5 % albumin as a colloid. it has a higher cop than 5 % albumin ( 30 versus 20 mm hg, respectively ) and causes a greater plasma volume expansion ( up to 30 % greater than the infused volume ). it also has a long elimination half - life ( 17 days ), but this is misleading because the oncotic effects of hetastarch disappear within 24 hours. hetastarch molecules are constantly cleaved by amylase enzymes in the bloodstream before their clearance by the kidneys. serum amylase levels are often elevated ( 2 to 3 times above normal levels ) for the first few days after hetastarch infusion, and return to normal at 5 to 7 days after fluid therapy. this hyperamylasemia should not be mistaken for early pancreatitis. serum lipase levels remain normal, which is an important distinguishing feature. anaphylactic reactions to hetastarch are decidedly rare ( incidence as low as 0. 0004 % ). laboratory test coagulopathy ( prolonged partial thromboplastin time from an interaction with factor viii ) can occur, but is not accompanied by bleeding. coagulopathy claims have dogged hetastarch for years, without evidence of hetastarch - induced bleeding. pentastarch is a low - molecular - weight - derivative of hetastarch that is available as a 10 % solution in isotonic saline. although it is not currently approved for clinical use in the united states, there is considerable evidence indicating that pentastarch is an effective and safe plasma volume expander. pentastarch contains smaller but more numerous starch molecules than hetastarch, and thus has a higher colloid osmotic pressure. it is more effective as a volume expander than hetastarch, and can increase plasma volume by 1. 5 times the infusion volume. the oncotic effects dissipate after 12 hours. pentastarch shows less of a tendency to interact with coagulation proteins than hetastarch, but the significance of this tendency is unclear. the dextrans are glucose polymers produced by a bacterium ( leuconostoc ) incubated in a sucrose medium. first introduced in the 1940s, these colloids are not popular ( at least in the united states ) because of the perceived risk of adverse reactions. the two most common dextran preparations are 10 % dextran - 40 and 6 % dextran


in the 1940s, these colloids are not popular ( at least in the united states ) because of the perceived risk of adverse reactions. the two most common dextran preparations are 10 % dextran - 40 and 6 % dextran - 70, both diluted in isotonic saline. both dextran preparations are hyperoncotic to plasma ( cop = 40 mm hg ). dextran - 40 causes a larger increase in plasma volume than dextran - 70, but the effects last only a few hours. dextran - 70 is the preferred preparation because of its prolonged action. dextrans produce a dose - related bleeding tendency by inhibiting platelet aggregation, reducing activation of factor viii, and promoting fibrinolysis. the hemostatic defects are minimized by limiting the daily dextran dose to 20 ml / kg. anaphylactic reactions were originally reported in as many as 5 % of patients receiving dextran infusions. however, this has improved considerably in the last 20 years because of improvements in antigen detection and desensitization and improvements in preparation purity. the current incidence of anaphylaxis is 0. 032 %. dextrans coat the surface of red blood cells and can interfere with the ability to cross - match blood. red cell preparations must be washed to eliminate this problem. dextrans also increase the erythrocyte sedimentation rate as a result of their interactions with red blood cells. finally, dextrans have been implicated as a cause of acute renal failure. the proposed mechanism is a hyperoncotic state with reduced filtration pressure. however, this mechanism is unproven, and renal failure occurs only rarely in association with dextran infusions. there is considerable disagreement about the most appropriate fluid for volume resuscitation in critically ill patients. the following is a brief description of the issues involved in the colloid - crystalloid debate. because crystalloid fluids fill primarily the interstitial space, these fluids are not useful for filling the vascular space. the early popularity of crystalloid fluid resuscitation in hypovolemia stems from two observations made about 40 years ago. the first is the response to mild hemorrhage, which involves a shift of fluid from the interstitial space to the vascular space. the second observation stems from studies in an animal model of hemorrhagic shock, where survival was much improved if a crystalloid fluid was given along with rein


which involves a shift of fluid from the interstitial space to the vascular space. the second observation stems from studies in an animal model of hemorrhagic shock, where survival was much improved if a crystalloid fluid was given along with reinfusion of the shed blood volume. the combination of these two observations has been interpreted as indicating that the major consequence of hemorrhage is an interstitial fluid deficit, and that replacement of interstitial fluid with crystalloid fluids is important for survival. the interstitial fluid deficit is predominant only when blood loss is mild ( less than 15 % of the blood volume ), and in this situation, no volume resuscitation is necessary ( because the body is capable of fully compensating for the loss of blood volume ). when blood loss is more severe, the priority is to keep the vascular space filled and thereby support the cardiac output. because colloid fluids are about three times more potent than crystalloid fluids for increasing vascular volume and supporting the cardiac output, colloid fluids are more effective than crystalloid fluids for volume resuscitation in moderate to severe blood loss. crystalloid resuscitation can achieve the same endpoint as colloid resuscitation, but larger volumes of crystalloid fluid ( about three times the volume of colloid fluids ) must be used. this latter approach is less efficient, yet it is the one favored by crystalloid users. despite the superiority of colloid fluids for expanding plasma volume, colloid fluid resuscitation does not confer a higher survival rate in patients with hypovolemic shock. this lack of improved outcomes is a major rallying point for crystalloid users, but it does not negate the fact that colloid fluids are more effective for maintaining blood volume in patients who are actively bleeding. the biggest disadvantage of colloid resuscitation is the higher cost of colloid fluids. using equivalent volumes of 250 ml for colloid fluids and 1000 ml for crystalloid fluids, the cost of colloid resuscitation is three times as high ( if hetastarch is used ) to six times as high ( if albumin is used ) than volume resuscitation with isotonic saline. the risk of edema has been used to discredit each type of fluid. because crystalloid fluids distribute primarily in the interstitial space, edema is an expected feature of crystalloid fluid resuscitation. however, edema is also a risk with colloid fluid resuscit


there are four kinds of karma bonds. these bonds describe the way in which the karma system operates. 1. numerical strength of bond ( pradesa bandh ). a soul has innumerable pradesa or space points. truly speaking the soul is indivisible but for the purpose of theoretical explanation it is assumed to have numerous space points. numerable, innumerable or infinite number of karma varganas may bond with each soul pradesa depending on the strength of action. if the strength of action is low, less number of karma bond with each pradesa and so on. the pradesa bond means the number of the karma vargana binding with each soul pradesa. the bonding is uniform over all the pradesas. why such a large number of karma varganas bond with each pradesa? this is because only infinite number of karma can obscure the ability of the soul. further, only the karma in the active mode discharge this function as described below. 2. nature of karma bond ( prakriti bandh ). there are various types of karma, their nature is identified by the particular property of the soul they obscure. there are eight main properties of the soul and so there are eight main types of karma. this is an important subject and is taken up separately below. 3. duration of bond ( stithi bandh ). a karma remains bound to the karma body for a given duration of time. the total duration consists of two parts passive and active duration. in the passive period called abadhakala the karma exercises no effect on the soul. in the active or experience period the karma manifests itself and the soul experiences the prescribed effect of the karma. for example when knowledge obscuring karma rise, the power of knowing of the soul is reduced. when the active period is over the karma sheds and leaves the karma body. the passive period is not fixed and varies between two limits, the minimum limit and the maximum limit. the passive period cannot be less than the minimum limit and cannot be more than the maximum limit. the minimum limit can be about one or a few hours depending on the type of karma and the maximum limit is of few thousand years. the duration of the passive period is fixed at the time of bondage of karma some where between the two limits depending on the strength of the passion, lesser the strength smaller is the duration. the termination of the passive period is known as karma vipak or the rise of karma. now the karma becomes


introduction / history the jambi people also known as the jambi malay or melayu jambi, primarily live in central sumatra. they occupy the regencies of batanghari, bungo - tebo, sarolangun, muaro jambi, merangin and the capital city of jambi province. the jambi language is part of the malay language cluster. their culture has been heavily influenced by the minangkabau culture. most of the area inhabited by the jambi is a lowland basin of dense jungles, peat bogs, swamps and rivers. this area is drained by the mighty batang hari river and its many tributaries. the river system, which is 409 miles / 655 km long, is important both as a means of transportation and as a source of fish. the jambi are adept swimmers and fishermen. they use eight types of traditional fishing tackle, as well as the modern fishnet. they are great eaters of fish and complain that a meal is incomplete if lacking the distinctive fish flavor. what are their lives like? most jambi earn their livelihood from fishing. to catch fish they use both modern and traditional methods and equipment. they catch, sell and eat over eleven types of fish. other ways of making a living include farming and plantation work. the jambi are a very proud people due to their links with the ancient malay kingdom that flourished from the 7th century ad until the middle ages. sadly, this pride now threatens their economic development due to their unwillingness to accept modernization and reform. this can be seen when comparing their lives to those of transmigrants to the jambi area, who now enjoy a higher standard of living than the native jambi. transportation between neighboring communities is done more frequently by water than by land. the reason is that most jambi communities are located in forest areas with thick undergrowth and extensive swamps which make land travel difficult. many traditional ceremonies and special rituals are performed by the jambi. these are for events such as the birth of a child, giving a name to the child, cutting the child ' s hair for the first time, piercing a girl ' s ears at age two and circumcision for boys between the ages of six and ten years old. once a child is at the age of adulthood ( 15 years old for a female and 17 years old for a male ), there is a ritual of filing the teeth to make them even, as a rite of passage into adulthood. what are their beliefs? almost all of the jambi are


