shocking disaster at cambridge [ newspaper article ] this particular news report is drawn from a collection gathered by a waikato university undergraduate student, pauline hunt, when investigating the hazards of life for colonial children during the 1880s. her unpublished study concentrated on two regional newspapers, the new zealand herald, published in auckland ; and the waikato times, printed in hamilton. the types of accidents, fatal and non - fatal, reported during this decade included : drownings ; injuries involving horses ; burns from fire and scalding water ; poisonings, frequently from youngsters chewing the phosphorus head on matches ; falls from trees, over cliffs, into disused mine shafts, and off a house balcony ; gunshot accidents ; attacks by animals ; and work - related injuries or death involving machinery or moving vehicles, such as tramcars or horse - drawn drays. water, horses, and fire were the three most common causes of accidental injury or death for those under 15 years of age. ( disease, infanticide, neglect, cruelty, or assault were not included in the research project. ) only a very few reports made reference to maori children ; the majority dealt with pakeha whose communities were, by the 1880s, becoming dominant in the region. daily or weekly papers were the principal means of disseminating local, national, and international news. the columns devoted to accidents gave a wealth of medical detail, including explicit descriptions of the injuries, and sometimes concluded with an expression of sympathy for the family. warnings or words of advice were frequently printed as well. both language and content reflect contemporary attitudes concerning the need to keep children safe. communities as well as parents needed to protect the " social capital " that their youngsters represented. waikato times, " shocking disaster at cambridge : three children burned to death. " november 8, 1884, p. 2, col. 5. annotated by jeanine graham. primary source text shocking disaster at cambridge three children burned to death one of the saddest fatalities that have ever shocked the senses of the people of this district occurred at cambridge on thursday afternoon, resulting in the burning to death of three young children, hedley james osborne, aged four years, julietta alice osborne, aged two years, and mary agnes osborne, aged five months.... mrs osborne, having some shopping to do in the town, put her infant child to bed, and locked it up by itself in the bedroom, so that it should not be disturbed by the other two children. seeing that everything was safe, there being no fire in the house


shopping to do in the town, put her infant child to bed, and locked it up by itself in the bedroom, so that it should not be disturbed by the other two children. seeing that everything was safe, there being no fire in the house since breakfast time, she shut up the boy and the girl in the kitchen, and proceeded to town on her business. when leaving her home in this way, it was a usual thing for mrs osborne to shut up her children, believing that did she not do so they would find their way to the river, only a few chains distant, or to a deep well adjoining.... " i was in the habit of leaving my children at home by themselves about once a week. i was generally away from about one to two hours. i very often took the baby with me.... there was neither fire nor ashes in the stove when i left home at twenty minutes to one. i forgot to put the matches away. the matches were on the ledge over the mantelpiece, and the boy must have got the broom and knocked them down. i have seen the boy get the matches frequently and try to light his father ' s pipe... i was generally careful in keeping the matches out of his way. there was some paper underneath the sofa, and under the cushion of the chair there was a weekly news. the children were in the habit of reading the paper and playing with it. the inside of the house was papered... i usually keep the matches in the bedroom, and the children saw me put them above the fireplace before i left. " the coroner then summed up. he referred to the boy ' s habit of using matches as described by the mother, and he had no doubt but that the fire originated by the boy getting hold of the matches on this occasion, and in some way setting fire to their clothes or some paper that may have been lying about.... he thought that the children might have been left with some neighbour. a juryman informed the coroner that there were no neighbours in the vicinity, and the unfortunate people were not in a position to employ a girl to look after the house in their absence. a verdict of accidental death by burning was returned. how to cite this source " shocking disaster at cambridge [ newspaper article ], " in children and youth in history, item # 73, http : / / chnm. gmu. edu / cyh / primary - sources / 73 ( accessed june 20, 2013 ).


jesus would have spoken aramaic which is descended from hebrew, but is not the same language. this is evidenced by the fact that in the few places where jesus words are left untranslated, he is speaking in aramaic — abba, father. and talitha cum ( daughter arise ) also, whether or not matthew is the first gospel is a matter of some debate. the greisbach hypothesis, for example, suggests that mark is the first gospel, from which matthew and luke drew in order to flesh out their accounts. if mark is the first gospel, then its main witness, peter, would probably have spoken to mark in aramaic. many manuscripts of the time would be dictated to an emaneusis — a scribe who would listen and then write. since aramaic was such a limited language, it is not altogether unlikely that the emaneusis would have listened to what was said by the author, but written it down in greek. greek was the lingua franca of the old world, even if not the language that people spoke. it would be akin to english today. an analogy might be as if you were an obscure swedish band in the 70s, but then you had an idea for a song you wanted to get out to the whole world. your thinking process would be in swedish, a few drafts might even be in swedish, but the translation would be so early that everybody would have thought of it in english. so too with koine greek. the area may have spoken aramaic, but the world spoke greek. as such, you ' d use greek.


teaching tip : what ' s in a syllabus? your course syllabus is an important document because it explains policies, expectations, and assignments to your students. some people like to use the term syllabus to refer specifically to the master syllabus for a course — a document created by the department — and prefer to use the term course outline for the document you prepare for your students. whatever you call it, we ' ve provided some suggestions for what kinds of content should go into your syllabus or course outline. be certain to check with your department, though, since there may be specific guidelines you are expected to follow. this typically comes from the master syllabus or course catalog — a general description of the course and where it fits into the curriculum. contact information and policies provide at least your name, office number, office phone number, e - mail address, and office hours ( check with your department for office hour expectations ). some faculty also include home or cell phone numbers ; if you do, be certain to indicate the acceptable hours for using those numbers, or you will end up getting calls later in the evening than you would anticipate. also include some guidelines for how soon they can expect replies to e - mail, including during the evening and on weekends ; many students expect near 24 / 7 coverage unless you indicate otherwise. these will likely come from the master syllabus, although some faculty members will also add some additional objectives based on their specific approach to the course. remember that students should be able to match up almost everything you do in the course to one of these objectives. required and recommended texts and supplies be clear about book editions, particularly if there has been a recent revision, since some bookstores may still be selling used copies of previous editions. clarify, too, if students should be buying bundled content — one section may be using just the textbook, while another might also be using software or a workbook bundled with the text. used textbooks are often not bundled with these extras. it ' s worth a trip to the bookstores to find out if any of these issues exist. provide an overview of how their grade is broken down ( tests = 60 %, term paper = 20 %, etc. ), along with the information they need to calculate their grades ( a = 95 % +, a - = 92 % +, etc. ). if you use grading rubrics or other guidelines for grading individual assignments, consider putting them online and pointing to them from this section of the sylla


their grades ( a = 95 % +, a - = 92 % +, etc. ). if you use grading rubrics or other guidelines for grading individual assignments, consider putting them online and pointing to them from this section of the syllabus. include any additional policies that impact grading, like extra credit, late work, etc. for more details about developing simple grading systems, see the corresponding teaching tip. attendance policy / lateness / late work include specific rules governing attendance in your class, including the consequences of missed classes ( e. g., reduction of final course grade by x points at each absence over three ). what is your approach to absences due to illness? do you even make a distinction between " excused " and " unexcused " absences, and do you care about doctor ' s notes? what happens if a student is absent when an assignment is due? what about students who repeatedly show up late for class? it is important to clarify rules here, since you cannot retroactively punish poor attendance if there are no rules in place up front. that said, try to strike a balance here between a thorough policy and a reasonably brief one ; a two - page attendance policy sets a police - state tone for the class. and consider talking to departmental colleagues about their policies ; not only does it help to be consistent within a program, but they also may provide insight into students that will help you craft your rules. some faculty members also like to include a brief rationale for their attendance policy — something about the important of collaborative learning, in - class group work, impromptu shifts in topic or assignments, etc. including such a statement — and talking about it in class — can help reduce the perception that these are just arbitrary rules. for details about attendance policies, see the corresponding teaching tip. academic integrity policy provide a brief statement of the importance of academic integrity in your class, and state the consequences of cheating on tests, plagiarizing papers, etc. if there is any room for misinterpretation of what is acceptable or not ( e. g., collaborating on homework or take - home tests ), make the guidelines clear. point to other documents that clarify these policies, including departmental guidelines and the code of student rights and responsibilities. if you will be assigning term papers, you might want to include a statement here that clarifies what plagiarism is, and that they should as you in advance if they have questions about proper use of sources. rules of conduct this section


you will be assigning term papers, you might want to include a statement here that clarifies what plagiarism is, and that they should as you in advance if they have questions about proper use of sources. rules of conduct this section is becoming more important as students start bringing more electronic equipment to class. clarify your rules about the use of cell phones, ipods, and laptops in class. you might include a rationale for these rules, including the disruption they cause to other students. you might also include a statement about civility and respect, especially if discussion plays a significant part in your class. if you teach a class with clear professional connections ( nursing, education, etc. ), consider drawing on professionalism for behavioral guidelines. special needs statement ( disability statement ) this is one section where you should use a standard statement provided by the university : if you need adaptations or accommodations because of a disability, if you have emergency medical information to share with me, or if you need special arrangements in case the building must be evacuated, please make an appointment with me as soon as possible. student assistance / tutoring / tips for success many faculty members provide information about available academic resources, such as tutoring in the learning center, supplemental instruction or review sessions, gas available for additional help, etc. some also include additional tips for success that are unique to that class — maybe a place where previous students have had problems, or an approach that has worked well for previous students. if you teach freshmen, you might also include a reminder that there is counseling help available for students who are dealing with excessive amounts of stress. provide a schedule of assignments and due dates, but emphasize that this is a tentative schedule so you still have some room for adjustment. do your best, however, to keep the dates for exams and major projects unchanged. some faculty members prefer to give out a partial schedule on the first day, allowing them to adjust for the current group ' s needs. in such a case, try to lock in the major due dates, and give out daily assignments two weeks in advance so students can still plan their workload. this section is optional, but some faculty members like to have a tear - off sheet that students can sign and turn in — something that states that they have read and understood the syllabus. even without such a statement, students are still responsible for understanding class policies listed on the syllabus, but some teachers like the reinforcement that such an affidavit provides.


