a dromaeosaurid hand claw, one of only two such claw lesions discovered in the course of the study. stress fractures in the hands have special behavioral significance compared to those found in the feet since stress fractures there can be obtained while running or during migration. hand injuries, by contrast, are more likely to be obtained while in contact with struggling prey. relationship with birds droma


the hands have special behavioral significance compared to those found in the feet since stress fractures there can be obtained while running or during migration. hand injuries, by contrast, are more likely to be obtained while in contact with struggling prey. relationship with birds dromaeosaurids share many features with early birds ( clade avialae or aves ). the precise nature of their relationship to birds has undergone a great deal of study, and hypotheses about that relationship have changed as large amounts of new evidence became available. as late as 2001, mark norell and colleagues analyzed a large survey of coelurosaur fossils and produced the tentative result that dromaeosaurids were most closely related to birds, with troodontids as a more distant outgroup. they even suggested that dromaeosauridae could be paraphyletic relative to avialae. in 2002, hwang and colleagues utilized the work of norell et al., including new characters and better fossil evidence, to determine that birds ( avialans ) were better thought of as cousins to the dromaeosaurids and troodontids. the current consensus among paleontologists agrees with the findings of hwang et al. ( 2002 ) ; that dromaeosaurids are most closely related to the troodontids, and together with the troodontids form the clade deinonychosauria. deinonychosaurians in turn are the sister taxon to avialans, and therefore the closest relatives of avialan birds. a consensus of paleontologists has concluded that there is not yet enough evidence to determine whether any dromaeosaurs could fly or glide, or whether they evolved from ancestors that could. alternative theories and flightlessness dromaeosaurids are so birdlike that they have led some researchers to argue that they would be better classified as birds. first, since they had feathers, dromaeosaurs ( along with many other coelurosaurian theropod dinosaurs ) are “ birds ” under traditional definitions of the word “ bird ”, or “ aves ”, that are based on the possession of feathers. however, other scientists, such as lawrence witmer, have argued that calling a theropod like caudipteryx a bird because it has feathers may stretch the word past any useful meaning. ( see the article avialae for a discussion about the definitions of the clades aves and avialae. ) at least two schools of


caudipteryx a bird because it has feathers may stretch the word past any useful meaning. ( see the article avialae for a discussion about the definitions of the clades aves and avialae. ) at least two schools of researchers have proposed that dromaeosaurs may actually be descended from flying ancestors. hypotheses involving a flying ancestor for dromaeosaurs are sometimes called “ birds came first ” ( bcf ). george olshevsky is usually credited as the first author of bcf. in his own work, gregory s. paul pointed out numerous features of the dromaeosaurid skeleton that he interpreted as evidence that the entire group had evolved from flying, dinosaurian, ancestors, perhaps something like archaeopteryx. in that case, the larger dromaeosaurids were secondarily flightless, like the modern ostrich. in 1988, paul suggested that dromaeosaurids may actually be more closely related to modern birds than to archaeopteryx. by 2002, however, paul placed dromaeosaurs and archaeopteryx as the closest relatives to one another. in 2002, hwang et al. found that microraptor was the most primitive dromaeosaur. xu and colleagues in 2003 cited the basal position of microraptor, along with feather and wing features, as evidence that the ancestral dromaeosaur could glide. in that case the larger dromaeosaurs would be secondarily terrestrial — having lost the ability to glide later in their evolutionary history. also in 2002, steven czerkas described cryptovolans, though it is a probable junior synonym of microraptor. he reconstructed the fossil inaccurately with only two wings and thus argued that dromaeosaurs were proper birds, rather than possible gliders. he later issued a revised reconstruction in agreement with that of microraptor other researchers, like larry martin believe that dromaeosaurs, along with all maniraptorans are not dinosaurs at all. martin asserted for decades that birds were unrelated to maniraptorans, but in 2004 he changed his position, and now he agrees that the two are the closest of relatives. martin believes that maniraptorans are secondarily flightless birds, and that birds evolved from non – dinosaurian archosaurs, so that most of the species formerly called theropods would now not even be classified as dinosaurs. in


martin believes that maniraptorans are secondarily flightless birds, and that birds evolved from non – dinosaurian archosaurs, so that most of the species formerly called theropods would now not even be classified as dinosaurs. in 2005, mayr and peters described the anatomy of a very well preserved specimen of archaeopteryx, and determined that its anatomy was more like non - avian theropods than previously understood. specifically, they found that archaeopteryx had a primitive palatine, unreversed hallux, and hyper - extendable second toe. their phylogenetic analysis produced the controversial result that confuciusornis was closer to microraptor than to archaeopteryx, making the avialae a paraphyletic taxon. they also suggested that the ancestral paravian was able to fly or glide, and that the dromaeosaurs and troodontids were secondarily flightless ( or had lost the ability to glide ). corfe and butler criticized this work on methodological grounds. a challenge to all of these alternative scenarios came when turner and colleagues in 2007 described a new dromaeosaurid, mahakala, which they found to be the most basal and most primitive member of the dromaeosauridae, more primitive than microraptor. mahakala had short arms and no ability to glide. turner et al. also inferred that flight evolved only in the avialae, and these two points suggested that the ancestral dromaeosaurid could not glide or fly. based on this cladistic analysis, mahakala suggests that the ancestral condition for dromaeosaurids is non - volant. however in 2012, an expanded and revised study incorporating the most recent dromaeosaurid finds recovered the archaeopteryx - like xiaotingia as the most primitive member of the clade dromaeosauridae, which appears to suggest the earliest members of the clade may have been capable of flight. the authorship of the family dromaeosauridae is credited to william diller matthew and barnum brown, who erected it as a subfamily ( dromaeosaurinae ) of the family deinodontidae in 1922, containing only the new genus dromaeosaurus. dromaeosauridae, along with troodontidae, make up the infraorder deinonychosauria. the subfamilies of dromaeosauridae frequently shift in content