a blood culture is a test to detect germs such as bacteria or fungi in the blood. one may be ordered when a child has symptoms of an infection — such as a high fever or chills — and the doctor suspects germs have spread into the blood. the culture can show what type of germ is causing the infection, which will determine how it is treated. to do the test, the doctor will take a blood sample and send it to a lab for testing. results are ready in a few days. if a child is severely ill, the doctor may start treatment before the results are complete, basing treatment on the most likely cause of the infection. this can be changed to be specific for the microbe found when the culture is completed and the antibiotic sensitivity of the bacteria or fungi has been determined. why do a blood culture? during some illnesses, certain infection - causing bacteria and fungi can invade the bloodstream and spread into other parts of the body, away from the original infection site. their presence in the blood usually means that a child has a serious infection. such infections usually cause a more rapid heart rate, high fever, and an increase in the white blood cell count. a blood culture can reveal a number of infections or problems, such as endocarditis, a severe and potentially life - threatening problem that occurs when bacteria in the bloodstream stick to the heart valves. a blood culture might also detect the organism causing other infections like osteomyelitis, a bone infection often caused by staphylococcus aureus, and cellulitis, a skin infection that involves areas of tissue just below the skin ' s surface. how is a blood culture done? the blood culture is done with a simple blood draw performed after the skin is cleansed with an alcohol pad and a special antibacterial solution. this careful skin sterilization is important because it prevents contamination of the blood that ' s being drawn. it kills bacteria that may be on the surface of the skin so that they don ' t appear in the blood culture and interfere with identification of the germ causing the infection. sometimes it seems like a lot of blood is drawn for the test, but it ' s important that enough be drawn for the culture to be accurate. this may be less than a teaspoon ( 5 milliliters ) in babies and 1 - 2 teaspoons ( 5 - 10 milliliters ) in older children, depending on their size. the amount of blood drawn is tiny compared with the amount


one common skin test is a scratch test. for this test, a doctor or nurse will scratch the skin with a tiny bit of liquid extract of an allergen ( such as pollen or food ). allergists usually do skin tests on a person ' s forearm or back. the allergist then waits 15 minutes or so to see if reddish, raised spots ( called wheals ) form, indicating an allergy. if the doctor thinks someone might be allergic to more than one thing — or if it ' s not clear what ' s triggering a person ' s allergy — the allergist will probably skin test for several different allergens at the same time. when a skin test shows up as positive with a certain food, that only means a person mightbe allergic to that food. in these cases, doctors may want to do additional testing. to diagnose a food allergy for certain, an allergist might do a blood test in addition to skin testing. this involves taking a small blood sample to send to a laboratory for analysis. the lab checks the blood for ige antibodies to specific foods. if enough ige antibodies to a particular food are in the blood, it ' s very likely that the person is allergic to it. if the results of the skin and blood tests are still unclear, though, an allergist might do something called a food challenge. during this test, the person is given gradually increasing amounts of the potential food allergen to eat while the doctor watches for symptoms. skin tests may itch for a while. if your child undergoes one, the allergist might give you an antihistamine or steroid cream for your child to use after the test to lessen the itching.


when we think of developing a child ’ s cognitive skills often we think of activities that are related to schoolwork and activities such as maths. unfortunately, these activities may seem mundane to your child and they might resist them. cognitive skills can be developed and enhanced just as easily by games that are fun, creative, interactive and appealing to your child. reasoning, memory, general knowledge and numerical activities that help develop a child ’ s cognition need not be boring any longer! educational toys are the solution to what would have otherwise been a boring and unpleasant way to help your child develop their cognitive skills. educational toys are made specifically to not only be fun but to enhance and enrich your child ’ s development. either these toys may focus on one area of cognition or there maybe toys that help build up multiple areas of development at one time. educational toys are a great way for parents to supplement and support their children ’ s school programme as well as help their child develop their cognitive skills. here are some types of educational toys that will help develop your child ’ s skills. memory games : memory is cognitive skill that all children should develop to help them later on with not only schoolwork. regardless of age, memory is an important skill and it is for this reason that you should provide your children with games that help build memory. there are plenty of educational toys and games out there in the market that are made specifically to develop memory skills. these games can be in the form of card games, board games, puzzles and other types of games. they all focus on your child ’ s ability to store information, recall information and classify information in a manner that is interactive and fun. general knowledge games : educational toys and games that supplement and enhance a child ’ s general knowledge are wonderful to help with school programmes since they may explore topics your child is doing in school in a more multi - sensory and interactive manner. children are more likely to be interested in and more likely to recall information if they are presented with facts in a fun way. if at home, they play general knowledge games that are covered in school they might find it easier to understand. regardless of whether a general knowledge game follows topics from the school curriculum or not you are assured that when your child plays this type of educational game they are leaning something. general knowledge games may explore one topic for example, space or dinosaurs or they may cover a range of topics, which enhances and tests a child ’ s knowledge. number and word games : these types of educational games are great for using at home to support your


games may explore one topic for example, space or dinosaurs or they may cover a range of topics, which enhances and tests a child ’ s knowledge. number and word games : these types of educational games are great for using at home to support your child through their school curriculum or even for use in schools as part of the curriculum. word games primarily focus on developing you child ’ s vocabulary, grammar and spelling skills. math games usually try to build a child ’ s numerical skills such as numerical concept, number identification and number sequencing. these educational toys and games come in the form of puzzles, card games, board games and strategy games which help hone in on language and numerical skill development. all educational toys must help supplement and augment your child ’ s development in some way. it is advisable that you choose educational toys that helps develop cognitive skills in your child. choosing the right educational toy will be a fun way of learning for your child. sacha charleson - about the author : the modern day busy parent tries to compensate for his or her lack of time for his or her children by investing a great deal on education. thus, it is not a surprise how many of such parents move mountains just to provide their kids entertaining products that not only encourage play, but also instill discovery and learning. makers of toys worldwide recognize this growing trend and are, consequently, coming up with new and improved lines of children ’ s educational toys and games almost every month. what was once limited only to specialty toy and game shops, educational toys and games are now a staple in every children ’ s oriented stores around the world, even at general mass retailers, like wal - mart and k - mart. statistics show that the sales of toys and games have declined over the years. however, educational toys have been on the rise, as more parents opt to purchase products that would give them the most value for their money, as compared to, say, buying bratz dolls and hot wheels. the record for educational toys was broken in the holiday season of the year 2000, when toy maker leapfrog ’ s leappad learning system electronic reading toy became the bestselling children ’ s game of the time, helping the company boost its sales by a whopping 120 per cent! leapfrog ’ s success paved the way for other major and small toy makers to come up with educational toys of their own. jakks pacific, under its child guidance brand, released its own line of children ’ s educational toys and games following a deal with baby genius


success paved the way for other major and small toy makers to come up with educational toys of their own. jakks pacific, under its child guidance brand, released its own line of children ’ s educational toys and games following a deal with baby genius. hasbro released its baby einstein line and unveiled its preschool units, namely the baby einstein company and playskool. these new toys encouraged children to dabble in art, music, different foreign and local languages, and even poetry. the strong demand for educational toys and games for children has urged major retailers, like toys “ r ” us, to allocate shelves upon shelves for these kinds of toys. and because more and more households are transforming into two - income families, it is likely that the demand will grow further as parents seek products that would try to fill their absence during their children ’ s formative learning years. with the rise in demand, it won ’ t be a surprise when the price tag that comes with these educational toys and games will also decrease as the years pass. right now, these kinds of toys are still a little expensive ( though it hasn ’ t stopped most parents from buying them ). in the future, due to the overwhelming interest, educational toys and games will be accessible to everyone. low jeremy - about the author : low jeremy maintains http : / / educational - toys. articlesforreprint. com. this content is provided by low jeremy. it may be used only in its entirety with all links included. playsets have a unique place in toy culture. any kid or adult who has ever played with toy figures knows how cool it can be to place that figure in a detailed and scaled environment where everything is “ figure ” sized. playsets can take the form of houses, vehicle interiors, jungle temples or alien locations from a galaxy far, far away. while it is fun to play with toy figures and more so to put these figures in specially designed vehicles and move them around, a playset is where the real fun happens. they are usually large, being made to fit the figures and generally contain a number of elements to interact with, whether it be a simple seat and table or a complex system of tunnels, traps or water elements for the figures to explore. so what are the best playsets available in 2010? the king of toy playsets has to be playmobil and they have a number of large sets available this year. playmobil has been around for decades and are known for the distinctive look of their small figures and detailed accessories. the