a way of life is feeling the heat international development policies are undermining the long term survival of some of the globe ' s poorest communities, argues masego madzwamuse, iucn ' s regional programme development officer and focal person for southern african drylands. she says the skills and knowledge needed to survive in the world ' s harsh drylands are being sacrificed in the name of progress. the world ' s poorest of the poor live in the toughest areas of the planet - the drylands. these areas all have key factors in common : water is scarce, and rainfall is unpredictable - or it rains only during a very short period every year. drylands cover more than 40 % of the earth ' s surface and are home to more than two billion people. these areas are also home to a disproportionate number of people without secure access to food. why are 43 % of the world ' s cultivated lands found in dry areas? and why have decades of development not led to significant improvements? rather than improving, it would appear that the situation is getting worse, with more frequent droughts, such as those in ethiopia and northern kenya. another important issue that strikes me about drylands is that these areas have been completely neglected despite being the world ' s home of the poor. while one international agreement - the united nations convention to combat desertification ( unccd ) - has been dedicated solely to the drylands of this world, little attention has been paid by the media, development or conservation organisations, or the international donor community. the only time attention is paid is when droughts ( a regular climatic phenomenon in such lands ) are allowed to proceed to famine, which in this day and age can only be the result of political failure. humanitarian and food relief follow the tv headlines, creating more dependencies rather than developing viable and sustainable economies. it is expected that these areas will be hardest hit by climate change in the future. the influential stern review noted that a 3c ( 5. 4f ) increase in global temperature was likely to result in an extra 150 - 550m people becoming exposed to the risk of hunger. the review also said that climate change was likely to result in up to four billion people suffering water shortages. the world ' s drylands are likely to bear the brunt of this gloomy prognosis. in my opinion, the world will only successfully fight poverty and achieve the millennium development goals ( mdgs ) if we pay more attention to these unique ecosystems and learn from the mistakes of the


to bear the brunt of this gloomy prognosis. in my opinion, the world will only successfully fight poverty and achieve the millennium development goals ( mdgs ) if we pay more attention to these unique ecosystems and learn from the mistakes of the past. this means moving away from a colonially biased view of drylands. it is unfortunately still common to equate drylands with deserts and wastelands, as these areas might not look at first sight very productive, especially during a period of drought. so, what are the ingredients for success in developing the poorest regions of this world? first of all, development interventions need to be adapted to the realities of drylands. crop production, whether rain - fed or irrigated, will always be a limited opportunity. yet the major effort in " development " is a green revolution for the desert. has half a century of development not taught us the reality for cultivation in the drylands? livestock is much more suitable to arid environments and more likely to support rural livelihoods in arid regions. for instance, turkana pastoralists of kenya know that livestock is their mainstay, even though they have some of the fastest maturing varieties of sorghum in the world. secondly, we should work with the knowledge and institutional systems of the people who have lived there for centuries. we need to understand why they have complex common property systems for land and resource management that may span and cover very large territories, and guarantee that a variety of stakeholders can use these scarce resources and survive. it is important to also understand why they place more emphasis on livestock than crops. livestock is a better converter of biomass in such harsh lands. we must not sweep aside this knowledge and experience. instead, we should build on those systems and support them with so - called " modern and scientific knowledge " to improve productivity and create market opportunities. yet we ignore their complex risk management and resilience enhancement strategies. one classical example has been the numerous efforts to use inappropriate policies to settle nomadic people and restrict their movements. nomadic livestock herding has been a key sustainable survival strategy in the more arid areas. once grass and water become scarce, these communities move with their animals to the next area. thus, they are able to use resources sustainably without leaving themselves exposed to the effects of droughts. while livestock farming in drylands contributes significantly to national economies, most subsidies go to unsustainable ranching projects rather than the small livestock holders. pastoralism is one of the few land use systems that can be compatible with


effects of droughts. while livestock farming in drylands contributes significantly to national economies, most subsidies go to unsustainable ranching projects rather than the small livestock holders. pastoralism is one of the few land use systems that can be compatible with wildlife conservation. yet where are many of the world ' s national parks? more than 70 % of kenya ' s are in drylands, which includes a number of important dry season grazing areas for pastoralists. dryland peoples depend on the surrounding environment, and they should be able to benefit from conservation through community conserved areas and tourism, rather than having their best lands taken away from them in the name of conservation. thirdly, nature ' s contribution to the survival of the poor needs to be recognised as an important asset. it is nature that provides food, fodder for livestock, construction material for shelter, medicinal plants, emergency food and climate regulation ( shade is highly valued in 40c ). opportunities for sustainable development exist sudan is the world ' s largest producer of gum arabic, a principal ingredient of colas and chewing gum, which stems from a 2, 000 - year agroforestry tradition. and the arid lands of the horn of africa produce the highest quality frankincense and myrrh in the world. in one district in botswana that has an average annual rainfall of just 200mm, dryland ecosystem services contributed $ 190, 000 ( £95, 000 ) to the national income. almost 50 % of this came from wild plants such as the medicinal devil ' s claw. instead of building on this natural capital, development and government interventions tend to replace and disregard them. even worse, they are not reflected in the national gdp figures. as a consequence, most policy frameworks provide incentives for their exploitation rather than their sustainable use. we cannot continue to let the world ' s poor dryland dwellers down. panaceas, history tells us, don ' t work. instead, we need to invest in the innovative and sustainable use of natural assets. this article first appeared on the bbc ' s green room. visit http : / / news. bbc. co. uk / 1 / hi / in _ depth / sci _ tech / green _ room / default. stm


when students read e - textbooks, e - books will be reading students, reports the chronicle of higher education. coursesmart, which sells digital textbooks, will provide “ a new tool to help professors and others measure students ’ engagement with electronic course materials. ” say a student uses an introductory psychology e - textbook. the book will be integrated into the college ’ s course - management system. it will track students ’ behavior : how much time they spend reading, how many pages they view, and how many notes and highlights they make. that data will get crunched into an engagement score for each student. the idea is that faculty members can reach out to students showing low engagement, says sean devine, chief executive of coursesmart. and colleges can evaluate the return they are getting on investments in digital materials. students will be able to opt out if they don ’ t want big teacher monitoring their reading habits, devine said at the educause conference. “ we do understand the big brother aspects of it. ” while “ students need strong academic skills to succeed in postsecondary education, ” college readiness includes non - academic skills, behaviors and attitudes, write melinda mechur karp and rachel hare bork, researchers at the community college research center, teachers college, columbia, in inside higher ed. many new students — especially those who are the first in their family to go to college – don ’ t understand what ’ s expected of them. in our recent research, we identified four specific areas — academic habits, cultural know - how, the ability to balance school and other demands and engaging in help - seeking — in which college faculty had clear expectations of their students. these expectations differed substantively from those in high school, and while meeting them was critical to college success, they remained largely unspoken. many college instructors think they already clearly articulate their expectations to students, but our research indicates that behavioral expectations must be made far more explicit and precise.... for example, when an instructor asks students to “ come to class prepared, ” what does she mean? if she means coming to class having completed a reading and being prepared to participate in discussions about it, she can include this expectation in the syllabus, explain it to students from the first day of class, and assign students to write out three questions or observations about the reading to discuss each week. what does it mean to “ study hard ” for a test? students may not know the difference between studying in high school and college — unless they ’ re told. “ educators


to write out three questions or observations about the reading to discuss each week. what does it mean to “ study hard ” for a test? students may not know the difference between studying in high school and college — unless they ’ re told. “ educators must stop blaming students for breaking rules that they do not know exist, ” conclude karp and bork. darrell is a part - time student who does not own a car. every tuesday and thursday, he takes the hour - long bus ride to school. like many students at his community college, he works nearly 30 hours a week while taking three classes. between work, commuting, and attending classes, he is hard - pressed to find time for studying. fortunately for him, though, while taking the bus one morning, he found himself sitting next to one of his fellow classmates, julie. he told her about his frustrations with his schedule and the homework and how he didn ’ t feel like he had time to see a tutor. she told him about the many educational sites that can be accessed on the phone. sites like the mobile esl page from athabasca university ( http : / / eslau. ca ) that has online grammar lessons and short self - tests that will help you check your work. she also pointed out that parts of the college ’ s own learning management system were accessible by phone. she even had one instructor who was using an electronic textbook that was accessible by smart phones. mobile learning ( often called “ mlearning ” ) can use smart phones, tablet computers or netbooks, cain writes. instructors can help students study by hosting content that ’ s easily accessible to smart phones. “ many software packages make mobile - friendly websites out of the box, and many phones have simplified web browsers that help make accessing the information easier. ” cain has other suggestions for using smart phones to reach and teach students. college students study less — a lot less — than they used to concludes a study by two economists reported in the chronicle of higher ed : in 1961, the average full - time college student spent 40 hours per week on academic work ( that ’ s time in class and studying ). in 2003, it was 27 hours. the decline in academic effort wasn ’ t explained by students working more hours or by the changing make - up of the student body, the economists wrote. they don ’ t have an explanation. erin o ’ connor of critical mass guesses at the reasons :... lower standards ( easier a ’ s, less reading,