new genus dromaeosaurus. dromaeosauridae, along with troodontidae, make up the infraorder deinonychosauria. the subfamilies of dromaeosauridae frequently shift in content based on new analysis, but typically consist of the following groups. a number of dromaeosaurids have not been assigned to any particular subfamily, often because they are too poorly preserved to be placed confidently in phylogenetic analysis ( see section phylogeny below ), or because they are basal relative to the primary subdivisions of dromaeosauridae ( mahakala, for example, is the most primitive known dromaeosaurid and falls outside any named sub - group ). the most basal subfamily of dromaeosaurids is often found to be the unenlagiinae. this enigmatic group is the most poorly supported subfamily of dromaeosaurs and it is possible that some or all of its members belong outside of dromaeosauridae. the larger, ground - dwelling members like buitreraptor and unenlagia show strong flight adaptations, although they were probably too large to ' take off '. one member of this group, rahonavis, is very small, with well - developed wings that show evidence of quill knobs ( the attachment points for flight feathers ) and it is very likely that it could fly. the next most primitive clade of dromaeosaurs is the microraptoria. this group includes many of the smallest dromaeosaurs, which show adaptations for living in trees. all known dromaeosaur skin impressions hail from this group and all show an extensive covering of feathers and well - developed wings. like the unenlagiines, some species may have been capable of active flight. the subfamily velociraptorinae has traditionally included velociraptor, deinonychus, and saurornitholestes, and while the discovery of tsaagan lent support to this grouping, the inclusion of saurornitholestes is still uncertain. the dromaeosaurinae is usually found to consist of medium to giant - sized species, with generally box - shaped skulls ( the other subfamilies generally have narrower snouts ). the following classification of the various genera of dromaeosaurids follows the table provided in holtz, 2011 unless otherwise noted. - family dromaeosauridae dromaeosauridae


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a gas - cooled reactor ( gcr ) is a nuclear reactor that uses graphite as a neutron moderator and carbon dioxide ( helium can also be used ) as coolant. although there are many other types of reactor cooled by gas, the terms gcr and to a lesser extent gas cooled reactor are particularly used to refer to this type of reactor. the gcr was able to use natural uranium as fuel, enabling the countries that developed them to fabricate their own fuel without relying on other countries for supplies of enriched uranium, which was at the time of their development only available from the united states or soviet union. there were two main types of generation i gcr : the main difference between these two types is in the fuel cladding material. both types were mainly constructed in their countries of origin, with a few export sales : magnox plants to italy and japan, and a ungg to spain. both types used fuel cladding materials that were unsuitable for medium term storage under water, making reprocessing an essential part of the nuclear fuel cycle. both types were, in their countries of origin, also designed and used to produce weapons - grade plutonium, but at the cost of major interruption to their use for power generation despite the provision of online refuelling. in the uk, the magnox was replaced by the advanced gas - cooled reactor ( agr ), an improved generation ii gas cooled reactors. in france, the ungg was replaced by the pressurized water reactor ( pwr ). more recently, gcrs based on the declassified drawings of the early magnox reactors have been constructed by north korea at the yongbyon nuclear scientific research center. gas - cooled reactor types include : - heavy water gas cooled reactor ( hwgcr ) - gas - cooled reactor ( graphite moderated ) - advanced gas - cooled reactor - gas - cooled fast reactor - gas turbine modular helium reactor, general atomics design : he - cooled, graphite moderated - high temperature gas cooled reactor - pebble bed reactor - very high temperature reactor see also | this article about nuclear power and nuclear reactors for power generation is a stub. you can help wikipedia by expanding it. |


the mosque viewed from the southeast in 2012 | architectural type | | church with greek cross plan | | architectural style | | middle byzantine - comnenian | kalenderhane mosque ( turkish : kalenderhane camii ) is a former eastern orthodox church in istanbul, converted into a mosque by the ottomans. with high probability the church was originally dedicated to the theotokos kyriotissa. this building represents one among the few extant examples of a byzantine church with domed greek cross plan. the mosque is located in the fatih district of istanbul, turkey, in the picturesque neighborhood of vefa, and lies immediately to the south of the easternmost extant section of the aqueduct of valens, and less than one km to the southeast of the vefa kilise mosque. the first building on this site was a roman bath, followed by a sixth - century ( the dating was based on precise coin finds in stratigraphic excavation ) hall church with an apse laying up against the aqueduct of valens. later – possibly in the seventh century – a much larger church was built to the south of the first church. a third church, which reused the sanctuary and the apse ( later destroyed by the ottomans ) of the second one, can be dated to the end of the twelfth century, during the late comnenian period. it may date to between 1197 and 1204, since constantine stilbes alluded to its destruction in a fire in 1197. the church was surrounded by monastery buildings, which disappeared totally during the ottoman period. after the latin conquest of constantinople, the building was used by the crusaders as a roman catholic church, and partly officiated by franciscan clergy. after the conquest of constantinople in 1453, the church was assigned personally by mehmed ii to the kalenderi sect of the dervish. the dervishes used it as a zaviye and imaret ( public kitchen ), and the building has been known since as kalenderhane ( turkish : " the house of the kalenderi " ). in 1746, hacı besir aga ( d. 1747 ), the kizlar agası of the topkapı palace, built a mihrab, minbar and mahfil, completing the conversion of the building into a mosque. ravaged by fire and damaged by earthquakes, the mosque was restored in 1855 and again between 1880 and 1890. it was abandoned in the 1930s, after the collapse of the minaret due