2010? the king of toy playsets has to be playmobil and they have a number of large sets available this year. playmobil has been around for decades and are known for the distinctive look of their small figures and detailed accessories. the playmobil playsets can be very large and come ready to play with figures and a whole heap of related accessories. this year their most popular large sets include an ancient egyptian pyramid, a pony farm, a huge holiday home, a forest lodge, castles and pirate ships. generally the sets come with 3 or more figures and a number of animals ( depending on the set ) and dozens of accessories large and small. for example set 4190, the horse farm, comes with 136 separate pieces, and includes just about everything you would need to run a successful horse stables. playmobil are the masters of detail! another company, kidkraft is well known for their children ’ s role play toys as well as a range of large “ wooden ” ( mdf ) playsets. their playsets include figures and a number of accessories, but not in the league of playmobil as the wooden figures are very simple and unable to hold tools. nevertheless the sheer scale of the playsets is amazing. they are colourful and full of painted / stickered details, definite fun for kids of all ages. current playsets include a spaceship, a submarine, a rescue station and a very cool glow in the dark space train station. as an example the rocket ship stands about 30 inches tall and contains four levels of play and a working lift to move between the floors. it also comes with 25 colorful pieces, including astronauts, robots, aliens, vehicles, craters that glow in the dark and more. the kidkraft sets are full of playable elements and will occupy kids for hours. of course, there are more playsets, particularly those within particular themes from television and movies, but these two options are wonderful to allow kids the option to let their imaginations flow without a preconceived storyline. inger fountain - about the author : inger loves stories and loves to write. as a librarian in a previous life she also has an insatiable thirst for general knowledge. you can visit her latest website which takes a look at playmobil toys including the awesome playmobil pirate ship. determining what you want to accomplish is the first step in collecting miniature doll house accessories. if you already have some pieces, you may want to think about using them as a base from which to build your collection


including the awesome playmobil pirate ship. determining what you want to accomplish is the first step in collecting miniature doll house accessories. if you already have some pieces, you may want to think about using them as a base from which to build your collection. are these pieces similar in style? do they come from the same time period? will they fit well within the same collection? you will also need to consider how big you want your display to be before you begin. this will help you set some goals as to how many pieces you need and whether or not you want to set up a simple room box or a more elaborate miniature doll house. if you ’ re going to attempt crafting and constructing your own miniatures, you ’ ll now be more prepared to build the ones that will fit best in your display. if you don ’ t want to build your own furniture or feel you don ’ t have the skills, the questions above can be a good checklist for you when you ’ re out shopping for new additions or contemplating buying some pieces at a craft fair. one important lesson that you need to learn before you begin shopping for your miniature collectibles concerns scale. miniatures are constructed using a sizing scale. this scale ensures that the figures within the room box or miniature doll house are correctly proportioned. as an example, 1 : 12 scale means that 1 inch in your miniature display is equivalent to 12 inches in reality. this is the most popular scale used in miniatures, although you may also see some built to 1 : 24 scale and even some in such fine details as can be presented in 1 : 144. though most toy doll houses are not made to scale, any piece that would be worthy of collection will be precisely made to scale. you need to make sure that all of the pieces within your display are to the same scale in order to preserve the integrity of your dollhouse and miniatures. just like any hobby, miniature collectibles range in price from cheap to quite costly. you ’ ll need to determine your budget for starting off and whether you want to focus on collecting high - quality or rare pieces to build your collection slowly, or whether you ’ d like to buy an assortment of pieces to have nice rooms soon, and replace the pieces with better ones over time. how you choose to enjoy your hobby is up to you. gather the right information to make wise choices and well thought out additions to your collection. veronica scott - about the author : learn more about the fascinating world of miniatures. visit themagicaldollhouse.


to enjoy your hobby is up to you. gather the right information to make wise choices and well thought out additions to your collection. veronica scott - about the author : learn more about the fascinating world of miniatures. visit themagicaldollhouse. com today for a great selection of wooden barbie doll house kits and dollhouse accessories from top miniature companies. leapfrog leapster 2 learning game system – pink your kid ’ s education should be one of your primary priorities as a parent. you should get them the best education that you can afford, and you should also let them have time for games and toys. there is a lot of gaming consoles available in the market today but you would also want your kids to learn from the games they play. however, not all kinds of games available for the different gaming consoles are educational. some games are even integrated with violence, blood and gore that can negatively affect your child ’ s psychology. it is recommended that you should purchase games that your children can learn from. in the past, kids learn through shaped blocks and other toys that they can physically hold. some of these toys can prove to be dangerous. so, you want to buy them something that is safe and something that they can learn from. it is a fact that playing is one of the best ways a child can learn. it may be logical thinking, language or it can even be math. with the right games, you can really develop your child ’ s intelligence. handheld games for children have existed for a long time. however, with today ’ s advancement in graphics and sound technology, a lot of handheld games for children now have better graphics and better sound quality. an example of an educational gaming system for children is called the leapster l - max learning game system pink edition. developed by leapfrog, you can be sure that they offer quality education and quality toys for your children. it is a fact that learning can be boring, this is why the leapster l - max learning game system pink edition have took it to the next level and made the learning experience fun for children. this particular gaming system is handheld. however, you also have the option on plugging it to your tv for a much better learning experience. leapster l - max learning game system pink edition is recommended for children aged 4 to 10 years old. it also has different gaming titles that you can integrate in the gaming system as your child develops. it has animations included where your child can easily learn how to identify and write letters and it also has games where your


aged 4 to 10 years old. it also has different gaming titles that you can integrate in the gaming system as your child develops. it has animations included where your child can easily learn how to identify and write letters and it also has games where your child can play with their favorite cartoon character. this gaming system also teaches math, and language skills for different age levels. here are the things that you can expect this game system to teach your kids : depending on your child ’ s capability, you can effortlessly make learning easier for them with this gaming console. besides, what more can be fun for a child that having the ability to interact with their favorite cartoon character? no other gaming console for children offers this kind of learning experience than the leapster l - max learning game system pink edition. so, if you want your child to learn and at the same time have fun, you should purchase this game system for them. with the features that this game system offers, you can be sure that your child will use it for hours to have fun and at the same time learn about things that they will usually get bored off in school. language, math and art skills can be developed by using this game system. this game system also has a vast game library where your children can choose which game they want to play. they can choose to play with dora the explorer, scooby doo, spongebob squarepants and they can even choose to play other different games. there are different games for different age levels. all you need to do is choose which of the games can accommodate your child. so, if you want your child to have fun and at the same time learn something while they play, the leapster l - max learning game system pink edition is your choice. with this game system, you can expect your child to learn faster and play at the same time. think of investing in this game system as investing in your child ’ s education. emerson swanson - about the author : when i was a little girl, my biggest dream was to have my very own dolls house. i knew exactly what i wanted too. it had to open up so i could place the dolls house furniture all over and move it all around at will and it had to have a functioning front door. there had to be two stories ; upstairs would be a complete bathroom and two bedrooms – one for the mummy and daddy dolls and one for the baby doll – and of course, what would a dolls house be without a downstairs kitchen, lounge and dining room. there are few things


stories ; upstairs would be a complete bathroom and two bedrooms – one for the mummy and daddy dolls and one for the baby doll – and of course, what would a dolls house be without a downstairs kitchen, lounge and dining room. there are few things that bring as much joy and happiness to a little girl than being able to play with her own dolls, dolls house and dolls house furniture. i would recommend that every parent or grandparent of a little girl make a plan of some sort to either buy or even build a dollhouse for their precious child. the hours of play that come from having one of your very own is worth all the money spent and effort put into making this magical childhood dream come true. dolls houses can also meet the likes and preferences of any little girl from victorian to modern day. the options are endless – almost as much the same as they are for a real house. miniature houses are great for play areas with space constraints, child - size, walk - in houses are wonderful for a bigger girl and one who has more play space. a garden, pool, club house, stables and tennis court are all optional extras to bring even more imaginational play into your daughter ’ s experiences. the dolls themselves are also a big factor in playing house. they have to fit into the house and they need to be flexible so that they can move around and use the furniture. for example a doll with legs that don ’ t move makes playing slightly frustrating as her movements are very limited. the more ‘ real ’ the experience, the more fun there is to be had. these dolls can also if chosen carefully be a collector ’ s item with real value, adding another dimension to this fun activity. it also helps if the furniture is as close to a real - life setting as possible and by this i don ’ t mean that it has to be operational or even look exactly the same. it just has to have all the accessories like the kitchen and bathroom appliances too. these can found to match any dolls house or bought in a set, with so many detailed and varying types and designs, from porcelain to plastic, or they can be custom made which makes them all the more unique and personalised. having a dolls house fitted with furniture and dolls isn ’ t only something little girls enjoy either. many adults enjoy collecting and adding to their childhood collections of their dolls houses and furniture. so you never know this could turn out to be a future hobby of your little one. on top of this, there are also the generations of children who follow in the


pub. date : 2004 | online pub. date : september 15, 2007 | doi : 10. 4135 / 9781412952415 | print isbn : 9780761926498 | online isbn : 9781412952415 | publisher : sage publications, inc. about this encyclopedia department of health and human services amie r. scheidegger the department of health and human services ( hhs ) was established in 1980 to protect the health of all americans and provide health - related services to the public. by 2003, hhs was the largest grant - making agency in the federal government, representing the nation ' s largest health insurance program ( medicare ) and overseeing more than 300 federally funded health - and service - related programs. hhs ' s budget for 2003 was reported to be $ 502 billion, the majority of which ( $ 413 billion ) was devoted to the centers for medicare and medicaid services ( cms ). this division of hhs is responsible for administering medicare and medicaid programs, which provide health insurance for elderly and disabled persons ( medicare ) and works with state agencies to provide medical services and health insurance for low - income citizens of all ages ( medicaid ). part of administering these programs includes investigating fraudulent practices associated with medicare and medicaid. in 2002, the government was awarded $ 1. 6 billion in judgments and...