starvation is a state of extreme hunger resulting from lack of food over a long period of time. from a medical standpoint, most agree that human beings can survive for up to eight to twelve weeks without food as long as they have water and some salt, although some people in history have fasted much longer.... reports have revealed that a person with extra body fat can last up to 25 weeks or more without eating food. this is achieved when the metabolism in an obese individual ’ s body supplies it with energy as it uses the generous supply of fat storage. starvation as a weapon " at its peak the warsaw ghetto had 500, 000 people — about 40 percent of the population of warsaw — crowded into a space comprising less than 5 percent of the area of the city. a meeting was held in germany by top gestapo officials, including adolf eichmann. this meeting was attended by some of the leading nazi physicians. they had calculated that if the inhabitants of the ghetto received no more than 800 calories of low - protein food per day, the entire population would be dead in nine months — a simple solution for the destruction of the jews in nazi - occupied poland. thus hunger and starvation were universal throughout the ghetto. however, the nazis had not counted on the ingenuity of the inhabitants. smuggling was rampant by organized groups, often containing children. although many things were smuggled in, including arms, the most important was food. finally, the nazis gave up the idea of starving the population to death [ deciding it ] would take too long. instead they instituted the final solution and deported most of the population to the death camps. at the end an uprising broke out and, to the surprise of the world, lasted many weeks. in the end the nazis destroyed the ghetto, leveling the buildings to the ground and killing the few survivors. " notes & references - ↑ health a to z : starvation - ↑ scientific american : how long can a person survive without food? - ↑ winick, myron ( williams professor emeritus of nutrition ) 2005 hunger disease : studies by the jewish physicians in the warsaw ghetto, their historical importance and their relevance today. columbia university in the city of new york. accessed april 2008.


the u. s. consumer product safety commission is warning storm victims that gasoline - powered generators should not be used indoors, because of the risk of carbon monoxide ( co ) poisoning. deaths from co poisoning have occurred in new england after last week ' s ice storm. cpsc chairman ann brown said, " if people use gasoline - powered generators indoors, they could die from co poisoning. opening doors and windows or operating fans does not guarantee safety. " co poisoning from the use of fuel - burning appliances kills more than 200 people each year and sends about 10, 000 to hospital emergency rooms for treatment. others die from co produced while burning charcoal inside a home, garage, vehicle or tent. still others die from co produced by cars unintentionally left running in attached garages. co is a colorless, odorless gas produced by burning any fuel. the initial symptoms of co poisoning are similar to the flu, and include dizziness, fatigue, headache, nausea and irregular breathing. high level exposure to co can cause death. " cpsc recommends that consumers use gasoline - powered generators outdoors to prevent co poisoning, " brown said. " and every home should have at least one co detector that meets the requirements of the most recent underwriters laboratories standard 2034 or the requirements of the ias 6 - 96 standard. " the u. s. consumer product safety commission is charged with protecting the public from unreasonable risks of injury or death associated with the use of the thousands of consumer products under the agency ' s jurisdiction. deaths, injuries and property damage from consumer product incidents cost the nation more than $ 900 billion annually. cpsc is committed to protecting consumers and families from products that pose a fire, electrical, chemical or mechanical hazard. cpsc ' s work to ensure the safety of consumer products - such as toys, cribs, power tools, cigarette lighters and household chemicals - contributed to a decline in the rate of deaths and injuries associated with consumer products over the past 30 years. federal law bars any person from selling products subject to a publicly - announced voluntary recall by a manufacturer or a mandatory recall ordered by the commission. to report a dangerous product or a product - related injury go online to www. saferproducts. gov or call cpsc ' s hotline at ( 800 ) 638 - 2772 or teletypewriter at ( 301 ) 595 - 7054 for the hearing impaired. consumers can obtain news release and recall information at www. cpsc. gov, on twitter @ onsafety


bacteria in liquid culture can be streaked on a plate to obtain individual colonies. it is important for a molecular biologist to work with bacteria that are genetically identical. by streaking for single colonies, one isolated colony will form from a single bacterial cell and thus the colony is genetically identical. one method is to streak bacteria around the petri plate, working in a circle and diluting the bacterial population as you go. the microbiological loop is either flamed, or a new loop is used, at four steps. these are represented by different colors in the figures below. | # 1 = a loopful of bacteria is obtained from a resuspended liquid culture, and a dime to penny sized circle is made on the plate ( black ). # 2 - a second loop is used to make four lines moving out from the circle ( red ). # 3 - a third loop is used to make four more lines which overlap the first four ( blue ). # 4 - a fourth loop is used to make four more lines which overlap the second four ( green ). note that the same loop is used to make the final four lines ( green ). | on this plate, many isolated colonies are seen on the third set of streaks. | return to the virtual lab book table of contents


as far as i can see, the only link between marsh arabs and sumerians presented in this paper comes from dating y - str variation of their major j1 - page08 group using the evolutionary mutation rate, with a divergence time of 4. 5 + / - 2. 6 ky. even if that mutation rate was correct ( it is not ) and the assumptions on which the confidence interval are based were exhaustive ( they are not ), we still have + / - 2. 6 ky leeway to deal with, which spans not only the sumerians but plenty more besides. not to mention that the evolutionary mutation rate is wrongly applied to every case under the sun, and that y - str based age estimation in general has been conclusively shown to be a rather futile exercise. nonetheless, the paper does have value in demonstrating the paucity of j2 and r1 in the marsh arabs compared to the more cosmopolitan general iraqi population : rather than " sumerian ", it seems that the marsh arabs have rather preserved a more pristine semitic patrilineal gene pool compared to the cosmopolitan iraqi samples that have absorbed pre - arab and pre - semitic population elements. different from the iraqi control sample, the marsh arab gene pool displays a very scarce input from the northern middle east ( hgs j2 - m172 and derivatives, g - m201 and e - m123 ), virtually lacks western eurasian ( hgs r1 - m17, r1 - m412 and r1 - l23 ) and sub - saharan african ( hg e - m2 ) contributions. bmc evolutionary biology 2011, 11 : 288doi : 10. 1186 / 1471 - 2148 - 11 - 288 in search of the genetic footprints of sumerians : a survey of y - chromosome and mtdna variation in the marsh arabs of iraq. nadia al - zahery et al. for millennia, the southern part of the mesopotamia has been a wetland region generated by the tigris and euphrates rivers before flowing into the gulf. this area has been occupied by human communities since ancient times and the present - day inhabitants, the marsh arabs, are considered the population with the strongest link to ancient sumerians. popular tradition, however, considers the marsh arabs as a foreign group, of unknown origin, which arrived in the marshlands when the rearing of water buffalo was introduced to the region. to shed some light on the paternal and maternal origin of this population, y chromosome and mitochondrial dna (


marsh arabs as a foreign group, of unknown origin, which arrived in the marshlands when the rearing of water buffalo was introduced to the region. to shed some light on the paternal and maternal origin of this population, y chromosome and mitochondrial dna ( mtdna ) variation was surveyed in 143 marsh arabs and in a large sample of iraqi controls. analyses of the haplogroups and sub - haplogroups observed in the marsh arabs revealed a prevalent autochthonous middle eastern component for both male and female gene pools, with weak south - west asian and african contributions, more evident in mtdna. a higher male than female homogeneity is characteristic of the marsh arab gene pool, likely due to a strong male genetic drift determined by socio - cultural factors ( patrilocality, polygamy, unequal male and female migration rates ). evidence of genetic stratification ascribable to the sumerian development was provided by the y - chromosome data where the j1 - page08 branch reveals a local expansion, almost contemporary with the sumerian city state period that characterized southern mesopotamia. on the other hand, a more ancient background shared with to northern mesopotamia is revealed by the less represented y - chromosome lineage j1 - m267 *. overall our results indicate that the introduction of water buffalo breeding and rice farming, most likely from the indian sub - continent, only marginally affected the gene pool of autochthonous people of the region. furthermore, a prevalent middle eastern ancestry of the modern population of the marshes of southern iraq implies that if the marsh arabs are descendants of the ancient sumerians, also the sumerians were most likely autochthonous and not of indian or south asian ancestry.


download full text ( 938 kb ) to understand the climate variability and weather prediction in the earth ’ s atmosphere, measurements of winds, temperature and wave activities are very crucial. the earth ’ s atmosphere is believed to act as a source and sink for the waves of a broader spectrum with periods from few seconds to years. generally, the earth ’ s atmosphere is stably stratified except the planetary boundary layer and thus makes a reasonable assumption for the presence of atmospheric waves. a barotropic atmosphere in a resting basic state is able to support these spectra of waves. these waves move diagonally upward or downward and horizontally. the mean zonal circulation is mainly driven by these atmospheric waves, which are believed to be generated in the troposphere and propagates horizontally and vertically in to the middle and upper atmosphere. these waves transport energy and momentum from one region to another without the transport of material medium thereby impinging the signature of the source region on to the sink region. the waves propagating in earth ' s atmosphere are expected to be both anisotropic and dispersive. the anisotropic characteristics of these waves mean that the properties of the waves are not uniform in all the directions. the propagating waves can be characterized by the amplitude and phase, which depends on time and space. when the wave frequency depends on the wavelength ( 2 / k ) then the wave is dispersive. for such waves the group velocity is different from the phase velocity. a better understanding of the vertical coupling by these wave activities will provide a deeper insight into the processes that control the dynamics and energetics of the whole atmosphere. modern climatology, whole system, historical statistics, variability, atmosphere, prediction climate | earth sciences