in istanbul : a mosaic, one meter square, representing the " presentation of christ ", which is the only pre - iconoclastic exemplar of a religious subject surviving in the city, and a cycle of frescoes of the thirteenth century ( found in a chapel at the southeast corner of the building, and painted during the latin domination ) portraying the life of saint francis of assisi. this is the oldest known representation of the saint, and may have been painted only a few years after his death in 1226. both have now been detached and partially restored, and can be seen in the archaeological museum of istanbul. as a whole, the mosque of kalenderhane represents – together with the gul mosque in istanbul, the church of hagia sophia in thessaloniki and the church of the dormition in ( koimesis ) in iznik ( nicaea ), one of the main architectural examples of a domed greek cross church from the byzantine middle period. - mathews ( 1976 ), p. 171. - magdalino ( 2007 ) pp. 227 - 230. - muller - wiener ( 1977 ), p. 156. - he was the chief of the custodians of the harem in the sultan ' s palace. during the last years of his life he endowed several religious foundations. muller - wiener ( 1977 ), p. 156. - a book by the two authors of the restoration was published in 1997. - mathews ( 1976 ), p. 172. - this church was destroyed by an act of vandalism in 1920, but was studied some years before. krautheimer ( 1986 ). - krautheimer ( 1986 ), p. 317. - mathews, thomas f. ( 1976 ). the byzantine churches of istanbul : a photographic survey. university park : pennsylvania state university press. isbn 0 - 271 - 01210 - 2. - gulersoy, celik ( 1976 ). a guide to istanbul. istanbul : istanbul kitaplıgı. oclc 3849706. - muller - wiener, wolfgang ( 1977 ). bildlexikon zur topographie istanbuls : byzantion, konstantinupolis, istanbul bis zum beginn d. 17 jh ( in german ). tubingen : wasmuth. isbn 978 - 3 - 8030 - 1022 - 3. - krautheimer, richard ( 1986 ). architettura paleocristiana e bizantina ( in italian )


moral re - armament ( mra ) was an international moral and spiritual movement that, in 1938, developed from the american minister frank buchman ' s oxford group. buchman headed mra for 23 years until his death in 1961. in 2001 the movement was renamed initiatives of change. in 1938 europe was rearming militarily. frank buchman, initiator of the work which became known as the oxford group, was convinced that military rearmament alone would not resolve the crisis. at a meeting of 3, 000 in east ham town hall, london, on 29 may 1938, he launched a campaign for moral re - armament. " the crisis is fundamentally a moral one, " he said. " the nations must re - arm morally. moral recovery is essentially the forerunner of economic recovery. moral recovery creates not crisis but confidence and unity in every phase of life. " the phrase caught the mood of the time, and many public figures in britain spoke and wrote in support. british tennis star h. w. austin edited the book, moral rearmament ( the battle for peace ), which sold half a million copies. bunny austin remained committed to mra but had very little contact in the 1980s sensing that the movement had drifted away from its roots. two years later the novelist daphne du maurier published come wind, come weather, stories of ordinary britons who had found hope and new life through mra. she dedicated it to " frank buchman, whose initial vision made possible the world of the living characters in these stories, " and added, " what they are doing up and down the country in helping men and women solve their problems, and prepare them for whatever lies ahead, will prove to be of national importance in the days to come. " the book sold 650, 000 copies in britain alone. when war broke out, many of those active in the campaign for moral re - armament joined the allied forces. others worked to heighten morale and overcome bottlenecks, particularly in war - related industries. senator ( later president ) harry truman, chair of the senate ' s truman committee investigating war contracts, told a washington press conference in 1943 : " suspicions, rivalries, apathy, greed lie behind most of the bottlenecks. this is where the moral re - armament group comes in. where others have stood back and criticised, they have rolled up their sleeves and gone to work. they have already achieved remarkable results in bringing teamwork into industry, on the principles not of " who ' s right " but of " what


comes in. where others have stood back and criticised, they have rolled up their sleeves and gone to work. they have already achieved remarkable results in bringing teamwork into industry, on the principles not of " who ' s right " but of " what ' s right ". " in britain about 30 mra workers were exempted from military service to continue this work. but, when ernest bevin became minister of labour in 1940, he decided to conscript them. over 2, 500 clergy and ministers signed a petition opposing this, and 174 members of parliament put down a motion stating the same. bevin made clear that he would resign from the government if he was defeated, and the government put a three - line whip upon its supporters. as a result, the oxford group workers were excluded from the exemption from military service bill. at the end of the war, the mra workers returned to the task of establishing a lasting peace. in 1946, 50 swiss families active in the work of mra bought and restored a large, derelict hotel at caux, switzerland. this became a centre of european reconciliation, attended by thousands in the following years, including german chancellor adenauer and french foreign minister robert schuman. buchman was awarded the croix de chevalier of the legion d ' honneur by the french government, and also the german grand cross of the order of merit. the historians douglas johnston and cynthia sampson described the work as an " important contribution to one of the greatest achievements in the entire record of modern statecraft : the astonishingly rapid franco - german reconciliation after 1945. " in britain hundreds donated towards the purchase of the westminster theatre in london, as a living memorial to the men and women of moral re - armament who had died in war service. many servicemen gave their gratuities. for the next 50 years the theatre presented a host of plays and musicals focusing on the moral and spiritual base on which a just and democratic society depends. one of the best - known was the pantomime ' give a dog a bone ', which ran every christmas for many years, to the delight of thousands of children. in france the well - known philosopher gabriel marcel edited a book, ' un changement d ' esperance a la rencontre du rearmament moral ', which brings together the stories of a french socialist leader, brazilian docker, an african chief, a buddhist abbot, a canadian industrialist and many others who found a new approach through mra. the english edition, published by longmans, was titled ' fresh hope