at a glance why get tested? to help diagnose or rule out a pheochromocytoma when to get tested? when you have persistent or episodic high blood pressure and symptoms such as headaches, rapid heart rate, and sweating a blood sample drawn from a vein in your arm test preparation needed? preparation for the test is important for accurate results. you should discontinue epinephrine and epinephrine - like drugs for at least one week before the test, stop using acetaminophen 48 hours beforehand, and fast for 8 - 10 hours prior to collection. it is especially important not to have any caffeine - containing food ( soda, chocolate ), coffee ( including decaf ), tobacco ( smoking cigarettes or cigars ), tea, or alcohol for at least 4 hours before specimen collection. talk to your doctor about all the medications you are taking as well since several different drugs may interfere with the test. the test sample what is being tested? the plasma free metanephrines test measures the amount of metanephrine and normetanephrine in the blood. these substances are metabolites of epinephrine ( adrenaline ) and norepinephrine. epinephrine and norepinephrine are catecholamine hormones that help regulate the flow and pressure of blood throughout the body and play important roles in the body ' s response to stress. catecholamines are produced in the medulla – the interior portion of the adrenal glands – and secreted into the blood. once these hormones have completed their actions, they are metabolized to inactive compounds. norepinephrine breaks down into normetanephrine and vanillylmandelic acid ( vma ) and epinephrine becomes metanephrine and vma. both of the catecholamines and their metabolites are normally found in small fluctuating quantities in the blood and urine. a rare tumor called a pheochromocytoma can produce large amounts of catecholamines, resulting in significantly increased concentrations of metanephrine and normetanephrine. about 90 % of pheochromocytomas form in the adrenal glands and, while a few are cancerous, most are benign – they continue to grow but usually do not spread beyond their original location. the catecholamines produced by pheochromocytomas can cause persistent hyper


fast for 8 - 10 hours prior to collection. it is especially important not to have any caffeine - containing food ( soda, chocolate ), coffee ( including decaf ), tobacco ( smoking cigarettes or cigars ), tea, or alcohol for at least 4 hours before specimen collection. talk to the doctor about all medications being taken. since several different drugs may interfere with the test, he may instruct the person being tested to stop taking all medications except those that are necessary for one week prior to the test. however, do not stop taking any medications without first consulting the doctor. ask a laboratory scientist form temporarily unavailable due to a dramatic increase in the number of questions submitted to the volunteer laboratory scientists who respond to our users, we have had to limit the number of questions that can be submitted each day. unfortunately, we have reached that limit today and are unable to accept your inquiry now. we understand that your questions are vital to your health and peace of mind, and recommend instead that you speak with your doctor or another healthcare professional. we apologize for this inconvenience. this was not an easy step for us to take, as the volunteers on the response team are dedicated to the work they do and are often inspired by the help they can provide. we are actively seeking to expand our capability so that we can again accept and answer all user questions. we will accept and respond to the same limited number of questions tomorrow, but expect to resume the service, 24 / 7, as soon as possible. note : this article is based on research that utilizes the sources cited here as well as the collective experience of the lab tests online editorial review board. this article is periodically reviewed by the editorial board and may be updated as a result of the review. any new sources cited will be added to the list and distinguished from the original sources used. sources used in current review pagana, k. d. & pagana, t. j. ( © 2011 ). mosby ' s diagnostic and laboratory test reference 10th edition : mosby, inc., saint louis, mo. pp 673 - 675. vuguin, p. m. ( updated 2011 october 4 ). pediatric pheochromocytoma. medscape reference [ on - line information ]. available online at http : / / emedicine. medscape. com / article / 988683 - overview through http : / / emedicine. medscape. com. accessed december 2011. ( reviewed 2011 january


available online at http : / / emedicine. medscape. com / article / 988683 - overview through http : / / emedicine. medscape. com. accessed december 2011. ( reviewed 2011 january ). pheochromocytoma. american urological association aua foundation [ on - line information ]. available online at http : / / www. urologyhealth. org / urology / index. cfm? article = 14 through http : / / www. urologyhealth. org. accessed december 2011. blake, m. and sweeney, a. ( updated 2011 october 19 ). pheochromocytoma. medscape reference [ on - line information ]. available online at http : / / emedicine. medscape. com / article / 124059 - overview through http : / / emedicine. medscape. com. accessed december 2011. frank, e. et. al. ( updated 2011 june ). pheochromocytoma. arup consult [ on - line information ]. available online at http : / / www. arupconsult. com / topics / pheochromocytoma. html? client _ id = ltd through http : / / www. arupconsult. com. accessed december 2011. sources used for previous reviews thomas, clayton l., editor ( 1997 ). taber ' s cyclopedic medical dictionary. f. a. davis company, philadelphia, pa [ 18th edition ]. pagana, kathleen d. & pagana, timothy j. ( 2001 ). mosby ' s diagnostic and laboratory test reference 5th edition : mosby, inc., saint louis, mo. pp ( 900 - 903 ). ( © 2004 ). metanephrines, plasma. arup ' s guide to clinical laboratory testing [ on - line information ]. available online at http : / / www. aruplab. com / guides / clt / tests / clt _ a76b. jsp # 2461156 through http : / / www. aruplab. com. ( © 2004 ). metanephrines, plasma. arup ' s user ' s guide [ on - line test information ]. available online at http : / / www. aruplab. com / guides / ug / tests / 0050184. jsp through http


, plasma. arup ' s user ' s guide [ on - line test information ]. available online at http : / / www. aruplab. com / guides / ug / tests / 0050184. jsp through http : / / www. aruplab. com. eisenhofer, g. et. al. ( © 2003 ). biochemical diagnosis of pheochromocytoma : how to distinguish true - from false - positive test results. the journal of clinical endocrinology & metabolism vol. 88, no. 6 2656 - 2666 [ on - line journal ]. available online at http : / / jcem. endojournals. org / cgi / content / full / 88 / 6 / 2656 through http : / / jcem. endojournals. org. yogish, c. ( 2003 october ). the laboratory diagnosis of adrenal pheochromocytoma : the mayo clinic experience. the journal of clinical endocrinology & metabolism vol. 88, no. 10 4533 - 4539 [ on - line journal ]. available online at http : / / jcem. endojournals. org / cgi / content / full / 88 / 10 / 4533 through http : / / jcem. endojournals. org. ( 1999 june 16 ). researchers develop better means to diagnose adrenal gland tumors. nih news release [ on - line press release ]. available online at http : / / www. nih. gov / news / pr / jun99 / ninds - 16. htm through http : / / www. nih. gov. sadovsky, r. ( 2003 september 15 ). management of the clinically inapparent adrenal mass. american family physician, tips from other journals [ on - line journal ]. available online at http : / / www. aafp. org / afp / 20030915 / tips / 9. html through http : / / www. aafp. org. ( 2003 december 18 ). pheochromocytoma ( pdq® ) : treatment, health professional version. national cancer institute [ on - line information ]. available online at http : / / www. cancer. gov / cancertopics / pdq / treatment / pheochromocytoma / healthprofessional through http : / / www.


institute [ on - line information ]. available online at http : / / www. cancer. gov / cancertopics / pdq / treatment / pheochromocytoma / healthprofessional through http : / / www. cancer. gov. howard, s. ( 2002 august 29 ). heochromocytoma. medlineplus medical encyclopedia [ on - line information ]. available online at http : / / www. nlm. nih. gov / medlineplus / ency / article / 000340. htm. ( 2002 september ). pheochromocytoma. nih, warren grant magnuson clinical center, patient information publications [ on - line information ]. pdf available for download at http : / / www. cc. nih. gov / ccc / patient _ education / pepubs / pheo. pdf through http : / / www. cc. nih. gov. schwartz, g. and sheps, s. ( 2004 may 6 ). hypertension. medscape from acp medicine 2004. © 2004 webmd inc. [ on - line article ]. available online at http : / / www. medscape. com / viewarticle / 474790 through http : / / www. medscape. com. ( © 2004 ). pheochromocytoma. the merck manual second home edition [ on - line information ]. available online at http : / / www. merck. com / mmhe / sec13 / ch164 / ch164f. html through http : / / www. merck. com. wu, a. ( 2006 ). tietz clinical guide to laboratory tests, fourth edition. saunders elsevier, st. louis, missouri. pp 728 - 279. ( 2008 june 18, modified ). pheochromocytoma treatment, patient version. national cancer institute [ on - line information ]. available online at http : / / www. cancer. gov / cancertopics / pdq / treatment / pheochromocytoma / patient / allpages throughhttp : / / www. cancer. gov. accessed on 7 - 28 - 08. ( 2007 april 17, updated ). pheochromocytoma. national institute of child health and human development [ on - line information ]. available online at http : / / www. nichd. nih. gov / health


. ( 2007 april 17, updated ). pheochromocytoma. national institute of child health and human development [ on - line information ]. available online at http : / / www. nichd. nih. gov / health / topics / pheochromocytoma. cfm throughhttp : / / www. nichd. nih. gov. accessed on 7 - 27 - 08. nanda, r. ( 2006 september 11, update ). pheochromocytoma. medlineplus medical encyclopedia [ on - line information ]. available online at http : / / www. nlm. nih. gov / medlineplus / ency / article / 000340. htm. accessed on 7 - 28 - 08. sweeney, a. et. al. ( 2007 september 11, updated ). pheochromocytoma. emedicine [ on - line information ]. available online at http : / / www. emedicine. com / med / topic1816. htm through http : / / www. emedicine. com. accessed on 7 - 28 - 08. ( © 2006 - 2008 ). pheochromocytoma. arup consult [ on - line information ]. available online at http : / / www. arupconsult. com / topics / oncologicdz / neuroendocrinetumors / pheochromocytoma. html throughhttp : / / www. arupconsult. com. accessed on 7 - 28 - 08.