david johnson is a man in a hurry. carrying a battered leather shoulder bag and sweating profusely in the searing desert heat, he chatters nonstop as he scrambles up a stony, barren hill in the nasca region of southern peru. johnson, a retired high school social studies teacher from poughkeepsie, new york, thinks he has discovered the secret behind one of the world ' s most enduring archaeological mysteries, and he can ' t wait to show off how he got the idea. he tops the hill and stops, sets his feet, purses his lips, and hitches up his pants with his elbows to signal he is ready to make his point. the sun is low, the shadows sharp. johnson steps aside theatrically. " that ' s what i saw, " he announces, and points. below, a parched pampa, or desert, stretches southward for miles toward a distant peak in the andes mountains. on the valley floor, a gigantic geometric figure a trapezoid hundreds of feet long and some 30 yards wide has been precisely drawn in lines of piled stones, the open center looking as if it has been swept clean. extending from the trapezoid, two perfectly straight lines of stones shoot southward toward dark clefts in the faraway peak. johnson claims the clefts are geologic faults that collect precious runoff water from the mountains and feed natural underground aquifers that course through the desert valley. " right here, i sat down and said, ' my god, i know what the lines of nasca mean! ' " he says. " they ' re tracing underground water sources! " johnson ' s companion, steve mabee, removes his bush hat to wipe away sweat as he gazes in wonder at the enormous trapezoid, one of more than 1, 000 enigmatic ground drawings that cover 400 square miles of the bone - dry and sparsely populated nasca region near peru ' s southern coast. created between 200 b. c. and a. d. 1000 by desert dwellers who left no written record of their culture, the nasca lines are a mystifying mosaic of straight lines, sprawling geometric forms, and cartoonlike animal figures. ever since peruvian archaeologist toribio mej ’ a xesspe happened upon the lines as he hiked the desert hills in 1927, scientists and curiosity seekers have puzzled over the ground drawings and offered explanations that range from the fanciful ( a huge astronomical calendar ) to the ludicrous ( landing strips for alien spaceships ). mabee, a


or both scientists who have sifted through fragmentary archaeological evidence suggest the straight lines and geometric forms marked an intricate network of pathways for pilgrims to walk on in their quest to communicate with mountain deities associated with weather and water. after decades of wild speculation, an evocative picture is finally beginning to emerge of a vanished culture that left behind one of the greatest archaeological wonders of the world. driving across the pampa san jose, 250 miles south of lima on the pan american highway, a modern visitor to the nasca region sees little but dreary low hills and wind - carved dunes littered with pebbles and stones. but " fly the lines " in a little twin - engine plane steeply banked for photographs, or climb a hill in late afternoon when the shadows are starkest, and some of the ancient ground drawings pop into view. nasca lines come in two types : biomorphs and geoglyphs. the charming biomorphs, some 70 plant and animal figures including a 1, 000 - foot pelican, a 150 - foot spider, and a 360 - foot monkey with an extraordinary spiral tail appear almost whimsical. the 900 or so geoglyphs, those rigorous straight lines and geometric forms triangles, zigzags, spirals, circles, trapezoids have a pragmatic feeling about them. many are enormous : the largest trapezoid covers 160, 000 square yards ; the longest line shoots nine miles straight across the desert. nasca people made the ground drawings on the desert centuries ago by clearing away darkened pampa stones to expose the pale sand beneath, piling the stones around the margin to create an outline a few inches high. a relatively small group of people could easily have sketched the long, straight lines by eye and moved the stones, smaller than footballs, by hand. the ground drawings aren ' t the only large - scale archaeological marvels the nasca people left behind. ancient aqueducts ring the arid pampa. these aqueducts, called puquios, are a vast system of channels, in some places 30 feet deep and a half - mile long, carefully lined with cobblestones. katharina schreiber, an archaeologist at the university of california at santa barbara, descended into the puquios to explore their construction and concluded that these man - made waterways and the most prominent straight lines on the pampa were constructed around the same time the sixth century a. d., which, coincidentally, was also the time of a big drought.


helaine silverman, an archaeologist at the university of illinois at urbana - champaign, begged her colleagues at a 1999 conference on nasca research to " keep an open mind " while steve mabee gathered data to test johnson ' s theory. during three nasca area field trips, mabee has found strong evidence that alternative water sources exist, often just where johnson said they were. he took water samples from rivers and from higher up on the valley walls at faults and springs ; he compared their chemical signatures to see if they could possibly have different sources. " in all cases, the conductivity, salinity, and temperature are different from that of the river. some of the water seems to come from the sides of the valleys, where the faults are, and not from the river. " and in all the cases he tested, the faults were marked by geoglyphs. skeptics argue that so far johnson and mabee have gone about things backward. " johnson has sought data only to support his ideas, rather than trying to disprove the negative, " says schreiber. in other words, he finds a fault, then finds a trapezoid that points to it rather than vice versa. " i think johnson is right about some things, but not to the extent he claims, " she adds. " his suggestion that faults direct water into the valley is correct in several instances. it does not, however, explain the sources of water of all the puquios. " six of the 39 puquios schreiber has studied " seem to derive their water from sources on the valley sides, " she notes. " most of the rest begin right at, or under, the riverbed, indicating to me that an underground river is the primary source of water. " in the view of schreiber and other experts, the very intricacy of the nasca lines seems to mock a theory as straightforward and pragmatic as johnson ' s. many of the lines cross, crisscross, and recross ; one image is superimposed on another as if later builders had utterly dismissed the value of previous work. " it ' s a bit of a rorschach test, " says schreiber. the rorschach test led obsessive nasca aficionados during decades past to fantasize that the biomorphs and geoglyphs were a giant astronomical calendar or map. this astronomical explanation has since been largely discredited ( see " written


, " or a hierarchy. a ceque system imposed order on life : roads radiated from cuzco in the same way that 41 imaginary lines radiated from the temple of the sun " the navel of the universe " embodying the incan worldview and symbolically binding together the social, economic, and religious life of the people. aveni ' s ray - center analysis, combined with circumstantial evidence accumulated by various archaeologists and anthropologists, now leads prominent nasca experts to conclude that the lines served sacred purposes. the lines were meant to be walked and, most experts agree, led people to the ray centers and nearby trapezoids for water - connected rituals. aveni and others can only speculate about what the exact nature of those rituals might have been. " i imagine different clans assembling in different places, walking different lines, maybe at different times, " he says. seen in a particular way, walking is an " acting out " of space ; perhaps the people walked where they wished the water to flow : come this way. " there are fossil pathways on the lines, and they probably had specific, ritualistic walking : go this way, turn left or right, fathers go that way, brothers the other way, face the sun, and so on. people went to one hell of a lot of trouble to build these lines, so whatever their rituals were, they must have been deeply believed. i ' m seeing a dedication of purpose by a very inventive people. " david johnson steps over bright shards of broken pottery and walks past an ancient plundered grave. with the certainty of faith, he has vowed to keep walking the nasca lines until he proves his own theory. he has already inspected 250 archaeological sites, he says, some of them 50 to 60 feet higher than the adjacent river and farther upslope than archaeologists might logically seek human habitation. he points out a circle of stones. " where there are geoglyphs, " he says, " in every case there also appears to be an archaeological site, geologic faults, and a source of freshwater. " steve mabee is not so quick to jump to conclusions. " dave paints this glorious picture, " he says. " but we don ' t see the evidence yet. " his next step could establish statistically whether johnson is on the right track. with graduate student gregory smith, mabee will mark every verified water source in nasca valley on a map, then overlay a map of the geoglyphs


yet. " his next step could establish statistically whether johnson is on the right track. with graduate student gregory smith, mabee will mark every verified water source in nasca valley on a map, then overlay a map of the geoglyphs and see if they match up. " i think we ' ll find a high percentage, " mabee says. " but we must have direct evidence to see whether it ' s a significant number or a coincidence. " until then, he wishes johnson would slow down a bit. anthony aveni ' s book on theories ( particularly his ) purporting to decode the mysterious nasca lines is between the lines : the mystery of the giant ground drawings of ancient nasca, peru, the university of texas press, 2000. the original research of archaeologist alfred kroeber, who was one of the first to study the ancient nascas, has recently been published for the first time : the archaeology and pottery of nazca, peru : alfred l. kroeber ' s 1926 expedition, a. l. kroeber, donald collier, patrick h. carmichael, altamira press, 1999. don proulx ' s nasca lines project web page : www - unix. oit. umass. edu / ~ proulx / nasca _ lines _ project. html


the following methods can be defined to emulate numeric objects. methods corresponding to operations that are not supported by the particular kind of number implemented ( e. g., bitwise operations for non - integral numbers ) should be left undefined. %, divmod ( ) pow ( ) | ). for instance, to evaluate the expression x + y, where x is an instance of a class that has an _ _ add _ _ ( ) method, x. _ _ add _ _ ( y ) is called. the _ _ divmod _ _ ( ) method should be the equivalent to using _ _ floordiv _ _ ( ) and _ _ mod _ _ ( ) ; it should not be related to _ _ truediv _ _ ( ) ( described below ). note that _ _ pow _ _ ( ) should be defined to accept an optional third argument if the ternary version of the built - in pow ( ) function is to be supported. / ) is implemented by these methods. the _ _ truediv _ _ ( ) method is used when _ _ future _ _. divisionis in effect, otherwise _ _ div _ _ ( ) is used. if only one of these two methods is defined, the object will not support division in the alternate context ; typeerror will be raised instead. %, divmod ( ) pow ( ) | ) with reflected ( swapped ) operands. these functions are only called if the left operand does not support the corresponding operation. for instance, to evaluate the expression x - y, where y is an instance of a class that has an _ _ rsub _ _ ( ) method, y. _ _ rsub _ _ ( x ) is called. note that ternary pow ( ) will not try calling _ _ rpow _ _ ( ) ( the coercion rules would become too complicated ). | = ). these methods should attempt to do the operation in - place ( modifying self ) and return the result ( which could be, but does not have to be, self ). if a specific method is not defined, the augmented operation falls back to the normal methods. for instance, to evaluate the expression x + = y, where x is an instance of a class that has an _ _ iadd _ _ ( ) method, x. _ _ iadd _ _ ( y ) is called. if x is an instance of a class that does not define a _ _ iadd ( )