together the stories of a french socialist leader, brazilian docker, an african chief, a buddhist abbot, a canadian industrialist and many others who found a new approach through mra. the english edition, published by longmans, was titled ' fresh hope for the world '. mra began holding conferences on mackinac island, michigan in 1942, first in a leased hotel and then at the island ' s grand hotel. by the early 1950s they acquired considerable land holdings on the island. between 1954 and 1960 constructed an extensive training center including a theatre and soundstage. the soundstage was used for the production of motion pictures, including the crowning experience, voice of the hurricane, and decision at midnight. in 1966 mra deeded much of the property on the island to mackinac college. several new facilities, including a classroom building and library were constructed. this independent and non - sectarian institution of higher education operated from 1966 until 1970. it developed programs in statesmanship and leadership, as well as more traditional curricula. in the 1950s and 1960s, mra ' s work expanded across the globe. buchman was a pioneer of multi - faith initiatives. as he said, " mra is the good road of an ideology inspired by god upon which all can unite. catholic, jew and protestant, hindu, muslim, buddhist and confucianist – all find they can change, where needed, and travel along this good road together. ". these ideas appealed to many in the african and asian countries moving toward independence from colonial rule. leaders of these independence struggles have paid tribute to mra ' s contribution to bringing unity between groups in conflict, and helping ease the transition into independence. in 1956 king mohammed v of morocco sent a message to buchman : " i thank you for all you have done for morocco in the course of these last testing years. moral re - armament must become for us muslims as much an incentive as it is for you christians and for all nations. " in 1960 archbishop makarios and dr kucuk, president and vice - president of cyprus, jointly sent the first flag of independent cyprus to frank buchman at caux in recognition of mra ' s help. some attacked the movement. in the 1950s mra was regularly attacked by radio moscow overseas service. in november 1952 it said, " moral re - armament supplants the inevitable class war by the ' permanent struggle between good and evil ', " and " has the power to attract radical revolutionary minds. " the catholic theologian john


overseas service. in november 1952 it said, " moral re - armament supplants the inevitable class war by the ' permanent struggle between good and evil ', " and " has the power to attract radical revolutionary minds. " the catholic theologian john hardon claimed that the movement ' s political ideas were naive, since they appeared to assume that moral awakening would solve " social problems that have vexed humanity since the dawn of history ". other catholics took a different view. in 1993 cardinal franz koenig, archbishop of vienna, wrote that " buchman was a turning - point in the history of the modern world through his ideas. " mra has always been active in industry and business. in buchman ' s view, management and labour could ' work together like the fingers on the hand, ' and in order to make that possible he aimed to answer ' the self - will in management and labour who are both so right, and so wrong. ' mra ' s role was to offer the experience which would free those people ' s hearts and minds from the motivations or prejudices which prevent just solutions. william grogan, an international vice - president of the american transport workers ' union, said that ' between 1946 and 1953 national union leaders, local union officials, shop stewards and rank and file union members from 75 countries had received training ' in mra principles. evert kupers, for 20 years president of the dutch confederation of trades unions, stated that ' the thousands who have visited caux have been deeply impressed by its message for our age and by the real comradeship they found there. ' in france maurice mercier, secretary - general of the textile workers within the force ouvriere, said : ' class war today means one half of humanity against the other half, each possessing a powerful arsenal of destruction... not one cry of hatred, not one hour of work lost, one one drop of blood shed - that is the revolution to which mra calls bosses and workers. ' today the caux round table principles for business are being implemented by businesses in many countries. the movement had christian roots, but grew into an informal, international network of people of all faiths and backgrounds. it was based around what it called ' the four absolutes ' ( absolute honesty, absolute purity, absolute unselfishness and absolute love ) and encouraged its members to be actively involved in political and social issues. one of the movement ' s core ideas was that changing the world starts with seeking change in oneself. rename


honesty, absolute purity, absolute unselfishness and absolute love ) and encouraged its members to be actively involved in political and social issues. one of the movement ' s core ideas was that changing the world starts with seeking change in oneself. rename to " initiatives of change " in 2001 the mra movement changed its name to initiatives of change ( iofc ). a non - governmental organization based in caux, switzerland, initiatives of change international serves as the legal and administrative entity to federate the national bodies of initiatives of change for purposes of cooperation with the entities such as the united nations and the council of europe. national initiatives include " [ www. hopeinthecities. org hope in the cities ] " in the united states, the " [ www. cauxforum. net caux forum for human security ] " in switzerland, and the " [ www. iccfg. net ic centre for governance ] " in india. - buchman, frank n. d., remaking the world ( london, 1955 ), p. 46. - lean, garth frank buchman – a life, p279 - lean, garth ; frank buchman, p 300 - lean, garth. frank buchman – a life, p. 324 - lean, garth. frank buchman, p 382 - edward luttwak, " franco - german reconciliation : the overlooked role of the moral re - armament movement ", in religion, the missing dimension of statecraft, douglas johnston and cynthia sampson ( editors ), oxford university press 1994 - johnston and sampson, religion, the missing dimension of statecraft, oxford university press, 1994 - lean garth. frank buchman : a life, p. 340 - marcel, gabriel ed. un changement d ' esperance a la rencontre du rearmament moral librarie plon 1958 - buchman, remaking the world, p. 166. - lean, garth. frank buchman, p 454 - lean, garth. frank buchman, p 524 - lean, garth. frank buchman, p. 418 - an evaluation of moral rearmament, by fr. john a. hardon, s. j. - lean, garth. frank buchman, p 2 - grogan, william ; john riffe of the steelworkers, coward, mccann 1959, p140 - foreword to ' world labour and caux ', caux 1950 - piguet and sentis, ' ce monde que dieu nous