students at altadena ’ s jackson elementary school got to go to antarctica wednesday — at least remotely. linda keavy ’ s fifth grade class of 37 students was chosen to help control a large drill currently in antarctica that is testing new technologies for a potential future mars trip to drill for signs of life. see video of kids helping move the drill and comments from 11 - year - old aspiring scientist and jackson student evad morris in the video attached. “ it ’ s very exciting to be able to be a part of this, ” said keavy, who noted one of the student ’ s fathers works for jpl. “ i ’ m proud of our school bringing up our scores. i feel we ’ re getting recognized which is awesome. most of the kids come from poverty level. ” when the big moment came, paulsen guided several students one by one on a computer and told them what commands to press in order to move the drill, which could be viewed via live skype video projected in class. “ i like this because they came here and chose our school to tell us about the drill that ’ s going to mars, ” said fifth grade student alyssa aragon, who was surprised at just how cold it can get in antarctica. the class was chosen after nasa employee david delgado was principal for a day at jackson elementary in the fall and was impressed with a lot of the science efforts at the school, pasadena unified school district communications and community engagement director adam wolfson told patch. jackson ’ s scores on the california standardized test rose from 9 % scoring proficient and above in 2008 - 2009 to 53 % scoring proficient and above in 2011 - 2012. the drill was built by nasa and honeybee robotics, which has an office in pasadena, and is being tested in antarctica since the conditions are similar to those of mars, honeybee robotics systems engineer gale paulsen told students wednesday. it can drill one meter into the ground, which is significantly further than other drills that dig five centimeters. paulsen told students more about the drill and answered questions, as did a team of scientists from nasa, honeybee and canada ’ s mcgill university currently in antarctica who communicated audio and video live via skype. “ what is the warmest it gets in antarctica? ” and “ why do you want to search for signs of life on mars? ” were among the questions students asked. students expressed a collective, “ woah ” when told the drill took nine months to build. “ this will hopefully inspire the future generation of scientists, ” said wolfson.


principal proposed uses our bodies contain only a very small amount of manganese, but this metal is important as a constituent of many key enzymes. the chemical structure of these enzymes is interesting : large protein molecules cluster around a tiny atom of metal. manganese plays a particularly important role as part of the natural antioxidant enzyme superoxide dismutase ( sod ), which helps fight damaging free radicals. it also helps energy metabolism, thyroid function, blood sugar control, and normal skeletal growth. the official us recommendations for daily intake of manganese are as follows : - 0 - 6 months : 0. 003 mg - 7 - 12 months : 0. 6 mg - 1 - 3 years : 1. 2 mg - 4 - 8 years : 1. 5 mg - 9 - 13 years : 1. 9 mg - 14 - 18 years : 2. 2 mg - 19 years and older : 2. 3 mg - 9 - 18 years : 1. 6 mg - 19 years and older : 1. 8 mg - pregnant women : 2 mg - nursing women : 2. 6 mg the best sources of dietary manganese are whole grains, legumes, avocados, grape juice, chocolate, seaweed, egg yolks, nuts, seeds, boysenberries, blueberries, pineapples, spinach, collard greens, peas, and green vegetables. a typical dosage used in studies on manganese is 3 to 6 mg daily. it is sometimes recommended at a much higher dose of 50 to 200 mg daily for 2 weeks following a muscle sprain or strain, but this dosage exceeds recommended safe intake levels ( see safety issues ). what is the scientific evidence for manganese? dysmenorrhea ( menstrual pain ) very high exposure to manganese ( due either to environmental pollution or manganese mining ) has resulted in a serious psychiatric disorder known as " manganese madness. " interactions you should know about if you are taking : - iron, copper, zinc, magnesium, or calcium : you may need extra manganese, and vice versa. - antacids : you may also need extra manganese. - reviewer : ebsco cam review board - review date : 07 / 2012 - - update date : 07 / 25 / 2012 -


gallatin city, 1863 - 65 page 2 of 2 the three forks, 1868 pass cursor over image to view enlargement of lower center. panoramic lithograph by alfred e. mathews ( 1831 - 1874 ) pencil sketches of montana1 original size, 18 - 1 / 4 by 9 - 3 / 4 in. he three forks is one of those rare and beautiful localities in nature, that, when once seen remains indelibly fixed in the memory. the jefferson, madison and gallatin here mingle their waters, to form the missouri river. these three tributaries of the mighty missouri meander gracefully through an extensive valley, their banks fringed with picturesque groups of cottonwood and willow trees of various growths, with their sparkling waters occasionally seen through the dense foliage. far in the distance the mountains near virginia city are seen. the jefferson comes in on the right, and its course is marked by a dense forest of cottonwood, nearly a mile in width. the course of the madison is first indicated in the distance on the left, and joins the jefferson about a mile from the point of observation ; and here the missouri commences. in the middle distance on the left a few houses are seen, this is gallatin city, the county seat of gallatin county. this place is destined at no very distant period to be a large and flourishing town ; it is most desirably located in the heart of a rich and extensive agricultural country, abounding in valleys of unrivaled richness, and uplands, plains, and mountains covered with nutritious grasses. sixty three years ago captains lewis and clark encamped here and explored the country. not being able to detect much difference between the volume of water in the jefferson and the madison they discontinued the name of missouri and gave to each river a separate name, which they bear to this time, and called the junction of three, the three forks. — a. e. mathews, pencil sketches of montana ( 1868 ), 81 - 82. the enlargement extends from a sheep ranch at extreme right to a ferry across the jefferson river at center, and a wagon road skirting the long, low elevation lewis called a " handsom site for a fortification. " ixty - three years. in those days, given a few good genes and a little luck, that was a full lifetime for the best of men and women anywhere, but especially in the remote reaches of the mountain west, where day - to - day survival demanded unfailing physical


those days, given a few good genes and a little luck, that was a full lifetime for the best of men and women anywhere, but especially in the remote reaches of the mountain west, where day - to - day survival demanded unfailing physical stamina and placed extreme demands on one or more of five fully functional faculties — chiefly eyesight and hearing — plus a sturdy frame and strong musculature. compared with the ensuing half - century, nothing of major import happened since the corps of discovery paused to rest their weary bodies in this broad, politically neutral meeting - place some indians — blackfeet, shoshone, crow, flathead — called the " valley of flowers. " 2 we have no idea how many independent trappers or small groups actually passed among the three forks during the first 50 years after the expedition left it. the deaths of expedition veterans john potts and george drouillard at the hands of blackfeet in 1810 did not disturb the placid valley, and were scarcely noticed even back in st. louis, although john colter ' s 200 - mile dash for life from the blackfeet, beginning on the jefferson above the three forks and ending at fort raymond at the mouth of the big horn, quickly entered the jawbone journals of the western fur trade. famous trappers such as jedediah smith and william sublette, and scout kit carson, saw the place in due time. in 1863 a settlement proudly and optimistically named gallatin city ( the first of three ) sprang to life opposite the mouth of the gallatin river under the hands of twenty - five pioneers, including james ( eventually probate judge ) gallaher and major j. b. campbell, by authorization of the first territorial legislature. all were inspired by the prospect that river commerce would be extended to the three forks valley as soon as a government - chartered shortline railroad was built around the great falls. they expected that their market area would include all the gold camps from virginia city to the south and helena to the north, as well as the yellowstone valley via clark ' s " high dry firm road " between the big bend and the head of the gallatin river. second thoughts dictated the moving of the first gallatin city ' s legal domain to a new location on the bank of the madison river about two miles south, on the stage route. hope survived in gallatin city ( no. 2 ) until the northern pacific railroad laid its main line several miles to the south, and new options — the foundations of another


the bank of the madison river about two miles south, on the stage route. hope survived in gallatin city ( no. 2 ) until the northern pacific railroad laid its main line several miles to the south, and new options — the foundations of another phase of western history — emerged. a third gallatin city briefly came to mind, but no farther. fannie campbell was among the women who shared the excitement and the risks of settling in the valley of the missouri ' s headwaters. while her father began to put down his family ' s roots there, fannie finished her schooling at the conservatory in st. charles, missouri, before she and her older sister joined their parents at montana territory ' s new gallatin city in 1865. nineteen - year - old fannie ' s voyage up the missouri was interrupted by the wreck of the steamboat bertrand about 25 miles north of omaha, nebraska. the girls escaped to the riverbank where they watched the bertrand sink into the grasp of the missouri ' s muddy bottom. they waited a week for another boat, and when that one got stuck on a sand bar 200 miles downriver from fort benton a band of indians attacked, wounding two men and capturing a third. major campbell and a friend rode hard from gallatin city to rescue the girls and take them home. a year later, fannie ' s beloved piano arrived via steamboat to fort benton and wagon to her log home. one can only imagine the deep thrill the sound of that instrument drew from hearts still linked to distant homes, friends and families. fannie ' s piano - playing was a durable part of the valley ' s soundscape for the rest of her life receding into silence only with her death in 1919 at the age of 73. the promises of discovery and renewal suffused the atmosphere of lewis and clark ' s " essential point " even while the civil war was rending the nation ' s integrity. in 1863 a hardy, adventurous entrepreneur, john bozeman, led a group of wagons from fort laramie on the trans - west mormon trail up to the gold fields at virginia city. disappointed by his own failure at prospecting in colorado, he platted the town that would soon bear his name, and set out to " mine the miners. " in the course of things he would beat out those upstart missourians and their little enterprise, 30 miles to the northwest. the two settlements briefly traded roles as the administrative center of gallatin county, but bozeman ' s town eventually won out. bozeman ' s


beat out those upstart missourians and their little enterprise, 30 miles to the northwest. the two settlements briefly traded roles as the administrative center of gallatin county, but bozeman ' s town eventually won out. bozeman ' s own luck dried up suddenly in april of 1867, when he was murdered by unknown assailants near the big bend of the yellowstone river. he was only 32. the general apprehension that indians were guilty prompted the settlers to demand protection from the u. s. army, with the result that fort ellis was quickly built - - near the place on kelly creek where clark and his detachment had camped on july 15, 1806, en route home. the first flour mill was opened near bozeman in 1864, and the first white woman to see the three forks arrived the following spring, but " indian troubles " were still on the horizon, so after five weeks she and her husband, a farmer, moved back south to bannack, then the territorial capital. within another two years the first church was built in the gallatin valley, and shortly thereafter the first church bell was brought to the valley, all the way from st. louis. think of the thrill that its tones, softly reverberating from the distant mountainsides, roused from the hearts of all hearers, believers or not, in the vast, sweet, overarching silence of the valley! in the ' 70s came schools, a masonic lodge, and many other essentials of semi - urban american life. gallatin city grew somewhat and flourished, more or less, until 1883, when the northern pacific railroad built its main line a few miles to the south — too far away for the ambitious community to benefit as a way station and trading point. by 1890 the vision had faded, and the town was empty. in 1908 the electrified milwaukee railroad built a way station close by — only five miles to the southwest — and called it three forks. chiefly, it was a transfer point to yellowstone national park, which since 1876 had grown into a tourist attraction of worldwide appeal. it was only five miles southwest of gallatin city, but that was still too far, and much too late anyhow. those ambitious missourians had long since roused from their delusions, and the settlement slowly dissolved into the earth. no trace of it remains today. nto this setting, in the mid - 1860s, rode a solitary 35 - year - old artist, alfred e. mathews, who had emigrated with his parents from his birthplace, bristol