instance of a class that has an _ _ iadd _ _ ( ) method, x. _ _ iadd _ _ ( y ) is called. if x is an instance of a class that does not define a _ _ iadd ( ) method, y. _ _ radd _ _ ( x ) are considered, as with the evaluation of x +, abs ( ) and noneif conversion is impossible. when the common type would be the type of other, it is sufficient to return none, since the interpreter will also ask the other object to attempt a coercion ( but sometimes, if the implementation of the other type cannot be changed, it is useful to do the conversion to the other type here ). coercion rules : to evaluate x op y, the following steps are taken ( where _ _ op _ _ ( ) and _ _ rop _ _ ( ) are the method names corresponding to op, e. g., if op is ` + ', _ _ add _ _ ( ) and _ _ radd _ _ ( ) are used ). if an exception occurs at any point, the evaluation is abandoned and exception handling takes over. x. _ _ coerce _ _ ( y ) ; skip to step 2 if the coercion returns x. _ _ op _ _ ( y ) ; otherwise, restore x and y to their value before step 1a. y. _ _ coerce _ _ ( x ) ; skip to step 3 if the coercion returns y. _ _ rop _ _ ( x ) ; otherwise, restore x and y to their value before step 2a. + ' and x is a sequence, sequence concatenation is invoked. * ' and one operand is a sequence and the other an integer, sequence repetition is invoked.


scurvy is a disease caused by a dietary deficiency of vitamin c ( ascorbic acid ). the disease has occurred with regular frequency throughout human history and prehistory in populations lacking fresh foods … deficiency of the vitamin causes a breakdown in the binding function of these tissues, producing a series of characteristic signs and symptoms : weakness, lethargy, irritability, anemia, purple spongy gums which bleed freely, loosening teeth, the reopening of healed scars … and hemorrhaging in the mucous membranes and skin. in severe cases the mortality rate is high. up until then, i ’ d believed that scars were stronger than regular skin. when in fact they ' re weaker. maybe this was something most everybody else knew, but it really shook me up. the mantra “ what doesn ’ t kill you makes you stronger ” is so satisfying. “ what doesn ’ t kill you leaves a scar that may weaken and rupture again if stressed ” is kind of scary. i got to thinking about this recently when i was doing a computer search to see if a paper i ’ d had published recently was showing up yet. only one other person with my last name is published in the medical literature, so it was quickest to type in just my last name to look for my papers. but it turns out that they ’ ve been slowly working backward in time to put medical articles into the citation system. which is why the last time i entered my name into pubmed, two articles written by my father appeared. my father was a statistician who collaborated with medical researchers, so it ’ s not surprising that he had some papers published under his name. but he died when i was five, and all i knew about his job is that it had something to do with computers. seeing his name pop up without warning like that was painful ; a reminder that he ’ s not here, and of how much he has missed. i had never even thought about the fact that we could have talked about my work. people often say that you never get over a loved one ’ s death. when i was much younger, i hated to hear this. i spent a long time trying to convince myself that my father ’ s death didn ’ t really have an effect on me. it happened when i was so young, after all. but things did sneak up on me. when i was driving down a street one day i caught sight of a little girl learning to ride a bicycle, her father running behind her,


on me. it happened when i was so young, after all. but things did sneak up on me. when i was driving down a street one day i caught sight of a little girl learning to ride a bicycle, her father running behind her, his hand on the back of her seat. suddenly i was so upset i had to pull over to the side of the road. then i remembered that my father had just started teaching me how to ride a bike the summer he died. after he was gone i had to do it myself : there was a big pothole in our driveway, and if i climbed on the bike at the top of it and rolled down, there was just enough momentum to get me started. i did it over and over again until i had it. once glimpsed, the knowledge that a person who loves you and takes care of you can disappear in an instant never goes away. it can teach you to appreciate people, but it also makes you very wary. the truth about what happens when something wounds you is that first there is pain and bleeding. then you start to heal, and a scar forms. a scar is vastly better than nothing ; at least the acute pain goes away, and you don ’ t bleed to death. but it ’ s never the same as it was. i think that human interaction is like vitamin c for the soul : get too little, and your psychic wounds can reopen. i guess that ’ s why i keep blogging.


set of children \ ' s games for halloween includes the following 5 games : jigsaw puzzle, shape puzzle, connect the dot, memory game and scratch game. this entertaining educational game for preschool kids, that helps to develop motor skills, hand - to - eye coordination skills, imagination and creativity. it aims to teach children shapes, image recognition and number pronunciation. matching games are a great way to improve your kids short - term memory skills, develop their concentration and cognitive skills! it was designed for children. all cards are laid face down, and they are flipped over by the player over each turn. users must then recall where them like princesses are throughout the set and touch them to create a match. it \ ' s simple to use - - just drag the pieces to the right place to create the image. by erasing the top layer with a finger, the child discovers the hidden picture underneath. the goal is to move shapes into the outline of an object. once all of the puzzle pieces are in place, the object fills in with a compete image, and a voice gives some kind of encouragement, such as, " good job! " and etc. when you place the piece inside the puzzle \ ' s outline, it snaps into place. connect the dot : this game allows your preschool - age child to practice numbers and image recognition. child simply touch the numbers in sequence, and it draws the line for you. each number is pronounced after pressing. the program is able to pronounce the numbers in 17 different languages : english, spanish, german, french, japanese, korean, russian, italian, dutch, finish, norwegian, swedish, danish, portuguese, hindi, chinese ( traditional ), chinese ( simplified ). when child reach the last number, the object fills in with a detailed cartooned image of the thing that you just traced. the game is optimized for android phones and tablets. it as a fun learning exercise for pre - schoolers. children will have hours of fun with this game. if you consider those resources have infringed upon your rights, please contact us, or read our detailed " disclaimer " if you want to upload apps on our website, just click here contact us : email @ example. com


letter limericks – i know many of you are working on letter writing this time of year, so i thought dr. holly ' s “ letter limericks ” might be just the rhyme you need to put it in children ' s brains. the first is a letter called a with straight lines in every way. two lines point up top, to the bottom they drop, and another crosses the way. the second letter is b for baseball, baby, and beach. straight line down the side, two humps on the right — it looks like a fat bumble bee! after b comes c : cookies, celery, and cheese! like a smile big and wide turned on its side it ’ s easy to make c, you see! d is a letter that ’ s plump like a tummy with one round hump. a long line straight down, then go out and around for dig, dive, dip and dump! after d comes e. it ’ s shaped like a comb with three teeth. one line down the side, three more to the right for echoes, ears, eyeballs and eat! f is the next letter to name. it can bring with it fortune and fame. like e in design without the bottom line but it gets along fine all the same! after f comes g which is curvy and round just like c. when you reach the end stop, put a straight line across and your g will giggle with glee! h is a letter with pride. it has two long straight lines side by side then hip, hop, and higgle put another ‘ cross the middle and your h will have nothing to hide! i comes after that, eating ice cream, and yet it ’ s not fat. one line stretches down, one lies on the ground and one goes on top — a flat hat! now jump, joke, and juggle — it ’ s j with lines both curvy and straight. the curve starts up top then like a hook drops and the straight line juts over the way! the letter k has quite a kick with a spine as straight as a stick. from the middle about two arms reach out for kangaroos, kindness, and kids! after k comes l it ’ s a letter with lots to tell. one line heads straight down, one sticks out on the ground like a chair with no legs — how swell! m is a letter with size, like two mountains side by side. two straight lines on the end two others point in making moms, milk, and


straight down, one sticks out on the ground like a chair with no legs — how swell! m is a letter with size, like two mountains side by side. two straight lines on the end two others point in making moms, milk, and messes — oh, my! n is like m only thinner. it didn ’ t eat quite as much dinner — for nick and noelle two lines parallel and a diagonal one ‘ cross the center. o is entirely round — not a single straight line to be found. like a wide open mouth saying oops! oh! or ouch! it makes oceans and oranges abound! the next of the letters is p for people and peanuts and please. let one straight line prop with a loop on the top and you ’ ll make lots of pumpkins and peas! q comes next without fail with quarters, quick questions, and quails : first a circle that ’ s fat then like the back of a cat a straight line sticks out like a tail. r is ever so clever. it ’ s p and k blended together : the top hoops about the bottom leg kicks out — for running and reading there ’ s no better! s is a letter with style for summer, sunshine, and smiles. go up and around then back around down like a snake that slithers for miles! t is terrific and true standing tall as all towers do. one straight line sits over, the other points lower for tigers, trees, and tickles too! u comes right after t. it also comes just before v — an upside down hump a straight line it bumps : unicorn, universe, unique! v is very healthy — it ’ s true! with vitamins and vegetables for you : two straight lines point down and meet at the ground for vacations and violins, too! w is just like 2 vs stuck together — like twins, you see. with why, when, and where? and who will be there? w makes words work with ease! x is the letter that ’ s next. not many words start with an x but x marks the spot with two straight lines that cross — x is never quite what you expect! the next - to - last letter is y for years and yes, give it a try! like a small v that sits on top of a stick reaching for the yellow sun in the sky! z comes last for a reason bringing zeal, zap, and zest to all seasons. one straight line slants down then at foot and at crown