a pit orchestra is a type of orchestra that accompanies performers in musicals, operas, and other shows involving music. the terms was also used for orchestras accompanying silent movies when more than a piano was used. in performances of operas and ballets, the pit orchestra is typically similar in size to a symphony orchestra, though it may contain smaller string and brass sections, depending upon the piece. such orchestras may vary in size from approximately 30 musicians ( early baroque and classical opera ) to as many as 90 - 100 musicians ( wagnerian opera ). however, because of financial, space, and volume concerns, the musical theatre pit orchestra is considerably smaller ( at most 20 - 30 musicians, including not more than ten string players ). typically, pit orchestras play in a lowered area in front of the stage called an orchestra pit. inside the pit, the conductor stands towards the stage and with his or her back towards the audience to coordinate the music with the actions of the singers, dancers and actors, while the orchestra sits facing the conductor and audience. if a performance is funded enough, there may also be a camera that broadcasts what the conductor is doing live to tv screens at the back of the theatre. the conductor may also sit at a keyboard ( or two ) and conduct as well as play. this is often the case when a show only requires a small orchestra, or on national tours, where the instrumentation is often reduced from the original arrangement and one or two keyboard players substitute for several instruments. music parts for pit orchestra woodwind players in musical theatre are normally divided into " reed books ". orchestration varies with each show based on the type of music that will be performed, such as jazz, classical, or blues. for example, a reed 1 book may contain music for piccolo, flute, eb alto saxophone, bb clarinet, and / or oboe. a musician handed a reed book would be expected to play each part. because the musician plays so many different instruments, he or she is referred to as a " doubler " ( even though the reed books may have up to five instruments each ). musicians who play in pit orchestras are not only required to play multiple instruments at times, but they must also be familiar and able to play in multiple keys, styles, and tempos and make a switch instantaneously. the orchestration for a musical is written in a key best suited to the singer. some keys are more difficult to play in than others because of the increased attention that greater amounts of sharps and flats require. musicals also tend


switch instantaneously. the orchestration for a musical is written in a key best suited to the singer. some keys are more difficult to play in than others because of the increased attention that greater amounts of sharps and flats require. musicals also tend to have a number of styles which can range from a soulful ballad to an involved funk tune to a hard rock song. many musicians have been trained to play in a certain style but in order to play in pit orchestras, one must be able to play them all. because musicals are live, many elements can change from show to show ; pit orchestra musicians consequently should be able to play different tempos every night and even skip through their music to a spot if an actor messes up. preparing to play in a pit orchestra although members of a pit orchestra are not required to demonstrate great stage presence, and they may work out of sight from much of the audience, they can generally be seen from the balcony seats and are thus required to adhere to standard rules of dress and appearance preparation by musicians in a pit orchestra may consist of buying a recording of a show, listening to it, and play along with the recording. pit orchestra size examples pit orchestras can range from large orchestras to small rock combos. while a pit orchestra usually plays in the orchestra pit, there are times when they are on stage in the background ( this is usually for rock musicals ). below are examples pit orchestra examples from five major theatrical license companies : music theatre international, tams - witmark, samuel french, inc., rodgers and hammerstein theatricals, and theatrical rights worldwide ( excluding any conductor scores unless needed ). you can easily see the varying sizes of pit orchestras. although some books can be played by more than one musician, the difference in size is still observable.


section fifteen of the canadian charter of rights and freedoms of rights and freedoms | part of the constitution act, 1982. | | guarantee of rights and freedoms | | 3, 4, 5 | | 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 | | official languages of canada | | 16, 16. 1, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22 | | minority language education rights | | 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31 | | application of charter | section 15 of the canadian charter of rights and freedoms contains guaranteed equality rights. as part of the constitution, the section prohibits certain forms of discrimination perpetrated by the governments of canada with the exception of ameliorative programs ( affirmative action ) and rights or privileges guaranteed by or under the constitution of canada in respect of denominational, separate or dissentient schools ( religious education ). rights under section 15 include racial equality, sexual equality, mental disability, and physical disability. in its jurisprudence, it has also been a source of gay rights in canada. these rights are guaranteed to " every individual, " that is, every natural person. this wording excludes " legal persons " such as corporations, contrasting other sections that use the word " everyone, " where " legal persons " were meant to be included. section 15 has been in force since 1985. under the heading of " equality rights " this section states : | “ | | 15. ( 1 ) every individual is equal before and under the law and has the right to the equal protection and equal benefit of the law without discrimination and, in particular, without discrimination based on race, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion, sex, age or mental or physical disability. ( 2 ) subsection ( 1 ) does not preclude any law, program or activity that has as its object the amelioration of conditions of disadvantaged individuals or groups including those that are disadvantaged because of race, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion, sex, age or mental or physical disability. the canadian bill of rights of 1960 had guaranteed the " right of the individual to equality before the law and the protection of the law. " equal protection of the law is a right that has been guaranteed by the equal protection clause in the fourteenth amendment to the united states constitution since 1868. section 15 itself dates back to the earliest draft of the charter, published in october 1980, but it was worded differently. it read, | “ | | ( 1 ) everyone has the right to


fourteenth amendment to the united states constitution since 1868. section 15 itself dates back to the earliest draft of the charter, published in october 1980, but it was worded differently. it read, | “ | | ( 1 ) everyone has the right to equality before the law and to equal protection of the law without discrimination because of race, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion, age or sex. ( 2 ) this section does not preclude any law, program or activity that has as its object the amelioration of conditions of disadvantaged persons or groups. during the drafting, the guarantee to " everyone " was dropped in favour of " every individual, " with the intent that corporations could not invoke equality rights. in addition, while the original version spoke of equality before the law and equal protection of the law, the section ultimately enacted included guarantees of equality under the law and equal benefit of the law. the reason for these additions was to encourage a generous reading of section 15. in the bill of rights cases attorney general of canada v. lavell ( 1974 ) and bliss v. canada ( 1979 ), supreme court justice roland ritchie had said only the application, and not the outcome, of the law must be equal, thereby necessitating an explicit guarantee of equality under the law ; and that legal benefits need not be equal, thereby necessitating an explicit guarantee of equal benefit of the law. though the charter itself came into effect on april 17, 1982, section 15 was not brought into force until april 17, 1985, in accordance with section 32 ( 2 ) of the charter. the reason for this was so that provincial and federal governments would have enough time to review their legislation and make the appropriate changes to any discriminatory laws. meaning and purpose of equality according to the supreme court of canada ' s section 15 jurisprudence, the equality guarantees of section 15 are aimed at preventing the " violation of essential human dignity and freedom through the imposition of disadvantage, stereotyping, or political and social prejudices, and to promote a society in which all persons enjoy equal recognition at law as human beings or as members of canadian society, equally capable and equally deserving of concern, respect and consideration. " ( iacobucci j. in law v. canada, ) to that end, the charter recognizes four dimensions of equality, including substantive equality. - equality before the law is equality in the administration of justice, where all individuals are subject to the same criminal laws in the same manner by law enforcement and the courts. -