slowly dissolved into the earth. no trace of it remains today. nto this setting, in the mid - 1860s, rode a solitary 35 - year - old artist, alfred e. mathews, who had emigrated with his parents from his birthplace, bristol, england, to rochester, ohio, at an early age. during service in the union army he was highly regarded as an illustrator of civil war battles, among which his four lithographs of the siege of vicksburg, and a panorama of the campaigns from vicksburg to savannah, were greatly admired. his postwar western travels, at his own expense, through nebraska, colorado, montana and california, led him a total of more than 6, 000 miles. his sketches, not only rich in visual detail but also enhanced with penetratinv observations, failed to compete profitably with copies of the colorful, supersized western panoramas by thomas moran and albert bierstadt. 3 " the author, " wrote mathews in the preface to pencil sketches of montana, " has frequently been asked why he did not take a photographic instrument along, in order to photograph mountain scenery ; for it is generally supposed that a photograph of mountain scenery is always perfectly accurate. this, however, is far from being the case. " his answer could have simply summoned the logistical issue : cameras at that time were studio machines ; there was no such thing as a hand - held instrument. however, his thoughtful reply was more original than that, and remains as true and instructive today as it was then. in taking a picture, the lens of an instrument must be adjusted to focus on a certain object or objects ; and all others more distant, or nearer, will be more or less indistinct. another disadvantage of an instrument is that objects near at hand are magnified, while those farther off are reduced in size. so apparent is this defect in large photographs of persons that a small picture is now first taken, and afterwards copied and enlarged. shadows, too, are apt to be deepened and lights intensified. a good artist can, with ordinary care, produce a more accurate and pleasing picture with the pencil or brush. mathews ' reputation still falls somewhat short of greatness in the regard of art historians. nevertheless, his own self - published lithographs of colorado and montana have grown more and more valuable as documentaries of western topography and history, as the decades have passed. " headwaters of the missouri "... a view on the river immediately below the three forks. the sketch


lithographs of colorado and montana have grown more and more valuable as documentaries of western topography and history, as the decades have passed. " headwaters of the missouri "... a view on the river immediately below the three forks. the sketch of the three forks [ above ] was made from the top of the high rocky bluff shown in this picture. - - a. e. mathews, pencil sketches of montana ( 1868 ). s if he had anticipated the extent to which the romance of western gold - mining would forever seize the imaginations of both writers and readers, mathews reminded his own readers : miners were not the only class of men who endured hardships and toils almost beyond belief when montana was first settled. ranchmen or farmers had the same difficulties to contend with — high prices and scarcity of food and clothing. plows for breaking [ sod ] were worth from $ 125, to $ 150 in gold ; common plows $ 80 each ; hoes $ 8, picks $ 15, shovels $ 15, and axes $ 9 each in gold ; other things in proportion. for comparison, a private in the union army had started at $ 11 per month, up $ 6 from the scale the privates in the corps of discovery received. clearly, once a prospective farmer had bought his land, he needed a sizeable stake just to start working it. here in this booming land of opportunity, at least, the results were definitely worth the investment. " the gallatin valley, " observed mathews, " is celebrated for its immense hay ranches ; and horses and cattle are frequently driven down from the mining towns to winter at these ranches. " - - joseph mussulman, robert n. bergantino, & john stoner. rev. 10 / 07 1. a. e. mathews ( 1831 - 1874 ), pencil sketches of montana ( new york : by the author, 1868. ) 2. e. lina houston, early history of gallatin county ( bozeman, montana : by the author, 1933 ), 7. 3. askart, http : / / www. askart. com / askart / artists / biography. aspx? searchtype = bio & artist = 8738. accessed march 17, 2006.


electronic databases are a fantastic research tool. they allow one to quickly search for and find relevant articles, reviews, studies and other pieces of scholarly information. in many databases, if you are using the first term to pop into your head, or even what you consider to be the standard term ( s ) for a topic when searching, it ’ s very likely you ’ re missing a major piece of the puzzle. this is where a database thesaurus comes in handy. when we think of thesauri, we usually think of roget ’ s thesaurus, which listed terms and provided their synonyms, antonyms and other related words. a database thesaurus, however, is slightly different. a database thesaurus provides descriptors, which are essentially standardized subject terms that are assigned to the records in the database. every article covering the same topic, regardless of the various terminology used in the articles, is assigned the same descriptor. as an example, we ’ ll look at psycinfo, a popular database covering psychology and social science issues. when you access psycinfo, ( see the listing in databases and indexes ), you will notice a “ thesaurus? tab directly above the search box. before doing a search, it is useful to check your search terms in the thesaurus. why is this important? assume that you are looking for information on substance abuse. common sense might indicate to use “ substance abuse? in a keyword / subject search. however, when we enter “ substance abuse? into the thesaurus you will see that the descriptor in psycinfo is actually “ drug abuse.? if you had done a simple keyword search for “ substance abuse,? you probably would have come up with some results. however, if you select “ drug abuse? as a descriptor from the thesaurus, you ’ ll receive relevant results pertaining to the topic of substance abuse, drug abuse or any other synonyms that may describe the topic. a database thesaurus may also supply narrower or broader terms, which may help you craft a more effective search. by clicking on the descriptor “ drug abuse? you will notice narrower terms such as “ alcohol abuse? or “ drug dependency,? and broader terms such as “ behavior disorders? or “ drug usage.? using the database ’ s terminology for your topic helps you " cut to the chase " in terms of finding comprehensive and relevant results. since each database is set up slightly differently, you may wish to look for a “ help


aztec, mayan, and incan architecture when the spanish conquistadors arrived in the new world, they found that they had a wall of jungle in from of them. after they pushed through the growth, fended off mosquito herds, and chopped down the trees, the found a culture unlike any other. they had found the aztec civilization. this dark, pulsating, war - like tribe had settled down on what is now mexico city because of an ancient prophecy. when an eagle sitting on a cactus eating a snake was spotted, that was the location the aztec tribe was to settle down and cease their restless raiding. the aztecs founded the great city of teotihuacan where they built massive sacrificial pyramids and laid out their streets in a grid dotted with temples everywhere. the aztec pyramids were usually of 4 stages with small platforms in - between. they usually had steps up all four sides and at the top, there was a temple with a sacrificial stone. the priests would take of the animal, or even a human sometimes, and cut out their heart. while the heart was still beating, they would present it to statues representing their gods. even the most blood thirsty spaniard felt sick at the sight of such a blood - stained city. the mayan civilization made its home from the yucatan peninsula all the way down to guatemala. they were more civilized and peaceful that the aztecs. i guess you could say that the mayan people were the scientists of the continent. they were very precise on their measurements and astronomical observations. one of their many temples, the castillo at chichen itza, had four staircases of 91 steps each, one step for every day of the year. this demonstrates that the incan civilization knew how to incorporate the turning of the earth into buildings. most of the mayan pyramids and temples were built for specific gods so that they could look out and see their jungle. the mayans built many temples because there was a lot of stone around to build them with. one particularly neat view is from the top of the north acropolis at tikal. the view is of many tall slender pyramids sticking up above the trees. i dont know much about incan architecture, but what i do know is fascinating. the capital of the incan race was at cuzco which is now in peru. many incan villages are set up very high in the andes. the altitude here is so great that some of the guards on the trains offer the passengers oxygen.


countless fragments of existing architectural photography are merged into multilayered shapes. the resulting collages introduce a third abstract point of view next to the original ones of architect and photographer. digital scans of analogue architectural photography form tiny pieces of a large resulting puzzle. the original pictures are being analysed and categorised according to their vanishing - points and shapes. based on this analysis, slices are being extracted from the source image. these slices retain the information of their position corresponding to their original vanishing - point and thus form a large pool of pieces, ready to be applied to new perspectives and shapes. using the extracted image segments, it is now possible to form collages of originally different pictures with a new common perspective. in order to compose a collage, a perspective - grid is defined and a lining of matching image segments is being applied. the segments are not altered to match the frame but fitting ones are chosen from the sheer mass of possible pieces. by defining additional keywords which describe the content of the original photographs, the selection of segments used for the final composition can be influenced. thus a contextual layer is added through the semantic linking with the source material. the recompositions mix and match the views and perspectives of both the architect and the photographer with a third, newly chosen frame. the resulting fine - art prints are entirely unique each time. looking at hundreds of architecture photographs we noticed a strong bias regarding image composition. perspective foreshortening and vanishing lines dominate the overall impression of the image. this realisation lead to experiments in automated extraction of said features in the image data. the medium used for the result – for now a printed image – is just one of the many possibilities. the method also bears the potential for further experimentation and can be considered a work in progress. | building : | | radio bremen | | source images by klaus frahm |


page 3 of 3 stories such as these are at the core of black history month. we need not look far. when americans really reflect on their families and communities, they will recognize the contributions of all african - americans, not just those who are seen as famous or heroic. the fact that their own stories aren ’ t as well known or recognized makes their inspiration, purpose, and achievement more tangible. every single african - american has a number of personal testimonies to contribute to this national month of remembrance. the many challenges and triumphs of our family members weave an intricate fabric chronicling the richness of the african - american experience. this is not to say that we should ignore the great people, moments, and accomplishments in black history. it is vitally important that the nation recognize the importance of pivotal moments and transcendent personalities that serve as milestone markers for the epic of journey that is american history. but the significance of the emancipation proclamation is not just found in the man lincoln or his courage ; it is also found in the millions of slaves that deserved their freedom – and all of their descendants. the power in the “ i have a dream ” speech is not just in martin luther king jr. or his divine oration, but also in the hope and struggle of millions who inspired it in the first place. we should not forego the average stories in every african - american family – indeed, every american family – for the once - a - century events and leaders in our history. we are our own black history, a mesh of the dreams we ’ ve each received from our forefathers and mothers. theodore roosevelt johnson iii is an active - duty navy officer, writer, and 2011 - 2012 white house fellow. his work has appeared in a variety of publications including the huffington post, san francisco chronicle, nbc ’ s the grio, and the hill. the views expressed in this piece are his own and do not necessarily reflect the views of the us government.