raspberry pi - retro computer of the future with sales in excess of one million in its first year, the raspberry pi foundation hopes its low - cost computer will enthuse a new generation of coders. it ' s a standard household scene. a 16 - year - old computer whizz ( that is, when it comes to playing games ) communicating and doing eight things at once on the machine, hits a brick wall when the computer starts to go wrong. mum finds nothing on the internet but jargon. dad, a former teacher, has no idea what to do. time to call in ' the geek '. everyone knows one. in his teens, he ( they ' re usually blokes ) spent hours taking computers apart and reprogramming them. now he ' s an it guru. the rest of us did ict at school ; some of us are good at typing. things are changing. this year, education secretary michael gove plans to introduce a new it curriculum that focuses more on computer science and less on secretarial skills. the british education system is notoriously slow to embrace change, though. whether it ' s today ' s children who will benefit or the children of future generations remains to be seen. something that may speed things up, though, is the new computer that looks like the sort of thing the geek might keep in his den, but sounds like something served up in the school canteen. the raspberry pi is an uncased, credit - card sized computer that can run off the mains or from a portable battery. developer the raspberry pi foundation says that it is individual children, not their schools, who will be given the computers. at schools, or at home, the kids will be able to use the raspberry pi like a desktop pc for gaming, spreadsheets, word - processing and to play videos. also like a desktop, their new machine will connect to tvs, games consoles and keyboards. most of all, the raspberry pi foundation hopes that these computers will encourage their young owners to program. " we wanted a computer that people can do things with, not another one on which they just consume content, " says foundation trustee robert mullins. mullins, from cambridge university ' s computer laboratory, and five other cambridge - based scientists, set up the raspberry pi foundation in 2009 to promote computer science in schools. he explains that today ' s desktop computers and laptops make programming difficult. " computers are delivered with a closed


computer laboratory, and five other cambridge - based scientists, set up the raspberry pi foundation in 2009 to promote computer science in schools. he explains that today ' s desktop computers and laptops make programming difficult. " computers are delivered with a closed platform so it ' s difficult to do anything with them except consume, " he says. another raspberry pi trustee, eben upton, used to be in charge of cambridge university ' s undergraduate computer - science admissions. in the early to mid 2000s, he noticed that fewer a level students were applying. there were fewer quality applicants, too. upton explains that, in the 1990s, experienced hobbyist programmers applied for computer science degrees at cambridge. by the 2000s he was finding that a typical applicant might only have done a bit of web design. " the students hadn ' t used programmable hardware and just couldn ' t programme, " he says. he explains that earlier generations had been brought up on amigas, bbc micros, zx spectrums and commodore 64s, low - powered computers with a fraction of the built - in entertainment that today ' s machines offer. to get the most out of these machines users had to get under the bonnet. today, tinkering with a computer is like taking the tv apart. there ' s a major crisis if anything goes wrong : lost files, emails and photographs ; important communications with friends, family and work colleagues, gone ; a £500 bill if you can ' t get it working again. " if you ' re going to take a computer apart, you need something cheap, " mullins adds. " something you can programme and just leave as part of your project. " the raspberry pi costs £26. if you break or lose it, you can just get another. it ' s only £20 for the newer model a, which has slightly less ram and only one usb port. there ' s no operating system on the computer, either ; it ' s stored on an sd card. " if there ' s a glitch in the operating system you just rewrite the card or get another, " rob mullins adds. the first batch of 10, 000 raspberry pis sold out, online, almost immediately. the prototype attracted ebay bids of more than £3, 000. since the launch last february, geeks and tinkermen all over the world have gobbled up over a million pis for their diy computer projects. but despite their product ' s commercial potential, the foundation is determined


than £3, 000. since the launch last february, geeks and tinkermen all over the world have gobbled up over a million pis for their diy computer projects. but despite their product ' s commercial potential, the foundation is determined not to lose sight of its educational vision. in february 2011, ian livingstone, author of the government commissioned next gen report into the skills needed to transform the uk video games and visual effects industry, started criticising " boring ict lessons that gave children no insight into how technology is actually created ". livingstone, games workshop founder and edios president, explained that with british manufacturing in decline and financial services in disarray, if the economy was to succeed, someone needed to empower creative people with the skills necessary to serve digital content to global audiences. " code is absolutely essential to that, " livingstone says. " it ' s at the heart of everything we do in the digital world. it ' s not just about video games and visual effects, it ' s also about designing the next jet propulsion engine, or fighting cybercrime, or running financial services. " google ' s eric schmidt, speaking at the edinburgh international television festival, gave the opinion that by teaching children how to use software rather than create it, schools were throwing away britain ' s great computing heritage. since then, industry leaders, educationalists and finally government figures came out in favour of curriculum change. in its response to the next gen report, the government said something about raspberry pi, too. " much as the bbc micro inspired a generation of computer programmers in the early 1980s, the raspberry pi could provide the platform for teachers and pupils to gain hands - on programming experience. " face the pi a raspberry pi computer looks like a pc motherboard and uses the sort of microchips usually found in mobile phones. it uses broadcom soc ; a 700mhz arm11 processor handles basic computations – inputs, outputs and calculations ; and there ' s also a videocore 4 graphics processing unit. these processors combine processing and multimedia capability into a small shell. they don ' t use too much power too quickly and keep the computer relatively cool. the original model has 512mb ram, 2 usb ports and an ethernet port. the cheaper model a has 256mb ram, one usb port and no ethernet connection. operating systems are mainly linux distributions, although there are other non - linux operating systems, for instance riscos. linux has low memory overheads, so it ' s possible to run a


256mb ram, one usb port and no ethernet connection. operating systems are mainly linux distributions, although there are other non - linux operating systems, for instance riscos. linux has low memory overheads, so it ' s possible to run a fully functional operating system on a simple device with no permanent storage. linux often comes with programming languages already installed. scratch and python work on the raspberry pi. it comes, like many of the earliest home computers, without peripherals. analogue tvs and other similar output devices connect through an rca jack. with the raspberry pi ' s hdmi connector users can hook up a high - definition television or other compatible device using an hdmi cable. exposed, general - purpose input / output connection points give hobbyists their chance to tinker. attachable usb hubs expand the number of available ports, allowing users to connect additional mice, keyboards, network adapters and external storage. there is no internal storage space. with attachable interface boards users can do even more with their computer. one such creation is the pi - face. designed by manchester university scientists, it ' s the same size as the raspberry pi itself and clips on top of the computer. using pi - face, the computer can read switches attached to it. users input the code and the raspberry pi drives the outputs, powering motors and robots, triggering cameras or using sensor networks – and indeed anything else the fiendishly clever, geekish mind can think of. " you can plug in and control robots, scalextric cars or train sets, " says manchester university ' s dr david rydenheard, and those are just the obvious uses. his manchester university colleague, dr andrew robinson, who designed the gadget, has thought about an automated insulin monitor that dials 999, and something similar that reorders food when the cupboard is bare. " one youngster even suggested making a device that politely reminds you to put the toilet seat down after using it, " robinson says. children at our lady ' s high school in preston use raspberry pis too. a group of 12 - year - olds wanted to monitor squirrel activity in the school grounds, but didn ' t want to leave their iphones in the playground. instead they hid a raspberry pi in a tree overnight, and programmed it to take a photo every time something moved nearby. " three triple a batteries gave the computer enough power to run for eight hours, " says ict teacher alan o ' donohoe.


a raspberry pi in a tree overnight, and programmed it to take a photo every time something moved nearby. " three triple a batteries gave the computer enough power to run for eight hours, " says ict teacher alan o ' donohoe. " the group collected working data to a memory card. it was just like using a digital camera. " o ' donohoe has seen students turn a model barking dog from a charity shop into a vacuum cleaner and reprogram a 1970s remote control plastic truck to carry out more complex instructions than its makers ever intended. " the toy no longer does do what its makers wanted it to do, " o ' donohoe says, " it does what we tell it. " o ' donohoe doesn ' t have a class set of raspberry pis yet, but he ' s determined to get one. some 15, 000 raspberry pis will find their way to youngsters around the country over the next year. educational organisations coderdojo, code club, computing at schools, generating genius, teach first and ocr are currently deciding how best to distribute them. " we want the computers in the hands of those children who will really benefit from owning one, " rob mullins says. mullins envisages that for the new owners, using their raspberry pi will be like learning a musical instrument, " you ' re tutored at school and then practise at home, " he adds. music lessons have specialist teachers to teach them, though. next gen found that only one new teacher qualified with computer science as a main specialism, in 2010. a january 2012 royal society report said that only 35 per cent of all ict teachers were subject specialists. this january, the association for information technology in initial teacher training recorded a 41 per cent drop in computer science applicants. universities blame confusion over courses changing from ict to computer science and a reduction in allocated places, for the shortfall. things are starting to move on this. bcs, the chartered institute for it, has 50 bursaries of £20, 000 available for high - flying it graduates who want to train as teachers. the government has asked ibm, facebook and microsoft to help design the training. the network computer science teaching excellence scheme will train 500 current it teachers over the next year. bcs hopes that half of those trained will subsequently run their own professional development courses for other teachers. there are some computer science specialists, like alan o ' donohoe, in schools. computing at schools