that end, the charter recognizes four dimensions of equality, including substantive equality. - equality before the law is equality in the administration of justice, where all individuals are subject to the same criminal laws in the same manner by law enforcement and the courts. - equality under the law is equality in the substance of the law, where the content of the law is equal and fair to everyone so that everyone experiences the same result. - equal benefit of the law ensures that benefits imposed by law will be proportionate. - equal protection of the law ensure that the protections imposed by law will be proportionate so that the human dignity of every person is equally safeguarded by the law. unlike formal equality, which overlooks personal differences, substantive equality is concerned with the impact of the law on different groups of individuals. substantive equality requires that there be an equal impact on the person affected by the law. application of section fifteen after law v. canada ( 1999 ) the question of whether dignity was affected was key to a section 15 analysis. in r. v. kapp ( 2008 ), the problems with the dignity analysis were recognized and the dignity analysis was jettisoned. the court mandated that the test is, as it was before, the one found in andrews v. law society of british columbia ( 1989 ) : ( 1 ) is there differential treatment on an analogous or enumerated ground? ( 2 ) does this ground cause prejudice or stereotyping? enumerated or analogous grounds the concept of enumerated or analogous grounds originated in the essential 1989 andrews case to refer to personal characteristics that, when being the basis of discrimination, show the discrimination is unconstitutional under section 15. there are nine enumerated grounds explicitly mentioned in section 15, although they are not actually numbered. in practice, the enumerated grounds have been given liberal and broad interpretations. for example, discrimination on the basis of pregnancy has been ruled to be sex discrimination ( brooks v. canada safeway ltd. ). as section 15 ' s words " in particular " hint that the explicitly named grounds do not exhaust the scope of section 15, additional grounds can be considered if it can be shown that the group or individual ' s equality rights were denied in comparison with another group that shares all of the same characteristics except for the personal characteristic at issue. a personal characteristic is considered analogous to the ones enumerated in section 15 if it is " immutable " or cannot be changed or can only be changed at excessive cost ( constructively immutable ). thus far, several analogous grounds


. a personal characteristic is considered analogous to the ones enumerated in section 15 if it is " immutable " or cannot be changed or can only be changed at excessive cost ( constructively immutable ). thus far, several analogous grounds have been identified : - sexual orientation ( egan v. canada, vriend v. alberta, m. v. h. little sisters book and art emporium v. canada ) this finding has led provincial courts ( the supreme court declined in reference re same - sex marriage to rule on the issue as the government had voiced its intent to legalize them anyway ) to find that laws against same - sex marriage in canada would be unconstitutional. in halpern v. canada ( attorney general ) ( 2003 ), the court of appeal for ontario used section 15 to legalize same - sex marriage in ontario. - marital status ( miron v. trudel,, nova scotia v. walsh ), - off - reserve aboriginal status / " aboriginality - residence " ( corbiere v. canada ). - citizenship ( andrews v. law society of british columbia,, lavoie v. canada ) as well, the courts have rejected several analogous grounds including : - having a " taste for marijuana ". ( r. v. malmo - levine ) - employment status ( reference re workers ' compensation act, delisle v. canada ) - litigants against the crown ( rudolph wolff v. canada ) - province of prosecution / residence ( r. v. turpin, r. v. s. ( s. ) ) - membership in military ( r. v. genereux ) - new resident of province ( haig v. canada ) - persons committing crimes outside canada ( r. v. finta ) - begging and extreme poverty ( r. v. banks ) past interpretations - the law test as first outlined in law v. canada, discrimination can be identified through a three - step test. - did the law, program, or activity impose differential treatment between the claimant and a comparator group? that is, was a distinction created between the groups in purpose or effect? - if so, was the differential treatment based on enumerated or analogous grounds? - if so, did the law in question have a purpose or effect that is discriminatory within the meaning of the equality guarantee? this step asks whether there is a formal distinction between the claimant and a comparator group based on one or more personal characteristics or else does it


in question have a purpose or effect that is discriminatory within the meaning of the equality guarantee? this step asks whether there is a formal distinction between the claimant and a comparator group based on one or more personal characteristics or else does it fail to take into account the claimant ' s current disadvantaged position? the selection of the comparator group is integral. they must possess all the qualities of the claimant except for the personal characteristic at issue. ( corbiere v. canada 2 s. c. r. 203 ) in hodge v. canada ( minister of human resources development ) ( 2004 ), it was noted that a court may reject a claimant ' s choice for a comparator group, and that choosing the wrong comparator group may cause the rights claim to fail. in withler v. canada ( attorney general ) ( 2011 ), the supreme court has jettisoned the comparator group requirement, mandating that instead a contextual analysis is the way to go. they recognized that comparator group analysis was leading to much injustice, something also noted in r. v. kapp. for discrimination to be found it must be determined if the burden or denial of benefit harms an individual ' s human dignity ( law v. canada ). that is, the discrimination will marginalize, ignore, or devalue an individual ' s sense of self - respect and self - worth. law suggests four " contextual factors " which can help guide a contextual analysis of whether the imputed distinction violates the human dignity of the claimant. none of these are determinative of discrimination, and the court must not consider all of them in every case. this list is also not exhaustive, although the standard law analysis has yet to develop any additional factors : - pre - existing disadvantage - correlation between the grounds of the claim and the actual needs, capacities, and circumstances - ameliorative purpose or effect of the law on more disadvantaged groups - nature and scope of interest jurisprudence has shown that each of these factors are weighed differently depending on the context. pre - existing disadvantage asks whether there was a pre - existing disadvantage or vulnerability experienced by the claimant. in corbiere v. canada mclachlin described this factor to be the most compelling and suggestive of discrimination if proven. however, the absence of a pre - existing disadvantage does not necessarily preclude a claimant from succeeding as seen in trociuk v. british columbia. with correlation between grounds and reality