qanats and surangams are examples of water accessing systems which have similar technologies. qanat technology originated in iran and was used extensively in the dry, arid desert regions of the middle east and surangam technologyis used in the hilly terrains of the western ghats. both systems essentially consist of underground tunnels that source the aquifer and use gravity to convey the water to groundlevel. in both systems, construction is undertaken by hand by labourers or farmers. the most important aspect of building these structures is identifying the source of water. the traditional qanat builders, called muqannis, follow the water courses coming down the mountains and identify subsurface water sources. they dig a trial well to test the quantum and flow of water before beginning work on the qanat. similarly, in india, workmen who traditionally undertook the digging of surangas, were people who were familiar with the slopes, soil structure, catchment areas and used their knowledge of local flora and fauna to identify water sources. arid, desert region with high surface evaporation rates. absence of rivers coastal hill areas underlain by lateritic and weathered rocks with high rainfall. rapid discharge of river water due to steep slopes type of structure a series of wells connected by a tunnel tapping groundwater directly length of tunnel 30 – 150 m sometimes as long as 6000 m to 8000m 3 - 300 m 1m - 1. 5 m 0. 9 - 15 m 0. 5 – 1m 0. 5 – 0. 8 m at intervals of 20 – 35m generally no shafts unless tunnels are very long style of construction began from where water was to be delivered and worked its way up the slope to mother well began from the source of water qanats : originating in armenia 2, 500 years ago, qanats have reemerged into the international spotlight as “ rational irrigation systems, ” says dr. ali a. semsar yazdi the director of the newly formed international centre on qanat and historic hydraulic structures ( icqhs ) in yazd, iran. today in iran, more than 34, 355 of the structures are still functioning. sophisticated, self - regulating, and structurally sound, qanat systems were an integral part of iranian cotton production in the ninth and tenth centuries ad, and have since been found in 35 countries including china, india, egypt, and even as far westward as spain and peru. qanats ( also called kariz, lyoun, aflaj ) use underground


the ninth and tenth centuries ad, and have since been found in 35 countries including china, india, egypt, and even as far westward as spain and peru. qanats ( also called kariz, lyoun, aflaj ) use underground water channels to drive the natural flow of aquifers to the earth ’ s surface for irrigation and domestic use. an intricate series of vertical shafts run from a point source near a hill or mountaintop and continue downhill to a field or village extending between one kilometer ( km ) and 70 km in length. the qanat system was used widely across persia and the middle east for many reasons. first, the system requires no energy, reliant on the force of gravity alone. second, the system can carry water across long distances through subterranean chambers avoiding leakage, evaporation, or pollution. and lastly, the discharge is fixed by nature, producing only the amount of water that is distributed naturally from a spring or mountain, ensuring the water table is not depleted. more importantly, it allows access to a reliable and plentiful source of water to those living in otherwise marginal landscapes. anthony smith, a well known author covering the social importance of qanats in iran, explains the system as “ the life of the village, without it, the village would be dust. the systems can deliver water at a rate between one liter per second and 500 liters per second, and a single qanat can irrigate hundreds of hectares. the well is horizontal, instead of vertical, relying on gravity and pressure from upland shafts to channel water up to the surface. over the centuries, the abundance of qanats has varied amidst shifting dynasties and new landowners. more recently, the resurgence of qanats is fighting years of inevitable modernization in which wells and piped water systems were constructed for growing populations under new land arrangements. variable and decreasing rainfall have also hindered development efforts. in syria, 92 % of all qanats have run dry since the introduction of pumped tube - wells in the mid - 1970s. in both syria and iran, qanats were constructed in areas that received 100 - 300 millimeters ( mm ) of precipitation each year. according to professor dale lightfoot at the university of colorado, these areas have received more variable rainfall in recent decades, compromising the efficacy of qanats. time and money is also a serious obstacle to new construction. new systems take anywhere between 25 and 75 years to construct with traditional materials and strategies. thus, icqhs focuses its


rainfall in recent decades, compromising the efficacy of qanats. time and money is also a serious obstacle to new construction. new systems take anywhere between 25 and 75 years to construct with traditional materials and strategies. thus, icqhs focuses its resources in village - level education, training users how to revitalize and repair existing qanats. since 2008, icqhs has taken on six projects to restore qanat systems in villages surrounding the center in yazd, successfully increasing drinking water and irrigation supplies. similar to the technology of quanats is the surangam technology that was in vogue in dakshin kannada district of karnataka and kasaragod district of kerala. a surangam is basically a tunnel dug through a laterite hillock through which water seeps out and into the tunnel. water is then collected at the end of the tunnel in a storage pit. a surangam is also known as thurangam, thorapu, mala in different parts of kasaragod. the only cost of the a surangam is the initial cost of digging which was done by local workmen who were familiar with the geology, soil, slope etc. generally a surangam was about 0. 45 – 0. 70 m wide and about 1. 8 - 2. 0 m in height. the length of the tunnel varied between 3 m to 300 m. for long tunnels, air shafts were provided to ensure atmospheric pressure. surangams are dug in places where the hydrogeological profile consists of is lateritic and weathered rocks. surangams are used to provide water for drinking, domestic use and sometimes even for irrigation. according to harish halemane of kasaragod, there are about 2000 surangams in bayar village in kasaragod. in sheni village in kasaragod, there is a 90 - year old, 250 m long surangam with seven air events. in manila village in dakshin kannada district, achyut bhat ’ s family dug nearly 20 surangams, of which 14 are still functional. the family ’ s 15 acre property lies in a rocky area, where it digging a well is not economical. today, the plot has areca nut and cocoanut gardens. achyut bhat is passionately committed to the idea of surangams and has propagated the idea in his village. he says that there are about 300 surangams in the village. 1. surangam providing irrigation water


. achyut bhat is passionately committed to the idea of surangams and has propagated the idea in his village. he says that there are about 300 surangams in the village. 1. surangam providing irrigation water in padre village. 2. surangam being constructed. 3. a century old surangam in sheni village. 4. construction material being taken out. 5. surangam water for drinking water pix : shree padre, india together. org anthony smith : explorations in persia : blind white fish in persia. richmond, virginia : william byrd press, 1953, pp. 16 - 17 gunther garbrecht, " ancient water works - lessons from history ". impact of science on society, unesco 1983 no. 1 ; p. 10. lightfoot, dale r. syrian qanat romani. water history. salih, abdin, qanats a unique groundwater management tool in arid regions : the case of bam region in iran, international symposium on groundwater sustainability ( isgwas ) boustani fardin, sustainable water utilization in arid region ofiran by qanats, world academy of science, engineering and technology 43 2008 padre, shree, surangas, manmade caves to tap underground water, india together, http : / / www. indiatogether. org / 2006 / mar / env - suranga. htm. padre, shree the unique water tunnel of sheni, india together. http : / / www. indiatogether. com / 2009 / jan / env - suranga. htm. harish halemane, suranga - a sustainabale water resource, june 2007, national seminar on water & culture - hampi, karnataka anon, dying wisdom, rise, fall and potential of india ’ s traditional water harvesting systems, centre for science and environment, 1998, pp 220 - 222


see also the dr. math faq : probability in the browse high school probability stars indicate particularly interesting answers or good places to begin browsing. selected answers to common questions : odds vs. probability. - coin flipping [ 01 / 26 / 1998 ] how can i figure out the chances of flipping a coin five times with the - coin landing on edge [ 11 / 20 / 2001 ] is there a way to calculate the odds of a coin dropped from a known height landing on its edge rather than heads or tails? - coin landing on edge [ 11 / 29 / 2001 ] what are the chances of a coin landing on edge? a canadian copper penny, - coin tosses, dealing cards... [ 12 / 08 / 1998 ] several questions on discrete math - probability and combination ; deducing recurrence relations. - coin - tossing game [ 05 / 09 / 2001 ] three men toss a coin in succession for a prize to be given to the person who first obtains a head. what is each man ' s chance of winning the prize? - collecting a complete set [ 03 / 15 / 2000 ] i have a very large box filled with 8 different frying pan handles in equal proportions. what is the probability that i will have to remove 32 handles before i get a complete set? - collecting a set of coupons [ 02 / 03 / 2000 ] given n different types of coupons, what is the expected number of different types of coupons that are contained in a set of ( n ) coupons? what is the variance and the expected number of coupons one one needs to collect before obtaining a complete set? - colored and numbered discs [ 05 / 25 / 2001 ] drawing colored and numbered discs from boxes ; rolling colored and - combinations of married couples [ 11 / 08 / 1996 ] what is the probability that 12 people can be grouped into 6 pairs where each pair is a married couple? - combinatorial probability tournament [ 01 / 23 / 2002 ] a tennis tournament for 2 ^ n players is organised as a knock - out tournament with n rounds, the last round being the final. two players are chosen at random. calculate the probabilities they meet a ) in the first round ; b ) in the final ; c ) in any round. - complex ratio problem [ 07 / 31 / 1997 ] if you randomly throw 3 points on a plane, you get a triangle... what is the probability that the triangle will become obtuse...? - conditional probability [ 05 / 25 /