500 current it teachers over the next year. bcs hopes that half of those trained will subsequently run their own professional development courses for other teachers. there are some computer science specialists, like alan o ' donohoe, in schools. computing at schools have 1, 000 of them on their books, according to ian livingstone. in england, however, there are 4. 1 million children in 16, 971 state primary schools and three million in 3, 127 secondaries. in the late 1990s and 2000s, it took a national strategy with targets, and around £150m a year for the best part of ten years, to get schools doing the sort of pe and sport that the government wanted. and that was with paid organisers in every school and thousands of specialist coaches to deliver activity. it still took years to get sport off the ground. and even then, some schools didn ' t really do much. computer science has no such funding or infrastructure behind it. the current government prefers initiative to come from those on the ground. the raspberry pi foundation has already started training teachers and children to use its computers. user manuals, online tutorials and classroom resources are imminent, and networks of interested geeks are already spreading the word. rob mullins sees after - school programming clubs as a way of kick - starting the computer science revolution. " kids will find out that computing doesn ' t have to be about sitting on your own, communicating remotely, " he says, " get together with like - minded people and learn from each other. " visit the iet ' s raspberry pi community page at http : / / bit. ly / eandt - pi - community since last february ' s launch, element14 – premier farnell ' s information portal, collaborative community and electronics store for electronic design engineers – has manufactured and delivered more than 500, 000 raspberry pis to enthusiasts around the world. " if you were to stand all the element14 raspberry pi ' s end to end they would reach higher than the 24 miles austrian daredevil felix baumgartner skydived last year, " an element14 spokesperson says. element 14 has released a series of exclusive accessories that enable owners to build extra functionality and capabilities into their projects. gertboard : an add - on gpio expansion board which allows raspberry pi users to connect to and control more advanced physical devices. wipi : wirelessly connects the raspberry pi to a network. piview : enables the direct connection of the


: an add - on gpio expansion board which allows raspberry pi users to connect to and control more advanced physical devices. wipi : wirelessly connects the raspberry pi to a network. piview : enables the direct connection of the raspberry pi to vga monitors from the hdmi output. the piface digital : targeted at 11 - 16 year olds this new device stacks on top of the raspberry pi and connects it to physical devices such as lights, motors and sensors. a toy chicken squawks when dieters open the cupboard looking for a crafty snack. the chicken tweets any dietary indiscretions to your twitter followers. a design drone turns colour photos into black and white murals. the pi turns bitmap data into vectors that are then drawn with a robot controlled marker. musical beetroots connected to the pi by touch sensors create different sounds. health shield : the raspberry pi collects breathing, body temperature, heart rate and other health related data and transmits to apps via wi - fi. an aerospace engineer used a raspberry pi to run a voice - recognition robot arm. another voice - controlled robot makes the coffee. a rocket launcher terrorises staff in the programming office. the raspberry pi detects errors in software development and fires a foam missile at the offending employee. a raspberry pi detects the temperature of home - brewed beer and adjusts the fridge accordingly. pi in the sky : huge hydrogen balloon with raspberry pi connected to a webcam takes video footage 40, 000 feet up. highest ever live pictures. | to start a discussion topic about this article, please log in or register. | " summer is on the way, so we turn our attention to a few leisurely pursuits - and some not - so leisurely ones... " - sailing hybrids - the shape of ships to come? - rec introduced bi - facial solar panels for desert regions - eu should be stricter on carbon but renewables not the way - titanic ii - replica plans going full steam ahead - london ’ s it start - ups lining up for the technology week - siemens closes down last solar energy business after failing to sell - e & t magazine - debate - hs2, the need for speed [ 08 : 33 am 20 / 06 / 13 ] - transformers vector group [ 04 : 55 pm 19 / 06 / 13 ] - creating an iphone app [ 05 : 50 pm 17 / 06 / 13 ] - co2 is good [


chemotherapy ( often abbreviated to chemo ) is the treatment of cancer with one or more cytotoxic antineoplastic drugs ( " chemotherapeutic agents " ) as part of a standardized regimen. chemotherapy may be given with a curative intent or it may aim to prolong life or to palliate symptoms. it is often used in conjunction with other cancer treatments, such as radiation therapy or surgery. certain chemotherapeutic agents also have a role in the treatment of other conditions, including ankylosing spondylitis, multiple sclerosis, crohn ' s disease, psoriasis, psoriatic arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, and scleroderma. traditional chemotherapeutic agents act by killing cells that divide rapidly, one of the main properties of most cancer cells. this means that chemotherapy also harms cells that divide rapidly under normal circumstances : cells in the bone marrow, digestive tract, and hair follicles. this results in the most common side - effects of chemotherapy : myelosuppression ( decreased production of blood cells, hence also immunosuppression ), mucositis ( inflammation of the lining of the digestive tract ), and alopecia ( hair loss ). some newer anticancer drugs ( for example, various monoclonal antibodies ) are not indiscriminately cytotoxic, but rather target proteins that are abnormally expressed in cancer cells and that are essential for their growth. such treatments are often referred to as targeted therapy ( as distinct from classic chemotherapy ) and are often used alongside traditional chemotherapeutic agents in antineoplastic treatment regimens. an older and broader usage of the word chemotherapy encompassed any chemical treatment of disease ( for example, treatment of infections with antimicrobial agents ). however, this usage has become archaic. the first use of drugs to treat cancer was in the early 20th century, although it was not originally intended for that purpose. mustard gas was used as a chemical warfare agent during world war i and was discovered to be a potent suppressor of hematopoiesis ( blood production ). a similar family of compounds known as nitrogen mustards were studied further during world war ii at yale university. it was reasoned that an agent that damaged the rapidly growing white blood cells might have a similar effect on cancer. therefore, in december 1942, several patients with


family of compounds known as nitrogen mustards were studied further during world war ii at yale university. it was reasoned that an agent that damaged the rapidly growing white blood cells might have a similar effect on cancer. therefore, in december 1942, several patients with advanced lymphomas ( cancers of certain white blood cells ) were given the drug by vein, rather than by breathing the irritating gas. their improvement, although temporary, was remarkable. concurrently, during a military operation in world war ii, following a german air raid on the italian harbour of bari, several hundred people were accidentally exposed to mustard gas, which had been transported there by the allied forces to prepare for possible retaliation in the event of german use of chemical warfare. the survivors were later found to have very low white blood cell counts. after wwii was over and the reports declassified, the experiences converged and led researchers to look for other substances that might have similar effects against cancer. the first chemotherapy drug to be developed from this line of research was mustine. since then, many other drugs have been developed to treat cancer, and drug development has exploded into a multibillion - dollar industry, although the principles and limitations of chemotherapy discovered by the early researchers still apply. the term chemotherapy the word " chemotherapy " without a modifier usually refers to cancer treatment, but its historical meaning is broader. the term was historically used for non - oncological references, such as the use of antibiotics ( antibacterial chemotherapy ). the first modern chemotherapeutic agent was arsphenamine, an arsenic compound discovered in 1909 and used to treat syphilis. this was later followed by sulfonamides ( sulfa drugs ) and penicillin. other uses that have been termed chemotherapy are the treatment of autoimmune diseases such as multiple sclerosis, dermatomyositis, polymyositis, lupus, and rheumatoid arthritis. | this section does not cite any references or sources. ( january 2008 ) | cancer is the uncontrolled growth of cells coupled with malignant behavior : invasion and metastasis. cancer is thought to be caused by the interaction between genetic susceptibility and environmental toxins. in the broad sense, most chemotherapeutic drugs work by impairing mitosis ( cell division ), effectively targeting fast - dividing cells. as these drugs cause damage to cells, they are termed cytotoxic. some drugs cause cells to undergo apoptosis ( so -


enhance the efficacy of chemotherapy. | | this article needs additional citations for verification. ( july 2009 ) | combined modality chemotherapy is the use of drugs with other cancer treatments, such as radiation therapy or surgery. most cancers are now treated in this way. combination chemotherapy is a similar practice that involves treating a patient with a number of different drugs simultaneously. the drugs differ in their mechanism and side effects. the biggest advantage is minimising the chances of resistance developing to any one agent. in neoadjuvant chemotherapy ( preoperative treatment ) initial chemotherapy is designed to shrink the primary tumor, thereby rendering local therapy ( surgery or radiotherapy ) less destructive or more effective. adjuvant chemotherapy ( postoperative treatment ) can be used when there is little evidence of cancer present, but there is risk of recurrence. this can help reduce chances of relapse. it is also useful in killing any cancerous cells that have spread to other parts of the body. this is often effective as the newly growing tumors are fast - dividing, and therefore very susceptible. palliative chemotherapy is given without curative intent, but simply to decrease tumor load and increase life expectancy. for these regimens, a better toxicity profile is generally expected. all chemotherapy regimens require that the patient be capable of undergoing the treatment. performance status is often used as a measure to determine whether a patient can receive chemotherapy, or whether dose reduction is required. because only a fraction of the cells in a tumor die with each treatment ( fractional kill ), repeated doses must be administered to continue to reduce the size of the tumor. current chemotherapy regimens apply drug treatment in cycles, with the frequency and duration of treatments limited by toxicity to the patient. the majority of chemotherapeutic drugs can be divided into alkylating agents, antimetabolites, anthracyclines, plant alkaloids, topoisomerase inhibitors, and other antitumor agents. all of these drugs affect cell division or dna synthesis and function in some way. some newer agents do not directly interfere with dna. these include monoclonal antibodies and the new tyrosine kinase inhibitors, which directly target a molecular abnormality in certain types of cancer ( chronic myelogenous leukemia, gastrointestinal stromal tumors ). these are examples of targeted therapies. in addition, some drugs that modulate tumor cell behavior without directly attacking those cells may be used. hormone treatments fall into this category. alkylating agents are so named