the most compelling and suggestive of discrimination if proven. however, the absence of a pre - existing disadvantage does not necessarily preclude a claimant from succeeding as seen in trociuk v. british columbia. with correlation between grounds and reality, the claimant must show that there is a link between the grounds raise and the claimant ' s actual needs, circumstances, and capacities. discrimination will be more difficult to establish if the law takes the qualities of the claimant into account. in gosselin v. quebec ( attorney general ) the court was sharply divided on this point. the majority said that the law that provided less social assistance to youth was connected to the ability of youth to find employment easily. however, the dissenters insisted that the evidence did not show this to be actual qualities, but were rather stereotypes. the ameliorative purpose factor asks whether there is a distinction made for the purpose of aiding an even less advantaged group. if this can be shown then it is unlikely that the claimant would be able to show a violation of their dignity. however, lovelace v. ontario warned that the analysis should not be reduced to a balancing of relative disadvantages. the final factor of nature and scope considers the nature and scope of the interest affected by the law. the more severe and localized the results of the law for those affected the more likely to show that the distinctions in treatment responsible are discriminatory. to overcome this barrier, the federal government expanded the court challenges program of canada in 1985 to fund test cases challenging federal legislation in relation to the equality rights guaranteed by the charter. some funding has been provided to challenge provincial laws under a variety of programs in the past, but its availability has varied considerably from province to province. in september 2006, the federal government announced that it would be " trimming the fat and refocusing spending on the priorities of canadians. " this included cutting all funding to the court challenges program. - hogg, peter w. constitutional law of canada. 2003 student ed. ( scarborough, ontario : thomson canada limited, 2003 ), 1067. - hogg, pages 1062 - 3. - hogg, page 744. - hogg, pages 1066 - 1067. - court challenges program of canada - arne peltz & betsy gibbons, " deep discount justice : the challenge of going to court with a charter claim and no money ", 1999. url accessed on march 10, 2006. - canada department of finance " press release ", url


sextus roscius ( fl. 1st century bc ), tried in rome for patricide in 80 bc, was defended successfully by the young cicero in his first major litigation. the defense involved some risk for cicero, since he accused lucius cornelius chrysogonus, a freedman of sulla, then dictator of rome, of corruption and involvement in the crime. caecilia the priestess | wikisource has original text related to this article : | before the trial, roscius was sheltered by caecilia, who appears to be caecilia metella balearica major, a former vestal virgin by this time ( since she had her own house ). this caecilia was a relative of sulla ' s wife caecilia metella dalmatica, and had powerful connections among the roman elite ; her intercession for the young julius caesar saved his life and political career. in 80 bc, the metelli were staunchly in sulla ' s camp. her brother was quintus caecilius metellus nepos, a former consul whose stepdaughter mucia tertia was now wife of pompey ; her cousins included quintus caecilius metellus numidicus pius, chief ally of sulla. her widowed brother - in - law was appius claudius pulcher, consul 79 bc as another ally of sulla. references in popular culture - the trial of sextus roscius is depicted in steven saylor ' s first roma sub rosa mystery novel, roman blood. - the trial is also depicted in colleen mccullough ' s novel fortune ' s favorites, part of her masters of rome series. - oration for sextus roscius of ameria " caecilia, the sister of nepos, the daughter of balearicus " | this ancient roman biographical article is a stub. you can help wikipedia by expanding it. |


| states | | uttarakhand, uttar pradesh, haryana | | - left | | tons, hindon, sharda, kunta, gir, rishiganga, hanuman ganga | | - right | | chambal, betwa, ken, sindh | | cities | | yamuna nagar, delhi, mathura, agra, etawah, kalpi | | - location | | banderpooch peaks, uttarkashi district, uttarakhand, india | | - elevation | | 3, 293 m ( 10, 804 ft ) | | - location | | allahabad, india | | - elevation | | 74 m ( 243 ft ) | | length | | 1, 376 km ( 855 mi ) | | basin | | 366, 223 km2 ( 141, 399 sq mi ) | the yamuna ( pron : ˈjʌmʊnə ) ( sanskrit : यमना ), sometimes called jamuna ( hindi : जमना ) or jumna, is the largest tributary river of the ganges ( ganga ) in northern india. originating from the yamunotri glacier at a height of 6, 387 metres on the south western slopes of banderpooch peaks in the lower himalayas in uttarakhand, it travels a total length of 1, 376 kilometers ( 855 mi ) and has a drainage system of 366, 223 square kilometres ( 141, 399 sq mi ), 40. 2 % of the entire ganges basin, before merging with the ganges at triveni sangam, allahabad, the site for the kumbha mela every twelve years. it crosses several states, uttarakhand, haryana and uttar pradesh, passing by himachal pradesh and later delhi, and meets several of its tributaries on the way, including tons, its largest and longest tributary in uttarakhand, chambal, which has its own large basin, followed by sindh, the betwa, and ken. most importantly it creates the highly fertile alluvial, yamuna - ganges doab region between itself and the ganges in the indo - gangetic plain. nearly 57 million people depend on the yamuna waters. with an annual flow of about 10, 000 cubic billion metres ( cbm ) and usage of 4, 400 cbm ( of which irrigation constitutes 96 per cent ), the river accounts for more than 70 per cent of delhi ’ s water supplies.