ratio problem [ 07 / 31 / 1997 ] if you randomly throw 3 points on a plane, you get a triangle... what is the probability that the triangle will become obtuse...? - conditional probability [ 05 / 25 / 2000 ] suppose used car salesmen tell the truth 2 / 5 of the time, and 1 / 3 of the trees in a forest are oak... - conditional probability [ 12 / 31 / 1997 ] i tutor probability and statistics and people seem to be confused by the use of the multiplication rule in conditional probability... - consecutive failures in bernoulli trials [ 07 / 07 / 1999 ] what is the probability that out of n experiments there will be a string of at least k experiments in a row that fail? - contest probabilities [ 10 / 14 / 1998 ] players of equal skill meet in an elimination contest. with n players, what is the probability that a player will compete in i rounds? - craps [ 5 / 24 / 1996 ] can you give me information on the probability and outcome of the game - creating a mathematical model of a complicated situation [ 10 / 09 / 2005 ] i am riding a bike and have several possible routes, each of which contains various traffic lights, amounts of traffic, the possibility of being stopped by a policeman for running a light, and other factors which influence the time it will take to ride each route. how can i model the routes to predict which will be the best choice? - cupcakes and boxes : conditional probability [ 01 / 03 / 2002 ] given 3 boxes, each with 2 cupcakes ( 1 box has two vanilla, 1 has 2 chocolate, and 1 has one of each ). a box is selected randomly and a cupcake is selected that turns out to be chocolate. what ' s the probability that the other cupcake in that box will be chocolate? - darts and wilensky ' s paradox [ 03 / 17 / 1999 ] what is the probability of scoring 25 points with 2 darts if the dartboard is made up of 4 concentric circles? - defining independent events [ 07 / 14 / 2009 ] my book says two events e and f are independent if p ( e | f ) = p ( e ). do we also have to have p ( f | e ) = p ( f ) or does this automatically follow? could there be a situation where p ( e | f ) = p ( e ) but p ( f | e ) = / = p ( f )? - defining


( f | e ) = p ( f ) or does this automatically follow? could there be a situation where p ( e | f ) = p ( e ) but p ( f | e ) = / = p ( f )? - defining probability [ 4 / 30 / 1996 ] is a probability number equal to a percent or a decimal? - definite integral of e ^ ( - x ^ 2 ) and e ^ ( ( - x ^ 2 ) / 2 ) ) [ 08 / 18 / 1999 ] how can i find the integrals of e ^ ( - x ^ 2 ) or e ^ ( ( - x ^ 2 ) / 2 ) ) from x = 0 to - deriving the normal from the binomial [ 07 / 11 / 1998 ] how is the normal distribution derived from the binomial distribution? does the normal approximate the binomial? - dice : full house [ 6 / 28 / 1996 ] what is the probability of rolling a full house with 5 six - sided dice? - dice game and expected value [ 04 / 18 / 2005 ] you pay $ 6 to play a game where you roll a die with a payoff as follows : $ 8 for a 6, $ 7 for a 5, and $ 4 for any other result. what are your expected winnings? is the game fair? - die roll probabilities in gaming [ 01 / 06 / 2001 ] players fight battles by rolling two dice and adding modifiers according to each player ' s advantages. generate a chart giving the odds of victory based on modifiers. - distribution of cards in bridge [ 05 / 03 / 2001 ] in bridge, it often happens that you and your partner have 9 cards of a suit between you. in all the bridge books that i have read, it is stated that the probability of the remaining 4 cards splitting 2 - 2 is 40. 7 %. can this be proven? - do prior outcomes affect probabilities of future ones? [ 05 / 26 / 2008 ] i know that the probability of flipping a coin and getting a head is 1 / 2. but if i ' ve gotten ten straight tails, isn ' t it more likely that the next one will be a head? - drawing aces [ 06 / 12 / 1997 ] what is the probability that you will pick two aces in a row out of a 52 - - drawing marbles [ 05 / 05 / 1998 ] a jar contains 19 different marbles. i draw 13 marbles, one at a time, but replace the marble back before


that you will pick two aces in a row out of a 52 - - drawing marbles [ 05 / 05 / 1998 ] a jar contains 19 different marbles. i draw 13 marbles, one at a time, but replace the marble back before taking the next.... - drawing prizes [ 07 / 06 / 2003 ] if there are many cheap prizes, does the probability of getting a good prize go up as more prizes are drawn? - drunk drivers and traffic deaths [ 05 / 14 / 1997 ] knowing the total traffic fatalities and the number involving alcohol, what is the probability that a traffic death may be attributed to - empirical and mathematical probabilities [ 12 / 04 / 1998 ] what is the difference between empirical probability and mathematical - empirical probability [ 01 / 15 / 1999 ] if i flipped a coin 10 times and got heads each time, would the probability of a head on the next flip be 1 / 2 or almost 1? - english exam probability [ 12 / 17 / 2001 ] given a list of 25 potential exam questions, with 10 of them on the actual exam and of which students write essays on 2, how many questions should be prepared to be 95 % confident you won ' t write on a question you - even number of heads [ 02 / 12 / 2002 ] what is the probability of getting an even number of heads when tossing a - executive committee vote [ 01 / 21 / 1997 ] 124 delegates must elect a 13 - member executive committee from a list of 26 candidates. if each delegate votes for 10 candidates, what is the least number of votes a candidate can get and be elected? - expected tosses for consecutive heads with a fair coin [ 06 / 29 / 2004 ] what is the expected number of times a person must toss a fair coin to get 2 consecutive heads? - expected value [ 12 / 09 / 1997 ] what is expected value? - expected value [ 11 / 07 / 2001 ] i am playing a game where i toss a fair coin. i get a bead if i flip a head and i lose a bead if i flip a tail... to get a total of 5 beads, what is the expected number of coin tosses i must make?


stroke is the fourth leading cause of death in north america - - down from third. despite this " improvement, " stroke remains the leading cause of adult disability. ischemic strokes, caused by blood vessel blockages, are by far the most common type of stroke. for ischemic strokes, early intervention is crucial. the only drug fda approved for the treatment of ischemic stroke is tissue plasminogen activator ( tpa ). unfortunately, this drug must be given very soon after stroke onset, within the first three hours for most people and up to four and a - half hours for some. the solitaire device, produced by covidien inc. of irvine, calif., is the first of a new class of devices called stent - retrievers to be approved in the united states for the treatment of acute ischemic stroke. devices like solitaire, which mechanically break up and remove clots, can be used up to eight hours or longer after a stroke, thus increasing the time window for ischemic stroke patients to be treated. unlike the first generation retrieval devices, solitaire is relatively easy to use and has a high success rate at opening blocked arteries. the device uses a retrievable basket - like stent to capture the clot, allowing it to be pulled from the blocked vessel. patients suffering a stroke from a large artery blockage tend to make a much better recovery if the vessel is reopened than if the blockage is left in place or cannot be removed. penn state hershey medical center is the first and only hospital in this region to have access to this new, innovative device. despite advances in the treatment of stroke, many patients still do not make it to the hospital early enough to benefit from these advances. it is important for patients to remember the warning signs of stroke : - - sudden weakness of the face, arm or leg ; - - sudden difficulty speaking or understanding speech ; and - - a sudden, very severe headache. the sooner patients get medical attention the more treatment options they will have and the more likely it will be that they will receive a beneficial stroke treatment. even though it may not hurt, a stroke is a medical emergency where minutes matter early on, for both initial treatment and future recovery.


an enrerteining paper in the ny times : science | april 22, 2008 when language can hold the answer by christine kenneally does language shape what we perceive or are our perceptions pure sensory impressions? elizabet spaepen, a doctoral student at the university of chicago, examined the ability of home - signing adults in nicaragua to use numbers. ms. spaepen emphasized that although the subjects had never been taught a formal sign language, including counting, they were fully integrated in society. they have jobs and they are paid as much as hearing or signing adults. ms. spaepen asked the home - signers to match an array of objects laid out before them. for example, she placed plastic discs on a table and encouraged the subjects to lay out the same number of discs. if the number was small, as in one, two or three, the home - signers got it right all the time. if the number was larger, the home - signers got it right just approximately. if ms. spaepen laid out four discs, the subjects might lay out five or six. although they were never quite right, they were never completely wrong. the home - signers would not lay out one or 15 discs in response to four. scientists have shown that the understanding of small, specific numbers is a trait with long evolutionary history. monkeys and other animals can compute the exact number of a small set of objects at a glance without explicitly counting. the ability is called subitization. ms. spaepen suggests that when home - signers correctly use small numbers, they are relying on this innate trait. the count list we learn with most languages ( some languages do not have a count list or words for specific numbers greater than three ) has enabled humans to build on this heritage, taking the specific and uniform gap between “ one ” and “ two ” and “ two ” and “ three, ” and extending it out through four and higher, theoretically to infinity.