( podophyllum hexandrum ) contains it in a much greater quantity, but, as the plant is endangered, its supply is limited. studies have been conducted to isolate the genes involved in the substance ' s production, so that it could be obtained recombinantly. the prototype taxane is the natural product paclitaxel, originally known as taxol and first derived from the bark of the pacific yew tree. docetaxel is a semi - synthetic analogue of paclitaxel. taxanes enhance stability of microtubules, preventing the separation of chromosomes during anaphase. topoisomerases are essential enzymes that maintain the topology of dna. inhibition of type i or type ii topoisomerases interferes with both transcription and replication of dna by upsetting proper dna supercoiling. - examples of type ii inhibitors include amsacrine, etoposide, etoposide phosphate, and teniposide. these are semisynthetic derivatives of epipodophyllotoxins, substances naturally occurring in the root of american mayapple ( podophyllum peltatum ). - other cytotoxic antibiotics newer and experimental approaches isolated infusion approaches isolated limb perfusion ( often used in melanoma ), or isolated infusion of chemotherapy into the liver or the lung have been used to treat some tumors. the main purpose of these approaches is to deliver a very high dose of chemotherapy to tumor sites without causing overwhelming systemic damage. these approaches can help control solitary or limited metastases, but they are by definition not systemic, and, therefore, do not treat distributed metastases or micrometastases. targeted delivery mechanisms specially targeted delivery vehicles aim to increase effective levels of chemotherapy for tumor cells while reducing effective levels for other cells. this should result in an increased tumor kill and / or reduced toxicity. specially targeted delivery vehicles have a differentially higher affinity for tumor cells by interacting with tumor - specific or tumor - associated antigens. in addition to their targeting component, they also carry a payload - whether this is a traditional chemotherapeutic agent, or a radioisotope, or an immune - stimulating factor. specially targeted delivery vehicles vary in their stability, selectivity, and choice of target, but, in essence, they all aim to increase the maximum effective dose that can be delivered to the tumor cells. reduced systemic toxicity means that they can also be used in sicker patients, and that they can carry new che


and choice of target, but, in essence, they all aim to increase the maximum effective dose that can be delivered to the tumor cells. reduced systemic toxicity means that they can also be used in sicker patients, and that they can carry new chemotherapeutic agents that would have been far too toxic to deliver via traditional systemic approaches. nanoparticles have emerged as a useful vehicle for poorly soluble agents such as paclitaxel. nanoparticles made of magnetic material can also be used to concentrate agents at tumor sites using an externally applied magnetic field. electrochemotherapy is the combined treatment in which injection of a chemotherapeutic drug is followed by application of high - voltage electric pulses locally to the tumor. the treatment enables the chemotherapeutic drugs, which otherwise cannot or hardly go through the membrane of cells ( such as bleomycin and cisplatin ), to enter the cancer cells. hence, greater effectiveness of antitumor treatment is achieved. clinical electrochemotherapy has been successfully used for treatment of cutaneous and subcutaneous tumors irrespective of their histological origin. the method has been reported as safe, simple and highly effective in all reports on clinical use of electrochemotherapy. according to the esope project ( european standard operating procedures of electrochemotherapy ), the standard operating procedures ( sop ) for electrochemotherapy were prepared, based on the experience of the leading european cancer centres on electrochemotherapy. recently, new electrochemotherapy modalities have been developed for treatment of internal tumors using surgical procedures, endoscopic routes or percutaneous approaches to gain access to the treatment area. | this section does not cite any references or sources. ( january 2008 ) | dosage of chemotherapy can be difficult : if the dose is too low, it will be ineffective against the tumor, whereas, at excessive doses, the toxicity ( side - effects, neutropenia ) will be intolerable to the patient. this has led to the formation of detailed " dosing schemes " in most hospitals, which give guidance on the correct dose and adjustment in case of toxicity. in immunotherapy, they are in principle used in smaller dosages than in the treatment of malignant diseases. in most cases, the dose is adjusted for the patient ' s body surface area ( bsa ), a measure that correlates with


to wash their hands, avoid sick people, and take other infection - reducing steps, about 85 % of infections are due to naturally occurring microorganisms in the patient ' s own gastrointestinal tract ( including oral cavity ) and skin. this may manifest as systemic infections, such as sepsis, or as localized outbreaks, such as herpes simplex, shingles, or other members of the herpesviridea. sometimes, chemotherapy treatments are postponed because the immune system is suppressed to a critically low level. - fatigue. the treatment can be physically exhausting for the patient, who might already be very tired from cancer - related fatigue. it may produce mild to severe anemia. treatments to mitigate anemia include hormones to boost blood production ( erythropoietin ), iron supplements, and blood transfusions. - tendency to bleed easily. medications that kill rapidly dividing cells or blood cells are likely to reduce the number of platelets in the blood, which can result in bruises and bleeding. extremely low platelet counts may be temporarily boosted through platelet transfusions. sometimes, chemotherapy treatments are postponed to allow platelet counts to recover. - gastrointestinal distress. nausea and vomiting are common side - effects of chemotherapeutic medications that kill fast - dividing cells. this can also produce diarrhea or constipation. malnutrition and dehydration can result when the patient does not eat or drink enough, or when the patient vomits frequently, because of gastrointestinal damage. this can result in rapid weight loss, or occasionally in weight gain, if the patient eats too much in an effort to allay nausea or heartburn. weight gain can also be caused by some steroid medications. these side - effects can frequently be reduced or eliminated with antiemetic drugs. self - care measures, such as eating frequent small meals and drinking clear liquids or ginger tea, are often recommended. this is generally a temporary effect, and frequently resolves within a week of finishing treatment. however a high index of suspicion is appropriate, since diarrhea and bloating are also symptoms of typhlitis, a very serious and potentially life - threatening medical emergency which requires immediate treatment. - hair loss. some medications that kill rapidly dividing cells cause dramatic hair loss ; other medications may cause hair to thin. these are most often temporary effects : hair usually starts to regrow a few weeks after the last treatment, sometimes with a tendency to curl,


loss. some medications that kill rapidly dividing cells cause dramatic hair loss ; other medications may cause hair to thin. these are most often temporary effects : hair usually starts to regrow a few weeks after the last treatment, sometimes with a tendency to curl, resulting in " chemo curls. " permanent hair loss can result from some standard chemotherapy regimens. scalp cooling offers a means of preventing both permanent and temporary hair loss. damage to specific organs is possible : - cardiotoxicity ( heart damage ) - hepatotoxicity ( liver damage ) - nephrotoxicity ( kidney damage ) - ototoxicity ( damage to the inner ear ), producing vertigo - encephalopathy ( brain dysfunction ) immunosuppression and myelosuppression virtually all chemotherapeutic regimens can cause depression of the immune system, often by paralysing the bone marrow and leading to a decrease of white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets. anemia and thrombocytopenia, when they occur, are improved with blood transfusion. neutropenia ( a decrease of the neutrophil granulocyte count below 0. 5 x 109 / litre ) can be improved with synthetic g - csf ( granulocyte - colony - stimulating factor, e. g., filgrastim, lenograstim ). in very severe myelosuppression, which occurs in some regimens, almost all the bone marrow stem cells ( cells that produce white and red blood cells ) are destroyed, meaning allogenic or autologous bone marrow cell transplants are necessary. ( in autologous bmts, cells are removed from the patient before the treatment, multiplied and then re - injected afterward ; in allogenic bmts, the source is a donor. ) however, some patients still develop diseases because of this interference with bone marrow. due to immune system suppression, typhlitis is a " life - threatening gastrointestinal complication of chemotherapy. " typhlitis is an intestinal infection which may manifest itself through symptoms including nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, a distended abdomen, fever, chills, or abdominal pain and tenderness. typhlitis is a medical emergency. it has a very poor prognosis and is often fatal unless promptly recognized and aggressively treated. successful treatment hinges on early diagnosis provided by a high index of suspicion and the use of ct


pain and tenderness. typhlitis is a medical emergency. it has a very poor prognosis and is often fatal unless promptly recognized and aggressively treated. successful treatment hinges on early diagnosis provided by a high index of suspicion and the use of ct scanning, nonoperative treatment for uncomplicated cases, and sometimes elective right hemicolectomy to prevent recurrence. chemotherapy - induced nausea and vomiting ( cinv ) nausea and vomiting are two of the most feared cancer treatment - related side - effects for cancer patients and their families. in 1983, coates et al. found that patients receiving chemotherapy ranked nausea and vomiting as the first - and second - most - severe side - effects, respectively. up to 20 % of patients receiving highly emetogenic agents in this era postponed, or even refused, potentially curative treatments. chemotherapy - induced nausea and vomiting ( cinv ) are common with many treatments and some forms of cancer. since the 1990s, several novel classes of antiemetics have been developed and commercialized, becoming a nearly universal standard in chemotherapy regimens, and helping to successfully manage these symptoms in a large portion of patients. effective mediation of these unpleasant and sometimes - crippling symptoms results in increased quality of life for the patient and more efficient treatment cycles, due to less stoppage of treatment due to better tolerance by the patient, and due to better overall health of the patient. development of secondary neoplasia after successful chemotherapy and / or radiotherapy treatment can occur. the most common secondary neoplasm is secondary acute myeloid leukemia, which develops primarily after treatment with alkylating agents or topoisomerase inhibitors. survivors of childhood cancer are more than 13 times as likely to get a secondary neoplasm during the 30 years after treatment than the general population. not all of this increase can be attributed to chemotherapy. some types of chemotherapy are gonadotoxic and may cause infertility. chemotherapies with high risk include procarbazine and other alkylating drugs such as cyclophosphamide, ifosfamide, busulfan, melphalan, chlorambucil, and chlormethine. drugs with medium risk include doxorubicin and platinum analogs such as cisplatin and carboplatin. on the other hand, therapies with low risk of gonadotoxicity include plant derivatives such as vincristine and vinblastine, antibiotics such as