with an annual flow of about 10, 000 cubic billion metres ( cbm ) and usage of 4, 400 cbm ( of which irrigation constitutes 96 per cent ), the river accounts for more than 70 per cent of delhi ’ s water supplies. just like the ganges, the yamuna too is highly venerated in hinduism and worshipped as goddess yamuna, throughout its course. in hindu mythology, she is the daughter of sun god, surya, and sister of yama, the god of death, hence also known as yami and according to popular legends, bathing in its sacred waters frees one from the torments of death. the water of yamuna is of " reasonably good quality " through its length from yamunotri in the himalayas to wazirabad in delhi, about 375 km, where the discharge of waste water through 15 drains between wazirabad barrage and okhla barrage renders the river severely polluted after wazirabad in delhi. one official describes the river as a " sewage drain " with biochemical oxygen demand ( bod ) values ranging from 14 to 28 mg / l and high coliform content. there are three main sources of pollution in the river, namely households and municipal disposal sites, soil erosion resulting from deforestation occurring to make way for agriculture along with resulting chemical wash - off from fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides and run - off from commercial activity and industrial sites. course and catchment the source of yamuna lies in the yamunotri glacier at a height 6, 387 metres, on the south western slopes of banderpooch peaks, which lie in the mussoorie range of lower himalayas, in the uttarkashi district, uttarakhand, north of haridwar. yamunotri temple, a shrine dedicated to the goddess, yamuna is one of the holiest shrines in hinduism, and part of the chota char dham yatra circuit. also standing close to the temple, on its 13 km trek route, that follows the right bank of the river, lies the markendeya tirtha, where the sage markandeya wrote the markandeya purana. from here it flows southwards, for about 200 km through the lower himalayas and the shivalik hills range and morainic deposited are found in its steep upper yamuna village, highlighted with geomorphic features such as interlocking spurs, steep rock benches, and stream terraces.


for about 200 km through the lower himalayas and the shivalik hills range and morainic deposited are found in its steep upper yamuna village, highlighted with geomorphic features such as interlocking spurs, steep rock benches, and stream terraces. large terraces formed over a long period of time can be seen in the lower course of the river, like ones near naugoan. an important part of its early catchment area totalling 2, 320 square kilometres ( 900 sq mi ) lies in himachal pradesh, and an important tributary draining the upper catchment area is the tons, yamuna ' s largest and longest tributary, which rises from the hari - ki - dun valley and holds water more than the main stream, which it merges after kalsi near dehradun. the entire drainage system of the river stretches all the way between giri - sutlej catchment in himachal and yamuna - bhilangna catchment in garhwal, indeed the southern ridge of shimla is also drained into this system. kalanag ( 6, 387 metres ( 20, 955 ft ) ) is the highest point of the entire yamuna basin. other tributaries in the region are the giri, rishi ganga, kunta, hanuman ganga and bata tributaries, which drain the upper catchment area of the vast yamuna basin. thereafter the river descends on to the plains of doon valley, at dak pathar near dehradun. here through a weir dam, the water is diverted into a canal for power generation, little further down where yamuna is met by the assan river, lies the assan barrage, which hosts a bird sanctuary as well. after passing the sikh pilgrimage town of paonta sahib, it reaches tajewala in yamuna nagar district, of haryana, where a dam built in 1873, is the originating place of two important canals, the western yamuna canal and eastern yamuna canal, which irrigate the states of haryana and uttar pradesh. the western yamuna canal ( wyc ) crosses yamuna nagar, karnal and panipat before reaching the haiderpur treatment plant, which supplies part of municipal water supply to delhi, further it also receives waste water from yamuna nagar and panipat cities. yamuna is replenished again after this by seasonal streams and groundwater accrual, in fact during the dry season, it remains dry in many stretches from tajewala


receives waste water from yamuna nagar and panipat cities. yamuna is replenished again after this by seasonal streams and groundwater accrual, in fact during the dry season, it remains dry in many stretches from tajewala till delhi, where it enters near palla village after traversing 224 kilometres ( 139 mi ). the yamuna also creates natural state borders between the himachal pradesh and uttarakhand states, and further down between the state of haryana and uttar pradesh. along with the ganges to which run almost parallel after it touches the indo - gangetic plain, the largest alluvial fertile plain in the world, it creates the ganges - yamuna doab region spread across 69, 000 square kilometres ( 27, 000 sq mi ), one - third of the entire plain, and today known for its agricultural outputs, prominent among them is the cultivation of basmati rice. the plain itself supports one - third of india ' s population through its farming. | state | | catchment area ( km2 ) | | % of catchment area | | uttar pradesh and uttarakhand | | 74, 208 | | 21. 5 % | subsequently, it flows through the states of delhi, haryana and uttar pradesh, before merging with the ganges at a sacred spot known as triveni sangam in allahabad after traversing a distance of 1, 376 kilometers ( 855 mi ). here pilgrims travel by boats to platforms erected mid stream to offer prayers. during the kumbh mela, held every 12 years, the ghats around the sangam are venue of large congregation of people, who take dip in the sacred waters of the confluence. the cities of baghpat, delhi, noida, mathura, agra, firozabad, etawah, kalpi, hamirpur, allahabad lie on its banks. at etawah, it meets it another important tributary, chambal, followed by a host of tributaries further down, including, sindh, the betwa, and ken. ancient literature and history literally meaning " twins " in sanskrit, as it runs parallel to the ganges, its name is mentioned at many places in the rig veda, written during the vedic period ca between 1700 – 1100 bc, and also in the later atharvaveda, and the brahmanas including aitareya brahmana and shatapatha brahmana. in rig veda, the story of the yamuna